■■Pill ■ y 'T' i r *» " «r t' v y'w y --»y los^fe«VM»)M ,*fc k.«*r , .^..^..AmAmA. ***•" -SMMMMft*?- ■ --.—-—•-—.--.■-. ■I XI Wl Mill ' J V*W^IP*V4IH^H I m m .Vv'r . ;>■ ;A.t I ■ H ■ ■■■■■ ■ ■■■I J ■■ ■ SB ■■ I ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ . ■SMBl RBH PI ■1 B ■M». ■ BBB. ■ T J ■■I ' BVJ BBBBJ BB1 ... Bfl I ■ ■ ■■ Tr • B-AKILY. MaHSM & Co. PRINTERS, 155 and 157 Dearborn Streot. TO THE TEACHER AND STUDENT. Before you read a line of the body of this work, please note carefully the following" points. 1. The Amount of Matter. — It has been the constant aim of the authors to make this book what its title indicates, a library. They have used every effort to condense information, and at the same time present it in a tangible form. 2. The Carefully Prepared Outlines. — You are especially in- vited to examine and study these classifications and note that they can be used as topic lists for class use, and as courses of study and reading for the private student. These outlines are explained in the proper place. 3. The Test Questions. — While this is not a question book in the ordinary sense, it will be found of great value as a self-examiner to the teacher and student, and invaluable to the teacher in reviews and class examinations. It may be said in objection that the book contains too much. It does if you expect to commit it to memory, but that is not the proper method of study. The questions may easily be answered by referring to the paragraphs indicated. 4. The Methods of Teaching.— The discussion of each branch is followed by practical hints on teaching that subject, besides the rather lengthy article on general methods and school mangement. The authors are all practical teachers, who have had experience in all kinds of schools. 5. The Hints on How to Study and Use Books. — This is a subject very much neglected. The reader should study this part carefully. It is the result of much experience and observation. The majority, perhaps, had better turn to this before studying any of the branches. 6. The Index and Glossary. — Few books are sufficiently well indexed and fewer still are supplied with glossaries. This is an especial feature of this book. It will be observed that this index notonlv points out the place in the text where the subject is fully discussed, but gives in the space usually left blank in indexes, much valuable information. Many persons have not access to an un- abridged dictionary. This index will answer the purpose of one so far as this book is concerned. Every technical term is explained and every subject appears under its a Impropriate letter. 541 577 IV TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 7. Matter not in Text-books.- — Besides containing the most important points of the text-books, much matter is given to he found nowhere outside of extensive works. 8. Originality. — The authors have given that which is the common property of all and of course do not lay claim to much originality except in the language used, the modes of presenting the subjects, and in many of the methods of teaching them. Where sentences are from another writer quotation marks are used or the authority cited. o. There may he some things in the hook which will be new to many teachers, for example, the exponential system of outlining. This system is now used in many schools. It is ex- plained on page 512, and is deserving of careful study. Refer- ences are frequently made from one part of the book to another, and, in fact, if the reader take the trouble to investigate he will find the hook self-explanatory in every particular. 10. History. — The author of "History" would say that he- has endeavored to put as much information as possible into the least space and at the same time give a connected outline of the his- tory of the whole world. As a necessary consequence the style" may at times appear somewhat disjointed. The student will con- stantly keep in mind that this is only an outline of history and that all important subjects must be read up elsewhere if a thorough knowledge of history is desired. This book, however, contains fully as much as the average person will be able to master. Dates have been given freely for reference, but the teacher should require his pupils to learn but few as suggested under "Methods of Teach- ing History." The pronunciation of most of the difficult words has been indicated. Some equally difficult have not been marked. It was not possible or desirable to make this work on history a com- plete dictionary. Something should be left to the student, as the habit of looking up pronunciations and references is absolutely necessary to real scholarship. It will be noticed that the pronuncia- tion of a word is indicated but once, and that, the first time it occurs. TO THE PUBLIC. in the discussion of the respective branches, the author would ac- knowledge the assistance afforded by the following works: Wood's and Gray's Text-Books of Botany; Lindley's, Bessey's and Prantl's works oil Botany; Dnna's& Le Conte's works on Geology; Gray's Anatomy and the large works of Draper, Dalton, Dunglinson, Flint and Foster on Physiology; Appleton's, Swinton's, the Eclectic and Harper's text-books of Geography; Guyot's, Houston's, Colton's and Proctor's works on Physical Geography; the valuable « Four- teen Weeks in the Sciences," by J. Dorm an Steele; Bardeen's Com- mon School Law; Bigelow's Hand Hook of Punctuation; also to TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY \ the State Superintendents of Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wis- consin, Iowa, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Virginia, Kansas and Georgia, for information in regard to school laws of their respective States. The publisher also acknowledges the kindness of Messrs. Geo. Sherwood & Co., Chicago, for the use of plates illustrating Pen- manship. These plates are selected from the Analytical Course of Penmanship published by the above firm. CONTENTS. «•» All topics not otlierTvise indicated are by G. Dallas Lind. r AGE. Reading 7 Methods of Teaching Reading 13 Questions on Reading 16 Spelling 17 Methods of Teaching Spelling 20 Questions on Spelling -4 Geography -o Methods of Teaching Geography 71 Questions on Geography 74 English Grammar [F. P. Adams] 79 Methods of Teaching Grammar [F P. Adams] 103 Questions on Grammar 106 Composition and Letters 108 Methods of Teaching Composition 118 Questions on Composition and Letters 121 Civil Government [John Burke] 122 Questions on Civil Government 136 Physical Geography 137 Questions on Physical Geography 15° Physiology '57 Questions on Physiology '99 Natural Philosophy 2DI Geology -- 6 Botany -35 General History [T. S. Denison] 252 U. S. History [T. S. Denison] 314 Methods of Teaching History [T. S. Denison] 35- Questions on History 355 I took- Keeping [W. T. Eddingfield] 3 r " Penmanship [J. C. Brown] 3 s - Chemistry 39 1 Zoology 398 School Law 4°8 Methods in Arithmetic [H. B. Brown] 4'4 School Management [T. S. Denison and G. D. Lind] 4^M Prosody 47°^ Parliamentary Usages 4*3 M j thology 49 2 Am lenl Geography 5°-" 1 low to Study and Use Books 5°5 Systems of Outlining 5°8 General Literature 5 r 3 Index 517 READING. 1. Reading is a proper conception of the ideas and feelings of a writer. It may be audible or inaudible. Inaudible reading de- mands no culture of the power of expression. Audible reading implies the power of conveying to others the ideas and feelings of a writer, and is properly synonymous with Elocution. 2. Good audible readers are extremely rare. More attention should be paid to this branch in our schools. Teachers of every branch need to be good readers, as pupils learn much by simply imitating their teacher. There is a great deal of imposition prac- ticed by traveling charlatans, who call themselves professional elocutionists. These so-called Professors of Elocution — and many of them well deserve the title, as they are masters of vocal expres- sion — will give a few lectures on the principles of elocution, illus- trating them by exhibitions of their powers, and making the im- pression upon their auditors that the art can be acquired in a few lessons, proceed to organize private classes and give some pretty thorough drills in reading, or declaiming some particular selections, and having charged a good round price for their services, take their departure for fresh fields and new subjects. Teachers, do not be imposed upon by such work. 3. A good reader is made only by long and careful practice, and a thorough study of the principles of vocal expression. Though all cannot be elocutionists in the professional sense, all are capable of great improvement in this line. Let teachers then apply them- selves to the work of improving their powers of expression. Read- ing aloud, alone or in company, the works of standard writers, is a good practice. But above all one must have a clear conception of the author's meaning before he can give voice to it. Do not undertake to read audibly what you do not understand. It is true that one may read passably and not understand all the details of the subject read, but to be able to read well he must thoroughly under- stand the meaning of the writer. Many persons cannot read their own composition; not because they do not understand it, but because they have not control of, and do not know how to use, their vocal organs. Thus we see that to he a good reader implies much. TEACHERS' A\/> STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 4. One of the first requisites of a good reader is a distinct articu- lation, or the utterance of the elementary sounds, and their com- binations by appropriate movements of the vocal organs. With small children the pronunciation of words must be taught mainly by imitation. They have been accustomed to articulating sounds from infancy, having learned them by imitation, li' they do not articulate distinctly or give wrong sounds, they must be made to repeat them until they enunciate them as correctly as it is possible for them to do. Practice in pronouncing simple words at first and then separate sounds, will cultivate this power. A wrong pronunci- ation should never be allowed to pass uncorrected, otherwise bad habits become fixed. 5. Practice in articulating the elementary sounds should be frequently had in all reading classes. As the vowel sounds are the easiest uttered, they should be the first subjects of drill. Let the sounds be pronounced first with the ordinary force, clearly, distinctly and with a natural or pure tone, then they may be exploded, that is issued forcibly, suddenly suspending the voice at the close of the sound. To test and increase the capacity of the organs the vowels may be prolonged, commencing at first with slight force and in- creasing gradually, then diminishing until the sound dies away. This practice of sounding the vowels should be of frequent occur- rence, but should not be kept up too long at one time so as to tire the organs or the patience of the pupils. Like practice in articu- latingthe consonant sounds should follow, and continue in connec- tion with the vowel sounds. We append a series of exercises which will be found useful for drill in all classes. Let the sentences be written on the blackboard, two or three each day, and from two to five minutes' drill be given each class in sounding the vowels and consonants separately, and repeating the words and sentences individually and in concert. EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION. In practicing the teacher should see that the pupils stand erect, with the head up, the shoulders thrown back, and the chest ex- panded, and that they open their mouths properly. It is a common fault to read with the mouth insufficiently opened. We have, in the following exercises, followed the classification of the elementary sounds as given by Webster, and indicated the letters which are the particular objects of drill. I. Long vowel sounds. 1. a as in: They say that we will fail. Away, away o'er hill and dale. He carried the mail through rain and hail. The angel hail bestowed. 2. e as in: Heat me these irons hot. Evening in Eden Came. Seize the fiend. READING. 9 3. i as in: Find five fire-flies. He has a fine mind. It was a bright, moonlight night. 4. o as in: Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll. The old loafer snores. Hold, hold, he cried. We take no note of time. ;;. u as in: Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest. The astronomer's tube. .Sweet as Apollo's lute. Technical terms are learned by use. 6. y as in: Thev fly, they fly. See the blue sky. II. Short vowel sounds. 1. a as in: This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. Back to thy punishment. The cat caught the rat. Jack Sprat could eat no fat. 2. e as in: The end is near. Thev met the leopard in his den. 3. i as in : Do not admit the ill-mannered witch. He spilled the India ink on the index. A fish has fins. 4. o as in : On, on mv braves. Let him that is on the house- top not come down. 5. u as in: Up, up and away. My cup is full. They run for their guns. 6. y as in: Deep in the abyss. The bullet was incysted. III. Occasional vowel sounds. 1. a as in hair: The fair-haired lady walks in the open air. 2. a as in far: To arms, to arms. Far flashed the red artillery. 3. a as in ask: The last to ask for a pass. 4. a as in all: O, what a fall was there, my countrymen. 5. a as in what: What wantonness. 6. e as in there: There stands an heiress. 7. e as in obey: Obey your parents. 8. e as in term: On the verge of death. 9. i as in pique: He ran from the machine crying police, police. 10. i as in firm : I am thirsty. 11. o as in done: Thou shalt have none other gods than Me. 12. o as in do: Prove all things. 13. o as in wolf. 14. o as in for: Order is heaven's first law. 15. 00 as in food: Roll on, silver moon. 16. 00 as in foot: Wool is warm. 17. u as in rude: Rude am I in speech. 18. u as in push: The fuller fulls his cloth. 19. u as in furl: He was urged to turn the paper. IV. Regular diphthongal sounds. I. oi or (iv, as in: Boil the oysters in olive oil. 10 TEA ( 111 A V AND S 1 I r DBN TS' I. IB BAR T. 2. OU OT <>\v, as in: The hound howled. V. Consonant sounds. i. 1) as in: He is a hold, brave, had, boy. Bind beauteous boughs upon his brow. Braid, broad braids. 2. c, soft sound like s: The city is a century old. a. c, hard sound like k: The cook caught the cutter. (. ih as in church: The child chatted cheerfully. C. ch as sh: He brought the machine home in his chaise. 6. ch as k: Chyme and chyle are products of digestion. 7. das in: Dare to dare on beyond all daring. Despise not the day of small things. Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord. S. fas in: Fair science frowned not on his humble birth. False, Heeling, perjured Clarence. Will fortune favor the fair? 9. g, hard sound: Three gray geese in the field grazing. 10. g, soft like j: That engine is a real gem. 11. h as in: Hail, holy light. Harm not the horse. 12. j as in: John Jones loves Jennie Jenkins. 1 }. k as in: The cook kept kittens. i.j. las in: The truly rural rider. The lazy, lounging loafer. [C. m as in: Many men of many minds. Keeping time, time, in a sort of Runic rhyme. She made mince pics for many mouths. 16. n as in: Near by the spring, upon a tree, you know 1 cut your name. I never would lav down my arms, never, never, never. Napoleon's noble nature knew no niggardly notions. 17. p as in: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. He picked up a copy of Pickwick Papers. A knapsack strap. 18. q always followed by u, and has generally the sound of kw, as in: They "served a quail to the Queen. Queer queries and quaint quarters. Sometimes the sound of k as in antique, unique. 19. rasin: Round the rude ring the ragged rascal ran. Jewels rich and rare. The rippling rill becomes a roaring river. 20. s as in: Suns sink on suns and systems, systems crush. Stars and suns shall sink. Sweeter songs were never sun-. j 1. s as z: The prism amused the residents of the village. 22. t as in: Time and tide wait for no man. Tremble and totter, ye adamantine mountains. Tar, tallow, turmeric, turpentine and tin. 23. th as in: Through thick and thin. He thrust a thou- sand thistles through the thick of his thumb. 24. th as in the: Prithee, blithe youth, do not mouth your words when you wreathe your lace with smiles. 35. v as in: To live and to love, and to be brave. The vain votaries of fashion vie with each other. Vile villains vent their \ engeance. READING. 11 26. w as in: Was ever woman in this humor wooed? Was ever woman in this humor won ? There was weeping and wailing. We will walk where the wind blows. 27. xasin: His extravagant extemporaneous speech pro- duced an extraordinary effect. 28. x like egz: We have enough of examples of exagger- ations. 29. z as in : The zeal of thy house has eaten me up. Zeno was zealous in his work. 30. shasin: She shall sell sea shells. Shakespeare, Shelley and Sheridan. Shun the rum shop. She sang the song of the shirt.' 31. \vh as in: White Whitman, whistles, whittles, whispers and whimpers near the wharf. What whim led Whitney to invent the cotton gin? 32. zh: The letters never occurring together in English, but their sound in such words as in: The glazier looked up at the azure sky. She put rouge on her cheeks. 6. Some of the most common errors in articulation are: (1) Giving the wrong sound of the vowels of unaccented syllables; (2) Dropping entirely, the vowel of an unaccented syllable; (3) Drop- ping the final consonant; (4) Omitting whole syllables; (5) Run- ning words together. Errors of this kind should never go uncor- rected. Pupils should be encouraged to criticise each other. With small pupils, however, this must be carefully controlled by the teacher, as it is apt to be overdone and degenerate into mere fault- finding, and cause much confusion. 7. All syllables are either accented or unaccented. The ac- cented syllables are uttered with more force than the others. Usage determines where the accent should be placed, and the dictionary is the only guide in cases of doubt. The ordinary accent is, however, frequently changed in reading to express antithesis as in the follow- ing examples: "Is he willing or ««willing?" " This corruption must put on /^corruption." There is also the poetic accent, that put on long syllables of words, or on monosyllables of a poetic foot. (See Prosody.) 8. Emphasis denotes the manner of uttering a word, so as to give it force and energy and direct the attention of the hearer to it. Words designed to be emphatic are generally printed in italic letters or in small or LARGE capitals. Italics and capitals are used, however, for many other purposes. 9. The sense must determine where emphasis should be put. Pupils should be trained from the first to use correct emphasis. The tendency of the beginner in reading is to emphasize all words alike, or put the emphasis on unimportant words, and frequently it is on. the last word of the sentence. It will be observed that children nearly always give the proper emphasis in talking. Impress on their minds that they should readjust as they would talk. Teach 12 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' L1BRAR2". Sense-reading rather than imitation (28). Frequent drills in such sentences as are given below where by emphasizing different words the sense is entirely changed, will be valuable. 10. Did [ohn walk to town yesterday ? This question may he answered in several ways: If "John" is emphasized the answer may be: No, Henry walked to town yesterday. It" "walk" is empha- sized, the answer may be: "No, he rode." If "town" is emphasized, the answer may he: "No, he walked into the country." If "yester- day" is emphasized, the answer may be: "No, he went the day before." 11. .Some attention should be paid to the pitch of the voice in all reading classes. Pitch has reference to the degree of elevation of the voice, or the place of the sound on the musical scale. There is .i certain pitch of voice natural to each person; it is his ordinary conversational tone, and is the one most easy to himself and agree- able to others. Pupils should be drilled occasionally in repeating vowel sounds, and words, and sentences in a higher or lower than the ordinary pitch. A medium pitch is appropriate for reading all narrative and descriptive pieces, in fact, for nearly all ordinary reading. A high pitch is used in reading animated and impassioned thought. A low pitch is suited to reading serious, solemn and pa- thetic thought. 12. Inflection, or slide, is the change of the voice from a higher to a lower, or from a lower to a higher pitch. There are so many exceptions and variations to rules in regard to inflection that it will hardly be profitable to give rules here. The sense must determine the matter. The reader must understand the meaning to be con- veyed. In general, however, the rising infection is used: (i) Where there is a pause and the sense is incomplete. (2) In ques- tions which can be answered by yes or no. Emphasis may reverse these rules. The falling inflection is generally used : (1) Where the sense is complete. (2) In questions which cannot be answered by yes or n<>. Words and sentences or parts of sentences which express contrast require opposite inflections. In general, strong emphasis requires the falling inflection. The circumflex, or com- pound slide, is a combination of the two inflections on the same word or syllable. It is used to express irony, sarcasm, sneering or con- trast". Examples: Hath a dog money? Is it possible a cur can lend three thousand ducats? They follow an adventurer whom they fear ; we serve a monarch whom we Jove. When several words or sentences are uttered successively without change of pitch, they are said to be uttered in a monotone. It is employed in expressing grave ami solemn thought. 13. Many pupils habitually read too fast; others too slow. There is no particular standard of rate, or movement, of the voice established, but elocutionists generally make three degrees, rapid, medium and slow. For all ordinary purposes a medium rate is READING. L3 proper. For solemn and serious thoughts, a slow rate is appropri- ate; and for animated and joyous thought a rapid rate is required. Reading in concert as an occasional drill will have a tendency to check those who are too rapid, and hurry up those who are too slow. 14. Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be contended with in teaching reading is to get pupils to read sufficiently loud and strong, or in other words, with sufficient force. There are too many weak voices in this country, and again there are many children who can make noise enough on the playground, but seem to be afraid to throw force into their voices when reading in class. Besides, it is a difficult matter to read loud and strong in the ordinary pitch. The tendency is to increase the pitch with the force. This should be guarded against by the teacher. To have pupils read so that they may be heard at a distance, or that their voice will fill a large room and yet keep within the proper pitch, is no easy task. Nothing but patient, persevering effort will accomplish the desired result with the majority of pupils. A good plan is to have the pupil stand at a distance and without raising the pitch of his voice, read so as to be heard by the teacher. 15. The proper form and quality of voice for reading all kinds of matter can be acquired only by long practice and drill. The prin- cipal object of the common school teacher should be to cultivate a pure, and natural tone. The sound should issue from the vocal organs as without apparent effort, not abruptly nor explosively, and with a clear, round, full quality, free from any nasal, guttural or aspirate twang. These other qualities and forms are, of course, sometimes necessary to the proper delivering of dramatic or elocu- tionary pieces; but for ordinary reading the pure tone and form of voice only are demanded. METHODS OF TEACHING READING. 16. Teaching beginners to read is one of the most difficult problems the teacher has to solve. The old plan of having the children go over the alphabet until they had learned every letter, and then drill them for weeks or months in spelling words, beginning with "a, b, ah" and progressing to '"■ba-kcr" has been superseded by many new methods, each of which has had its strenuous advo- cates. We have a plan to propose which is rather a combination of many methods than a new method. It has been the most suc- cessful in our hands, and we give- it for what it is worth. It will he necessary first to explain in brief what are some of the methods in use. 17. By the word or Webb method, the pupil is first taught to call a number of words at sight. lie learns them as wholes and soon comes to know them by their forms. The words are combined in sentences and he is able to read before he knows a single letter. 14 TEACHERS 1 AND STL' DENTS' LIBRARY. Next the words arc analyzed and the letters learned, it is claimed, more readily than they would have been at first. 18. The object method is similar to the word method, objects and pictures being used, and the child taught to distinguish between the object, the picture of the object and the name of the object. 19. The word building method begins by teaching the pupil one letter as () or I, and by adding new letters as needed, forming simple words. 20. The drawing method requires the pupils to draw the letters and simple words from copies until they have learned their forms. 21. By the phonic method the poxvers oi sounds of the letters are first taught without reference to their names. There arc differ- ent forms of this method, some using a phonetic alphabet, and reading books with a phonetic type such as is proposed by our spelling reformers. Some use the common letters with the diacriti- cal marks of the dictionary which are to be learned in connection with the letters. When a new alphabet is agreed upon and our papers and books begin to be printed with it, this method will be the proper one, but until then we hardly think it practicable. (See Spelling, sec. 37). • 22. The letters must be learned sooner or later, but to attempt to teach children a number of characters which to them convey no ideas, is for them dry and uninteresting, and to interest pupils should be the first object of the teacher. First interest the pupils by show- ing the pictures and asking questions about them. Get some object as a box and showing them the box and the picture of the box, teach them the difference by telling them that this is a box and this is the picture of a box; but here is the word box, and show them the word in the book, or on a chart, or print it on the blackboard. Have all pronounce the word several times. Then take some other word having some of the same letters as ox, and proceed in a similar manner. Then some such words as fox or rat, cat, //at, etc., until they have learned a few words so that they can call them at sight. Then teach the letters composing these words, print them standing separately, and have them repeat their names. Ask them to find these letters from among others on a printed page. Give the sounds of the letters by repeating the words slowly so as to isolate the sounds. Let the pupils attempt to draw the letters with pencil or chalk. 23. In this wav by teaching a few things at a time and always trying to' keep up an interest, they will soon learn a number of letters and words. Then combine the words into as many easy sentences as possible. You will have your pupils reading in a very short time bv thus patiently drilling them every day. It is not besl to make the lessons too long; better give short lessons and oftenei. for chil- dren are soon tired of one thin-. 24. Carrying out the idea that we must interest before we can READING. 15 instruct, instead of having pupils read the same selections over and over again, it would be better to have more reading matter in our reading books. Children are interested in stories. Our juvenile magazines and nursery books have much to do in teaching young people to read. If our readers were much larger and had more matter of the same grade, so that pupils would not be obliged to read the same pieces over more than once or twice, it would be much better. The teacher may, in a measure, make up for the lack of matter in readers by assigning lessons occasionally from news- papers, magazines, etc. A story may be clipped from a paper, cut up into paragraphs, and a slip given to each member of the class who may copy it on his slate, and when the class recites, the interest will be well maintained because all will be anxious to get the rest of the story. Occasional lessons ma}' be assigned from the histories or geographies where the grades of pupils are such that they possess copies of these text-books. 25. Reading should be carried into all branches. If a pupil reads a sentence from his grammar he should read it correctly. Parts of the history or geography lessons should sometimes be read by pupils in these classes, and in such cases as much attention should be paid to this reading as if in a reading class. 26. Urge pupils to read papers and books at home. Silent reading improves the reader. One cannot well read too much. The pozcer of readily grasping thought is one of the objects to be at- tained by the reader, and it is much practice in reading that facili- tates this power. The teacher may stimulate pupils somewhat in this respect by asking questions on the subject matter read, epiestions that will bring out the thought. (See How to Study.) 27. The dictionary should be used freely by all pupils old enough to know how to use it. Words may be assigned at each lesson to be looked up in the dictionary. It is not best to assign too many words at one time. Different words may be assigned to different pupils; one to each member of the class for his special in- vestigation awl report. All important words in the lesson should be spelled and all allusions and references explained. In fourth, fifth and sixth reader classes, some of the principal kinds of poetic feet, the more common rhetorical figures should be explained by the teacher, and frequent questions asked about them. (See Prosody.) 28. To secure natural tone and manner in reading it is a good plan sometimes to require the pupil to close the book and repeat the sentence he has just rend (9). It is a good plan also to require the pupil occasionallv to step upon the platform and read a paragraph keeping his eyes on the printed page only long enough to catch the sentence; in other words, to read as one would a sermon or lecture. This will cultivate the power of perception, and also tend to wear off embarrassment. 29. There are certain words which are frequently mis'pro- 16 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' UBRARV. DOunced by teachers who wish to be very precise. Among them may be mentioned such words as ca/f, half, past, calm. It is rather difficult to give the proper sound of a in these words, and they are often pronounced with the broad sound of a as in awe. The article the should be pronounced with the word following. In attempting to do this teachers often overdo the matter, and pronounce it before consonant sounds, giving the e the sound of u in but, as " thu boy" and before vowel sounds they prolong the e as "t/i-c apple."' 30. I hive no arbitrary rules for reading. Let sense in all cases determine the correct rendering of a passage. 31. The teacher should see that pupils take a proper position while reading. The pupil should stand upright, with the shoulders thrown hack; the head in a line with the body, not too far back ; the feet with the heels together, and toes apart about an angle of forty-live degrees. For a change and rest the weight of the body may come on one foot, the other set forward as a brace, but kept at the same angle. The book should be held in the left hand, high enough that the pupil will not be obliged to bend his head down. The right hand should hang easily at the side except when neces- sary to turn the leaves. If pupils are trained to this habit from the primary classes up there will be no need of criticism when they reach the fifth and sixth reader grades. QUESTIONS ON READING. The numbers refer to the sections in the text. Many of the questions consist of one word. The teacher should write or express them in full. The most important questions are given. They will suggest many others which may he askeu$>y the teacher. I. Define reading; elocution. 2. Why should teachers be good readers? 3. What are the qualifications of a good" reader? 4. Articulation? How- teach children to articulate? 5. How practice the vowel sounds? What should be the position of the pupil while practicing? Give words illustrating the sounds of each letter in the alphabet. 6. Name some of the common errors in articulation. 7. In what case is the accent changed in reading? Poetic accent? 7. Define emphasis. How is emphasis indicated? 9. What determines the place for emphasis? 10. Give examples where a change of emphasis indicates an entirely different sense. II. Define pitch. In what cases use medium pitch? High pitch? Low pitch? 12. Define inflection. Kinds? General rules? Define circumflex; monotone. 1-?. Define rate. Where use medium rate? Rapid rate? Slow rate? Advantages of reading in concert? 14. What would you do with a pupil who diil not read loud enough? 15. What is the proper tone for ordinary reading? 17. What is the \\ ebb method? 18. The object method? 19. The word building method? .0. The drawing method? 21. The phonic method? 22. How do you teach children their Idler-? 23. How many lessons a day do you give chil- dren who are taking the first steps in reading? 24. How can you avoid the monotony of the reading lessons? 25. Do you require your pupils to read as correctly as they can in other than the reading classes? 'What is the advantage of much practice in reading? 27. Do your pupils use the dictionary? Do you explain difficult point- in the reading lesson- 5 28. What plans do vou use to secure natural tones and delivery? 29. Pronounce calf, half, past, calm. 30. What are your rules for reading? 31. How should the pupil stand ar.d hold his book while reading? SPELLING. 1. Spelling is the proper expression of the letters or sounds of a word. It may be literal or phonic. 2. Literal spelling is the proper expression of the letters of a word and may be: (i) oral, the names of the letters uttered by the mouth in their proper order; (2) written, the word written with its letters in the proper order. 3. Phonic spelling is the mere utterance of the sounds of the word in their proper order, but isolated from each othef. 4. The articulation of a word is the utterance of its sounds taken together, or in groups, each group being uttered with one impulse or* the voice. 5. These groups of sounds or single sounds when isolated in a word are called syllables. 6. The pronunciation of a word is the articulation of its sounds with the proper accent. Accent is a greater stress given to one syllable than to others in the same word. (See Reading, Sec. 6.) 7. To illustrate each of the above points, take the word "daughter." 1. If you were to name each letter distinctly as d-a-u-g-h-t-e-r, that would be oral and literal spelling. 2. If you were to write the word by putting all the letters down, as daughter^ that would be ivritten and literal spelling. 3. If you were to vo- calize each sound isolating it, thus: d-a-t-r (these being all the sounds heard in the word), that would he phonic spelling-. 4. If you were then to utter the entire word by joining the sounds in groups, thus: da-tr, that would be articulation. 5. If you were to articulate the word giving the proper accent, thus: da-tr, it would be pronunciation. 6. The syllables would be dangh-tcr, the letters «, g, h and c being considered as silent in articulation. 8. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; of two syllables, a dissyllable; of three, a trisyllable; of more than one syllable, a polysyllable. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate <>r final syllable; the next to the last is called the penul- timate, or penult; the last but two is called the ante-penult; the last but three is called the preante-penult. 18 TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS LIBRARY 9. The letters arc- divided into vowels and consonants; a, e, i, o, u, are vowels, the others arc consonants. The vowels can be sounded with the mouth open, and are said to be voice sounds. The consonants cannot usually be sounded without the aid of vowels. 10. While there are only 26 letters in the English alphabet, there are about 40 sounds. Thev arc classified variously by differ- ent authorities. The general classes as usually recognized are : (1) vocals, or tonics, pure tone and voice only as a, e, i, o, u; (2 ) sub- vocals, or sub-tonics, voice and breath combined, as b,d, m, n, 1, r; I 3 ) aspirates, or atonies, pure breath only, as p, k, t, f. 11. A diphthong is the union of two vowel sounds in one syl- lable. A triphthong is the union of three vowel sounds in one syllable. A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded, as oi in noise. An improper diphthong, or vowel digraph i- one in which only one of the vowels is sounded, as ea in heat. 12. Words are divided as to composition into: (1) simple, which cannot be separated into two or more words without altering or destroying its signification; (2) compound, made up of two or more simple words. They are divided as to derivation into: (1) primitive, one which is not derived from some other word; (2) derivative, one which is derived from some other word. 13. A prefix is a " letter, syllable or word, set before a word, or combined or united with it at its beginning to vary its signification, as pre in prefix, con in conjure, with in withstand." A suffix, or affix, is " a letter or syllable added or annexed to the end of a word as, er in laborer" 14. A majority of the words of the English language arc of foreign origin. Sometimes many words are formed from a single foreign root by the use of different prefixes and suffixes. As an example take the word inspect. The following words, as may be plainly seen, are all from the same Latin root: Expect, suspect, respect, aspect, prospect, conspectus, spectator, spectacle, spectacu- lar, inspection, expectation, respectable, prospector, prospectus, re- spectful. This shows the importance of a study of the derivation \>f words. All large dictionaries give the origin of words, and they should be frequently consulted. 15. Diacritical spelling is the writing of words, marking the principal sound-- of the letters according in the notation of diction- aries. These marks arc given and explained in all dictionaries, large and small. 16. The spelling of English word- is very arbitrary. The rules arc so many and each one has so many exceptions that they are of very little value as guides. It may be said that the only good rule for spelling i to learn how to spell each word in the language. We give a few of the rules which are the most important and available. The rules for the use of capitals, however, which is properly a part of spelling, are fixed and definite, and should be learned. SPELLING. 19 17. Rules for the Use of Capitals. i. To begin the first word of a sentence; as, Exercise and temperance are the best physicians. 2. To begin all proper names and words derived from them. This includes names of streets, squares, highways, days of the week, months, holidays, particular days, races, people of certain regions, popular appellations, names of regions and parts of countries indi- cated by direction, religious sects, political parties, clubs, societies and organizations of all kinds for whatever purpose; as, Mary, Chicago, Fifth Street, Madison Square, National Road, Monday, March, Christmas, Lent, Caucasian, Creoles, Hoosiers, Transalpine, East, Methodist, Democrat, Ku-Klux, Free Mason. 3. To begin the appellations of the Deity, Jesus Christ, the Trinity and the Virgin Mary, and all pronouns referring to the Deity and Christ when used without the antecedent, or when with the ante- cedent, to distinguish them from other pronouns; as God, Father, Almighty, Most High, Providence, the Redeemer, Master, Son of Man, the Holy Ghost, the Blessed Virgin, the Mother of God; In all thy ways acknowledge Him and He shall direct thy paths. The word Devil, when a personal being is meant, and synonymous terms, as Father of Lies, Satan, Old Nick, etc. 4. To begin every line of poetry, except in humorous style where a word is divided at the end of a line for the sake of a rhyme; as, " There first for thee my passion grew, Sweet, sweet Matilda Pottingen! Thou wast the daughter of my tu- tor, law professor at the U- niversity of Gottingen." 5. To begin all titles of office, honor, respect, or endearment; as, Reverend Sir, Thomas Jones, Esq., President Arthur, Father Matthew, Brother Smith, General Grant. Remark. — Compound titles as Lieutenant-Governor should have both words capitalized. When a person is mentioned by his title only, his name having been before mentioned, the capital should be used ; as, Capt. Burnett was there. The Captain is a fine man. 6. To begin the principal words in the titles of all books, peri- odicals, pictures, statuary, chapters, discourses, and in head-line;* of newspapers, advertisements, etc.; as, Appleton's Geography ; The Chicago Inter Ocean, " From Shore to Shore," " The Stag at Bay," Rules for Spelling, etc. 7. To begin words synonymous with the Bible, or for parts of it; as, Scriptures, Gosjiel, Epistles, Deuteronomy. S. In Botany, Zoology and Paleontology to begin the names of classes, orders, families and genera. When the scientific name of a plant, animal, or fossil is given, the generic name is written with a capital and the specific following with a small letter if it is 20 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI lilt ART. not derived from a proper name; as Cants fatniliaris. Some late authorities never capitalize the specific name. 9. To begin names of things personified; as, O, Popular Applause. 10. To begin complete quotations when not introduced by conjunctions; as, Virgil says, Labor conquers all things. 11. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always in capitals. 12. To begin any word which is the particular subject of dis- course, or any word which we wish to make of special importance. This is a matter of taste, and it is not best to use capitals thus too freely. 18. Rules for Spelling. 1. Words ending in ie drop the e and change i to y on taking the syllable ingj as die, dying, lie, lying. 2. Words ending in e generally omit it when taking an ad- ditional syllable beginning with a vowel, and retain it when the ad- ditional syllable begins with a consonant, as bride, bridal; pale, paleness. Exceptions. — The e is retained in dyeing, singeing, tingeing, and a few others; it is dropped in argument, awful and truly. }. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i on taking an additional syllable, beginning with anything else than if as, icy, iciest; tidy, tidiness. Exceptions. — Adjectives of one syl- lable ending in y as shy, shyness; dry, dryly. .). Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, generally retain the y; as gay, gayety; obey, obeying. Exceptions. — Day, daily; lay, laid; pay, paid; say, said; slay, slain. 5. Ei follows c soft, and ie follows other consonants; as receive, deceive, ceiling; believe, grieve, reprieve. This is a rule worth remembering. 19. There are two rules for pronunciation which are worth remembering: 1. The consonants c and g are hard before a o u I and r, and soft before e i and y. Exceptions : — get, give, gaol, gibbous, 'nuggv, and a few others. 2. II is silent after g and r, and when preceded by a vowel in the same syllable. METHODS OK TEACHING SPELLING. 20. There are many methods of teaching spelling. Those methods which appeal through the eye rather than through the ear seem to be the mosl effectual. Our English words are not phonic as a rule, that is, the sound of the word does not indicate the letters to be used in its spelling, hence the difficulty in learning to spell. When we s(.- t ;1 strange person we rememher his face because we SPELLING. 21 remember how it appeared to us, the form and symmetry, or lack of symmetry, as the case may be, of the features. So when we see a picture of a landscape or the landscape itself, the objects are remembered by their form anil relations to each other and, as it were, a picture is formed on the memory. The artist who spends days copying a picture on paper or canvas, has it painted also on his memory. The inference from all this is that the most effectual method of teaching spelling is that which requires the pupil to write his spelling lessons. He reproduces the picture and thus fixes it on his mind. Oral spelling should be practiced occasionally as a change to avoid monotony, and as a drill in pronunciation. 21. The writing of spelling lessons has the additional advan- tages of: (i) improving the pupil's penmanship; (2) cultivating habits of neatness; (3) affording occupation for pupils who might otherwise be idle in the school room, this being an important factor in school government; (4) if properly conducted, teaching the use of capitals, punctuation and abbreviations. 22. Pupils who are not old enough to write readily should be required to print their lessons on slates, copying them from the books as a study. In such cases oral spelling must be employed in recita- tion, hut whenever pupils are able to write with ordinary readiness the majority of the recitations should he conducted in writing, and the lessons should be studied by copying them one or more times on slates. 23. We can best illustrate the method of teaching spelling to classes whose members are able to write, by giving a model lesson. A list of words similar to those given below, is written on the black- board and allowed to remain before the pupils during their study hours. 1 . singeing 6. rheumatism 2. stationary 7. Noah Webster, L.L. D. 3. stationery 8. chief-justice 4. grammar 9. Smith, Brown & Co. 5. The Chicago Inter Ocean 10. Hon. David Davis, M. C. The words arc to be written just as they would appear in the middle of a sentence without capitals or punctuation, unless they would require such in any position. The pupils are expected to copy them on their slates, and they may he required also to look up the meanings and abbreviations in the dictionary. 24. It is not best to assign many words at a lesson. From ten to twenty selected words, a few of them requiring capitals and ab- breviations as given above, is better than a longer list of compara- tively easy words. If the teacher has not the time to write the words on the board, he can select them at his leisure and write them on slips of paper, and get some pupil who can write plainly to put them on the blackboard. The teacher should occasionally inspect the slates of the pupils to see if they have copied correctly, as there 22 TEAi HERS" AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. always are pupils who will make mistakes through carelessness. Or a pupil may be assigned the duty of examining the slates and criti- cising them. 25. ■ The recitation may be conducted sonfewhat as follows : All words are to be erased from the slates of the pupils, and the numbers written for the required number of words. Then the teacher pronounces the words distinctly (twice and no more) giv- ing the full form the abbreviation represents, and the pupils write from his dictation ascarefully and rapidly as they can. A reasonable time being given for all to \\ rite the words, the teacher may conduct the remainder of the exercise in various ways, lie may ask the pupils to exchange slates and call on them individually to spell the words they find on the slates they hold and criticise the spelling. He may, without exchanging, call for the spelling of each pupil and ask criticisms from the others, or he may spell the words himself, re- quiring each pupil to mark the words misspelled. All words that are wrong cither in spelling, capitals or punctuation, should he marked and the per cent, of correctly spelled words made out and recorded. The average of these per cents, at the close of a term will show the pupil's standing pretty accurately. 26. Words misspelled should he re- writ ten by the pupil. Those words which are missed by the majority of the class should he noted down and assigned again at some future lesson. In this way the • pupils will study only difficult words and nvvd not waste their time on easy ones. 27. It would he well to require each pupil to write his name, post office address, and the date in connection with each lesson, and let it he subject to criticism in regard t<> spelling, capitalization, punctuation, etc. This constant practice will he valuable aid to let- ter writing. (See Com position and Letters.) 28. The pupils ma\ be required in some classes to mark all the important sounds in their spelling lessons with their proper diacriti- cal marks. This will he the most effectual method of teaching the names and uses of these marks. 29. Very young pupils will readily learn the most important rules for capital letters. They can he told that all names of per- sons or of places must he spelled with a capital, and this rule em- braces the majority of cases where capitals should he used in the middle of a sentence. In oral spelling, even, the capital letter may he indicated h\ t he pupil in recitation, thus : Capital J-o-h-n, John. 30. Words which would not he missed when spelled orally are frequently missed in writing, from mere carelessness. Frequenl exercises in copying sentences and paragraphs from hooks may be assigned and the pupil's work criticised. Parts of the pupil's reading lesson may he written in this way by pupils and criticised by the teachers or other pupils. Careless habits should he broken up by much practice and criticism. Sentences may he dictated hv the teachei aid written by the pupils, and tin- errors corrected. SPELLING. ~3 31. Instead of slates pupils may use paper and pencil, or pen and ink. Blank spellers are now made which are very convenient for this purpose. Spelling should be taught incidentally to many other branches. Whenever written work is done by the pupils, the spelling should be carefully criticised. SPELLING REFORM. 32. The fact that our present system of spelling the English language is so complex and cumbersome, one letter representing several sounds, and the same sound represented by several different letters, and so many words which have silent letters, has led men to desire a change in the whole system. It is said that only fifty words in English are written as they are pronounced, or pronounced in ac- cordance with the names of their letters. The word " though " has six letters and only two sounds. Hundreds of cases might be shown of the awkwardness of our spelling. ■ 33. The first regular step taken in the direction of reform was with the organization of the Spelling Reform Association, in 1876, at an International Convention for the Amendment of English Orthography, held in Philadelphia. Some of the greatest linguists, scholars and educators of the day expressed their concurrence in the work of reform. Among them we may mention, Prof. Max Muller, of Oxford University, England, the greatest linguist of England ; Prof. W. D. Whitney, of Yale College, another distinguished lin- guist; Chas. Sumner, John Stuart Mill, \Ym. E. Gladstone, Hon. Wm. T. Harris, Prof. F.J. Childs, of Harvard, Rev. A. H. Sayce, of Oxford, England, Rev. W. W. Skreat,of Cambridge University, England. 34. A reform of this kind requires time to accomplish any defi- nite results. Thus far, we cannot say that anything very definite has been accomplished, except to arouse an interest in the matter. This they have succeeded in doing. The National Union of Ele- mentary Teachers in England, passed a resolution recommending a royal inquiry into the subject, and the American Philological As- sociation started a memorial to Congress praying that body to ap- point a Commission on Spelling Reform. This memorial was signed by the professors in nearly all the leading colleges and universities in the U. S. The public press has h\ many instances lent its aid in the work, and several papers have been started for its special advo- cacy, and a number of books have been written on the subject. 35. There is a great diversity of views among the advocates of reform as to the proper method of accomplishing the result. These views may be summed up under three general heads: 1. Those who are in favor of a partial reform without a new alphabet. 2. 'Those who want a phonetic spelling with a few new letters. 3. Those who wish a new alphabet with many new letters. Several new 34 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS LIBRART. alphabets have been invented, and are in use by different papers ad- vocating reform. 30. The final aim, it would seem to he, is to have a new alphabet adopted which shall he perfectly phonetic, but in order to bring this about gradually, the Reform Spelling Association has recommended and adopted various special rules ("or spelling without new types'. Five of these rule- have become widely known and pretty generally agreed upon. They are known as the "Few New Rules." and are as follows: — i. Omit a from the digraph ca when pronounced as e short, as in head, health, etc., spelling them lied, helth, etc. 2. Omit silent final c after a short vowel; as in have, give, live, etc., spelling them hctv, giv, fiv, etc. 3. Write f for ph in such words a- alphabet, phantom, philosophy, etc., spelling them alfabet, fantom, JUosofy, etc. 4. When a word ends with a double letter, omit the last; as in shall, cliff, etc., spelling them shal, el if, etc. 5. Change ed final to / where it has the sound of t ; as in lashed, impressed, etc., spelling them lasht, imprest, etc. 37. In furtherance also of the reform, at a meeting of the American Philological Association, in 1878, the committee on Re- form of English Spelling, composed of Prof. F. A. Marsh; Profs. W. D. Whitney, and J. H. Trumbull, of Yale; F.J. Child, of Har- vard; Prof. S. S. Haldeman, of the University of Pennsylvania, re- ported as follows: — "In accordance with the plan of preparing a list of words for which an amended spelling may be adopted, concurrent with that now in use, as suggested by Pres. J. Hammond Trumbull, at the session of [875, and favorably reported upon by the committee of that session, the committee now present the following words as the beginning of such list, and recommend them for immediate use: Ar, catalog, definit, gard, giv, hav, infinit, liv, thru, wisht. Trot". Francis A. Match, L.L. D., says, [we give it in the reform spelling, J ■• Printing in pure fonetic speling, or with new type-, seems as yet to be mision- ary work. It costs a good deal of money.and the return- ar mainly sentimen- tal. It is, however, a prime necesity in' order to keep our goal before us, and din cl al minor changes, a- wel as tor a metric alfabet. The 'few rules' and the eleven words giv beter promise." There is no doubt that some very radical changes will come about in the coiir-e of a few sears in the matter of English spelling, and it behooves teachers to keep themselves posted in regard to this matter, and to be abreast of the tunes by lending their aid to whatever will truly advance a desirable reform. Further information in regard to this matter may be obtained by addressing O. C Black- mer, A. M., 54 Franklin Street, Chicago, 111., or to Mellville Dewey, A. M., T,l llawley Street, Boston, Mass. QUES1 [ONS <>N SPELLING. (Sec note to questions >n reading;, page i<>). 1. Define spelling 2. Kinds* 3. What is phonic -pelling 5 4. Define articulation. e, Whal 1 Byllable? 6. Define pronunciation; accent. GEOGRAPHY. 35 8. What is a monosyllable? A dissyllable? A trisyllable? A polysyllable? The ultimate? The penult? The ante-penult? The preante-penult? 9 What is a vowel? A consonant? io. Uovv many sounds in the English language? What arc vocals? Tonics? Sub-tonics? Sub-vocals? Sub-tonics? Aspirates? Atonies? ii. What is a diphthong? A triphthong? A proper diphthong? A vowel digraph? 12. What is a simple word? A compound word? A primitive word? A derivative word? 13. Define prefix; suffix; affix. 14. What can be said of the origin of English words? 15. What is diacritical spelling? 16. What are the advantages of learning niles for spelling? 17. What are the most important rules for the use of capitals? Correct the errors in the following: the people of indiuna ;ire culled hoosiers. this hook is published at no. 70, metropolitan block, Chicago, he said, i will visit your place about christmas. iS. Name two rules for spelling. 19. Name two rules for pronunciation. 20. What is your method of teaching spelling? 21. What are the advantages of writing spelling lessons? 23. How do you teach abbreviations? 24. How many words would you assign as a spelling lesson? 25. What plans do you use to avoid monotony in spelling recitations? 27. Do you make any use of misspelled words? 29. Do you teach young pupils the use of capital letters? 30. What are the advantages of copying sentences and paragraphs? 36. What are the " Few New Rules "? 37. The "eleven words "? — — '*i^ii'" — — GEOGRAPHY. GENERAL OUTLINE OF GEOGRAPHY. This outline may be filled out by advanced pupils as t review exercise. Parts of it may be used as topic lists for study and recitation. The figures in parentheses refer to sections of the text. * * * * indicate where the subject may be further amplified. For more complete discussion, see " Outline of the Earth as to Physical Features," preceding Physical Geography. For an explanation of the index figures, see " Systems of Outlining." Note, however, that it makes complete sense without the figures. the earth. 2 3 Change of Seasons. i 1 Form. 4 1 Representation of Surface. (6). i 1 Proofs. (2). I 2 Maps. * * * * 2 2 Globes. 2 l Size. (3). 5 1 Position on Surface, i' Circumference. I 1 Circles. (6). 2 s Polar Diameter. i 3 Kinds. 3» Equatorial. i 4 Great. 4» Area of Surface. 1 5 Equator. 3 1 Motions. (5). 2 5 Meridians. I* Points. 3 5 Ecliptic. I s Axis. 2* Small. 2 3 Poles. i 5 Parallels. 2 3 Kinds. i G Principal — Climatic or i 3 Diurnal. Fixed Circles. (8). 2 3 Annual. i 7 Tropic of Cancer. 3 2 Results. 2 7 Tropic of Capricorn. i 3 Length of Day and Year. 3 T Arctic Circle. 4 5 Phenomena. 4 7 Antarctic Circle. I s Dav and Night 2* Degrees. (7). 26 TEACHERS' AND STVDEX is' 1.1BHART. i 4 Length. * * * * ^ 4 Divisions. 7 1 Climate. (16). 3< Use. I 2 As to Temperature. 3 3 Uses. (6». I 3 Depending Upon. i 4 To Determine Position. * * * * i D Latitude. 2 2 As to Moisture. * * * * I 3 Depending Upon 2^ Longitude. IJC rfC JjC -ft * * * * 3 2 As to Winds. 2* To Mark Zones and Hemis I 3 Depending Upon pheres. * * * * 2 3 Zone>. 191 S 1 Life. T T T * i 2 Plants. (17). 3- Hemispheres. (10). 1 3 Conditions. * * * * $ $ ^ ♦ 4 2 Cardinal Points. (4). 2 3 Distribution. t * # # * * * * 6 1 Divisions. 2 2 Animals. (17). I 2 Land. * * * * i 3 Natural Divisions. 3 2 Man I 4 As to Si/.e. (il). j 3 Classes. 1'" Continents. 2 s Islands. 2 4 As to Contour. (12). 1 * As to Physical Characteristics. i 6 Races. (20). :j: % :Jc % x'° Capes. 2 4 A sto Social Condition. 2 b Peninsulas. I» In Regard to Education. 3 J Isthmuses. (26). 3 4 As to Relief. (13). .J: * * * i b Lowlands. 2'" In Regard to Religion. (27) i° Plains. * ♦ ♦ * Valleys. 3 b In Regard to Government 2' Highlands. (30). 1 6 Plateaus. $ $ $ $ J 6 Mountains. 4 5 In Regard to Occupation 2 3 Political Divisions. (32)- I 4 States. $ $ $ ♦ 2 4 Empires. 9 1 Mineral Resources. (35). 3 4 Kingdoms. I 2 Metal s. 4 4 Principalities. * * ■■r- ■:; z,* Provinces, etc. j;5 Build ing Material. Water. * * * * I 3 Oceanic. (14). 3 2 Mi sec :llaneous Minerals. * * * * * * * * 2 3 Inland. (15). 1. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Geography is a description of the earth. It is usually divided into : (1 ) Mathematical Geography which treats nf the form, size, position and motions of the earth, and of the manner of indi- cating the relative position of places on its surface; (3) Physical Geography which treats of the natural divisions of land and water, of climate, of the distribution of minerals, plants and animals, and of the causes, laws and relations of these facts; (3) Political Geog- raphy which treats of the human inhabitants, then social condition as to government, religion and manners, their industrial pursuits and production-, and of the boundary lines they have drawn on its surface. (,EOGRAPHT. 27 Neither of these divisions can be intelligently treated without reference to the others, and it is the general course of text-books to discuss the facts of Political Geography with some of the facts of Mathematical and Physical Geography uneer the general name "Geography," while Physical Geography proper is treated as a separate work. 2. The earth is nearly spherical in shape. This is evident from the following facts: — i. Men have circumnavigated it; that is, they have sailed in one continuous direction as nearly as the configuration of the land would permit, and have arrived at the point of starting. i. When we stand on the shore and observe a ship coming in from the sea, we notice that the tops of the masts are seen first, and lastly the hull, or body. The hull is hidden by the curved surface of the water. In traveling across extensive plains, in like maimer, the tops of mountains are seen before their bases. 3. An eclipse, of the moon is caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the moon. This shadow is always circular. A spherical body is the only one which will east a circular shadow in any position in which it may be placed. 3. The earth is 24,899 miles in its greatest circumference, 7,899 miles in its shorter, or polar (5) diameter, and 7,925 miles in its longer, or equatorial (6) diameter. Its surface contains nearly 200,000,000 square miles. 4. The line bounding our view, or where the earth and sky appear to meet, is called the horizon. If you stand looking toward the rising sun, your face will be to the east, your back to the west, your right hand to the south and your left to the north. These are called the cardinal points of the horizon. The compass is an instrument for ascertaining direction on the surface of the earth. It consists of a circular card representing the horizon and its points, with a magnetic needle balanced so that it is free to move in any direction. This needle always points to the north. 5. The earth has two constant motions: (1) its diurnal motion, or rotation on its axis (its shorter diameter) from west to east ; (2) its annual motion, or movement in a nearly circular path (called its orbit) around the sun. Tho length of time the earth is turning on its axis, is called a day. Every part of the earth's surface being successively carried into light and shade, the daily rotation causes the phenomena of day and night. The length of time the earth is in passing around the sun, is called a year. It turns on its own axis in tine same time about 3653.^ times, hence there are 3651^ days in a year. As the earth revolves from west to east the sun will appear to travel from east to west. The points on the earth's surface at the ends of the axis are called poles. The one which is nearest a certain fixed star called 28 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. the north star, is the north pole, the other is the south pole. The :ixi- of the earth is inclined 231^ degrees to the plane of its orbit. This fact, together with the revolution of the earth round the sun, causes the change ot" seasons. During one part of the earth's revo- lution, the North. Pole is toward the sun, and consequently its rays fall more directly upon the northern half of the earth, and that part has summer while the southern half has winter. At another time the North Pole is turned away from the sun, and the sun shining less directly on the northern half, there is then winter in that part and summer in the southern half. Thus when the sun shines most directly upon us we have mid- summer, and when most obliquely, midwinter. When interme- diate between these we have spring and autumn. G. The surface of the earth is represented by maps and globes. Position is represented by means of certain lines drawn on maps and globes, called " circles of situation." By having certain fixed points on the earth and imagining these lines to be drawn on its surface, we determine the location of places. As a globe is simply a spherical body to represent the form of the earth in mini- ature, any points fixed upon it will represent similar positions on the earth. A line drawn around a globe midway between the poles divid- ing it into two equal parts, is called the equator. As the poles are fixed points, this line will be a fixed line. Now if a line be drawn around the globe, passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles, it will divide the globe into two equal parts. But any number of lines may be drawn through the poles and at right angles to the equator, which will divide the globe into two equal parts. These lines are called meridian circles. A certain one then is taken as the standard and called the first, or prime meridian circle. A meridian is half of a meridian circle. The one imaer- ined to pass through the town of Greenwich, England, where there is a famous observatory, is chosen as a prime meridian. The meridian of Washington City is also used. The equator and some fixed meridian then are two fixed lines from which to measure dis- tance. Distance north or south from the equator is measured on a meridian and called latitude. Distance east or west measured on tlu' equator (or on lines drawn parallel with it called parallels of latitude), is called longitude. 7. Every circle, whether great or small, is divided into 360 equal parts called degrees (°), each degree into 60 parts called minutes ( ' ). and each minute into 60 parts called seconds (" ). The distance then from the equator to either pole is 90 . There can be then but (jo north or south latitude. Places on the equator have no latitude, and are marked zero. Places on the prime meridian would be marked zero, and there could be only 180 east or yvest longitude. The length of a degree of longitude on the equator is GEOGRAPHT. 29 69 yi statute miles. They become shorter as we near the poles, where they are zero. The length of a degree of latitude is 69 % statute miles. 8. Those parallels which are drawn 235^° from the equator are called tropics. The northern one is called the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern the Tropic of Capricorn. Those parallels which are 233^° from the poles are called polar circles. The northern one is called the Arctic Circle, and the southern the Antarctic Circle. 9. Those divisions of the earth's surface bounded by the tropics and polar circles are called zones. The space on either side of the equator and between the tropics, is called the torrid zone, and is 47° wide. The space between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle, is called the north temperate zone. That between the tropic of Capricorn and the antarctic circle is the south tem- perate zone. The temperate zones are each 43° wide. The space between the arctic circle and the north pole is called the north frigid zone, and that between the antarctic circle and the south pole the south frigid zone. The frigid zones are each 23^° wide. 10. For convenience the earth is considered as divided into halves, or hemispheres, the equator dividing it into northern and southern hemispheres, and the meridians of 160 west, and 20 east, into eastern and western hemispheres. It may also be considered as divided so that nearly all the land will be in one, called the land hemisphere, and nearly all the water in the other, called the water hemisphere. About one-fourth of the earth's surface is land, and about three-fourths, water. 11. The land is divided as to size into: (1) continents, very large bodies of land; (2) islands, smaller bodies entirely surrounded by water. The eastern hemisphere has four continents, or large land masses called respectively Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia, tooethcr called the " Old World," — and sometimes all called the « Eastern Continent." The western hemisphere contains two con- tinents, North America and South America, and sometimes both together called the " Western Continent," or the " American Con- tinent." Australia might be considered as a large island. An archipelago is a group of islands. 12. The land is divided as to contour into : ( 1 ) peninsulas, bodies of land nearly surrounded by water; (2) capes, points of land pro- jecting into the water; (3) isthmuses, necks of land connecting two bodies of land. 13. The land is divided as to relief into: (i) lowlands, hut slightly elevated above the level of the sea, and (2 ) highlands, con- siderably elevated above sea level. The lowlands are divided into plains and valleys. A plain is generally level and not much ele- vated above the sea. In different parts of the world plains have 30 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. received different name-. In the United States the extensive tracts destitute of trees and covered with grass are called prairies. Sim- ilar plains in South America arc called pampas. The river plains of South America, which arc covered with vegetation dining the rainy season, are called llanos. Higher plains, covered with trees, are in that country called selvas. The great plains of Siberia are called steppes. Plains which are destitute of vegetation are called deserts. Spots in the desert which are made fertile by springs are called oases. Valleys are tracts of land generally narrow and depressed he- low the level of the surrounding land. Avery narrow valley with steep sides is a ravine or defile. In Western United States very deep ravines are called canyons. The highlands are divided into plateaus or table lands and mountains. A plateau is a very high plain. A mountain is a very high and abrupt elevation of land. Smaller abrupt eleva- tions are called hills, knolls, etc. A volcano is a mountain that sends forth fire, melted matter, etc. 14. The water may he considered as oceanic and inland. The great body of salt water which everywhere surrounds the large land masses and penetrates into their interior, is sometimes alluded to as the ocean or sea, but it is by the configuration of the land divided into five great bodies which have each received the name of ocean, as the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic and the Antarctic oceans. A sea is a large body of water connected more or less closely with the main ocean. A gulf is a body of water indenting the land from the ocean or a larger body of water. A bay means about the same, hut gener- ally applied" to bodies of water which are less completely sur- rounded by land. The terms inlet, cove, harbor Jiavcv, fiord, estu- ary, and roadstead axe applied to smaller indentations of the land by the water. Strait is a general term denoting a narrow body of water con- necting two larger bodies of water. A strait which is shallow is called a sound, one that is comparatively wide is railed a channel. 15. The inland waters are: (i) lakes, bodies of water sur- rounded by land, generally fresh water, hut sometimes salt, some large bodies of salt water completely surrounded by land being called seas, as the Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, etc.; (2) rivers, large streams of water flowing through the land and into some othei bodies of water, as lakes, seas, oceans, or other rivers. When a river runs into a lake it is called the inlet of the lake; when the lake empties itself through a river into some other body of water, that river is called its outlet. Streams of water like rivers are found flowing through the ocean. They are called ocean currents. 16. Climate. " The physical agencies acting through the at- mosphere upon organic life, constitute climate, of which heat ami GEOGRAPHr 31 moisture arc the essential elements, the winds being the medium of circulation. Temperature, however, is the fundamental phenomena of climate, for the winds and the rains result from differences in the temperature of the air." — Guyot. (For full discussion see article on Physical Geography in this work.) As a general law it may be stated that the heat is greatest at the equator, and gradually dimin- ishes as we go toward the poles, but this law is modified by many other facts; for example, as we ascend above the sea level it gets colder, so that perpetual snow is found upon high mountains which lie upon or near the equator. 17. (For a full discussion of the distribution of animal and vegetable life see article on Physical Geography.) The Frigid Zones produce very scanty vegetation, mosses and lichens and some stunted specimens of the higher forms, as the willow, birch and pine. The animal world is much more varied as to species. Here are found the reindeer, the musk ox and the white bear, and many smaller fur-bearing animals on the land, while in the sea or on its shores are found whales, walruses, seals, and water-fowls of many species. ' 18. In the torrid zone is found the most dense and varied vege- tation, flowers of the most brilliant hues and of the largest size, the most delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the most valuable woods; in fact, the most of those production'- which add to the lux- uries of life. The animal world is represented by the greatest number of species, among which are those of the largest size, the most powerful and active, and the most intelligent. It is the home of the elephant, the giraffe, the lion, the tiger, the monkey, the ostrich, the condor, parrots; and of reptiles of the largest size, as the crocodile and boa constrictor, as well as those of the most poisonous character. 19. In the temperate zones are found the vegetation most use- ful to man, as the oak, the pine, the maple and other useful timber trees; the indispensable grains, as wheat, maize, barley, rye; the useful fruits, as the apple, peach, pear, etc., and the fabric plants, as tlax and cotton. The animal kingdom is represented by the bear, the bison, the elk and deer, the wolf; and the domestic animals m, useful to man, a- the horse, the oxen, sheep and goats; and many species of fowl, as pigeons, ducks, geese, turkeys, etc. 20. Naturalists divide mankind according to certain physical characters into varieties, ox races. Authorities differ greatly in this classification. Cuvier made three races, Pritchard, seven, Agassiz, eight, and Pickering, eleven, but the classification most commonly accepted is that into Ave races as made by Blumenbach as follows: (i) the Caucasian, European or white race; (2) the Mongolian, Asiatic or yellow race; (3) the Ethiopian, African or black race; (4) the American, Indian or red race; (5) the Malay, or brown race. The first three are much more clearly marked, and are considered bv 32 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIHRARV. Guyot as primary races; the others being modifications of these three, he designates as secondary races. Because of the blending ot types it is difficult to make a classification, hence the difference anion"- authorities. The points on which the classification is based are mainly, the size and proportions of the body, the shape ot head and the features, the hair and heard, and the color of the skin. 21. The Caucasian race are characterized by tall stature, oval head and face, high forehead, regular features, abundance and soft- ness of hair and beard and usually fair skin, hut in some it is lawny or swarthy as in the Hindoos, Arabs and others. They stand at the head in intelligence and civilization. This race is represented by the principal inhabitants of Europe and their descendants in America, and by the inhabitants of India, Arabia and of Western Asia and Northern Africa. 22. The Mongolian race arc distinguished by short stature, round head, wide face, high cheek hones, obliquely set eyes, coarse straight hair, scarcely any heard, and yellowish color of the skin. They are distributed oyer the whole of Eastern Asia except in India and include the Esquimaux of the northern part of North America. 23. The Ethiopian race are characterized by medium stature, generally ungainly form, low and retreating forehead, head full back of the ears, Hat, broad nose, projecting jaws, thick lips, short curly hair (woolly), and skin generally black or dark. They oc- cupy all of Africa except the northern part, and many of their descendants are found in America. 24. The American race resemble the Mongolian, but the head is not so round, the face less wide and Hat, the eyes horizontal, the hair black and straight, and beard scanty, and the skin a reddish or copper-color. They occupy North and South America except the Arctic shores. 25. The Malay race resemble also the Mongolian, but have thicker lips, horizontal eyes, hair less Straight, generally full beards, aui\ color usually brown^ They occupy the Malay peninsula and the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 26. In regard to general culture and intelligence, mankind may be divided into classes as follows: (i) savages, those who are scarcely elevated above the brutes, live in tribes and siihsist by hunt- ing and fishing; (2) barbarians, those who have possessions as flocks and herds, and practice agriculture t<> some extent, yet have made no progress in arts and sciences ; (3) half-civilized, those who have made some progress in the arts, have towns and cities, hut depend chiefly npon agriculture; (4) civilized, those who have made considerable progress in science and art, engage in commerce .nu\ have a written language; (5) enlightened, those who stand at the head of the scale, have a division <>f labor, systems of education, and have made the greatest progress in science, art, and in morality. GEOGRAPHY. J3 27. In regard to religion, mankind may be divided into two general classes: (i) those who worship one god (monotheistic); (2) those who worship more than one god (polytheistic). Of the first class we have: ( 1 ) the Christian which recognizes the Bible as the revealed word of God and Jesus Christ ;is the Son of God; (2) the Jewish which recognizes the Old Testament as the word of God, but does not acknowledge Christ; (3) the Mohammedan, or as its followers call it, the religion of Islam, whose two articles of faith are, " There is no god but God, and Mohammed is the Prophet of God/' 28. Of the second class there are: (1 1 Brahminism, or Hin- dooism, or the religion of the people of India, a very ancient religion which has many good moral doctrines, but has many strange ideas of a future state, and recognizes many gods; (2) Buddhism, an offshoot of Brahminism, now practiced by the people of China and Japan, founded by Sakya-mouni who adopted the title of Buddha (the enlightened), a religion which has been more enthusiastic in making converts than any other, except Christi- anity, and has many good moral precepts but is practically atheistic; (3) Fetichism, a very low form of superstition which consists in the worship of material objects either living or dead, as animals or idols of wood or stone. All who are followers of polytheistic religions are called Pagans or Heathens. 29. The Christian religion is the prevailing one among civilized and enlightened nations, and numbers about 395,000,000 followers. It embraces three principal sects : Catholics (201 ,000,000), Protest- ants (110,000,000), and Greek Church (78,000,000). The Mo- hammedan is the religion of the Turks, and many of the people of Asia and Northern Africa, and has about 232,000,000 followers. Brahminism {prevails principally in the peninsula of Hindostan, and numbers 150,000,000 followers. Buddhism prevails in China, Japan, Indo-China and some other parts of Asia, and has 455,000,- 000 followers. Fetichism prevails among the lowest and most de- graded people of Africa, and the Islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. 30. The principal forms of government are: (1) the mon- archical, that form where one person exercises chief power to which he succeeds by inheritance, and holds for life; (2) republi- can, where the power is vested in men who are chosen by the people for a limited period. An absolute monarchy is one where tiie ruler has unlimited or absolute power, his will being the sole law. It is also called a despotism. A limited or constitutional monarchy is one where the ruler's power is limited by a constitution, or laws made by the representa- tives of the people. In a monarchical government the ruler receives various titles in different countries, ;is emperor, king or queen, czar, sultan, shah and mikado. In a republican government the chief 34 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. officer is called a president. The capital of a country is the place where the laws are made and the government is administered. 31. The term state is used in a general sense to denote the whole body of people united under one government of whatever form, but in this country the term means one of the separate divi- sions of the United States, which has a government of its own with full powers over all matters pertaining to its own particular affairs, hut has delegated certain powers to the general government. The chief officer of one of these .States is called a governor. A county is a division of a State. A township, or town is a division of a county. A city is also a division of a county. These divisions of a State are for the convenience of carrying out the plan of govern- ment. 32. The occupations of men may he considered in two general classes: (i) Industries; (2) Professions. The principal indus- tries are: (1) agriculture, the cultivation of the soil for the pur- pose of producing vegetable material for food and clothing; (2) grazing, the raising of domestic animals which furnish food and clothing; (3) lumbering, the cutting down of forest trees and shaping them for the various purposes as building, manufacturing, etc.; (|) mining, the procuring of important minerals from the earth for use in building, manufacture and fuel; (5) navigation, traversing the ocean and other bodies of water in the interests ol commerce, science, art or pleasure; (6) commerce, the exchanging of the productions or manufactures of one country or part of a country for that of another; (7) manufacturing, the working up of a raw material into forms suitable to the wants of man; (8) fishing, an occupation which furnishes employment to many people, the whale fishery and that of the cod and mackerel being verj great; (?gtoii and Keokuk are im- portant places. Scarcely an acre of Iowa but is capable of culti- vation. 66. Kansas. — More than twice as large as Ohio. A prairie State, almost level. The Missouri R. forms its northeastern bound- ary. The Arka??sas R. flows through the State; the Ka?/sas R., with many important tributaries, flows into the Missouri. Climate- dry, rather mild, and healthy; much wind. Wheat, cor?? and other grains; coal, lead, li??iesto??e and salt/ cattle and hogs. Agric?//- ture and stock raisi>?g the leading industries. Yopcka the capital, Leavenworth the largest city. 67. Kentucky. — Not so large as Virginia. Mountainous in the southeast, hilly in the middle part, and an undulating plain in the west. The Ohio R. forms its northern and most of its western boundary, and the Mississippi washes a small portion of its west- ern extremity ; the Big Sandy separates it from Virginia, the Cun?bcrla??d and Tc>i??csscc Rivers flow through the southwestern extremity. Climate, rather mild. Stands first in production of tobacco; hc???p and Jlax largely produced; corn and -.cheat; live stock ; noted for thoro?ighbred horses, mules and cattle ; coal, iron, li???estone. Leading industries agriculture and stock raising. Fra??kfort the capital, Louisville, on the Ohio R., largest city and commercial metropolis. Covington and Newport, opposite Cin- cinnati, extensive manufactures. The Mammoth Cave has a world- wide fame. 42 TEA( HERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 68. Louisiana. — A little larger than Ohio, and not half as large as Minnesota. Low, and in some places swamp} ; generally level. The Mississippi R.. forms pari of the eastern boundary, the Red R. is a principal tributary, and the Sabine separates it in part from Texas; the banks of the Mississippi are subject to over- flow, and are protected by hanks of earth called levees. Lake Ponchartrain is in the southern part; The coast on the (iulf of Mexico has numerous indentations and projections, among which arc I 'ermillion Pay and Atchafalaya Ray, and the Delta of the Mississippi^ which is a mass of land built up bv the material car- ried down by this mighty stream. The climate is hot and moist, and sometimes unhealthy. The great sugar producing State; ranks high in rice and cotton; oranges, figs and other tropical fruits; some salt, sulphur and gypsum. . Igriculture and commerce the leading industries. New Orleans the capital, and commercial metropolis of the South, the greatest cotton market of the world, greatest sugar market of the U. S., and the third cityin commercial importance. The State is divided into parishes instead of counties. 69. Maine. Larger than all the other New England States put together. Much diversified; isolated mountain peaks in north- ern part, Aft. Katahdin (5,385 ft.) being the highest. Principal rivers, the Poiobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, Saco, St. Croix and St, John. Numerous lakes (" The Lake State") one-tenth of it- surface covered with water; the principal lakes, Moosehead, Afoose- tocmagantic, Chesuncook, Sebago and Schoodic. Extensive coast line with numerous indentations ("Hundred-harbored Maine"), the principal of" which are Caseo Bay, Penobscot Haw and Passama- quoddy Bay. The climate somewhat severe, long, cold winters and hot summers. Lumber, hemlock bark; potatoes, rye, barley, buckwheat y slate, limestone, granite. Leading industries, ship- building, fishing, lumberings manufacturing. Augusta, the capi- tal, Portland largest city and prominent seaport, Bangor noted as a lumber market, Bath for shipbuilding. 70. Maryland. — A little larger than Vermont, and about one- third the size of Indiana. Level in the eastern part, mountainous in the western. The Potomac /»'. separates it from Virginia, and the Susquehanna crosses its northern border. It has a verj irregular coast line, a great arm of the sea. the Chesapeake Pay cuts ii nearly in two; capes Charles an 1 /fairy project into the entrance of the bay. Climate mild and agreeable. Corn, -wheat, tobacco, coal and iron. The shores and waters of the Chesapeake furnish shad and herring, oysters, terrapins and wild ducks. Leading industries Agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce, cigars and tobacco, flour, canned fruits and oysters, refined sugar, manufactured and exported. Annapolis, the capital, Baltimore the largesl city, great market for "flour, tobacco, canned fruits and oyster*. GBOGRAPHr. 43 71. Massachusetts.- — Nearly six times as large as Rhode Island. Low and level on the coast, mountainous in the western part. The Connecticut R. crosses it west of the center, the Merrimac runs along the northeast border. It has a comparatively great extent ot coast line, the principal indentations being, Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod Bay and Buzzard's Bay; Cape Cod and Cape Ann, are im- portant projections, and Martha's I "nteyard and Nantucket islands lie off the coast. Not naturally well adapted to agriculture, yet is cultivated as carefully as a garden, and is made very productive, yel does not furnish enough to feed its own population. Manufacturing ( and commerce the leading industries, fishing largely engaged in; third in manufactures, and second in commerce. Boston is the capital, largest city, and a celebrated literary center; Cambridge, a suburb of Boston, is the seat of Harvard University, and the residence of many noted literary men; Lowell is noted for manufacture of cotton goods, Lynn of shoes, Salem of leather, Springfield has a U. S. Arsenal. "The most thickly peopled of all the States. 72. Michigan. A little larger than Illinois. Two peninsulas, the lower formed by Lakes Huron, St. Clair and Erie on the east and Michigan on the west, the upper by Lake Superior on the north and Michigan on the south; the upper is hilly or mountainous, the lower generally level. The Muskegon, Grand and Manistee Rivers flow into L. Michigan, the Saginaw and Flint into Lake Huron; the St. Croix flows from L. Huron into L. St. Clair, and the Detroit R. from L. St. Clair into L. Eric; these rivers and lakes separate the State from Canada. Saginaw Bay is a large in- dentation from L. Huron. Climate milder than other States in the same latitude on account of the proximity of the lakes. lid/eat, potatoes, apples, peaches; pine lumber, maple sugar, wool; copper, iron, salt. Agriculture, lumbering, mining, fishing, arc leading- industries; manufacturing and commerce considerable. Lansing the capital, Detroit^ largest city and noted for its commerce. 73. Minnesota. Larger than Kansas. High table land, inclu- ding in the northern part the " Height of Land " or water shed which separates the Mississippi system from the waters flowing into Hudson's Bay. The "Father of Waters" here lakes its rise in Lake Itasca; the Red River of the North forms pan of the boundary line separating it from Dakota. Like Maine, the State contains many lakes; Lake of the Woods, and Rainy Lake form part of the boundary between it and British America. A small portion borders on L. Superior. The climate is dry and cold, long winters, but the •cold is stead v and not disagreeable; many who suffer from pulmo- nary disease seek this country. Elk, deer and fur-bearing animals abound; fish are plentiful in "the rivers and lakes; one of the leading States in wheat and oats; timber in great abundance. Agriculture and lumbering the leading industries. St. L^airi the capital and largest city, Minneapolis at the Falls of St. Anthony on the Mis- sissippi is noted for its manufacture of flour and lumber. 44 TEAL HERS AND STUDENTS LIBRARY. 74. Mississippi. A little Larger than New York. Generally level, and low in the south and west and subject to overflow. The Mississippi R. forms the whole western boundary, the Yazoo and Big Black being its principal tributaries. The Pearl R. forms a part of the boundary between it and Louisiana, and flow- into the Gulf of Mexico. It has a small extent of coast line on the Gulf. The climate is hot and rather unhealthy along the Mississippi in the southern part, and more pleasant in the northern part. Takes the lead in cotton growing; corn and sweet potatoes. Agriculture, the leading industry, 'jfacksou, the capital, Natchez on the Mississippi, an important trading point, also Vicksburg which is also noted for the famous siege during the Civil War. 75. Missouri. Nearly twice the size of Indiana, and nearly as large as all the New England States. In northern and western part it is a rolling prairie, in southeastern part rough and mountainous; the Ozark Mts. extend through the State south of the center. The Mississippi R. forms its entire eastern boundary, and the Missouri forms oai't of its western boundarv, and then divides the State into two unequal portions; the Osage is an important tributary of the Missouri. The climate is mild, the summers long and warm, the winters never severe. Great natural resources; com, zvheat, tobacco, hemp and grapes ,' next to California in production of wine/ " the Iron State," iron, lead, coal, also copper, tit/, zi>ic, cobalt, nickel, salt, marble and granite. Agriculture and mining the leading industries, manufactures increasing, yefferson City, the capital; St. Louis the largest city and the metropolis of the Mississippi Valley, is the terminus of 20 railroads, the third city in manufacturing and first in quantity of flour produced; Kansas City is a growing city on the western border. 76. Nebraska. A little more than twice as large as Kentucky. An undulating prairie. The Missouri R. forms its eastern boundary and the Platte R. traverses it from west to east. Climate, similar to Kansas, perhaps a little cooler, plenty of wind. Com, wheat, cattle ; timber scarce but trees are being planted in great numbers. Agricul- ture and grazing the leading industries. Lincoln the capital, Omaha, the largest city and a growing commercial center. 77. Nevada. Nearly the size of Colorado. A Aery high plateau with an average height of 4,000 ft.; a number of short mountain ranges, among which are the Humboldt Mts. The Colo- rado K. forms a small portion of the southeastern boundary; some rivers in the .State, which flow into salt lakes and are lost in the samls. Climate dry. Much of the country is an almost barren alkaline plain; but there are some rich pastures, noted as having the richest Silver mines in the world; lead also abundant. Mining the leading industry; stock raising largely followed. Carson City the capital, Virginia City the metropolis. 78. New Hampshire. A little larger than New Jersey, not GEOGRAPHT. 45 one-fourth as large as Ohio. The northern part mountainous, abounding in beautiful scenery. The White Mis. are noted, Aft. Washington being the highest peak (6,288 ft.). The Connecticut R. separates it from Vermont; the Mcrrimac R. noted as furnishing water power which moves more machinery than any river in the world ; the Piscataqua also noted for its water power. Lake Winuipiscogee is in the eastern part. The State has but lS miles of coast line and one good harbor, Portsmouth. Climate similar to Maine and Vermont. Dairy products important. Leading industry, manufacturing; cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, and iron ware among the principal manufactures. Concord, the capital, a manufacturing place; Manchester, the largest city and noted for manufactures; Portsmouth, the one seaport, noted for commerce. 79. New Jersey. Nearly four times as large as Delaware. Hilly or mountainous in the northern part, level and low in the southern part. The Delaxvare R. separates it from Pennsylvania. It has comparatively a large extent of coast line, the principal inden- tations being, New York Bay and Delaware Bay, separating it from Delaware. Climate, rather mild. Known as the " Garden State" producing great quantities of vegetables and fruits for which New- York and Philadelphia furnish a good market; marl, iron and zinc. Afarket gardening and manufacturing, the leading industries. Trenton, the capital, " produces more crockery than any other city in America;" Newark, the largest city, noted for manufacture of India rubber goods, saddlery, carriages, jewelry, etc. ; Paterson for manufacture of locomotives, and is first in production of silk goods. 80. New York. — Nearly as large as Mississippi. Mountainous and hilly in eastern and northern parts, elevated and uneven in the western part. The Hudson R. traverses nearly the whole length of the State from north to south, the Mohawk a prominent tribu- tary. The Niagara R. the outlet of L. Erie and the inlet of L. Ontario and the St. Lawrence the outlet of L. Ontario, these rivers and lakes forming the northwestern boundary separating it from Canada. L. Champlain separates it partly from Vermont; numer- ous smaller lakes are in the interior of the western part, among which are Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca. It has a very small ex- tent of coast line, but the harbor of New York is the best on the Atlantic coast; Long Island and several smaller islands belong to the State. Climate similar to New England States, perhaps milder. Produces more hay, potatoes, buckwheat and dairy products than any other State; large quantities of corn, wheat, barley and rye are also raised. Leading industries, agriculture, manufactures, com- ?nerce; it stands at the head in the extent of its manufactures and commerce. Albany, the capital; New York City, the metropolis of the New World, is second only to London in commercial importance; it is situated mainly on Manhattan f stand; it is supplied with water 46 TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LIBRART.- from Croton R. by an aqueduct 40 miles in length; ships of all nations may lie seen in its harbor; Broadway is one of the finest streets in the world; Central Park covers S62 acres. "It is the center of the great railroad companies, insurance companies, manu- facturing companies and banking institutions of our country." Brooklyn the third city in the Union in size is situated opposite New York on Long Island, and is noted for its extensive manufac- tures and fine churches. Buffalo is the third city in the State, situa- ted on L. Erie. Rochester, Troy, Syracuse and Utica are important places. Niagara Palls noted the world over; the Hud- son R. noted for its beautiful scenery. 81. North Carolina. — Very nearly as large as Alabama. Low and swampy on the coast; mountainous in the western part; the Alleghany, Blue Ridge and Black Mts. parts of the Appalachian system. The Roanoke, Tar, Cape Fear and JVeuse arc the principal rivers. The coast line is extensive, Albemarle and Pamlico sounds the principal indentations; Cape Ilattcras the most easterly j^rojec- tion. Climate mild. Sweet potatoes, corn, cotton, tobacco, peanuts, pitch, tar, turpentine and rosin arc peculiar products; shad, and her- ring fisheries important ; gold,coal ami iron. Leading industry, agri- culture/ lumbering and manufacturing; the products of the pine are important. Raleigh, the capital, Wilmington the largest city and an important seaport "is the greatest market in the world for naval stores. " 82. Ohio. — Nearly 40,000 sq. mi. Hilly in the southern and eastern part, level in the northwestern part. When settled covered with dense growth of timber. The Ohio R. forms its southern boundary; the Miami, Muskingum and Scioto are tributaries; the Maumee and Cuyahoga run north into L. Erie which forms its principal northern boundary. Second only to Pennsylvania in pro- duction of coat, iron, salt, petroleum and building stone ; valuable hard wood lumber / flax, barley, wheat, corn, hay, potatoes, orchard products, grapes, tobacco and wool. Leading industries, agricul- ture, mining, stock raising and manufacturing / the principal manufactures are agricultural implements, flour, whisky, leather and iron ware. Columbus, the capital, lias aline .State House. Cin- cinnati, the metropolis, noted for its beautiful suburbs, manufac- tures, inland commerce and pork packing establishments; Cleve- land, the second city, is an important place. Toledo, Dayton and ■ S priii g field aw flourishing places. 83. Oregon. -More than twice as large as New York. The eastern part a high plateau, the western mountainous, with many fertile valleys; the Cascade range. The Columbia R. forms a great part of the boundary between it and Washington T., the Snake or Lewis A', an important branch, separates it partly from Idaho. Many lakes in the plateau region. Large extent of coast line, but few indentations of importance. Climate, very mild for GEOGRAPHV. 47 the high latitude; perhaps the healthiest State in the Union. Wheat the staple grain; oafs, fruits, lumber, copper, iron; live stock. The leading industries, agriculture, grazing and lumbering. Canning salmon which are caught in the Columbia R. is an im- portant business. Salem, the capital, Portland, the largest city, is connected with San Francisco by line of steamers. 84. Pennsylvania. — Smaller than New York. The greater part of the State is mountainous, the great Appalachian system spreads over about one-fourth of the State in nearly parallel ridges. The principal rivers are the Susquehanna crossing the State from north to south. The Delaware, separating it from New Jersey and New York on the east, the Ohio formed of the Alleghany and the Monongahela in the western part. Lake Erie washes the north- west corner; wheat and com the staple grains; rye, hay, tobacco, orchard and dairy products; in coal and iron it stands at the head; petroleum, slate, marble, copper, z'nie, plumbago, lead, salt. Prin- cipal industries, mining, agriculture, manufacturing, commerce, llarrisburg, the capital; Philadelphia, the largest city and the second city in the U. S. in size and stands first in manufactures. It was founded by Wm. Penn and is laid out on an ample scale. Fair- mount Park is famous, and Independence Hall where the Declara- tion of Independence was signed; it is supplied with water from the Schuylkill R. Pittsburgh at the head of the Ohio is a noted manu- facturing city and second in size; is the greatest petroleum market in the world. 85. Rhode Island. — The smallest of the States; Texas would make z io such States and have territory left. The surface is undu- lating. Mt. Hope the highest elevation, is only 300 ft. above sea level. It has a comparatively great coast line, with Narragansctt /Jay as the principal indentation. Manufacturing the leading in- dustry ; a great variety of manufactures, but the most extensive are those of cotton and xvoolen goods. Providence and Newport are the capitals; the former is the second city in New England and noted for its manufactures, the latter is noted as a fashionable water- ing place. 86. South 'Carolina. — A little larger than Indiana. Low and level along the coast, higher and more uneven in the central and northwestern parts. The Savannah R. separates it from Georgia, the Sautee and the Pedee are rivers running through the State. The coast line i> extensive, with no great indentations. Climate, warm temperate or semi-tropical. Produces mote rice than any other State ; cotton of two kinds, upland and Sea Island, the latter with a long, silky fiber; agriculture the leading pursuit. Columbia, the capital, Charleston the largest city and an important cotton port. 87. Tennessee. — Nearly the size of Pennsylvania. Distinctly divided into three physical sections, Bast Tennessee, mountainous; Middle Tennessee, hilly; West Tennessee, generally level. The 48 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. Mississippi forms its entire western boundary, the Tennessee R. crosses the State twice, the Cumberland flows into the State and out of it again. Climate, very mild and delightful. Corn, cotton, hemp and tobacco ; horses, cattle, sheep and hogs ; coal, iron, cop- per, salt, salt peter. Leading industries agriculture, mining and grazing. Nashville, the capital, Memphis, the largest city, a cot- ton and grain market on the Mississippi. 88. Texas. — The largest State in the Union; it might be carved up into 8 States each the size of Indiana and have nearly enough territory left to make three States the size of Rhode Island. Con- sists of three great terraces, the fust along the coast low and level, the second hilly or high rolling prairie, third a high table land over 2000 ft. and forming the base of the Rocky Mts. The Rio Grande separates it from Mexico, the Sabine from Louisiana; the Colorado the Brazos and Trinity are large rivers running from the interior to the Gulf of Mexico. It has a great extent of coast line on the Gulf, the principal indentations being Galveston Bay, Matagorda Ray and Corpus Christi Bay. The climate on the coast is moist and semi-tropical, on the second and third terraces it is dry ami healthy; cotton, rice, sugar and tobacco on the first terrace; corn, wheat and other grains on the second terrace; cattle, horses and sheep on the second and third terraces; stands at the head in cattle raising. Leading industries, grazing and agriculture. Austin the capital, Galveston, the largest city and chief cotton port. 89. Vermont. — Larger than New Hampshire, smaller than Maryland. Mountainous, the Green Mts. extend through the State. The Connecticut R. separates it from New Hampshire. Lake Champlaiu lies between it and New York, Lake Memphremagog is on the northern border. Maple sugar, hay, oats, com, buck- wheat and potatoes ; dairy products, wool ; marble, slate. Agricul- ture and grazing the leading industries; manufacturing receives considerable attention. Theclimate rather severe, long cold winters. Montpclier, the capital, Burlington, the largest city. 90. Virginia. — A little larger than Kentucky. The eastern part generally level, the western mountainous. The Potomac R. separates it from Maryland, the Rappahannock and the yames are important rivers in the interior. Has rather an extensive coast line much indented by the Chesapeake Bay and smaller inlets. Climate mild. Tobacco, wheat and corn; coal, iron, marble, slate, salt. Agricultur e the leading industry ; mineral resources great but not ruTly developed. Richmond the capital and largest city, has exten- sive tobacco factories, Hour mills and iron works; Norfolk and Portsmouth on the coast, are commercial cities. 91. West Virginia. — Just half the size of Pennsylvania. Mountainous throughout. The Ohio R. separates it from Ohio and the Big Sandy from Kentucky. Corn and tobacco; live stock; petroleum, salt, coal, iron. Mining and agriculture, leading in- GEOGRAPHY. 49 dustries. Wheeling on the Ohio R. is the capital and largest city. 92. Wisconsin. — A little larger than Arkansas. A prairie similar to Illinois in the southern part and a high plateau region in the northern part. The Mississippi with its tributary St. Croix R. forms the most of the western boundary; the Wisconsin R. is in the interior. Lake Michigan forms a* greater part of the east- ern boundary and L. Superior a portion ot' its northern boundary. Green Bay is an important indentation; numerous smaller lakes are dispersed through the State, the largest of which \$> L. Winneba- go. Climate, severe long winters, but the cold is steady and conse- quently not so disagreeable. Oats, rye, barley, cor//, potatoes, hay and hops/ live stock, ivool and cheese; lumber; lead, iron, zinc, marble. Industries, agriculture, lumbering, mining, manufacturing. Madison, the capital; Milwaukee, the metropolis, is a beautiful and flourishing city, a great wheat market. THE TERRITORIES. 93. Arizona. — More than twice as large as Michigan. High plateau. The Colorado R. forms greater part of western bound- ary, has a very deep canyon. Hottest and driest climate of any part of the U. S. Rich mines of silver, gold, copper and other minerals. Parts of it adapted to stock raising. Prescott, capital. 94. Alaska. — More than one-fifth as large as all the rest of the U. S. The Yukon R. is a large stream flowing through the center of it. Important chiefly on account of its Jisheries and fur bearing animals. Timber and ice exported. Garden vegetables may be raised during the sbort summer. No territorial government at present, though a desire is manifested for one and some steps arc- being taking to secure it. Sitka is the only town of importance. A garrison is stationed there. 95. Dakota. — More than three times as large as New York. A plateau, mountainous in the western part. Gold and other minerals in the Black Hills. Game abundant. Best wheat land in the world. Destined to be one of the best agricultural and mining regions in the U. S. Yankton, the capital. Dcadxuood a city of rapid growth in the Black Hills country. 96. Idaho. —Nearly as large as Ohio and Pennsylvania togeth- er. Mountainous, fertile valleys. Gold, mining and stock raising. Boise City, the capital. 97. Indian. -More than twice the size of South Carolina. Set apart by the U. S. government for certain tribes of Indians; some of these are civilized and cultivate the soil, have schools, churches and laws of their own. The climate and productions somewhat similar to Texas. 98. Montana. — More than three times as large as New York 50 TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY M iuntains and high plains. Adapted to grazing ; gold, silver, iron and copper. Helena, the capital. Virginia City an important place. 99. New Mexico. — More than three times as large'as Ohio. Mountains ami high plateaus. Climate dry and hot. Abundant undeveloped mineral wealth. Grazing the principal industry. Santa Fe the second oldest city in the U. S., the capital. 100. Washington. — A little larger than Indian T. Similar to Oregon in its physical features and climate. Fine harbors on the coast. Is destined to be an important part of the country from its internal resources and advantages tor commerce. Olympia the capital. 101. Wyoming. — More than twice as large as New York. Mountainous. Undeveloped mineral resources. Cheyenne the capital. The National Park which is situated mostly in the north- western part, is a tract of land nearly as large as the State of Con- necticut, set aside by the U. S. government as a great national pleasure ground; it contains magnificent scenery, great geysers and boiling springs, great waterfalls, in fact, more natural curiosities than any tract of similar size in the world. 102. Utah. —More than twice as largre as Louisiana. High plateaus and mountains, much of it barren. Silver, copper, coal. Agriculture carried on mostly by irrigation. Inhabited principally by Mormons, a peculiar religious sect. Salt Lake City the capital. Salt Lake is a large body of salt water with no outlet. 103. District of Columbia.— A tract containing 64 sq. miles on the Potomac R. ceded to U. S. by Maryland for the location of the national capital. It is governed by Congress, through a com- mittee. Washington City, the capital of the U. S. It has many beautiful parks and the following important buildings: The Capitol of white marble, covering 314 acres and one of the most imposing structures in the world, the General Post Office, the Patent Office, the Treasury Building, the Smithsonian Institution and Museums, the Naval Observatory and the Botanical Gardens. DOMINION OF CANADA. 104. The Dominion of Canada is nearly as. large as the U. S.; extends from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It comprises the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Vova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia and Manitoba, besides the District of Keewatin and the great Northwest and Northeast Territories. 105. It is under the government of Great Britain, the chief office!' with the title of Governor General being appointed by the British Sovereign. It has a Parliament or legislative body, and each province has also a Legislature and a chief officer styled GEOGRAPHY. 51 Lieutenant Governor, who is appointed by the Governor General. 106. Ottawa, the capital, is in the province of Ontario. Each province has its own capital. 107. The climate varies from a cold temperate in the southern part to a frigid in the northern parts, which are scarcely inhabited. Pop. about 5,000,000. 108. Ontario. — About twice the size of Wisconsin. Lies just north of the Great Lakes. Agriculture and lumbering ; wheat the staple; most populous and important of the provinces. Toronto, the capital and largest city. 109. Quebec. — Larger than California. Lies just north of St. Lawrence R. and Gulf. Oats, potatoes, hay and ?naplc sugar. Lumbering and agriculture. Quebec the capital and oldest city of the Dominion, strongly fortified; Montreal the largest city, noted for its fine churches. People of the province mostly of French descent and belong to the Catholic church. 110. New Brunswick. — Larger than West Virginia. Lies northeast of Maine and has an extensive coast line. Lumbering, fishing, ship building and commerce/ coal. Frederickton, the capital. St. John the largest city. 111. Nova Scotia. — About twice the size of Verm6nt. A peninsula with many good harbors. The Bay of Fundy noted for its extremely high tides. Fishing and ship building. Coal, iron, and gold, gypsum. Llalifax, the capital, has one of the best of harbors. Cape Breton Island is part of Nova Scotia. 112. Prince Edward Island. — About the size of Delaware. Lies between Cape Breton Island and New Brunswick. Agricul- ture, fishing and ship building ; oats, potatoes, wheat and barley. Charlottetown the capital. The most thickly peopled and the smallest of the provinces. 113. British Columbia. — The largest of the provinces, more than three times the size of Ontario. On the Pacific coast. Moun- tainous. Gold, silver, copper, lead, coal; furs, lumber, fish. Climate mild for the latitude. Victoria on Vancouver's Island the capital. 114. Manitoba. — About half as large as New Brunswick. Lies north of Dakota and Minnesota. Lakes Winnipeg and Mani- toba penetrate its northern edge. Excellent wheat land. Winni- peg the capital. 115. The vast territory lying between the provinces and the Arctic Ocean once belonged to the Hudson Bay Company who carried on an immense trade in furs, was purchased by the Dominion in 1S69. It is divided into the Northwest Territory, the North- east Territory, and the District of Keewatin lying between them. It consists of extensive forests and vast prairies, and is inhabited mostly by Indians. 52 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. \ I u I OUNDL.AND. 116. The island of Newfoundland is a colony of Great Britain. In its government is included Labrador; on the main land. Copper is found. The principal industry is Jishing. The Grand Banks, shallow places in the sea, arc the feeding grounds of myriads of cod fish. Scats, herring and salmon are also caught. " The hest fish- ing grounds in the world." MEXICO. 117. Mexico is about one-fifth as large as the U. S. It lies mostly between 15 and 30° N. Lat. Separated from the U. S. partly by the Rio Grande R. The Gulf of Mexico on the east, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. The principal indentations being the Bay of Campeachy from the Gulf of Tehuantepec and the Gulf of California from the Pacific, the latter setting off the peninsula of Lower California. It consists of high plateaus bor- dered on the cast and west with mountain chains and narrow skirts of lowland along each coast. A number of volcanoes are in the highest part, the most important of which is Popocatepetl over 17,000 ft. high. Great quantities of sulphur are found within its crater which is a mile wide and 1,000 ft. deep. 118. The climate and vegetable productions depend greatly upon the degree of elevation. The low lands are hot and unhealthy, producing tropical fruits, sugar, coffee and indigo. The intermedi- ate elevations are dry and healthy and produce wheat, corn, olives and grapes. The highest regions are cold and generally unproduc- tive. Some of the products peculiar to the country are cochineal, a dye stud" which is the dried bodies of a species of insects which feed on cactus plants, cultivated for that purpose; the agave or maguey plant is cultivated for its juice which is made into an intoxi- cating drink called -pulque; vanilla leans, the beans of the cacao tree from which chocolate is made; rosewood and mahogany. Her mineral wealth is great ; gold, silver, quicksilver, tin, iron, warble. Mules, /mrscs, cattle. . [griculture, stork raising and mining are the principal industries. Manufacturing and commerce are but limited. The country is not adapted to commerce having few good harbors and scarcely any railroads, goods being transported chiefly by pack mules and OX carts. 119. The people are about two-thirds Indians, the rest made up of Creoles, as the white natives descended from the Spanish are called; negroes, mulattoes, Europeans and mestizos or crosses be- tween the Indians and whites. The government is a republic of 27 States, one federal district and the territory of Lower California. The country is frequently in a state of revolution. The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic. Mexico is the capital and largest city. It is situated on a high plateau near lofty snow-covered mountains. GEOGRAPHT. 53 Leon is the second city in size, Acapulco is an important port on the Pacific; Vera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico, is the principal commercial citv. CENTRAL AMERICA. 120. Central America is in the central part of the Western Hemisphere, lying wholly within the torrid zone. It comprises the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica and the British colony of Balize. Nicaragua the largest of these republics, is the size of tin- State of Georgia. The surface of the country is similar to Mexico. There are several active vol- canoes and the country is subject to frequent earthquake shocks. 121. The characteristic products are valuable cabinet woods, dye stuffs, India rubber, corn, sugar cane and coffee; gold and silver, coal. 122. The population is mostly Indians and Mestizos. The Roman Catholic religion prevails. THK WEST INDIES. 123. The West Indies comprise about a thousand islands greatly varying in size and lying between Florida and the coast of South America, an area a little greater than the State of Oregon. They produce sugar, tobacco, corn, coffee, cotton, indigo, sponges, honey, valuable cabinet woods, spices and tropical fruits. They have a population of over 4,000,000. They are divided into three groups; the Greater Antilles containing Cuba, Hayti, Porto Rico, Jamaica ; the Lesser Antilles comprising many small islands near the coast of S. A. and belonging to different European nations. The Bahamas, a group of islands of coral formation lying near Florida, belonging to Great Britain. 124. Cuba.— About the size of the State of Tennessee, the largest of the islands. Belongs to Spain. Produces more sugar than any other country. Havana, the capital, is the greatest sugar market in the world and second city in the New World in foreign commerce, noted also for its famous cigars. 125. Hayti.— The second in size, comprises the independent republics of San Domingo and Hayti. Population mostly negroes and mixed races. 126. Porto Rico belongs to Spain. Jamaica belongs to Great Britain. It is noted for its rum and allspice. Kingston, the capital, noted for its trade in turtles. "The llesh of the turtle is eaten, its shell is wrought into articles for use and ornament, its oil serves the natives instead of butter, and is burned in lamps." DAMsli AMERICA. 127. Greenland. — Belongs to Denmark. The interior has never been explored. Barley and garden vegetables are produced 54 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI Kit ART. in the southern part. It is inhabited by a few Danes and Esqui- maux Indians who subsist mostly by fishing and hunting seals. It is mostly covered with glaciers, and may be an island or several islands joined bv ice. 128. Iceland. — An island about the size of the State of Ohio. It appears to have been the result of volcanic action. Mt. Hecla iv a noted volcano. The geysers, of which there are a hundred, are quite celebrated. One of them throws boiling water to the height of tOO ft. The country is a dependency of Denmark. It was settled a thousand years ago by people from Norway. The people are honest, hospitable and intelligent. Cattle and sheep are raised. Eider ducks, from which a valuable soft down is obtained, frequent the island. Reykjavik is the capital. SOUTH AMERICA. 129. The southern grand division of the Western Hemisphere, extends from the Isthmus of Panama, which connects it with North America, to the Antarctic Ocean, about 4,Soo miles, and from the Atlantic on the east to the Pacific on the west; at its widest part about 3,000 miles; triangular in form, the widest part being near the northern extremity. It has an area of 6,850,000 sq. mi., and a quite regular coast line of 16,500 miles. The most northern point of land is Cape Gallinas, the most southern Cafe Horn, the most eastern Cape St. Roque, and the most western Cape Blanco. Lines drawn connecting these points will inclose a figure nearly corresponding to the outline of the continent. 130. Surface.— The Andes Mts. extend the whole length from north to south along the western border, and reach in places to very lofty heights. The eastern portion consists of mountains and high plateaus, and the central portion of vast lowland plains. The Am- azon R. drains a vast tract extending from west to east across the northern portion, and the Rio de la Plata, with its tributaries, drains the central and southern part. 131. The climate is partly tropical and partly temperate, lying as it does in the torrid and temperate /ones. The altitude, how- ex er, has much to do with the climate. Tarts lying in the torrid zone and having a great altitude, have a temperate climate. It has the most luxuriant vegetation of any part of the world, owing to its great heat and moisture. Some of the animals peculiar to this country are the tapir, sloth, armadillo, jaguar, llama, many species of parrots and humming birds, flamingo, toucan and condor. 132. The population is about jS.ooo,ooo, made up of: (1) whites, descendants of the Spanish and Portuguese, the ruling classes; (j 1 native Indians, generally indolent and uncivilized; (3) negroes, descendants of African sla\e^ ; (4) mixed races. The pre- vailing religion is Roman Catholic. 133. The ]■■ divisions are the empire of Brazil, the re- GEOGRAPHY. 55 publics of Venezuela, the United .States of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentine Republic, and the colonies of British, Dutch and French Guiana. Patagonia has no government. 134. Argentine Republic. — Nearly ten times as large as the State of Kansas. Lies mainly between 22° and 44 S. Lat. Con- sists of great grassy plains, called pampas, bordering on the Andes at the west. The Parana and other streams forming the La Plata, are the principal rivers. Climate mild. Raising cattle and sheep the great industry. Exports, wool, hides, tallow, horns, live cattle and dried beef. Education receive- much attention, and emigration from Europe is rapidly increasing. Buenos Ayres is the capital and largest city. 135. Bolivia. — Over 500,000 sq. mi., almost wholly within the torrid zone. High mountain ranges and plateaus in the western part, lowlands in the eastern. The Andes here reach their greatest height. Drained by branches of the Amazon and Parana Rivers. Small extent of coast line. The silver mines of Potosi are the most celebrated in the world. The cinchona tree, from which quinine is made, grows in the mountain regions. Sucre the capital, La Paz the largest city. 136. Brazil. — Larger than the U. S., not including Alaska; larger than all the other States of S. A. taken together. Mountains and plateaus in the eastern pan; great lowland plain, the valley of the Amazon, in the northern part, and covered with a dense forest. Great natural resources. Coffee, sugar, tobacco, rice, corn; all the variety of tropical fruits; cinchona and India rubber trees; valuable cabinet and dye woods; surpasses all other countries in the variety and extent of its vegetation; gold, silver, iron, copper, dia- monds and other precious stones. It is the only monarchy in the Western Hemisphere. The ma- jority of the civilized people speak the Portuguese language. The country is progressing in civilization. It has about 500 miles of railroad, and is connected with the U. S. and Portugal by submarine telegraphs. Rio Janeiro is the capital, and is the largest city in S. A. 137. Chili. — About twice as large ;is the State of Missouri. Lies on the western slope of the Andes; Ml. Aconcagua (22,422 ft.) one of the loftiest peaks in America. Long and narrow, hav- ing a coast line of 2,000 miles. In same lat. as Argentine Rip. The counterpart of California in climate, except the seasons are re- versed. Raises and exports wheat. Copper and silver are mined. It is the most progressive of the S. A. States. Santiago the cap- ital and largest city. Valparaiso, next to San Francisco, the lead- ing commercial city on the Pacific coast. 138. Ecuador. — About half a- largeas Bolivia. The equator passes through its northern border. Chimborazo and Cotopaxi are 56 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. noted volcanoes. Cocoa, India rubber, cinchona and vegetable ivory. Quito, the capital, is 9,543 ft. above sea level and lies on the equator Has a climate which is a perpetual spring. 139. Guiana. — (British, Dutch and French). Three colonies belonging respectively to Great Britain, Holland and France. The country is low and has a hot and moist climate. Valuable wood-,, tropical fruits, sugar, rice, cotton and coffee. Population mostly negroes. Georgetown, the capital of British G.; Paramaribo, cap- ital of Dutch G.; Cayenne, capital of French G. 140. Paraguay. — Twice as huge as the State of Pennsylvania. The only State of S. A. which has no sea coast. Lies between two large rivers, the Parana and Paraguay. The principal export is mate, or Paraguay tea«_ Asuncion the capital and largest city "141. Peru.— Larger than Bolivia. Mountains and plateaus. Lake Titicaca, between Peru and Bolivia, is one of the highest lakes in the world. Noted for the exportation of guano; silver, copper, saltpeter and quicksilver are mined. Lima, the capital. 142. Uruguay. — The smallest of the S. A. republics. More than twice as large as the State of Maine. Horses and cattle chief source of wealth. Montevideo the capital. 143. United States of Colombia. — More than eight times the size of the State of Ohio. Includes the Isthmus of Panama. A railroad crosses the isthmus, and a ship canal is being talked of. Gold, silver, cinchona, coffee, tobacco and hides are exported. Bo- gota the capital and largest city. 144. Venezuela. Contains over 400,000 sq. mi. Great, grassy lowland plains, called llanos. Orinoco R. drains it. Stock-raising and collie cultivation the leading pursuits. All the tropical prod- ucts. Caracas the capital. When the early Spanish explorers saw an Indian village built on piles over the water on Lake Mara- caybo, they named it Venezuela (Little Venice), because it had the appearance of the city of Venice in Italy. EUROI'K. 145. The most important grand division of the Eastern Hem- isphere, is in reality a large peninsula made up of a number of pen- insulas, and extending from the Mediterranean Sea on the south to the Arctic Ocean on the north, a distance of 2,400 miles, and from the Atlantic to the Ural Mts., which separate it from Asia, its length in a diagonal direction from southwest to northeast being 3,400 miles. Cape Matapan is the most southern projection, Cape Norththe most northern, Cape St. Vincent the most eastern of the mainland. It has an area of 3,824,240 sq. mi. 146. It has a greater coast line (20,000 miles) than any other grand division in proportion to its size. This fact is of great im- portance in a commercial point of view. The most important pen- insulas are Norwav and Sweden on the north, Denmark on the GEOGRAPHT. 57 east, Spain and Portugal on the southeast, Italy, and Greece on the 'south. Very important islands lie off its coasts, among which arc the British Isles in the Atlantic, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Candia and Cvprus in the Mediterranean Sea. 147" The most important indentations of the ocean are the White Sea and Baltic Sea on the north, the North Sea and Bay of Biscay on the west, and the Mediterranean on the south, with its various branches, as the Adriatic, the Archipelago, the Sea of Mar- mora and the Black Sea. The great Caspian, an inland sea, lies to the southeast. 148. The greater part of the surface is low and level. If a line be drawn from the month of the R. Elbe to the Black Sea nearly all north of that line is low and level except the peninsulas of Norway and Sweden; nearly all south of that line is high and mountainous, the Alps, the Appennines, the Carpathian and the Pyrenees being the principal ranges. The Ural Mts. separate it from Asia on the east and the Caucasus Mts. on the south. The Scandinavian Mts. are in Norway and Sweden. 149. There are many navigable rivers; we may mention the Volga, Don, Dnieper, Danube, Rhone, Rhine, Elbe and Dwina. There are not many lakes of importance, some among the Alps noted for their beauty, and a region of them in Northern Russia. 150. The climate on the west coast is much more mild than in the same latitude in America because of the influence of the warm currents and winds from the Atlantic. The southern part has an almost tropical climate because of the hot winds from Africa modified by the Mediterranean. 151. Europe has a pop. of 313,874,000, and is more thickly settled than any other of the grand divisions. The people are mostly of the Caucasian race. The people of Turkey are Moham- medan in religion, the other countries of Europe are Christian. The Jews are scattered throughout the various nations. 152. The political divisions, are as follows: — KINGDOMS. Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece. EMPIRES. Russia, Germany, Austro- Hungary, Turkey. PRINCIPALITIES. Roumania, Servia, Montenegro. REPUBLICS. France, Switzerland, San Marino, Andorra. 58 TEACHERS A.XD STUDENTS LIBRART. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 153. The island of Great Britain which is made up of Eng- land, Scotland and Wales, with the island of Ireland and many small adjacent islands, compose the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and are known as the British Isles. It has dependencies in all parts of the world so that it is truly said that the sun never sets on is dominions. Taken with all its de- pendencies it is called the " British Empire," and has an area of 8,250,000 sq. mi. and pop. of 240,000,000. " It surpasses all other nations in maritime power, commerce, manufactures, and the pro- duction of coal, iron and tin." 154. The government is a constitutional monarchy. The law making power is vested in Parliament, which consists of the House of Lords whose members hold their seats by hereditary right, and the HouSi of Co»i>/io>is, whose members are elected by the people. All the people, however, have not the right to vote, oidy those having certain qualifications. 155. England. — A very little larger than the State of Ala- bama. The most important part of the United Kingdom. Sur- face undulating. The Thames, Severn and Mersey the most important rivers. The English Channel and the Strait of Dover separate it from France; the North Sea lies to the east; the Bristol Channel partly between it and Wales; the Irish Sea between it and Ireland; the Isle of Wight lies in the English Channel. Wheat, barley, oat-, potatoes, hops; fine breeds of cattle and sheep; coal, iron, tin, lead and copper. Manufacturing and commerce are the leading industri< London, the capital of the British Empire, stands at the head of the cities of the world in population, wealth and commerce. It covers 118 sq. mi. of territory and is much more compactly built than American cities. Thousands of people are born, grow up and die without ever seeing outside of the city. Some of the most noted buildings are the Tower, where many an important prisoner has been confined, the Parliament-Houses, St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Abbey. Liverpool is the second city in size and commercial importance. Manchester, the third city in size, has more cotton factories than any city in the world; Birmingham, Nottingham, Sheffield and Leeds are also noted manufacturing places. Oxford and Cambridge are celebrated as the seats of ancient universities. 156. Scotland. Not near so large as the State of Indiana. Hilly and rugged. Picturesque scenery about the lakes which are lure called Lochs. Numerous indentations of the sea among which are the birth of Forth, birth of Tay, Murray Firth and birth of Clyde. The Hebrides are a group of islands lying off the western coast and the Orkney, Shetland and Faroe islands he off GEOGRAPHT. 59 the north coast. Oats, barley, rye, wheat and potatoes; sheep and cattle; co;d, iron, lead and slate. Agriculture, grazing, manufac- turing, mining and fishing occupy the people. Edinburgh, the ancient capital, noted as a literary center, Glasgow, the largest city, Aberdeen, an important manufacturing and commercial city. 157. Wales. — Not quite so large as the State of Massachusetts. Mountainous. The people descended from the ancient inhabitants of Great Britain and called Welsh. Coal, iron, lead and slate; Mining and quarrying the leading industries. 158. Ireland. — Nearly as large as the State of Indiana. Diversified with hills and valleys and lakes which abound in beau- tiful scenery. St. George's Channel separates it from Wales and the Irish Sea from England, the North Channel between it and Scotland. Has man}' good harbors. Potatoes form the principal food of the laboring classes; flax and oats; peat is used for fuel. Linen ami whiskey are manufactured. Agriculture the leading pursuit. Dublin, the capital and largest city, Cork is the principal seaport, and Belfast is noted for the manufacture of linen. The people are much oppressed by the English land proprietors and many of them annually emigrate to America. 159. France. — About three-fourths as large as the State of Texas. The eastern part mountainous, the western is lower and more level; the Pyrenees Mts. separate it from Spain and the Alps from Italy. The principal rivers arc the Rhone, the Seine, the Loire and the Garonne. It has a great extent of coast line; the Mediterranean on the south with the Gulf of Lyons an indenta- tion, the Bay of Biscay indenting its western border and the Eng- lish Channel and Strait of Dover separating it from England. The climate is much warmer than England, the southern part being semi-tropical. The usual grains, vegetables and fruits of the Tem- perate Zones are raised in the northern part, in the central and southern parts, corn and tobacco, grapes from which fine wines are made, the orange, olive, and the mulberry tree which* furnishes food for the silk worm; coal, iron and lead. Agriculture occupies the majority of the people. In manufactures it is next to Great Britain; silk goods, laces, fine muslin-, jewelry, porcelain and glass- ware; sugar is made from beets. Commerce is extensive. Paris, the capital, is second city of the world in size and wealth. It is the great center of fashion and is noted for its elegant public buildings, its fine arts and excellent scientific and literary institutions. Lyons is second in size and noted for its silk manufactures. France has some important dependencies. The island of Cor- sica, the birthplace of Napoleon, in the Mediterranean; French Guiana in S. A., Algeria in Africa, also possessions in India and Indo-China, in Western Africa and small islands in the West Indies and Oceanica. The government is a republic; the legislative power is vested in two houses, the Chamber of Dcfretics, elected 60 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. by the people and t he Senate part of whom hold their seats for life and the remainder are elected by electors chosen by the people; the President is elected by the votes of the two houses. 160. Germany. — A little more than three-fourths the size of Texas. The northern part is low and level, (he southern mount- ainous. The principal risers run northward into the Baltic and North Seas; they are the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder and the Vistula. The principal coast line is on the Baltic Sea, a small portion being on the North Sea. Rye, wheat, oats, potatoes, tlax, hemp, tobacco, beets, and grapes; com grows in the southern part; cattle and sheep; silver, zinc, iron and coal. The leading in- dustry is agriculture; manufactures are considerable, hut not equal to England or France; among the articles manufactured are woolen and linen goods, metallic wares, wine, beer, paper and glass; com- merce is extensive. Berlin is the capital and largest city; Ham- burg is the second city and chief seaport; Dresden and Breslau are important places; Munich is noted for its university, library and fine art gallery. Hejdelberg, Leipsic and Jena for their universities; Strasburg won from France in the war of 1870 and '71, noted for its cathedral; Frankfort-on-thc-Myin as a great financial center. In education, Germany stands at the head of the countries of Europe. It has numerous universities, the largest in the world; a thorough system of public schools, education being compulsory. The empire is composed of 26 States, 4 of which are kingdoms, 5 grand duchies, 5 duchies, 7 principalities, 3 free cities and one imperial territory. The free cities have a republican government, the imperial territory, Alsace-Lorraine, was won from France (1870-71 ); the other States are limited monarchies. The empire it- self is a limited monarchy, the law-making power vested in two houses, the Bundsrath, or Federal Council, whose members repre- sent the different .States, and the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, whose members are elected by the people. Prussia is the principal one of the States, and the chief ruler of the empire is called Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia. 161. Austro-Hungary.— About one-ninth smaller than Texas. A greater part is mountainous; the Alps under different names are in the southeastern part, the Erzgebirge and R.iesengebirge enclose the plains of Bohemia in the northeast and separate it from Germany; the Carpathian Mts. are in the north and west. The greater part is drained by the Danube and its tributaries. It borders for some distance on the Adriatic Sea. Wheat, barley and flax are the staples in the northern part, corn, grapes and olives flourish in the southern part; horses, cattle and sheep; gold, quicksilver, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, coal and salt; in mineral wealth it is the rich- est country of Europe. Agriculture the leading industry ; manu- factures, cotton and woolen goods, metallic wares, leather articles, glass ware and musical instruments; foreign commerce is limited. GEOGRAPHY. 61 Vienna, the capital and largest city, is the third city of Europe in size. Buda-Pesth, the capital of Hungary, is next to Vienna. The Austrian empire consists of Austria proper and Hungary, the chief ruler hearing the title of Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The government is a limited monarchy, each divi- sion has a separate parliament and laws, hut a common army and navy, and a controlling hody known as the Delegations. 162. Spain. — Much larger than the State of California. The greater part is a plateau with several mountain ranges crossing it; along the coasts it is low ; the Pyrenees separate it from France. The principal rivers are the Tagos, the Ebro, the Doura, the Guadalquiver and the Guadiana. Spain and Portugal form a peninsula with the Bay of Biscay on the north, the Atlantic on the west, the Mediterranean on the south, and the Straits of Gibraltar separating it from Africa; Cape Finisterre is the northwestern pro- jection, Cape St. Vincent is the southwestern. Climate dry except on the sea coast. Rich in minerals; iron, lead, copper, quicksilver; noted for merino sheep and fine horses / wines, raisins, wool, oranges, silk and cork exported; iron ore is shipped to Wales to be smelted; produces olives, figs, lemons and other tropical fruits. Leading industries, agriculture, grazing; once noted for her com- merce which has greatly declined; manufactures not extensive. Madrid is the capital and largest city, noted for its magnificent pal- ace and collections of works of art. Barcelona, second city. Spain was once the first power in Europe and has still great natural resources and advantages for commerce, hut it has sunk to a second-rate power through bad government. Its government was for a short time republican, but at present is a limited monarchy; the executive power resting with the King and the law making in the "Cortes with the King f the Cortes is composed of two houses, a Senate and Congress. The Balearic Isles in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic, Cuba, Porto Rico in the West Indies, and several smaller islands in Oceanica belong to Spain. Portugal. — A little larger than the State of Indiana. In physical features and productions it is similar to Spain. Lisbon is the capi- tal. The government is a limited monarchy, the executive power vested in the King and his cabinet, and the law making in two houses, the House of Peers and the House of Commons, And togeth- er called the Cortes Gcraes. 163. Italy. About three times the size of Virginia. A low- plain in the northern part drained by the R. Po, the Appennine Mts. extending through its length a^ a backbone and low lands along the coast; Mt. Vesuvius, the noted volcano, is one of the peaks and the volcano of Mt. Etna, on the island of Sicily, is an- other. Italy is a long narrow peninsula somewhat in the shape of a boot, with the island of Sicily opposite to the toe of the boot sep- arated from it by the Strait of Messina; the Gulf of Taranto 62 //- . I ( HERS ' AND S TU DENTS' LIBRARV. forming the hollow of the boot, the Adriatic Sea lying to the east and the main body of the Mediterranean washing its western shores. The climate is semi-tropical. Produces tropical fruits, rice, wheat, olives, grapes. Produces more silk than any other country ; finest statuary marble, sulphur. Commerce quite extensive. Rome, the capital, is the center of the world's art, the residence of the Pope, the head of the Roman Catholic Church.; St. Peter's Church is the randest in the world, 450 ft. to the top of the dome. The government is a limited monarchy, the executive power vested in the King and the legislature in the King and Parliament, which latter consists of two houses, the Senate whose members are appointed by the King and serve for life, and the Chamber of Dep- uties, elected by the people. The large island of Sardinia as well as Sicily belongs to Italy. 164. Switzerland. — About twice the size of Massachusetts. "A land of majestic, snow-capped mountains, beautiful waterfalls, wonderful glaciers and picturesque landscapes and lakes — forming altogether the sublimest scenery in Europe." The Alps and the Jura are the principal ranges. Does not produce enough food for home consumption. Grazing and dairying the leading pursuits; manufactures extensive consisting principally of cotton, woolen, linen and silk goods, watches, jewelry and toys. Berne is the cap- ital. The government is a republic consisting of 22 cantons or divisions. The most of the people speak the German, the others French or Italian. Great attention is paid to education. 175. Belgium. — Little larger than the State of Maryland. Low in the northern part, hilly in the southern. Has a small extent of sea coast on the North Sea. Coal and iron; grain, iiax, hops and vegetables, agriculture and manufacturing the leading pursuits; manufactures linen, cotton and woolen goods, laces, carpets, cutlery, and glass ware. Brussels, the capital, is noted for its carpets and laces^ Antwerp is a commercial city. The government is a limited monarchy with a Kingand two houses, Chamber '/Representatives and Senate, these houses elected by the people, who pay taxes to a certain amount. The people speak the Dutch and French lan- guages. It is the most thickly settled country in the world. fee. Holland. — A little larger than Belgium. A low, flat country, the most of it below the level of the sea; the land is recov- ered by inclosing it with walls of earth called dikes and the water pumped out. Numerous canals and rivers intersect it. The land is carefully cultivated and produce- -rains and vegetables, flax and tobacco: line breeds of horses and cattle and noted for its dairy pro- ducts. Prat is used for fuel. Windmills furnish power for manu- factures which are extensive, especially of linen, earthenware, gin and paper; commerce and fishing important; once the greatest maritime nation of the world. Have possessions in the Last and Weal Indies, South America and Africa. The Hague is the capi- GEOGRAPHY. 63 tal and Amsterdam the largest city. The government is similar to Belgium. The people speak the Dutch language, which differs considerably from the German. 167. Denmark. — Smaller than Switzerland. Consists of a low peninsula and a number of islands lying at the mouth of the Baltic Sea. The Skager Rack and the Cattegat are straits separa- ting it from Norway and Sweden. The climate is mild and moist. An agricultural and grazing country; the fisheries extensive. Co- penhagen, the capital and metropolis, is on the island of Zealand. The government is similar to Belgium. 168. Sweden and Norway. — Larger than the State of Texas. Two countries forming the peninsula of Scandinavia. The Scan- dinavian Mts. extend through the peninsula separating the two countries. The climate is cold, the ground being covered with snow half the year. Grain, potatoes and flax; iron and copper; products of forests as lumber, tar; fisheries extensive. Sweden is noted for iron of excellent quality. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is sit- uated on islands in the Baltic Sea, therefore called the "Northern Venice." Christiana is the capital of Norway. The government consists of the two countries having different legislative bodies united under one King. 169. Russia. — The largest empire in the world, occupying about one-half of Europe and one-third of Asia. European Rus- sia is a vast plain with slight elevations in the central part (The Valdai Hills). The rivers are large, the Volga being the largest in Europe; the others of importance are the Don, the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Duna and the Dwina. There are numerous lakes in the northeastern part. The extreme northern part is barren, and a little further south the forests are valuable, the central part produces rye and wheat, hemp and flax; rye is the principal food of the inhabitants. The southern part supports immense herds of cat- tle, sheep and horses. Rich mines of iron, copper and platina. St. Petersburg, the capital and metropolis; Moscow is next in size. The government is an absolute monarchy; the ruler called the Czar, whose will is law. The religion is that of the Greek Church. The masses arc not educated, and until 1863 were mostly serfs, or slaves owned by noblemen or large landholders. 170. Turkey in Europe. — The Turkish, or Ottoman Empire, includes great possessions in Asia and Africa. European Turkey i> about twice the size of Louisiana. In the late war with Russia it lost much of its territory and power. The country has great nat- ural resources, and with rudely conducted agriculture produces great crops of corn, wheat, rice, tobacco, fruits and cotton. Manu- factures silks, wines, carpets, leather goods; horses and cattle are raised extensively. Constantinople i^ the capital of the Empire. The government was an absolute monarchy until 1876, the ruler called the Sultan, but since then has had a Constitution and Gen- 64 TBAC&ERS* AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. eral Assembly composed of two houses. The Turks belong to the Mongolian race and their religion is Mohammedanism. They are far behind the resl of Europe in civilization. 171. Greece. —About twice as large as New Hampshire. It include- a peninsula and numerous islands in the Mediterranean. Twenty-three hundred years ago it was the most civilized nation in the world, famous for its literature and art, but at present a small and weak kingdom infested by robbers called bandits. It has rich minerals, but they are undeveloped. Lead, olive oil, figs, honey and (hied currants are exported. Athens, the capital once so famous, -till contain- monuments of its former greatness. "The present kingdom dates from 1S32, the people after an heroic struggle hav- ing freed themselves from the Turkish yoke, by which they had been oppressed." 172. Servia, Roumania and Montenegro were until 1S7S tributary to Turkey; are now independent States. Bulgaria, though having its own government, is tributary to Turkey. These countries have a combined area greater than Turkey in Europe.* The productions are similar to Turkey. 173. San Marino.- -Worthy of note as being the smallest and oldest republic in the world. It contains only i.\ sq. mi., and is lo- cated in the northern part of Italy, ten miles from the Adriatic. It lias been independent since the 10th century, is governed by a coun- cil of 60, who elect themselves for life. 174. Andorra. — A semi-independent State, with an area of 600 sq. mi., lying south of the Pyrenees Mts. It is called a re- public, but is' partly under the control of France and partly under the control of the Bishop of Urgal. ASIA. 175. The largest grand division of the Eastern Hemisphere is larger than the whole of the New World, about four times as large as Europe, and about one-third of the land of the globe. 176. The great mass of the continent consists of high plateau- enclosed by mountain ranges. It has the highest plateaus, the loft- iest mountain peaks and the largest inland salt seas, or salt lakes in the world. The Himalaya Mts., the highest, are in the southern part, the Altai are north of the center, the Ural and the Caucasus Mts. separate it from Europe. 177. The principal rivers are the Obi, Yenesei and Lena, run- ning into the Arctic Ocean; the Amoor, the Yang tse Kiang and Hoang lb. into the Pacific, the Cambodia, the Brahmapootra, the Ganges and the Indus into the Indian Ocean. The Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral are salt water and lie below the level of the ocean. 178. It has an irregular coasl line of aboul 35,000 miles; the principal projections being on the east the peninsulas of Kamtschatka and Corea, on the south [ndo-China with the Malay peninsula pro- GEOGRAPHY. ft") jecting from it, Hindostan and Arabia. The principal indentations are,in the east the Sea of Okhotsk, the Japan Sea and Yellow Sea, on the south the China .Sea, Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. The Red Sea and strait of Babel- Mandeb nearly separate it from Africa, to which it is connected by the Isthmus of Suez. 179. It has every variety of climate. Taken altogether it has greater extremes of heat and cold than Europe, because not subject to the modifying influence of the ocean. In some of the central parts rain never falls, while in some of the southern parts more rain falls than in any other part of the world. 180. The vegetation in the southern part is tropical, including coffee, spices, rice, sugar cane and dye stuffs. Tea and mulberry trees grow in the more temperate regions. The elephant, the camel, the lion, the tiger, and the leopard are found in the southern part. There are many valuable metals and precious stones; the Ural Mts. contain gold, silver, platinum and iron / the Altai Mts. lead, copper, gold and silver; coal and iron in China, India and Japan; Hindostan yields diamonds, and the Persian Gulf and Cey- lon are noted for pearls. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 181. Siberia. — A vast country, more than one-third of Asia; belongs to Russia. It is valuable for its minerals and furs. Much of it is cold and barren. Russia sends her criminals here in great numbers and they compose a great part of the population. A trade is carried on with China. There is a great caravan route from Pekin, China, through Irkutsk and Tobolsk, principal places of Siberia, to Moscow, Russia. The tusks of large extinct animals called mammoths are exported under the name of fossil ivory '. 182. Transcaucasia, including Georgia, which has long been famous as possessing the handsomest people in the world. Tiflis, the capital. It belongs to Russia. It lies south of the Caucasus Mts. 183. Russian Turkestan. — A country of vast plains, lying east of the Caspian Se;i, inhabited by wandering tribes, and under the control of Russia. 184. Turkey in Asia.— All that country between the Black Sea and Mediterranean, known as Asia Minor; .Syria, which in- cludes Palestine; Armenia and a portion of Arabia next the Red Sea. Smyrna, a commercial city; Damascus, 4,000 years old, noted for manufacture of damask silks; Jerusalem, the city of the Bible; Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, and held sacred by his follow- ers; Mocha, celebrated for its coffee. 185. Arabia. — Consists mostly of a barren plateau inhabited by wandering people called Bedouins, who are divided into tribes governed by chiefs, and have fine horses and camels, and often at- tack the caravans of merchants and rob them. 66 IE AC HERS' AX I) STUDEX IS LI HEART. 186. Persia. — A large country between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The greater part i^ a plateau with sandy deserts. The people are comparatively progressive, and excel in several kinds of manufactures, as silk goods, shawls, carpets, arms and jewelry. Teheran is the capital. The government is despotic, the ruler styled the Shah. The religion is Mohammedanism. 187. Belooehistan and Afghanistan. Lie east of Persia. They are mostly barren countries, inhabited by warlike tribes under the leadership of Khans. Afghanistan is important because on the chief route from India to Western Asia. 188. India. — Comprises the peninsula of Hindustan and north to the Himalaya Mts., with British Burmah and the island of Ceylon. About half as large as the U. S., but with a population five times as great. Agriculture is the leading pursuijL and rice the principal article of food. Opium, cotton, flax, indigo and tea. Ceylon produces coffee, cinnamon and cocoanuts. The cashmere shawls made from the hair of the Cashmere goat are celebrated. Calcutta is capital, the greatest commercial city of Asia. The country is mainly under control of Great Britain. Queen Victoria has now the title of "Queen of Great Britain and Ireland and Empress of India." The language is Hindostanee, a corrupt form of the ancient Sanskrit. Some of the higher classes of Hindoos are great scholars and fine reasoners, and have a literature which reaches back 4,000 years. The people of British Burmah are Mongolians (22). 189. Indo-China, or Farther India. — Includes the kingdoms of Burmah, Siam and Assam, with Lower Cochin China and Cam- bodia, the two latter belonging to France, also the petty States of the Malay peninsula ruled by native chiefs. Rice the principal prod- uct, also sugar, spices and tobacco. Most of the people are Mon- golians; those of the Malay peninsula .ire of the Malay race. The three kingdoms first named are despotic. 190. The Chinese Empire. — About one-fourth larger than the {]. S., and with a population about nine times as great, equal to one- third of that of the entire globe. The southeastern part, including about one-third of the entire area, contains the greater part of the population, and is called China Proper. The remainder contains great deserts and is inhabited l>y a wandering race called Tartars. The peninsula of Corea is ruled by a king who pays tribute to China. China Proper is highly cultivated, tea and rice being the great staples. Silk is produced in large quantities. The Chinese are in many respects a wonderful people. They' display remark- able skill in the manufacture of various articles, as silk and satin goods, porcelain, fire works, etc. They have a literature which reaches hack main centuries, and claim to trace their history back 30,000 years. They have long practiced arts which are of com- paratively recent origin in other countries. Their language is pe- GEOGRAPHY. 67 culiar, having a character for every word, and is written up and down the page. Until of late years they have kept themselves excluded from the rest of the world, hence made no progress. The boys are taught to read and write, but the girls are not educated. They consume great quantities of opium, which they import from India. Pekin is the capital and the largest city in Asia. The government is an absolute monarchy, and the laws are very rigid. 191. Japan. — The Empire of Japan consists of four large islands, and about 4,000 small ones, lying east of Asia, and sepa- rated from the mainland mainly by the Japan Sea. The large islands are mountainous. The productions are similar to China. The people are of the same race and religion as the Chinese, but speak a different language and are rather more intelligent and progressive. They once excluded foreigners, but now trade with other nations, particularly the U. S. and Great Britain, and have introduced rail- roads, telegraphs, schools, newspapers, etc. Some of their young men are being educated in the U. S. and expect to go back to teach their fellow-countrymen. Tokio (formerly called Yeddo) is the capital. The government is an absolute monarchy, the ruler styled Mikado. AFRICA. 192. A large peninsula connected with Asia by the Isthmus of Suez and separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, and almost from Asia by the Red Sea. These seas are now connected by a ship canal, which virtually makes an island of Africa. 193. It is about three times as large as Europe. Has a com- paratively small extent of coast line (16,000 miles), there being but few indentations. This is a great disadvantage, in a commercial sense, and is one reason why Africa is behind the rest of the world in civilization. The Atlantic Ocean washes its eastern shores, with the Gulf of Guinea as the only great indentation; on the west is the Indian Ocean in which lies the large island of Madagascar separated from the main land by the Mozambicpie Channel. The most north- ern point is Cape Bon, the most southern Cape of Good Hope, the most eastern Cape Verd, and the most western Cape Guardafui. 194. " Nearly the whole surface consists of broad, low pla- teaus. The edges of the continent are bordered, and its surface broken by short mountain ranges." The Atlas Mts. are in the northern part, the Kong Mts. in the western ami various broken chains in the southern and western pa its among which towers the peak of Kilimanjaro (20,000 feet) lying near the equator and the highest in Africa. A vast plain in the northern part covered with sand, with here and there fertile spots called oases, is styled the Desert of Sahara. 195. The principal rivers are the Nile flowing north into the TEAi HERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Mediterranean, the Zambesi flowing into the Indian O. and the Congo and the Niger into the Atlantic. In the eastern part near the equator arc a number of large lakes equal to if not greater than the great Lakes of N. A. but none of them have yet been fully explored. The largest are Victoria and Tanganyika. In Central Africa is L. Tchad. The Nile R. i< the outlet of Lakes Victoria and Albert. 196. The climate is hotter than any of the other divisions. This is owing to the fact that the greater part lies within the torrid /one, also to the presence of the great desert whose sand rapidly absorbs the heat of the sun and radiates it again into the air, as well as to the fact of its land lying in a compact mass. (See Phys. Geog.) The hottest part is some distance north of the equator. Some parts of the coast are very unhealthy. The Sahara is rainless, also the Kalahari Desert in the southern part. 197. Except in the rainless districts the vegetation is luxuriant. Along the Mediterranean coast are produced wheat, barley, millet, sugar cane, olives, dates and cotton; along the Nile, cotton, corn, sugar cane, barley and rice; along the eastern coast, coffee, spices, India rubber tree; the fruits and grains of temperate regions in southern part; along the western coast, the oil palm, date palm, cocoa, rice, coffee, spices, figs, pineapples, bananas and other tropical fruits. 198. Africa is a vast menagerie, the elephant, rhinoceros, hip- popotamus, giraffe, chimpanzee, gorilla, zebra, lion, leopard, ostrich, crocodile, antelope, buffalo, many species of parrots, monkeys and reptiles, and many smaller quadrupeds and birds, and beautiful, strange and poisonous insects. 199. The minerals of Africa are valuable. Gold is found on the Atlantic coast, diamonds in the southern part, and iron, lead, copper and salt in various parts. 200. The people of the northern and northeastern parts are mostly of the Caucasian race, and embrace the Mohammedan religion. The remainder of the continent is inhabited mostly by negroes, very low and uncivilized, Fetichism their religion. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 201. The Barbary States, composed of the following States lying along the Mediterranean : " Morocco, an independent absolute monarchy, under a sultan; Algeria, a French colony, containing many European residents; Tunis, an absolute monarchy nominally dependent on Turkey though it has ceased to pay tribute, ruled by a bey f Tripoli, dependent on Turkey. 202. Egypt. The most civilized country of Africa, is an abso- lute monarchy paying tribute to Turkey. The ruler is called the Khedive. Egypt was once the most important country of the world. The pyramids and ruins of ancient cities with their hiero- GEOGRAPHT. 69 glyphics, point to its former civilization. The Nile R. annually overflows its banks leaving the country enriched by the deposits of mud brought down from the interior of the continent. Cairo the capital, is the largest and most important city of Africa. Alexandria is an important seaport. (See General History, sees. 20-42.) 203. Abyssinia. — In the eastern part of Africa. The people carry on a trade in coffee and gums with the Arabs. The govern- ment is an absolute monarchy and the people are barbarous and warlike. 204. Cape Colony. — The extreme southern part of Africa, belongs to Great Britain. It is in the temperate zone and is adapted to sheep and cattle raising. It exports diamonds, copper ore and ostrich feathers and wool; ostrich farming or the raising of ostriches for the feathers is quite a business. About one-third the population is European, the remainder native. Cape Town is the capital. 205. Natal and Transvaal are also colonies of Great Britain. Caffraria and Zululand are native States. The Orange River Free State is a republic peopled mostly by Boers, farmers of Dutch descent. These countries are adapted to agriculture and grazing, and contain rich minerals. 206. The eastern coast of Africa is divided among different native tribes. Traders visit it and obtain ivory, tortoise shell, gums and spices. 207. The republic of Liberia, originally established for freed negroes from the U. S., is on the western coast. The capital is Monrovia. Guinea is the name of that country along the shores of the gulf of Guinea. Senegambia on the coast and Soudan lies to the east of it. All of these countries are inhabited by native Africans, some of whom possess a rude system of agriculture, but most of them live on hunting and the products of herds, and trade with Europeans, giving ivory, palm oil, gums and gold dust for fire-arms, liquors, etc. A few settlements of the British, Portu- guese and French are on the coast, but in many places the climate is deadly to Europeans. 208. The region lying under and south of the equator is inhabited by savages, many of whom arc cannibals. It was the scene of the explorations of the famous Dr. Livingstone and his discoverer, Stanley. ocean rr A. 209. Oceanica, or Oceana, comprises a great many islands which have been grouped as Malaysia, Australasia, including Australia which is called a continent, and Polynesia. Some of the islands are of coral formation, many are volcanic. (See Physical Geography.) 210. The people belong mainly to the Malay race (25). Some have been converted to Christianity, but the majority are Mo- 70 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. hammedans or Pagans (28). Many Europeans mx- found in Australia. 211. Malaysia. — Called also Hast Indian Archipelago includes the large islands of Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes and Java, the three first lying on the equator, the latter south of it, and a group called the Phillippine Islands, with many adjacent small i^laml^. They -ecm t<> form a kind of connecting link between the large mass of Australia and the main land of Asia. The climate is generally hot and the vegetation luxuriant. They produce rice, the chief grain; sugar cane, coffee, indigo, sago, caoutchouc, gutta percha, camphor, dye-stuffs, cocoa nuts, valuable -woods; it " is the great spice region of the world." Gold, copper, iron, tin and diamonds are found. The Phillippine Islands belong to Spain, part of Borneo belongs to Great Britain, hut most of the Islands belong to Holland. 212. Australasia. — Includes the large island (or small continent) of Australia, New Guinea, or Papua, New Zealand and adjacent islands. Australia i-- about the size of the U. S., not including Alaska. A very regular coast line of S,ooo miles; the Gulf of Carpentaria indents it on the north. The interior is a vast plateau, not yet fully explored; the eastern coast is mountainous. The Murray is the only important river. The climate is hot in the northern part, in the interior dry, in the southern part extremes of wet and dry. The vegetation and animals are peculiar. Few of the native plants. supply food for man. The trees are mostly evergreen and some shed their hark instead of their leaves. The peculiar wild animals are the kangaroo of which there are many species, the ornitho- rhynchus, which seems to be a connecting link between birds and mammals, the lyre bird, the bower bird, the emu and the apteryx, (See Physical Geog. and Zoology). The country is adapted to sheep raising and great numbers arc raised for their wool. In the value of its gold mines it is second only to the U. S. ; copper, iron, coal, tin, lead and silver are also abundant. The country is under control of Great Britain and is divided into several colonies, the Europeans occupying principally the southern coast and engaged in sheep raising and gold mining. The natives are of a very low type of humanity. Tasmania and New Zealand are British colonies. New Guinea is inhabited mainly by savages. 213. Polynesia. — Includes all the islands lying in the Pacific Ocean not included in the other divisions of ( Kcanica except those lying close to the shores of the other grand divisions. The Sandwich Islands lie near the Tropic of Cancer, about 2,000 miles from San Francisco. They constitute the Kingdom ot Hawaii. The people are partially civilized and Christianized. The productions are similar to semi-tropical climates. Sugar is the prin- I export. The Feejee and the Society Islands are groups lying GEOGRAPHY 71 near the Tropic of Capricorn. The former belongs to Great Britain, and the latter arc mainly under French protection. METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 214. Geography is in itself a very interesting study and when not made repulsive by a rote method of teaching, is perhaps the most interesting of all studies. The first step with a class of beginners should be to develop the idea of direction. See that the pupils have a clear idea of East, West, North and South and the intermediate or semi-cardinal points. A few minutes' questioning and concert drill will determine this. Next proceed to explain how you could show to a person at a distance just how objects are arranged in your schoolroom by drawing a map of it. Proceed somewhat as follows: Drawing a horizontal line on the blackboard, you tell the pupils that you wish to represent by it the north side of the schoolroom. Then drawing another line parallel and some distance below it, the pupils will tell yon perhaps that it will represent the south side; then connecting the two lines to form a rectangular figure you can easily show how it represents the form of the schoolroom, and by comparing it with a map in the books show that the top of a map is always north, the bottom south, the right side east and the left west. Then you may pro- ceed to make marks designating the position of the stove and other objects in the schoolroom. The pupils may be allowed to mark the positions of the objects in the room. Now for the next lesson, you may ask the class to bring a map of the schoolroom drawn on their slates and in addition write on the blackboard for them to copy on the slates a topic list for their investigation. The topics may be " How to Find the Directions," " A Map," " Shape of the Earth," " Definition of Geography." At the next recitation draw in a similar manner a map of the school yard locating the buildings and other objects and explain how you might proceed from this to a farm and from a farm to a Township, County, Slate, etc. 215. The Natural Divisions of land and water may come next, the teacher writing the terms to be discussed on the board, re- quiring the pupil to copy them. The proofs of the earth's rotundity, the size, movements and circles may he deferred until the pupil has studied the form and size of the grand divisions and descriptions of some of the countries. The pupils may he required to write on the slates a certain number of rivers, cities, mountains, etc., or the prod- ucts <>f a country as corn, wheat, coal, iron, etc. Frequent map drills from wall maps are of course necessary in fixing location and form of countries. 216. With advanced classes the topic method may he full) carried out. The outline at the head of the subject in this book may be divided up into topic lists. For the special study of coun- 72 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS I.IHRARV. tries we have given topic lists on the pages following. The general heads of the outline may be given, and pupils be required to fill them out as review exercises. 217. A judicious system of questioning is necessary as in teaching any subject. Ideal journeys may be assigned, that is, say starting with a certain point and traveling by rail or steam to some distant point, require pupils to point out all the places of interest and importance on the route. It is not best to teach too much of the details of the subject; for example, if pupils can tell as many facts in regard to a State as we have given in the text, they will have made a good recitation. It is necessary, of course, in text-books, to give more information, but it is only that the main points may be made more clear, and in Geography much is given that is of value merely for occasional reference. 218. A great deal of attention should be paid to the study of local, or home geography. The pupil's own State should be more thoroughlv studied than any other. 219. A system of map drawing is now given in all text-books. No teacher should pretend to teach Geography and not use some system of map drawing. The system of thawing by using the lines of latitude and longitude is the best because the simplest, and because it teaches latitude and longitude at the same time. 220. This system may be described briefly as follows: The map should never be drawn t lie same size as that in the book. It may be drawn one and a half, two, or three times as large. The border lines are first drawn b\ measuring the border lines of the one in the book and then reproducing them, making due allowance for increase of size. Next draw the parallels and meridians in the following man- ner: Measure on the top border line the distance to the first merid- ian, multiply this distance by your multiple i % , 2 or 3 as the case may be and make a mark at the proper place on your copy. Ascer- tain the beginnings of each meridian in the same manner. Ascer- tain their endings on the lower border line in the same manner. Now draw the meridians by merely connecting these points with a line drawn by a flexible ruler. Determine where the parallels cut the border lines on the side in the same manner and connect the points with the flexible ruler. Having thus reproduced the lines of latitude and longitude in the proper proportion it is easy to draw the boundary lines of the countries and locate the points bv refer- ring to these construction lines. 221. Map drawing should not occupy too much of the pupil's time. It is better that a little w ork be done each day and the pupil take a week or more for the construction of one map, than that he should finish one at a sitting. Maps should be drawn first OH cheap Wrapping paper with a lead pencil. When the pupil has acquired some degree of skill he may copy one or more of his maps on good GEOGRAPHT. IS flat cap or card board paper, making light lines with a hard pencil and going over them again with pen and ink, thus making a map which he can keep. 222. Topic List for the Study of any State in the U. S. i. position, j Latitude and Longitude. I Boundaries. 2. FORM . ■, S ,7P I Absolute. 7. SIZE. \ ,-, . .. ° | Relative. ! Mountains, Plateaus, etc. Rivers and Lakes. Slope. {Length. Indentations. Projections. I As to Temperature. As to Moisture. As to Winds. f i Animal. \ Natural. -j Vegetable. ( Mineral. PRODUCTIONS. [anufactured articles. [m 8. INDUSTRIES. 9. CAPITAL. 10. largest city, and other cities and places of interest- 11. history, i Settlement. I Admission. 12. MISCELLANEOUS. Explanation. — In giving latitude and longitude it is only necessary to give the parallels and meridians between which the State lies to the nearest whole number. When studying the pupil's own State the absolute size should be given. Other States should be compared with it in size or with some other State whose absolute size has been memorized. Natural curiosities as caves and waterfalls, places of resort, interesting items in regard to relative im- portance in wealth, productions, etc., may be brought in under the topic, miscellaneous. 223. For the study of the political divisions of Europe and Asia the topic list given above may he used by making some ad- ditions. The following topics may be added: Government, Rc- ligion, Races, La?iguage, Name of Present Ruler, Works of Art, Noted Buildings, etc. The United States as a whole, also the other political divisions of North America and the States of South America, may be studied by this amended topic list. For reviews and the more special study of Lakes, Rivers, Mountains, Islands, The Ocean, Volcanoes, Distribution of Animals and Plants, Min- erals, Climate, etc., See topic lists given under Physical Geography in this volume. 224. Every schoolroom should have a globe and outline maps. If boards of education have not provided such and the teacher can- not prevail upon them to do so, and is not able to purchase them himself, he may draw outline maps on the blackboard for tempo- rary purposes, or on the white wall with colored chalk, or on large sheets of cheap wrapping paper with crayon or prepared charcoal, and make use of an apple or ball as a substitute for ;i globe. Globes 74 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. which will answer the purpose very well can now he bought, how- ever, for ten cents and much larger ones for 25 and 50 cents, so that no one need he without this useful piece of apparatus. 225. The latitude and longitude of noted places may be readily learned by frequent drills like the following: The teacher with globe in hand selects some parallel as, say 40 N. and says "I find on this parallel or very near it, Philadelphia, Pa., Columbus, O., Denver, Col., Cape Mendocino, Madrid, Spain, Strait of Qtranto, Pekin, China." Then taking the parallel of 30 N. he says, » I find on or near this parallel, New Orleans, La., St. Augustine, Fla., Cairo, Egypt, the head of Persian Gulf. What is the lat. of Madrid, of New Orleans, of Cairo, of Columbus, O., etc.? " Then taking another parallel he adds a few more places, and again questions promiscuously and so on until he has given all the im- portant points on the globe. Such drills occasionally are very interesting, and tend to make the study an amusement for the pupils. 226. In this line of Geographical recreations the popular names of States, cities, etc., may be made the subject of occasional question drills. (See Index and Glossary of this book for such in- teresting information). The population of large cities may be learned in a similar manner. The teacher may write on the hoard in round numbers the pop. of a dozen or more large cities and after telling the class the names of the cities, point to the numbers promis- cuously, requiring the class to name the respective cities the numbers represent. Other recreations of a similar character will suggest themselves to thoughtful teachers. 227. Blackboards and slates may be used to great advantage in teaching Geography. Have pupils write names of countries, cities, productions, etc. Criticise their spelling, capitalization, etc., and require each pupil to sign his name to his work, and when placed on the blackboard do not allow it to be erased until the board is needed for other work. This insures good -work. QUESTIONS ON GEOGRAPHY. The number* refer to' sections of the text. Many of the questions consist of one word. The teacher should write out or express the question in full, [tis hoped the questions will be sutfEcstive of many more which may be asked by the teacher. Some are suyr^esUvc ol the answcr"and may be occasionally used lor primary pupils. ..1 mkai. GEOGRAPHY. 1. Define Geography ; Mathematical Geography ; Physical Geography ; Po- litical Geography. 2. Name the proofs that the earth is round. 3. Diameter, circumference, and area of surface? 4. What is the Horizon? Cardinal Points? The Compass? 5. Motions of the earth? Orbit? What causes day and night? How often does the earth turn 011 its axis while it is going around the sun? Explain the change of sea- sons' Poles? 6. How is position on the earth represented? Define Equator, Meridian Circles, Parallels. Latitude and Longitude. 7. Wh.it place on the earth has no Latitude? How many degrees of Latitude can there he? How many of GEOGRAPHY. 75 Longitude? What direction is Iceland from the North Pole? What is a degree ? 8- What are the Tropics and Polar Circles? 9. Zones? 10. Define Hem- isphere. 11. Define Continent, Island, Archipelago. 12. Peninsula? Cape? Isthmus? 13. How is land divided as to Relief? 14. Define Ocean; Gulf; Bay ; Strait. 15. Lakes? Rivers? Ocean Currents? 16. Climate? What is a general law of climate? 17. General character of Frigid Zones? iS. Of the Torrid Zone? 19. Of the Temperate Zones? 20 — 25. Name and describe the Races of Men? 26. States of Society? 27 — 29. Religions? 30 — 31. Forms of Government? 32 — 33. Occupations? 34. What advantages has a mountainous country over the low lands? What are the occupations of people of a mountainous country likely to be? 35. , Name the principal useful metals; building material; precious metals; precious stones; other minerals of value. NORTH AMERICA. 36, r64_ Which is the larger, North America or Asia? 37. Name the principal indentations of the coast of N. A. 3S. The large Peninsulas of N. A. The Important Capes? 39. Give a general description of the Surface of N. A. 40. Name the great Rivers of N. A. 41. What are the Great Lakes? What other lakes in N. A.? 42. Describe the climate of N. A. 43. Name the Political Divisions of N. A. THE UNITED STATES. 44. What is the extent of Lat. and Lon. of the U. S.? How many States at present? Size of U. S.? 45. Where is the center of pop.? The Geograph- ical center? 46. Name the advantages of the U. S. 47. What are the causes of the great prosperity and rapid growth of the U. S. ? 48. What kind of a Government has the U. S.? 49. Leading Industries; Productions? 50—52. Other Industries. THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 55. Tell all you know about Alabama. 56. What place of resort in Arkan- sas? 57. What State produces most gold, quicksilver, wine, wool and barlev? Name some peculiar features of California. 5S. Where is Leadville? 59. Where is Yale College? What State is smaller than Connecticut? Co. Tell all you know about Delaware. 61. What State is a peninsula? What and where is the oldest city in the U.S.? What and where are the " Everglades?" 62. What State is" the most flourishing of the Southern States? 63. Tell all you know about Chicago. What State has most railroads? 64. What is the largest city in the U. S. not on navigable waters? Where is Wy- andotte Cave? 65. What is the Capital and Largest City of Iowa? 66. Describe Kansas. 67. What State is noted for the production of hemp, flax, tobacco and thorough bred horses, mules and cattle? Where is the Mam- moth Cave? 68. What is the commercial metropolis of the South? What is the greatest cotton market of the world? What is the greatest sugar market in the U. S.? 69. Where is Mt. Katahdin? What State is noted for its many har- bors? What State has one-tenth of its surface covered with lakes? 70. What city is noted as a market for canned fruits and oysters? Where is the Chesa- peake Bay? What Capes at its entrance? 71. What city is noted as a literary center? Where is Harvard Univer- sity? What State is the most thickly settled? 7:. What Stale is made up of two Peninsulas? 73. In what State does the " Father of Waters" rise? In what respect do Minnesota and Maine resemble? 74. What State takes the lead in cotton production? Where is Vicks- burg and for what is it noted? 75. What city is first in the manufacture of flour? 76. Where is Omaha? 77. What are the peculiar features of Nevada? Where are the Humboldt Mis.? 76 TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART Jf8. When.- 18 Mt Washington and what is its height? What river moves more machinery than any other in the world? 79. What State furnishes a great part of the fruits and vegetables consumed by New York and Philadel- phia? What city produces more crockery than any other city in America? So. What State is ahead in hay, potatoes, buckwheat and dairy products? What is the largest city in the L'. 5.? Tell all you know about it? Where are the Niagara Falls? St. What State is noted for the production of tar, pitch, turpentine and rosin? What city is the greatest market in the world for naval stores? S2. Tell all you know about Ohio. S3. What river is noted for salmon ? 84. What is the second city in size in the U. S.? What State produces most coal andiron? What city is the greatest petroleum market in the world? 85. What is the smallest State? What State has two capitals? 86. What State produces most rice? What important cotton port on the Atlantic? 87. What are the principal productions of Tennessee? Its Capital and Largest City? SS. What is the largest State? How many times larger than the smallest State? What State produces most cattle? What river between U. S. and Mexico? S9. What lake between Vermont and New York? Where are the Green Mts.? 90. Describe Virginia. 91. What is the Capital of West Virginia? 92. What city in Wisconsin is noted as a wheat market? 93. For what is Arizona noted ? 94. What benefit is Alaska to the U. S.? 95, Where are the Black Hills and for what noted? 96. Where is Idaho and for what noted? 97. What Ter- ritory belongs to the Indians? 98. What minerals found in Montana? 99. What is the second oldest city in the U. S.? It is the capital of what Ter.? 100. What is the capital of Washington Ter.? 101. Where and what is the " National Park?" 102. What peculiar peo- ple have settled in Utah? 103. What is the capital of the U. S.? Describe it. How is the District of Columbia governed? DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEW KOLNDLAND. 104. What does it comprise? Its size? 105. Its government? 106. Its capital? 107. Its climate? 10S. Where is Toronto? 109. Quebec? Montreal? no. What Province of Canada borders on Maine? in. What Peninsula and Island together form a province of Canada? 112. What Province of Canada is the most thickly settled and the smallest? 113. What is the largest Province? Where is Vancouver's Island? 114. Where is Manitoba? 115. What and where is Keevvatin? 116. Where are the best fishing grounds in the world? To what does Lab- rador belong ? MEXICO. 117. Describe the surface of Mexico. What and where is Popocatapetl? 11S. Climate and Productions of Mexico? 119. The People? The Govern- ment? The Religion? The Capital? CENTRAL AMERICA. 120. What does it comprise? 121. Productions? 122. People and their Religion? THE WEST INDIES. 123. What do they comprise? 124. Describe Cuba? 125. Hayti? 126. Porto Rico? DANISH AMERICA. 127. Describe Greenland. 128. Iceland. SOUTH AMERICA. 129. Which is the larger, North America or South America? Which has the most regular coast line? What Capes at the extremities? 130. Describe GEOGRAPHY. 77 the surface of S. A. 131. The Climate, Peculiar Animals. 132. The People. 133. The Political Divisions. 134. Tell all you know about the Argentine Republic. 135. Where are the most noted silver mines in the world? What is the cinchona tree, and where does it grow? 136. What is the largest of the S. A. States? What are its productions? What is the only monarchy in the New World? What is the largest city of 8. A.? What precious stones and metals found in Brazil? 137. What one of the S. A. States is the most progressive? What is the second leading commercial city on the Pacific Coast? 13S. What is peculiar about Quito? 139. To what does Guiana belong? 140. What State of S. A. has no sea coast? 141. For what is Peru noted? 142. What is the smallest of the S. A. States? 143. To what does the Isthmus of Panama belong? 144. Why was Venezuela so named? KUROPE. 145. What is the size of Europe compared with the U. S? Name the capes at its extremities. 146. Which grand division has comparatively the greatest coast line? What is the significance of this fact? Name the penin- sulas of Europe. 147. Name the large bodies of water bordering on Europe. 148. Describe the surface. Name the mountains. 149. Rivers? 150. Clim- ate? 151. Population? Religion? People? 152. Political Divisions? GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 153. What is the extent of the British Empire? In what respect does it surpass other nations? 154. Describe the government. 155. What is the size of England? What is the largest city in the world? Tell all you can about it. What city leads all others in cotton factories? 156. Scotland? 157. Wales? 158. Ireland? 159. What is the second city of the world in size and wealth, and for what else is it noted? What city is noted for its silk manufactures? Describe the government of France. What depen- dencies has France? 160. Name the rivers of Germany. How does Germany rank in an edu- cational sense 7 Describe its government. 161. Describe the Austrian Empire. What is the third city in Europe? 162. What Mts. between Spain and France? What of the climate and productions of Spain? Why is Spain a second-rate power? 163. What country is in the shape of a boot? What island at the toe of tin boot? For what is Rome noted? To what does Sardinia belong? 164. Tell all you know about Switzerland. 165. What is the most populous country of the world? City noted for car- pets and laces? 166. What country below the level of the sea? Where do the Dutch come from? 167. Describe Denmark. Where and what are the Skager Rack and the Cattegat? 168. Climate and productions of Sweden and Norway? What is the " Northern Venice? " 169. What is the largest empire in the world? Describe it. 170. What does the Ottoman Empire comprise? How does the civilization of Turkey compare with other countries of Europe? Race and Religion of the people? 171. Tell all you know about Greece. 172. Servia? Roumania? Monte- negro? Bulgaria? 173. What is the smallest and oldest republic in the world? 174. Andorra? \SIA. 175. What is the largest grand division? 176. Surface? The highest Mts. in the world? 177. Name the principal rivers of Asia. What bodies of water lie below the level of the ocean? 17S. Name the important projections and in- dentations of the coast line. What part of the world has the greatest rain fall? 179. Climate? 180. Vegetation, animals and minerals? 78 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI Bit ART. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. i8i. Describe Siberia. What is fossil ivory? 182. Where are the hand- somest people? 183. What and where is Russian Turkestan? 184. What does Turkev in Asia include? 1S5. Who are the Bedouins, and where found? 186. Describe Persia. 1S7. Beloochistan and Afghanistan? 188. Tell all you know about India. 1S9. What does Farther India include? 190. How large is the Chinese Em- pire? Population? The staple products? Peculiarities of the Chinese? 191. What about the civilization of Japan? What is a Mikado? AFRICA. 192. Is Africa a peninsula or an island? 193. Size of Africa compared with Europe? What is its extent of coast line? Why is it behind the rest of the world in civilization? Where is Mada- gascar? Name the capes at the extremities of Africa. 194. Surface of Africa? What is the highest mountain in Africa? Desert of Sahara? Oases? 195. Rivers of Africa? Lakes? What is the source of the Nile? 196. Climate? Where is the hottest part of Africa? What parts are rainless? 197. Describe the vegetation of Africa. 198. The animals? 199. Minerals? 200. People? Religion? POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 201. Barbary States? What country is ruled by a Bey? 202. What is the most civilized country of Africa? What is a Khedive? What is the largest city of Africa? What is peculiar about Egypt? 203. Abyssinia? In what country is ostrich farming carried on? To what does Cape Colony belong? 205. Who are the Boers? Natal? Transvaal? CattVaria? Zululand? 206. Describe the eastern coast of Africa. What republic in Western Af- rica? What is its capital, and for whom named? (see Index). Where is Guinea? Soudan? 208. What can be said of Central Africa? Who was Dr. Living- stone? Stanley? (see Index). OCEANICA. 209. What does Oceanica comprise? 210. The people? 211. What three large islands lie on the equator? Where are the Phillipine Islands? What is the East Indian Archipelago! Where is the greatest spice region of the world? What are the productions of Malaysia? 212. Australasia? How large is Australia? Describe its surface. Climate? What is peculiar about the vegetation and animals? To what does Australia belong? 213. What does Polynesia include? Where are the Sandwich Islands? The Feejee Islands? The Society Islands? METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 214. What is the first step in teaching geography to beginners? How would vou conduct the first recitation? 217. Would you have pupils learn all the details of geography given in the text-book? 218. What are the advan- tages of stud ving home' geography? 219. What arc the advantages of map- drawing? What system" do you prefer? 220. Describe the system of drawing by parallels and meridians. 221, Would you have pupilsspend the whole time of the preparation for a recitation in drawing a map? 221. Would you require pupils to give the absolute sizes of States in recit- ing? 224. What would you do if the school board had not provided outline maps or a globe? 225. What is a good method of drill in latitude and longi- tude? 226. What plans do you use to make recitations interesting? GRAMMAR. Instead of presenting this with an outline as most other subjects, it has been thought best to treat the entire subiect in the form of separate outlines. For explanation of index figures used see "Systems of Outlining " Note, however, that it makes complete sense without the figures. 1. Grammar in its widest sense is the systematic study of language. The divisions of English Grammar commonly made are: (i) Orthography, which treats of letters, syllahles, separate words, and spelling; (2) Etymology, which treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications; (3) Syntax, which treats of the relation, agreement, government and arrange- ment of words in sentences; (4) Prosody, which treats of punctu- ation, utterance, figures, and versification. Authors differ in their definitions of these terms. The above are those given by Goold Brown. 2. Language is the expression of thought. When thought is expressed by articulate sounds, it is called spoken language, when by written characters, written language. Spoken or written language consists of words arranged in sentences. Words are significant sounds, or combinations of sounds, articulated or represented by characters called letters. A sentence is a group of words which taken together express one or more thoughts. 3. Every sentence must contain two parts: (1) the subject, that about which something is asserted; (2) the predicate, that which expresses what we say about the subject. The subject may be understood, then we may have a sentence of one word, as « Go" meaning, " Ton go" On the other hand, a sentence may consist of many words, as, " The thick, heavy tvool of the sheep keeps it warm iii winter." Here the first seven words are the subject and the last five the predicate (15). 4. English Grammar as usually taught in our schools, consists of a discussion of the parts of speech and their relations to each other in sentences. I present a discussion of the parts of speech and of the English sentence in the form of outlines. 5. The Noun. i 1 Definition.— A noun is the name of anything, a word which standing alone or in connection with other words, can be the subject of a sentence. Remarks. 'All words, signs, phrases and sentences taken technically, that is, independent of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of, are nouns; or, rather, are things read and construed as nouns; because in such a use, they temporarily assume the syntax of nouns. — Goold Brown. , For the sake of brevity the subject and verb are omitted in these definitions. T he teacher, however, should always word his questions so as to require a a'statement for the anssver. Thus, define a proper noun?' A proper noun is a special or individual name. 80 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 2 1 Kinds. (Classes.) i- Proper — " A special or individual name." -Svtrinton. Ex. — Henry, Chicago. i 3 Two or more words taken together to form oik- name are considered as one noun. Ex. — Gen. Grant, Queen Victoria, John Tyndall, F. R. S. 2 3 Proper nouns are not considered as having meaning, hut simply as names of particular individuals or places. 3 3 They may become common nouns by assuming a meaning which can be applied to each one of a class. Ex. — Alexanders and Hannibals do not exist in our day. 4 3 Proper nouns in English always begin with a capital letter. 2 2 Common. — " A name common to all of the same kind or class." — Kcrl. i 3 Kinds. (Sub-classes.) i 4 Class. — "A name which can be applied to one of a class or group of objects." — Harvey. Ex. — Boy, desk, chair. 2 4 Collective. — A name singular in form, denoting plurality. Ex. — Herd, flock, arm v. 3* Verbal. — " A form of a verb used as a noun." — Wells. Ex. — Sing- ing, procedure. 4 4 Abstract. — "The name of some quality considered apart from the object to which it belongs." Ex.— Brightness, sweetness, virtue. 2 3 Common nouns may become proper nouns when used to point out some particular thing. Ex. — We went from Chicago to New York by way of the Lakes. 3 3 Common nouns in English do not begin with a capital letter unless thev begin a sentence, or are of particular importance. 3 1 Properties. (Modifications.) i 2 Person. — " That property of a noun or pronoun which distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing addressed and the person or thing spoken of." — Wells. i 3 First Person— Denotes the speaker. Ex.— /, Rutherford B. Haves, make this proclamation. 2 3 Second Person —Denotes the person or thing addressed. Ex. — Henry, come this way ; Come, gentle Spring. 3 8 Third Person— Denotes the person or thing spoken of. Ex.— Bryant was a great poet. 2 2 Gender. — A property of nouns and pronouns which distinguishes BC X. Remark- — " Some nouns mark the thing signified by them as male or female. Such nouns an .ailed render-nouns. All other nouns— those which are not gender-nouns, or have nothing to do with'denning sex— are often called neuter nouns or nouns of the neuter gender. Thev either belong to objects that have no sex or they are given indifferently to beings of both sexes. — Whitney. 1 Masculine.— Names of male beings. i 3 Feminine. — Names of female beings. 3 3 Common— Names applied in common to male and female beings. 4 3 Neuter— Names which denote objects without sex. 5* The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished by :— l* The use of different words. Ex.— King, queen; boy, girl; youth, maiden; uncle, aunt. 2* The use of different terminations. Ex.— Host, hostess; prince, princes-. 3* The use of prefixes and sulhxes. Ex. --Man-servant, maid-ser- vant, land-lord, land-lady. 3- Number — " A grammatical form expressing one or more than one ot the objects named bv the noun." — SttfintOH. i Singular— Denotes but one. i< Proper nouns and some common nouns are commonly found only in th- sii jrular. Ex.— Mifslc, poetry. GRAMMAR. 81 2 3 Plural' — Denotes more than one. i* Formation. i* Regularly. — By terminations. i 6 Nouns whose final sound will unite with 5 add s only to the singular. Ex. — Boy, boys: cat, cats. z' Nouns whose final sound will not unite with s add es to the singular. Ex. — Church, churches; box, boxes. 3 6 Nouns ending in v preceded by a consonant change y into ies. Ex. — Glorv, glories; fly, fiics. 4 6 Nounsending in / or /« generally change these endings to ves. Ex. — Beef, beeves; wife, wives. 5 6 Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant generally add es, preceded by a vowel, 5 only. Ex. — Cargo, cargoes; folio, /olios. z b Irregularly.— "By use of another form of the word. Ex. — Man, men; tooth, tetth. 3" Remarks. i« In compound words, the part which is described by the other is usually pluralized. Ex. — Mothers-in-law, wagon loads. 2° Compound terms, consisting of a name and a title, pluralize either name or title, but not both. Ex.— The Miss Coopers or the Misses Cooper. 3 6 Letters, marks, figures and signs expressed in the plural by adding \s. Ex. — Cross your fs and dot your is; casting out the 9's, the *'s, the 3's. . 4 6 Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plu- rals. Ex. — Stratum, strata; genus, genera. 15 6 Some nouns have no singular forms. Ex. — Ashes, oats, scis- sors, tongs. "News and molasses have the plural form, but are regarded as singular." — Harvey. 4 2 Case. — " That modification of nouns and pronouns which, by means of form or position, indicates their relation to other words ; or their independent use." — Holbrook. i 3 Nominative. — That form or position of the noun [or pronoun] which is used to indicate the subject of a finite verb, in the predicate of a finite verb, or in independent positions. i 4 Dependent. 1 1 Subject of a finite verb. Ex — Magnesium burns. 2 1 Predicate of a finite verb. Ex. — Ruskin is a fine -writer. 3 5 Predicate of an infinitive. Ex.—" He desires to be a good fainter." 4 & In apposition. i« With a noun. Ex. — "Johnson, the tailor, was present." 2 6 With a pronoun. Ex.—" I, Richard Roe, do solemnly swear." 3« With a sentence. Ex. — " / resolved to practice temperance — a resolution I have ever kept." 4«< With a phrase. Ex.—" His finding me there, a providence I can never forget, saved me from utter ruin." 2* Independent or Absolute. i 5 Bv direct address. Ex.— Men, should we suffer such, disgrace.' 2 5 Bv exclamation. Ex.—" Conscience, how it rains! " 3 6 By pleonasm. Ex. — "The stars, they shall shine forever." 4 5 Bv inscription. Ex. — " Hope deferred maketh the soul sick." — Solomon. 5 5 With a participle. Ex. — "The ground being covered with snow, we went in a sleigh." 2 3 Possessive. — That form of the noun [or pronoun] which is used to limit a noun of a different signification. i 4 Limiting a noun. Ex.—" The boy's slate." 2* In apposition. Ex. — u We stopped at Gossage's, the merchant." 82 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 3* Formation. i & The possessive of nouns in the singular is formed by adding 's to the nominative; in the plural when the nominative ends in 5 by adding the apostrophe only. Ex. — The boy's book, the boys' book. The apostrophe only is added frequently when an additional s would cause several sounds of s to come together. Ex. — For conscience' sake. 2 5 The 's is an abbreviation of the old English inflectional ending es or is. 3 3 Objective. — That form or position of the noun [or pronoun] which is used to indicate the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. i 4 The object of a transitive verb in the active voice. Ex. — " The boy broke the slate." 2 4 The object of a preposition. Ex. — " The site of Danri'lle is pleasant." 3 4 In apposition. Ex. — " I saw Johnson the tailoi ." 4* The subject of an infinitive. Ex. — " We desire jfames to study law." lawyer .' 5* The predicate of an infinitive. Ex. — " We desire him to be a 6 4 By enallage. i 5 For the nominative. i 6 Subject of a finite verb. Ex. — " ./1/pthinks I see beyond the skies the glories of a paradise." 2 6 Predicate of a participle. Ex. — " I never thought of its being himr 2 5 For the possessive. i B Limiting a participle. Ex. — "I never thought of him coming." 6 The Pronoun. i 1 Definitions. I* " A pronoun is a word used for a name or instead of a noun." — Swinton. 2 2 " A pronoun is a kind of substitute for a noun." — Whitney. 2 1 The Antecedent. — That word, phrase or sentence for which the pro- noun stands. I 2 The antecedent may be omitted. Ex. — " Who steals my purse steals trash." 2 2 The antecedent generally precedes the pronoun in position. i 3 Exceptions. 1* In interrogative sentences it appears in the answer following, and called by some authors the subsequent. 2* In sentences where " it " is introductory. Ex. — " It is they.*' 3 4 In hvperbaton. Ex. — "■His books, the boy took great interest in." 3 1 Kinds. (Classes.) i 2 Personal.— One that always indicates by its form the grammatical person. i 3 Kinds. (Sub-classes.') i 4 As to structure. I 5 Simple: /, thon or you, be, she, it and their plurals tve, ye, they. 2 & Compound. —Formed by annexing self to the possessive or ob- jective singular, and selves to the plural.' Ex —Myself, ourselves, themselves. 2 2 Relative. -One which joins to its antecedent a limiting clause. 1 3 Kinds. (Sul... -lasses.) i 4 As to structure. i 6 Simple. i 6 Used f>r persons and things personified : -who. 2 8 Used for things: uhicJi, that and as. 2 5 Compound. — Formed by annexing ever or soever to wlu> and which. 2* As 'o u6e. i 6 Single : Who, which, that and as. GRAMMAR. 83 2 5 Double : What=thal which or the thing which— Whatcvcr=t\\e thing -whichever . 3 2 Interrogative. — Who, which and what when used in asking questions. 4 1 Properties. (Modifications.) i- Person, i 2 2 Gender. - Agree with their antecedents in 3 2 Number. ) 4 2 Case. 7. The Adjective.— A word which, without denoting possession or apposi- tion, limits a noun or pronoun. i 1 Kinds. (Classes.) i-' Descriptive.— One which limits the meaning of a noun by denoting some quality. Ex. — A. bad boy; a sweet apple. i 3 Kinds. (Sub-classes.) i 4 Common. — Ordinary epithets, not derived from proper nouns, or if so, have ceased to suggest the noun from which derived. Ex.— Sweet, bitter, quixotic. Not usually written with a capital unless they begin a sentence. 2 4 Proper.— Derived from proper nouns. Ex. — American, English, Grecian. Always written with a capital letter. 3 4 Verbal or Participial. — " A participle placed before the noun it describes." — Harvey. 2 2 Definitive.—" Limits or defines the meaning of a noun without ex- pressing any of its qualities." — Harvey. i 3 Kinds. (Sub-classes.) 1* Articles. i 5 Definite: the. 2 5 Indefinite. i 6 A, before consonant sounds. Ex. — A book; ahorse. 2 6 An, before vowel sounds. Ex. — An apple; an egg. 2 4 Pronominals. — " Definitives, most of which may, without an ar- ticle prefixed, represent a noun understood." — Harvey. Ex. — All men; each boy ; this book. i 5 Demonstratives. — "Point out objects definitely." Ex. — This; that; former. 2 5 Distributives. — " Represent objects as taken separately." There are four : each, every, either and neither. 3 5 Indefinites. — " Refer to objects in a general way." Ex. — All; any; certain. 3 4 Numerals. — "Express number and order definitely." i 5 Cardinal. — " Denote simply the number of objects." Ex. — One; two; three. 2 5 Ordinal. — " Mark the position of an object in a series." Ex. — First ; second ; third. 3 5 Multiplicative. — "Denote how many fold." Ex. — Twofold; fourfold. 2 1 Comparison. i 2 Degrees. i 3 Positive. 2 3 Comparative. 3 3 Superlative. 2 2 Kinds as to: i 3 Form. 1* Regular.— Formed (1st) by annexing to the positive of monosylla- bles, r or cr for the comparative and 5 or st for the superlative. Ex. — Wise, wiser, wisest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest. (2nd.) By prefixing to the positive of polysyllables, more for the comparative and most for the superlative. Ex. — Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 2* Irregular. — Formed by the U6e of different words. Ex — Good, better, best. 84 TEACHERS" AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. 2 8 Direction. i 4 Ascending. — Formed regularly. 2 4 Descending. — Formed by prefixing less for the comparative and least for the superlative. Ex. — Wise, less wise, least wise. 8. The Verb. — "A word used to assert or assume action ; also, being or state of being.'' — Holbrook. i 1 Kinds. (Classes.) I 2 As to Form. i 3 Regular. — (weak conjugation) — One which forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present, according to the rules of spell- ing, the final c being dropped when the additional syllable begins with a vowel. Ex. — Love, loved, loved. Note. — "It would be more accurate to consider d, rather than ed, as the inflection of the past tense, since either d alone is added to the root (as in love-d, save-d), or when ed is u&ed the e is a mere connecting vowel of euphony." — Swinton. 2 3 Irregular. — (Strong conjugation) — One which doe6 not form its pa6t tense and past participle by adding ed to the present. Ex. — Go, went, gone; hear, heard, heard. 2 2 As to inflection. I 3 Complete. — One which is found in all the modes and tenses. 2 3 Defective. — One which is deficient in some of the modes and tenses. Ex. — Quoth, ought. 3 3 Redundant. — One which has more than one form in the past tense or pa6t participle. Ex. — Awake, past part., awaked or atuokc; burn, past part. burned or burnt. 3 2 As to use in the sentence. i 3 Transitive. — One which requires an object to complete its mean- ing or upon which the action is exerted. Ex. — Newton discovered the law of gravitation. 2 3 Intransitive. — One which does not require an object to complete its meaning. Remark. — Many veibs are freely used, both transitively and intransitively. Ex. — " WaHt your horse round the lot," " 1^-t us walk home; I'he boy flies the kite," "The kite flies;" "The farmer burns wood," " I'he wood burns in the stove." 4 2 As to predication. I 3 Copulative. — Used to assert the attribute of the subject. Truth is mighty. 2 3 Attributive. — Contains the asserting element and the thing asserted. Ex. — Stars twinkle. 5 2 As to limitation i 3 Finite. — Asserts action, being, or state of being. Ex. — Children should obey their parents. 2 3 Infinite. — Assumes action, being, or state of being. Ex. — It is best for children to obey their parents. 6 s As to use in conjugation. i 3 Principal. — Expresses by itself the action, being or state of being. 2 3 Auxiliary. — Used to help other verbs in expressing action, being or state of being — be, do, have, will, shall, may, can and must. Remark. —The first four arc frequently used as principal verbs, the others are always auxil- iary. 2 1 Properties. (Modifications.) i 2 Voice. -—Shows the relation between the verb and its subject. I a Active. — Shows that the subject of the verb acts. Ex. — "The Merrimac " destroyed " the Cumberland" and " the Congress." 2 3 Passive. — Shows that the subject of the verb is acted upon. Ex. — "The Cumberland'' and " the Congress" were destroyed by " the Merrimac." Remark.— All verbs have voice. Intransitive v.rbs usually have only the active voice, the only exception being in cases of ennlla^'e where the passive voice is used for the active. Thus is gone is used for has gone, are come for have come, etc. GRAMMAR. 85 3 a Mode. — Manner of asserting or assuming action. I 3 Finite. — Those which are limited by person and number. i 4 Indicative. — Declares or asks a question. 2 4 Potential. — implies possibility, power, liberty or necessity. Signs. — May, can, must ; might, could, would, should. 3 4 Subjunctive. — Indicates doubt, or contingency. Signs. — Gener- ally known by the prepositions, if, though, lest, unless. The order of the words is sometimes changed and then the preposition is omitted. Ex. — Had I gone instead of //' / had gone. 4 4 Imperative. — Indicates a command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or permission. The subject is usually omitted. It is rarely used in the third person. 2 3 Infinite. — Those which are not limited by person and number, i* Infinitive. i 5 Present. Sign, to. 2 5 Perfect. Sign, to have. 2* Participial (called Participles (14) ). I 5 Of transitive verbs. i 6 Active. 5 7 Present. — Sign, "ing." 2 1 Past. — Used only with an auxiliary to form the perfect tenses of the finite modes in the active voice. 3 7 Perfect. Sign, "having." 2 6 Passive. i 7 Present. — Sign, "being." 2 7 Past. — Used to form the perfect tenses of the finite modes in the passive voice. 3 7 Perfect — Sign, " having been." 2 5 Of intransitive verbs. i 6 Present. 2 6 Past. 3 b Perfect. 3 2 Tense. — Expresses the time ot an action. i 3 Simple. 1* Present. — Expresses present lime. — Sign, ("wow.") 2 4 Past. — (imperfect) — Expresses past time. — Sign, ("yesterday") 3* Future. — Expresses future time. — Sign, shall or will. 2 3 Compound. (Perfect.) i 4 Present Perfect. — (Perfect) — Expresses a past time completed in the present, or in a given period not yet past. — Sign, have, hast, has or hath. 2 4 Past Perfect. — (Pluperfect.) — Expresses a definite past time. — Sign, had or hadst. 3 4 Future Perfect. — Expresses a definite future time. — Sign, shall have or will have. 4 2 Person and Number. — Those properties of finite verbs in which they agree with their subjects. 3. 1 Principal Parts. — So called because all other forms of the verb are made from them. 1- Present Indicative active Go. 2 2 Past Indicative Active. Went. 3- Past Participle. Gone. 4 1 Conjugation. — '• The act of distributing the several inflections or vari- ations ot" a verb in their different voices, modes, tenses, persons and numbers." — Webster. 9. The Adverb. — A word used to modify a verb, adjective or other adverb. i 1 Kinds. (Classes.) I 2 As to signification. i 3 Adverbs of Time. — Answer the questions, When? How long? How soon? or How often? including those used in asking. $6 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS* LIBRARY. I 4 Denoting present time. Ex. — Now, to-day, jet. 2* Denoting past time. Ex. — Yesterday, recently, ago. 3* Denoting future time. Ex. — To-morrow, bv-and-by. 4* Denoting relative time. Ex. — When, before, after. 5 4 Denoting absolute time. Ex. — Always, never, aye. 6* Denoting repeated time. Ex. — Often, again, seldom. 7 4 Denoting order of time. Ex. — Firstly, secondly. 2 3 Adverbs of Place. — Answer the questions, Where? Whither? When? or Whereabout, including those used in asking. i 4 Denoting place in which. Ex. — Where, here, yonder. 2 4 Denoting place to which. Ex. — Whither, hither, up. 3 4 Denoting place from which. Ex. — Hence, whence, out. 4 4 Denoting order of place. Ex. — First, secondly, thirdly. 3 3 Adverbs of Degree. — Answer the question, I low much? How little? i 4 Denoting excess or abundance. Ex. — Much, very. 2* Denoting equality or sufficiency. Kx. — Enough, so, even. 3 4 Denoting deficiency or abatement. Ex. — Little, hardly. 4 4 Denoting quantity in the abstract. Ex. — However, nothing. 4 3 Adverbs of Manner. — Answer the question, How? i 4 Denoting manner from quality. Ex. — Well, ill. 2 4 Denoting affirmation or assent. Ex. — Yes, aye. 3 4 Denoting negation. Ex. — No, not 4 4 Denoting doubt. — Ex. — Perhaps, possibly, perchance. 5 4 Denoting mode or way. Ex. — Thus, like, else. 6* Denoting cause. Ex. — Why, wherefore, therefore. 2* As to use. I 3 Modifying. — Modifies words and phrases without having connect- ing power. Ex. — Beautifully. 2 3 Conjunctive. — Modifies words and introduces a subordinate sen- tence. Ex. — They feared, -when they heard that they were Romans. 3 2 As to formation. I 3 Primitive. — Not derived from other words. Ex. — Enough, where. 2 3 Derivative. i 4 By annexing ly to adjectives. Ex. — Brightly, suspiciously. 2 4 By compounding words, generally a noun and a preposition. Ex. — Aboard, anew, meaning "of new." 2 1 Comparison. — A few adverbs are compared after the manner of adjectives. Ex. — Soon, sooner, soonest; gladly, more gladly, most gladly. 10. The Preposition. — " A word used to express some relation of diner- ent things or thoughts to each other." — Goold Brown. I 1 Kinds. (Classes.) i 2 As to use. i 3 Prepositions of Place. Ex. — In, besides. 2 3 Prepositions of Time. Ex. — Before, after. 3 3 Unclassified. 2 a As to formation. i 3 Simple. — Consisting of a single word. 2 3 Compound — Consisting of two words. Ex. — Out of, from off. 3 3 Complex. — Composed of a preposition and some other part of speech. Ex. — On account of, to the extent of. 11. The Conjunction. — A word used to connect words and sentences. i 1 Kinds. (Classes.) i 2 As to use. i 3 Co-ordinate. — Used to connect sentences or elements of equal rank. Ex. — Victor Hugo is a poet and a novelist. 2 3 Subordinate. — Used to connect elements of unequal rank. Ex.-I will come if possible. GRAMMAR. 87 3 3 Correlative. — Used in pairs Ex.— John came ndUier eating not drinking. 2 J As to signification. i 3 Copulative. — Connects the meaning of words, phrases and sentences, Ex.— Shelley and Keats were contemporaneous English poets. 2 3 Disjunctive. — Connects words, phrases and sentences and at the same time indicates contrary, alternative, or antithetic meaning. Ex. — To be or not to be, that is the question. 2 1 Remark. — Conjunctions are frequently used to introduce sentences. Ex — "And it came to pass, etc " 12. The Interjection. — A word having no connection with other words in the sentence, but simply uttered to express emotion. 13. Comparatively few interjections are introduced into books. Any word may become an interjection when uttered with emotion and not connected with other words in the sentence. 14. Infinitives and Participles. (7.) l 1 Constructions. i a Of a noun. i 3 Dependent. 1 4 Subject of a. finite verb. i 5 To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die." 2 5 Talking too much is the fault of some teachers." 2* Subject of an infinitive. (Rule 8.) i 5 " He thought it [to be] wrong to steal." 2 6 " He thought talking to be teaching." 3 4 Predicate of a. finite verb. 1 5 "To die *'.<; to sleep." 2 6 " Accumulating wealth is not violating God's law." 4* Predicate of an infinitive. j5 11 We thought to resign to be to surrender." 2 5 "I consider gambling to be stealing.' 1 '' 5* Object of finite verb. j5 " We want to go to school." 2 5 " She confessed having stolen the goods." 6* Object of infinitive. 1 5 " He wants to learn to teach." 2 5 " He desires to teach writing rapidly." 7* Object of a participle. i 5 " Learning to write was a difficult task for him." 2 B " Having resumed xvorking on a farm, his health improved." 8 4 Predicate of a participle. i 6 " To flee being to surrender every prospect, they resolved to stand ground." o* Object of a preposition. j5 n We were about to return" 2 5 STL'DENTS' LIBJRART A word which performs two offices is underscored. Conjunctions :md independent elements are enclosed in parentheses. Use the capitals as they are in the sentence without regard to the position in the diagram. 20. Ria 7 path's Grammar, published in 1880, presents the following: The bark that held the prince went down. Placed in diagram thus: BARK WENT DOWN. .The THAT ~s held- I prince [the Explanation.—" Essential elements are set in capitals. Accidental elements are .set in Roman type. The logical subject is divided from the logical predicate by the heavy vertical bar. Subordinate elements are placed in subordinate relations. Connective elements are set in links between the connected parts. Grammatical government is indicated by the wavy line. Gram- matical modification or limitation is indicated by the plain line, the modifying part being sub- ordinate to the part modified. The complementary relation where it exists is denoted by a dotted line. The unity of the adjunct element is indicated by the brace. The dependence of the subordinate clause or clauses indicated by the double vertical line. The logical subject and the logical predicate of the subordinate clause or clauses separated by the broken vertical bar." 21. We have not fully tested the following system, but present it to the consideration of teachers. It will be observed that we have- simply used the exponential system of outlining with the addition of braces to connect the principal parts of a subordinate sentence, or the members of a compound sentence. The bracket is used to enclose words supplied. Connectives are placed between their elements without marking. Independent elements are enclosed in parentheses. 1. The seed which was planted in the garden has become a large tree. Placed thus: i 1 seed i» The ti 8 which 2 3 was planted i* in garden 1 5 the 2 1 has become l 2 tree P a 2 3 large 2. The children came with laugh and shout, and filled the halls with glee. Placed thus: ' i 1 children I" The 1 came i* with laugh GRAMAfAIi. 98 and and 2 2 [with] shout ( t! i 1 [They] \ 2> filled i 2 halls i 3 the 2 2 with glee 3. It is reported by speculators that diamonds have been discovered in Arljona. Placed thus: [that] !i 2 diamonds • 2 2 have been discovered 2 3 in Arizona [It] 2 1 is reported i 3 by speculators. 22. PROGRAMME FOR ANALYSIS. I. 3. 3- 4- 5- Read the sentence. Describe the sentence. A 6 to structure. 1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound. As to proposition : 1. Declarative. 2. Imperative. 3. Exclamatory. 4. Interrogative. Name the complex subject Name the simple subject Point out its modifiers. Describe them. As to structure: /• 8. 9- 10. 11. 12. i3- 1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound. As to relation : 1. Adjective. 2. Adverbial. 3. Objective. 4. Subjective. Name the base of modifier. Describe its modifiers as in 6. Name the complex predicate. Name the simple predicate. Point out its modifiers. Describe them as in 6. Continue as in 7 and 8 of the ject. sub- 23., MODELS OF DIAGRAMMED AND VERBAL ANALYSIS. The diagramming is after the system used in HolbTOok's Grammar. The people all praise him highly. (The ' people 1 praise all ( him highly. This is a simple declarative sentence, of which " the fcoflc all" is the complex suhject, of which " people'" is the simple subject, modified by "the" and "all," simple adjective elements of the first class. Of this sentence •■'■praise him highly'" is the complex predicate of which "praise'" is the simple predicate, modified by "him? as y4 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. a simple objective element of the first class, and by " highly," a simple adverbial element of the first class. i. Hypocrisy is a sort of homage that vice pays to virtue. ' Hypocrisy f* of homage is sort -J ( vice < t to virtue. I ( pays ] ( that This is a comprex declarative sentence, of which " hypocrisy''' is the simp, subj., unmod., and " is a sort of ho?nage that vice pays to virtue 11 is the compl. pred., of which "is sort" 1 '' is the simp, pred., of which " is " is the copula, and "sort " is the attribute, modified by "a" a simp. adj. el. of the first class; by "of homage" a simp, adj. el. of second class; and by "that vice pays to virtue" a simp. adj. el. of the third class, also a simp. decl. subordinate sentence, of which " vice " is the simp, subject, unmod., and " that pays to virtue" is the compl. pred., of which "pays" is the simp, pred., mod. by " to virtue" a simp. adv. el. of the sec. cl., and by "that" a simp, obj. el. of the first class, also the connective of the subordinate sen- tence. 3. The boy seeing his father, hastened home. (The fboy \ \ seeing | father | his 31 hastened | [to] home. This is a simp. decl. sent., of wdiich " the boy seeing his father" is the compl. subj., of which " boy" the simp. subj. is mod. by "the" a simp. adj. el. of the first cl., also, by "seeing his father" a compl. adj. el. of the first cl., of which " seeing" the base, is mod. by " his father" a compl. obj. el. of the first cl., of which "father" the base, is mod. by "his" a simp. adj. el. of the first cl. Of this sent. " hastened home" is the compl. pred., of which " hastened " is the simp, pred., mod. by "\to~\ home" a simp. adv. el. of the sec. cl. 4. His life devoted to the highest interests of humanity, affords us an excel- lent example of usefulness. (His (the life \ \ highest ( devoted | to interests ( of humanity 4- 1 [to] us ( an I affords-) -j excellent ' v (example ( of usefulness. This is a simp. decl. sent., of which "his life devoted to the highest interests of humanity " is the compl. subj., of which "life" GRAM AI Alt. 95 is the simp, subj., mod. by " /it's,'" a simp. adj. el. of the first cl., and by " devoted to the highest interests of humanity" a compl. adj. el. of the first cl., of which « devoted" the base, is mod. by "to the highest interests of humanity" a compl. adv. el. of the sec. cl., of which " to interests'''' is the base, of which " interests," the noun of the base is mod. by " the " and " highest," two simp. adj. el. of the first cl., and by " of humanity? a simp. adj. el. of the sec. cl. Of this sentence " affords us a?i excellent example of usefulness'''' is the compl. pred., of which " affords " is the simp, pred., mod. by « \to~\ us" a simp. adv. el. of the sec. cl., and by " an excellent ex- ample of usefulness" a compl. obj. el. of the first cl. of which « example " is the base, mod. by "an" and « excellent" two simp, adj. el. of the first cl., and by " of ?isefulness" a simp. adj. el. of the sec. cl. When Freedom from her mountain height Unfurled her standard to the air She tore the azure robe of night And set the stars of glory there. She I the azure robe ) of night tore And set there stars j the jof glory Freedom c from height standard | her I to air ! the Unfurled ( her ( mountain When This is a partially comp. compl. dccl. sent, of which " she " is the simp, subj., unmod., and the remainder of the sent, is the compound compl. pred., of which "tore and set" is the compound pred., of which " tore," the first member, is mod. by " the azure robe of night" a compl. obj. el. of the first cl., of which " robe" the base, is mod. by " the" and " azure" two simp. adj. el. of the first cl., and by " of night" a simp. adj. el. of the sec. cl. " Set" the second member of the comp. pred., is mod. by " there" a simp. adv. el. of the first cl. and by " the stars of glory " a compl. obj. el. of the first cl., of which "stars" the base, is mod. bi "the" and " of glory" two simp. adj. el. of respectively the firsi and second classes. Both " tore " and " set " are mod. by " When Freedom from her mountain height Unfurled her standard to the air," a simp. adv. el. of third class; also, a simp. decl. subord. sent., of which Freedom is the simp, subj., unmod., and the remainder is the compl. pred., of which "unfurled" is the simp, pred., mod. by "from her mountain height" a compl. adv. el. of the sec. cl., of which "from height " is the base, of which " height" the noun of the base, is mod. by " her" and "mountain" two simp. adj. el. of the sec. cl. "Un- furled" is also mod. by " her standard" a compl. obj. el. of the TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. first cl., of which "standard" the base is mod. by "her" a simp, adj. el. of the first cl. " Unfurled' 1 '' is further mod. by " to the air" a compl. adv. el. of the sec. cl., of which M to air" is the base, of which "air," the noun of the base, is mod. by "the" a simp, adj. el. of the first cl. Lastly " Unfurled'''' is mod. by "when*''' a simp. adv. el. of the first cl., also, the connective of the subord. sent. 6. There is a point at which fbrhearance ceases to be a virtue. 'There i a point -j i forbearance / -| ceases \ to be virtue | a is ( } at -which 24. The following are sample pages, taken without correction or addition from the outlines prepared by members of the class: T a esl \ The LP s J ^ following are pages -J sample taken f without correction or [without] addition i the from outlines -J ( prepared j by members | of class. | the This is a simp. decl. sent., of which " the following \pages~\ is the compl. subj., of which " \_p<*gcs~\ " is the simp, subj., mod. bv "the''' and "following," two .simp. adj. el. of the 1st cl. Of this sent. "arc sample pages" etc. is the compl. pied., of which u art pages"' is the simp, pivd., of which " pages" the attribute, is mod. by "sample" a simp. adj. el. of the 1 -t cl.; also by " taken without correction or addition from the outlines prepared by members of the class" a compl. adj. el. of the 1st cl., of which " taken" the base, is mod. hv "without correction or I wit kouf\ addition" a compound adv. el. of the second cl.; also by "from the outlines prepared by members of the class" a compl. adv. el. of the 2d cl., of which "from outlines" is the base, of which "outlines" tin- noun of tiie base, is mod. by "lhe"n simp. adj. el. of the 1st cl. and by " prepared by members of the class" a compl. adj. el. of the i^-t cl., of which "prepared" is the base, mod. by "by members of the class" a compl. adv. el. of the 2d cl., of which " members" the noun of the base, is mod. bv " of the class" a compl. adj. el. of * I'kmahks — It is i mistake to suppose thai 1 conjunctive adverb modifies 1 verb in both the principal and subordinate lent. The whole subordinate sentence modifies some part of tin principal sentence, but the conjunctive adverb modifies tin- verb in the subordinate sen- tinr more subiects in the singular connected by or or nor must be singular. 16. A finite verb having two or more subjects in the singular connected by and must be plural. 17. When a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality is the subject of a verb, the verb is plural. 18. When a collective noun conveying the idea of unity is the subject of a finite verb, the verb is singular. GRAM M Ah'. 99 19. 20. 21. 22 Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. Conjunctions connect words, phrases and sentences. Co-ordinate conjunctions join elements of equal rank. — Holbrook. 23. Subordinate connectives join elements of unequal rank. — Holbrook. 24. A preposition shows the relation of its object to the word upon which the latter depends. — Harvey. 25. Infinitives and Participles have the construction of nouns, adjectives and adverbs. 26. Expletives introduce sentences and infinitives with their ob- jective subjects. 27. Interjections have no grammatical relations. PROGRAMMES FOR PARSING. 26. These should be written on the board by the teacher as needed, and copied by the pupils. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 The Noun. Species. Class. Sub-class. Person. Number. Gender. Case. Construction. Rule. The Verb. Species. Class. 1. As to form. 2. As to use. (Sub-class.) Principal Parts. Voice. Mood. Tense. Person . Number. Agreement. Rule. The Pronoun. 1. Species. 2. Class. 1. As to use. 2. As to structure. 3. Sub-class. Antecedent. Agreement. Person. Number. Gender. 4- 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Rule for agreement. Case. Construction. Rule for construction. The Adverb. Species. Class. 1. As to Signification. 2. As to use. Construction. Rule. The Preposition. 1. Species. 2. Class. 3- 4- 1. As to use. 2. As to Formation. 3, Construction. 4. Rule. The Adjective. 1. Species. 2. Class. 3. Sub-class. 4. Comparison. j. Construction. 6. Rule. The Conjunction. 1. Species. 2. Class. 1 . As to use. 2. As to signification. 3. Construction. 4. Rule. The Interjection. 1. Species. 2. Construction. 3. Rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. Some of the words here disposed of are what may be considered difficult constructions, rhey may be taken as keys to aid the teacher in similar constructions. 27. Nouns. 1. The horse runs. "Horse" is a noun, com., class 3d, sing, masc, nom., subj. of "runs." R. 1. 100 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 2. Virtue will be rewarded. "Virtue" is a noun, com., abs., 3d, sing., neut., nom., subj. of " will be rewarded." R. 1. 3. He finds the walking to be disagreeable. " Walking" is a noun, com., verbal, 3d, sing., neut., obj., subj. of the inf. " to be." R. 8. 4. He served in the late war. " War" is a noun, com., 3d, sing., neut., obj., object of prep. " in." R. 7. 4. She is a queen. "Queen" is a noun, com., 3d, sing., fern., nom., in pred. with " is.' R. 2. 5. My friends, where are they? "Friends" is a noun, com., 3d, plu., com., nom., absolute by pleonasm. R. 5. 6. He bought it at Crimes, the grocer. " Crim's" is a noun, prop. 3d, sing., masc, poss., limits [" store"]. R. 3. 7. "Grocer" is a noun, com., 3d, sing., masc, poss., in apposition with " Crim's." R. 4. 8. There are too many ifs in that sentence. " Ifs " is a noun, com., 3d, plu., neut., nom., subj. of "are." R. 1. 9. Tell the printer to put some *'s there. " *'s " is a noun, com., 3d, plu., neut., obj., object of "put." R. 6. 10. A verb is a word. " Verb " is a noun, com., 3d, sing., neut., nom., subject of "is." R. 1. 28. Pronouns. 1. May his name pass into oblivion. " His " is a pronoun, pers., simp., its antcc. is the name of the person spoken of, with which it agrees in 3d, sing., masc, R. 9; poss., limits " name." R. 3. 2. "He that hath eyes to see let him see." "He" is a pro- noun, pers., simp., its antec. is the name of the pers. spoken of, with which it agrees in 3d, sing., masc, R. 9; nom., absolute by pleonasm, R. 5. 3. " Him " is a pronoun, pers., simp., antec. name of the pers. spoken of, with which it agrees in 2d, sing., masc, R.9; obj., subj. of the infinitive " [to~] see" R. 8. 4. Whatever he does suits the people. " Whatever " is a pron., rel., comp., double, equivalent to " the thing whichever.' 1 '' " Thing " the antec part., is a noun, com., 3d, sing., neut., nom., subj. of" suits." R. 1. " Whichever" the rel. part, is a pron., rel., comp. ; its antcc. is "thing" with which it agrees in 3d, sing., neut., R. 9; obj., obj. of "does." R. 6. 29. Adjectives. 1 . A good conscience fears nothing. " Good " is an adjective, descriptive, positive, (compared good, better, best); limits "con- science." R. 19. 2. Great is Diana of the Ephcsians. " Great " is an adjective, descrip., positive, (compared great, greater, greatest); limits " Diana." R. 19. 3. An English man-of-war lay in the harbor. "English" is an adj., descrip., prop., incomparable, limits " man-of-war." R. 19^ GRAMMAR. 101 , 30. Finite Verbs. 1. Grammarians differ. "Differ" is a verb, reg., intrans., act., indie, pres., 3d, plu., agreeing with its subject, " grammarians." R. 14. 2. Socrates was poisoned. " Was poisoned" is a verb, reg., trans., pass., ind., past, 3d, sing., agreeing with its subject "Socrates." R. 14. 3. Walk your horse around the lot. " Walk " is a verb, re^., trans., act., imp., pres., 2d, sing., agreeing with its subject "you," understood. R. 14. 4. Our breakfast -was hurriedly disposed of. " Was disposed of" is a verb., reg., trans., compound, pass., ind., past, 3d, sing., agreeing with its subj. " breakfast." R. 14. 5. / might have gone home. " Might have gone " is a verb, irreg., intrans., (p.p. go, went, gone.) act., pot., past perf., istsing., agreeing with its subj. " I." R. 14. 31. Infinitives and Participles. 1. lie tried to run. " To run " is a verb, irreg., intrans., (p. p., run, ran, run), act., infinitive, pres., having the construction of a noun, R. 25, object of "tried." 2. To die is to sleep'. " To die " is a verb, reg., intrans., act., infinitive, pres., having the construction of a noun, R. 25, subj. of "is." 3. " To sleep " is a verb, irreg., intrans., (p. p. sleep, slept, slept), act., infinitive, pres., having the construction of a noun, R. 25; in predicate with " is." 4. He came to express his gratitude. " To express" is a verb, reg., trans., act., infinitive, pres., having the construction of an ad- verb, R. 25, limits "came." 5. He knows better than to trust you. 2d reading: He knows better than to trust you [would be safe]. " To trust " is a verb, reg., trans., act., infinitive, pres., having the construction of a noun, R. 25, subject of the verb "[would be]." 6. He was so much affected as to weep. 2d reading: He was so much affected as [he would be affected] to -weep. " To weep" is a veil), irreg., intrans., (p. p. weep, wept, wept), act., infin., pres., having the cor.struetion of an adverb, R. 25, modifying the verb [would be affected], 7. It is oh! to be a slave along with the barbarous Turk, Where woman has never a soul to save. If this is Christian work. 2d reading: It is oh [I long] to 6c, etc. " To be " is a verb, irreg., intrans., (p. p. be, was, been), act., infinitive, pies., having the construction of a noun, R. 25, the ohject of the verb [long ]. 8. "To s;ive " is a verb, reg., trans., act., infin., pres., having the construe, of an adjective, R. 25, limiting the noun "soul." 9. His forgetting the books delayed us. "Forgetting" is a 102 TllACllllRs' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. verb, irreg., (p. p. forget, forgot, forgotten), Iran--., act., parti- cipial, pres., having the construction of" a noun, R. 25, subj. of "delayed.'" 10. I consider preaching to be teaching. •• Preaching" is a verb, reg., intrans., act., participial, pres., having the construction of a noun, R. 25, subject of the infinitive "to be." 11. "Teaching" is a verb, irreg., intrans., (p. p. teach, taught, taught), act., participial, pres., having the construe, of a noun, R. 25, predicate of the infinitive " to be." 12. lie was late, having been delayed. " Having 1 been de- layed " is a verb, reg., trans., passive, participial, perfect, having the construction of an adjective, R. 25, limiting the pron. " He." 32. Adverbs. 1. The man worked diligently. " Diligently" is an adverb of manner, modifies " worked." R. 20. 2. Come to the table when the bell rings. " When" is an adverb of time, conjunctive, modifies " rings," R. 20, and connects the subordinate sentence "come." R. 23. 3. He was a very tall man. " Very" is an adverb of degree, modifies " tall." R. 20. 33. Prepositions. 1. The boy threw the ball through the window. " Through" is a preposition, simple, shows the relation of " window" to " threw." R. 24. 2. lie ran out of the house. "Out of" is a preposition, compound, shows the relation of " house" to " ran." R. 24. 3. lleowes/o the extent of a thousand dollars. "To the extent of" is a preposition complex, shows the relation of" dollars" to "owes." R. 24. 34. Conjunctions. 1. He spoke slowly but earnestly. " Hut" is a conjunction, co-ordinate, disjunctive, and connects the adverbs " slowly" and "earnestly." R. 22. 2. We went to the city and visited our friends. " And" is a conjunction, co-ordinate, copulative and connects the sentences, "We went to the city," and "we visited our friends." R. 22. 3. I will be there //"possible. " If" is a conjunction, subor- dinate, connects " possible" with " I will be there." R. 22. 35. Interjections. 1. Alas! my noble boy that thou shouldst die. "Alas" is an interjection, has no grammatical relation. R. 27. 36. Miscellaneous Constructions. I. They elected him President. Expanded thus: They elect- ed him [for- him to be] President*. 1. " Him" i^ a pron., objective, obj. of " elected." R. 9. 2. " For 8 " is an expletive used to introduce the infinitive "to be" with its objective subject "him." GRAMMAR. 103 3. " Him 2 " is a pron., objective, subject of the infinitive "to be". R. S. 4. " President 4 " is a noun, objective, predicate of the infinitive "to be," referring to its subject " him 2 " R. 2. II. She desired the young man to leave. 1. " Man" is a noun, objective, subject of the infinitive "to leave." R. S. III. For me to resist would be death. 1. " For" is an introductory preposition, introducing the in- finitive "to resist" and its subject " me." 2. " Me" is a pronoun, objective, subject of the infinitive " to resist." R. 8. IV. He taught the boys grammar. This may be read, "He taught the boys [in] grammar," or "He taught [to] the boys grammar." According to the first reading " boys" is the object of " taught," and " grammar" is the object of "[in]." According to the second reading, " boys" is the object of "[to]" and " grammar" is the object of "taught." These two views may be sustained by placing the verb in the passive voice ; thus: Grammar was taught to the boys, or the boys were taught in grammar. METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 37. As Grammar is frequently taught in our schools it is a dull, dry, hard study. On the contrary when properly taught by an enthusiastic teacher it becomes one of the most delightful of studies and a class in grammar may be made one of the liveliest in the school. 38. Do not dwell too long upon the technicalities of gram- mar with a class of very 3-oung pupils. Make the lessons more of the nature of language lessons. It is true that every lesson in school in whatever branch should be a language lesson, but in con- nection with the technicalities of grammar pay especial attention to the expressions both written and vocal of your pupils. Insist rigidly upon correct capitalizing, punctuation and spelling. En- courage criticism among the class on these points. 39. But while avoiding too much technicality do not fall into the habit of substituting supposed simpler names for the regular terms of grammar, such as "name words" for nouns, "quality words" foi adjectives, etc. The technical terms of grammar must he learned some time and they may as well learn them at once. But what we mean is this, it is not necessary to enter into all the details and difficulties of construction a-- you would in an advanced cla^s but give plenty of exercises in the simpler constructions so as to keep your pupils employed and to cultivate accuracy and readi- ness of expression. 40. The tendency to make mistakes in writing is so great that 104 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. too much written exercise can scarcely he given. All the parts of speech may he studied thus somewhat superficially, giving only the simpler constructions and also the analysis of easy sentences, in one three months' term by a class of beginners. The second time they go over the subject they may go more into details and handle the more difficult constructions. 41. I would then urge the importance, nay, the necessity of written exercises in all grammatical teaching. The advantages of written work may he enumerated as follows: I. The pupils will have more employment. This is a desideratum, especially with primary pupils. _*. They will he more likely to prepare all the work assigned. 3. The teacher will he better able to judge as to whether the pupil has studied his lesson. In large classes this will be necessary as it will he impossible to get an oral recitation from every pupil each day. It is true the pupil may copy the work of another, hut the teacher who is on the alert will soon detect this. 4. Pupils will work with greater care. 5. They will accustom themselves to deliniteness of thought and accuracy of expression. 6. They will make more rapid progress in reading, penmanship, spelling, punctuation, use of capitals, and will acquire general busi- ness habits. 7. They will he better prepared for composition writing. 42. With beginners slates may he used, with an occasional lesson assigned to he written on paper with pen and ink. With advanced classes pen and ink should he used in all cases. At the recitation part of the work may he placed on the blackboard to be criticised by pupils ami teacher. Slates <>r papers maybe exchanged for criticism, or each pupil may read his own work. 43. The wide-awake teacher will contrive many ways to maintain an interest and avoid monotony. The written exercises may consist of sentence making, word analysis, parsing, sentence analysis, diagramming, outlines, short essays, etc. (See Composition and /,ctters). 44. The first exercise for a beginning class should he to de- velop the idea of a sentence. The teacher writes on the hoard several words having no obvious connection, also a number of words connected in a sentence and asks the pupils to point out the difference b< tween the two groups of words. The definition of a sentence will naturally follow and he comprehended by the pupils. Define and illustrate the principal parts of a sentence and -iveprac- tice in analysis by simply Stating subject and predicate, and giving reasons whv. Exercises in writing subjects lor a given number of predicates and Vice vers,/ may next follow. 45. The outlines we have given may be divided and parts of the headings written on the hoard, and assigned as topic lists for study, the pupils using different text-books if they wish in preparing their lessons. To primary classes only the more general points may be GRAMMAR. 105 given. With advanced learners the general points of the outline may be drawn from the class by appropriate questions, written on the board by the teacher and assigned as a next lesson requiring as a preparation the pupils to fill out the outline as best they can. The recitation then will consist in a discussion of the outline as ar- ranged by the pupils and the definition of terms used. A recitation may be made interesting and lively in this way and pupils who had detested grammar will declare it to be their most delightful study. Such has been our experience. 46. The reading of the written work of the pupils cither from slates, papers or blackboard can be made very interesting and profi- table by a proper system of mutual criticisms. As an illustration, suppose a pupil has written the following sentence with the parsing of the italicised words on the board thus: " this is the house that jack built House is a n com, 3rd sing. ncut. nom subj. of the verb built." Treacher. — Any criticism on this parsing? (several hands go up.) John. — The sentence should begin with a capital letter. Mary. — The word Jack should begin with a capital and the sentence should end with a period. Teacher. — Right. Any further criticisms? Henry. — There should be a period after n. Teacher. — Why! Henry. — Because it is an abbreviation. Alice. — There should also be a comma after n. 'Teacher.— Why do you want a comma and period both? Alice. — The period is for the abbreviation and the comma to show that a word is omitted. 47. Thus the criticism would proceed until all the mistakes are corrected. This may seem an extreme case, but the teacher who will practice requiring pupils to write out their lessons will find no small number, even of those who are considered smart pupils, who will at first make as many mistakes as are here shown. Even after long drill in this way pupils will make some mistakes in punc- tuation, capitalization and spelling. 48. If anything will make pupils more careful in their writing it is this constantly being subject to criticism by their fellows. Be- sides it adds life and enthusiasm to a recitation, each one eager to point out some error, for even the dullest in the class can sometimes find errors in the work of the brightest pupils. 49. In parsing or analysis the teacher should adopt some defi- nite system and require all pupils to follow the models given. The models for parsing and analysis given in the preceding pages are such as have stood the test of years of experience and we can com- mend them to the teacher. 50. Teach Grammar in connection with all other subjects, that is, let no ungrammatical language either spoken or written go uncorrected in any of your classe-. But always remember to make criticisms courteously and kindly, lest you ofFend or embarrass the pupil. 10(3 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRAItr. 51. The teacher should feel that it is the constant use <>f language that gives skill. The correct use of language can never be taught in a grammar class alone. Pupils in all classes should State facts in their own language and not in the language of the text-books. If the teacher finds that pupils are repeating some- thing they have committed to memory, he should by asking them questions, it" possible, compel them to state the facts in their own language. 52. Below are given a list of very common errors of speech. By calling attention to them it is hoped the teacher will be on his guard against them. " I seen him," for 1 saw him. " I have saw," for I have seen. "Gim' me that there hook." "I come to school yesterday." Two negatives, as, k - I don't know nothing about it." Incorrect use of will and shall, as " I will drown ami nobody shall help me." This is a difficult and puzzling case even for the teachers. " Drownded," for drowned. " I guess," " I reckon," etc. -It is them." "It is me." » Who did you seer" " His-self," " Theirselves." •• His'n." "Her'n." "Git." "Ought," for naught. "Jography." Drop- ping final g^ as " spellin," runnin," etc. QUES I CONS ON ' IRAMMAR. Manyof the questions consist of a single word. The teacher should write or express them in full. The numbers refer to sections an. |V| Kinds of pro- nouns? Personal? Relative? Interrogative? What is a double relative ? 6. [4 1 ] What are the properties of pionouns? 7. What is an adjective? Kinds? Descriptive? Proper: Articles? Pronominals? Numeral adjectives? Cardinal? Ordinal: How are adjec tives compared? S. What is a verb? Kinds as to form? Regular? Irregular: Kinds as to inflection? What is a defective verb? A. redundant verb? > s - |.V J | Kindsas to use in the sentence? Transitive? Intransitive? 8. \y\ Kinds as to predi- cation? What is a copulative verb? 8. [s 8 ] Kinds as to limitation? What is a finite verb? 8. [6 s ] Kinds as to use in conjugation? What is an auxiliary verb? S. |:'| Name the properties of verbs. What is voice: Give an example of a sent' nee containing a verb in the active voice; in the passive voice. What is mode? Name and define the modes. What i- an infinitive? What is a participle? What is tense? Name and define the tenses:- S. |V| What are the principal parts of a verb? <,. What is an adverb f Name the kinds. Mention some adverbs that may be compared; 10. What is a preposition? Name the kinds. 11. What is a conjunction? Kind-? 1 J. What is an interjection? GRAMMAR. 107 14. Pa> s< the italicized -words in Hie following sentences: [The numbers in brackets refer to constructions given under sec. 14.] [i 4 j To steal is sinful. Teaching children was his delight. [2*] I think it [to be] wicked to talk in that manner. I supposed ^reaching to be teaching. Vy\ To obey is to enjoy. Coun- terfeiting coins is defrauding the government, [t; 4 ] Do 3011 love to teach!' The pupil confessed having copi, rfthe essay. [ set oil independent words or phrases, will soon be learned. The semicolon and colon are iiol so much used as formerly. The interrogation and excla- mation points, especially the former, should he taught to very young pupils. The use of the hyphen to separate parts of a com- pound word or syllables at the end of a line, should be taught at COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 109 an early stage. For convenience of reference the principal rules for punctuation are given below. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 5. The Period (.). 1. At the end of every sentence not requiring an interroga- tion or exclamation point. 2. After every abbreviated word, unless the word is. abbre- viated by omitting letters from the middle of it and their place sup- plied by an apostrophe, as confd for continued. These cases, how- ever, are more appropriately called contractions. None is used where the word is contracted by using a numeral, as, jd, 2d, for third, second. 3. After every heading or sub-heading, whether in a separate line or beginning a paragraph and after the address and signature of a letter or printed document. 4. After Roman and Arabic numerals when used to num- ber paragraphs or lists of items or subjects in the same paragraph, but it should not follow these numerals when used to number pages of books or when used for reference marks. 5. For leaders in tables of contents or indexes where the space is great. 6. To separate decimal numbers from whole numbers and before figures to show that they are decimals. The separation of dollars and cents comes under this rule. It is not correct to write .25 cts. when meaning twenty-five cents. The above expression means "-rWof a cent" if it means anything, but it is wrong to place the plural after a decimal as any decimal is less than the num- ber one and cannot be plural. 7. Sometimes used in place of* * * to show the omission of part of a quotation; as, Huxley says, ;t Size is not grandeur, forty millions at your first centenary .?" 8. The Comma (,). — The use of the comma is in some cases a matter of taste and in others a matter of judgment, and few abso- lute rules can be laid down. 1. Whenever the connectives are omitted in a series of words, phrases or clauses, and sometimes where connectives are used between clauses which are long; as coal, iron and lead are mined in Missouri, and in low a lend and coal arc found. 2. In a sentence so long that it might be difficult to separate the subject from the predicate, the principal parts should be sepa- rated by a comma. 3. Independent or explanatory words, phrases or < lauscs, also adverbs and short phrases which come between the closely related parts of a sentence, should be set off with commas. Ex. — There is, however, a limit to forbearance. Greeley, the great journalist, is dead. 110 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. 4. A term connected to another by or and having the same meaning, should be separated by a comma; as, the Island of Papua, or New Guinea. 5. A relative pronoun should be separated by a comma from its antecedent when its clause is explanatory, parenthetical, or expresses another idea; as, cherish patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. 6. Direct quotations, maxims, mottoes, etc., should be sepa- rated bv commas when they consist of one sentence; when of more than one, a colon is better. 7. In the heading, address, conclusion and superscription of a letter, the items should be set off by commas; as: — Troy, Miami Co., Ohio, December 17, 1SS1. Mr. James Smith, Jr., Maysville, Ky. Respectfully, John Brown. 7. The Semicolon (;). — This mark is rarely used except in long sentences. 1. To separate clauses which are themselves subdivided by commas, and might not readily be distinguished otherwise. 2. To separate members of a series which have a common dependence upon or relation with, words or expressions at the begin- ning or end of a sentence. As an example see the Declaration of Independence. 3. Before as, viz., c. g., i. e., and similar expressions where examples, or a specification of particulars follow, except where such examples are parenthetical in a sentence; as, "A noun is a name; as, John, book, virtue." 8. The Colon (:). — Generally used to introduce a speech or quotation containing more than one sentence, or a series of state- ments, when introduced by thus, as follows, etc. When the mat- ter following a colon begins a new paragraph a dash should be used after the colon. The colon is properly used on the title pages of books between the name of the place of publication and that of the publisher; as, Chicago: S. C. Griggs & Co. 9. The Interrogation Point ( ?). — It should follow every direct question, but not indirect questions. A question should never be divided by any other mark except a comma or dash. 10. The Exclamation Point (!).--It is used alter interjections, exclamatory sentences, words and phrases. If an exclamatory sen- tence contains an interjection, the point need not follow the inter- jection, only be placed at the end of the sentence. O never has the exclamation point immediately after it. 11. The Dash (— ). 1. Is used to precede and follow parenthetical clauses which COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. Ill are too closelv connected with the sentence to require parenthesis marks. 2. Where the sense is suddenly changed or suspended, and where a speech is interrupted by another person speaking. 3. To follow a heading at the commencementof a paragraph. 4. To precede the name of the authority of a quotation; as, Brevity is the soul of wit. — Shakespeare. 5. To show omission of a part of a word; as, Mr. C- n was present. 6. Between two numbers to show that they are a series in- cluding all between; as, 2 — 5. 12. Parentheses ( ). — Used to enclose matter not belonging to the sentence, as explanations, definitions, references, translations, authorities, etc. When used where a comma, semicolon or period is required, if the matter enclosed relates to a single word or short clause, these marks should follow the last parenthesis. If it is mat- ter relating to the whole sentence, a comma should also precede each parenthesis. 13. Brackets [ ]. — These marks are used for nearly the same purpose ;is parentheses, being more especially reserved for correc- tions, interpolated matter, notes, remarks made by the editor of another man's works, or the author's explanation in the quotation from another. 14. The Hyphen (-). — The principal use is to separate the parts of compound words. Many words which were formerly compound and spelled with a hyphen are now spelled as one word. The dictionary represents usage and should be consulted in cases of doubt. It is also used to show that a word is divided at the end of a line. Syllables should never be divided. It is sometimes used between syllables to aid in pronunciation, and occasionally words are connected by a hyphen to indicate that they are to be taken as one qualifying adjective, as, " It was in that little walk-on-a-crack- or-be-lost community." 15. Quotation Marks (" "). — Used to enclose matter taken from another author or said by a character in his own words. When one quotation occurs within another, single marks are used (''); every new paragraph, when a lengthy piece is quoted should have the beginning marks hut not the closing, except the last paragraph. It is a common practice to enclose words or phrases in quotation marks which the writer does not indorse, though he may have in- vented them himself, or any slang or unusual expression, or proper names and titles of hooks which are not well known. Such use is a matter <>t taste and judgment. 16. The Apostrophe ('). 1. To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contracted words or when two words are contracted and combined; as don't for do not, I'll for I will, 'mongst for amongst. 112 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 2. To denote the possessor case [See Grammar, $}. 3. To denote the nlural of figures and Utters (See Gram- mar, 5). 4. To denote the omission of the figures or words for the century in dates; as, '76 for 1876; "[fifty -four for eighteen hundred and fifty- four. 17. Reference Marks, (*), (f), (J), (|j), (§),(1f), (***)> ^so letters and figures, are used to refer the reader to notes at the bot- torn or side of the page. 18. Words to be printed in italics should be underscored with one line, in small CAPITALS, two lines, in LARGE CAPITALS three lines, in bold face letters, a wavy line. Urmakks. — "The English has no universally recognized accentual or diacritical marks, except the macron ( — ) and breve (--<) which are never used in general works, and the diaeresis (••). Even this last mark is used in our spelling- books and dictionaries for a purpose totally different from its proper use, which (as its name signifies) is to show that two vowels which might constitute a diphthong are to be pronounced separately [Ex. -Zoology, ZoOphyte.] It is also correctly used in proper names from the German. [Ex.-GOthe, the same as Goethe, GOtttngen, etc.] . — Bigelovu's //am/ Book of Punctuation. 19. A paragraph is a single sentence or a group of sentences more or less connected in meaning, and written or printed by begin- ning the first word a little to the right of the left marginal line. The writer must use his judgment about paragraphing. A para- graph should never extend over a page of print as it spoils the ap- pearance and affords no rest for the eye. On the other hand, too many paragraphs on a page should he avoided. 20. Correct spelling, proper punctuation, proper use of capi- tals and abbreviations, and correct grammatical construction^ though all indispensable to good composition and letter writing, are not all the requisites. Some attention must be paid to style, or manner in which the writer expresses his thoughts. 21. One of the lirst requirements of style is clearness and in order to secure this it is necessary: — 1. That the writer have a dear understanding of what he attempts to write. If he does not understand the subject himself he cannot make it clear to others. Pupils should not undertake to write upon subjects which they do not understand. 2. That the right words should he chosen to express the thought. If in doubt about a word consult the dictionary and com- pare its meaning with other words of a similar meaning, and choose that word which best expresses the idea. Use simple words wher- ever they can he made to express the meaning, and above all things avoid foreign -cords and phrases. Use as many words as will ex- press your ideas and no more. 3. Thai there- should be unity of thought both in the sen- tence and the discourse. Ideas which have no connection with each other should not be expressed in the same sentence, and the sentences should bear a relation to each other in thought. COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 113 4. That the sentences be not too long. It is better to make several sentences than to attempt to express many ideas in one sen- tence. It requires skill to manage long sentences. 5. A proper arrangement of the words. Though there are many ways of arranging words to afford variety of expression, yet there are certain points to be observed or the variety will be at the expense of clearness. Do not place a relative too far from its antecedent. Place modifying terms near the words they modify, or in such a position as to leave no doubt as to what they modify. 22. There are other qualities of style, a discussion of which will not be profitable here. The reader should consult some good work on rhetoric. For a discussion of imagery, or figures of speech, see Prosody. 23. The first thing to do in writing an essay is to make an outline of the entire subject, that is, simply to arrange the points you wish to treat, in the order in which you wish to discuss them. This is, indeed, the principal part of the work. It is the frame- work or skeleton of thought which you must clothe with living words. Under the head of Systems of Outlining in another part of this book are given a number of outlines which are for the triple purpose of illustrating methods of outlining, to serve as skeletons of essays which may be written by the pupil, and as models for similar outlines to be made out by the pupil. LETTER WRITING. 24. In the discussion of the writing of a letter the following points are usually considered : The Heading, The Introduction, The Body, The Conclusion, The Folding and The Superscrip- tion. 26. The heading consists of the name of the post office at which the writer receives his mail, or the name of the place at which he is stopping, and the date of writing. As a general rule the name of the post office, county and State should be given. If in a large and well-known city like New York, Chicago or Cincin- nati, the name of the county may properly be omitted. If in a city or town where the mail is carried to the houses, the number of the house anil name of street should be written. If at a prominent hotel, or well-known public institution of any kind, its name may take the place of the number and street. Necessity of Writing the County. — Many persons in small country places habitually omit the county, thinking it superfluous. This is a great mis- take. On postal cars (where all the distributing is now done) the mail is dis- tributed entirely by counties. The clerks are often worked to their utmost capacity, hence a letter to a distant obscure village must have its county traced in the " Postal Guide." Such letters are liable to lie over one mail and be de- layed or missent, finally reaching the dead-letter office; in this way letters of great importance often fail to reach their destination in time. 114 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 26. The heading should begin about an inch or more from the top of the page, or on the first ruled line of ruled letter paper. [f the letter is very short, only a few lines, it may begin Lower down. The first line of the heading should begin a little to the left of the middle of the page, the next line a little further to the right,. and the next a little further than the second. It is Letter to write out the name of the mouth in full and use figures only for the day of the month. The year may be abbreviated by omitting the century, using an apostrophe; as, December i s, 'Si, (16). 27. The introduction consists of the address and salutation. The address is the name, title and place of residence or business of the person to whom the letter is written. The salutation is a com- plimentary address, consisting of customary words of respect or endearment suited to the person addressed. 28. In regard to titles the following are proper: J//-., for a man, before his name, or Esq. after it; Master, for a hoy; Messrs., for several men; Miss, for an unmarried lady; Mrs., for a married lady; Misses, for several unmarried ladies; Mesdanies, for several married ladies; Dr., for a physician, surgeon or dentist; Rev., for a minister, or if his given name is not known, Rev. Mr.; Rev. Dr., for a Doctor of Divinity, or Rev. before the name and D. D. after it; Hon.,iox a Member of Congress, State Senator, Judge, Mayor, or Cabinet officer; His Excellency, for the President, a Governor or an Embassador. It is proper to address a married lady with the name and title of her husband, as, Mrs. Dr. L. M. Kennedy, or with the name without the title, as, Mrs. John V. Hadley. The promiscuous use of Esq. in the case of men of no prominence is absurd. 29. As to the salutation, strangers may he addressed as Sir or Gentlemen, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, etc., according to their station; acquaintances, as Dear Sir, etc.; friends, as, My Dear Sir, Dear Friend, Friend Smith, etc.; relatives and dear friends as My Dear Child, My Dear Wife, Dearest Emma, etc. 30. The address should begin very near the left margin of the page, and on the next line below the heading or the next hut one. If it consist of more than one line, the second line should begin a little to the right, and the third a little further still. In official documents and in letters to intimate friends the address is sometimes placed in a corresponding position at the bottom of the letter, (43). 31. When the address occupies more than one line begin the salutation on left marginal line; when the address occupies but one line begin the salutation a little to the right of the marginal line. It should end with a comma. 32. The body of the letter should begin on the line below and a little to the right ot the salutation, unless the introduction consists of four lines, when it should begin on the same line as the saluta- tion, in which case a dash should follow the comma, or a colon and dash be used instead of the comma. COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 115 33. If it be a business letter, let it be brief and to the point. Say what you mean in the fewest words, yet omit nothing neces- sary to a full understanding of the subject. Write sums of money in both figures and words to prevent mistakes. In letters of friend- ship write just as you would talk to your friend were he present. Apply the golden rule here, and as you like to read newsy, chatty letters from a friend, give in like measure. What interests you will be very likely to interest your friend. 34. The conclusion consists of the coinplitnentary closing and the signature. Business letters may be closed with Tours, Truly yours, Tours truly, Tours respectfully, Very respectfully yours, etc. Letters of friendship by Tours affectionately, Toztr friend, Tours sincerely. 35. The complimentary closing should begin a little to the right of the middle of the page below the last line of the body and the signature follow it on the next line below, a little to the right. Sign your full name if writing to a stranger, and if a lady write Miss or Mrs., as the case may be. Write your name plainly. 36. If the size of the sheet is adapted to the envelope, as it should be, place the letter with the first page uppermost, and fold by turning the lower third up over the middle third, and then the upper third down over that, keeping the edges even. 37. The superscription is the name, title and post office or residence of the person to whom the letter is to be sent, and is written on the back of the envelope. Observe the same rules in regard to post office, county, State, number and street as given un- der heading, (25). If the letter is to be sent by a friend, the name and residence oidy of the person need be given, or the name only, and at the lower left hand corner write, By kindness of- -. (Insert here the name of the bearer). 38. The superscription should begin on or below the median line of the envelope, and near enough to the left side to get all the name and titles in one line. The second line should begin a little to the right and contain the number of the house and street, or the name of the post office. The third line should begin a little further to the right and contain the name of the county or State, or both. It is best to write out the name of the State in full. Four lines may be used if necessary, always remembering to commence each new line a little to the right of tiie preceding one, (46). 39. Never draw lines with a pencil or scratch them with a pin on the envelope, but learn to write straight without ruled lines. Make the lines an equal distance apart. Place the stamp on the upper right hand corner of the envelope. Remember that many letters go to the dead letter office because not directed plainly and fully. Never abbreviate counties, nor in fact any word that is not generally understood. 40. In formal notes of invitation or acceptance there should 116 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. be no headings introduction, nor signature, the third person being vised instead of the first, and the date being written at the bottom on the left side of the page. EXAMPLES. 41. A Business Letter. Order for Goods. Hamilton, Marion Co., Iowa, January 12, 1882. Messrs. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co., 137 Walnut St., Cincinnati, Ohio. Gentlemen, Enclosed you will find Ten Dollars {$1 0.00), for which please send the following list of books as per your advertisement in The Practical Teacher: — (Here give list). Send books by American Express to Hamilton, Marion Co., Iowa. Yours, James j4. Martin, 42. A Business Letter. — Application for a Country School. Shelbyville, Shelby Co., Indiana, June 25, 1881. Mr. T. S. Wilson, Ray's Crossing, Indiana, Sir: — / desire to know if you have employed a teacher for your school for the coming year. If not, I beg leave to offer myself as a candidate for the position. I have attended the Central Xormal College, Dan- ville, Ind., four terms, and I enclose a recommendation from the Principal of that institution. If you desire a personal interview I shall be glad to meet you at such a time and place as you may name. In your reply please state the number of months school you expect to have and the wages usually paid teachers. Respectfully, John H. Thomas. COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 117 43. A Letter of Friendship. 293 Lake St., Chicago, Dec. 21, 1881. My Dear Sister: Your good, newsy letter of the 16th was read with great pleasure. Though here in a great city where there is so much to see and hear, I often think of home and of the loved ones there, and though I have been away from home a great deal, at times a feeling of homesickness conies over me and I cannot throw it off. $Lt such times a good, long letter, such as you write, does me a world of good. Do, please, write as soon as you receive this, and tell me all the news. I expect to return home, I can- not say just zohen, but before mang weeks. 1 am suc- ceeding well with my work, and my health is good. Yours affectionately, Henry Watson. Miss Emma Watson, Huntley, Henry Co., III. 44. Letter of Introduction. 70 Metropolitan Block, Chicago, Nov. 26, 1881. Mr. J. H. McLean, Boston, Mass., Dear Friend: — This will introduce to you my friend, Mr. G. L. Spillman. rtny kindness you may show him I shall esteem as a personal favor. Very truly, Thos. H. Brown. 45. Formal Notes. — Invitation, Accepting, Declining. Mr. James P. Price presents compliments to Miss Elsie Stewart and requests the pleasure of her com- pany to the concert, Fridag evening, Jan. 2. 2^2 Prairie tive., Dec. 27,1881. 118 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Miss Elsie Stewart presents compliments to Mr. James P. Price and is pleased to accept his company to the concert, Friday evening. 24- Nelson St., Dec. 27, 1881. . \fiss Elsie Stewart presents compliments to Mr. James P. Price and regrets that a previous engage- merit prevents her accepting his company to the con- cert. Friday evening. 24- Kelson St., Dec. 27,1881. Formal notes of this kind are used only between comparative strangers. A better acquaintance will justify a less formal manner, as, "James P. Price re- quests the pleasure of Miss Elsie Stewart's company," etc., or formality may be laid aside entirely, and you may address the party in the usual manner, saying, " I desire the pleasure of your company," etc, and sign your name as in an ordinary letter. 46. An envelope when properly addressed will appear as below : #STAMP.& Thomas rf. Kendall, Esq., Springfield, Clark Co. Ohio. HINTS TO TEACHERS. 47. In all grammar classes or in reading and spelling classes or as a general exercise for all the school who are old enough to write readily, there should be frequent exercises in sentence mak- ing, which is the first step to regular composition. Let the teacher write on the board the word .** horse," for example, and ask the pupils to write as mam sentences as possible in a given time con- COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 119 taining this word, the teacher giving as models, a few sentences, as : The horse runs. A horse runs. Horses run. I saw the horse. Require that the sentences lie quite short and criticise the work carefully, seeing that the proper plural forms are used for the verb and that the sentences are properly capitalized and punctuated. Other nouns may he given or verbs, and sentences formed in a simi- lar manner. The particular object here, being to drill in the use of nouns and verbs. A noun may he given as a subject, and pupils be required to write as many predicates as possible, and vice versa. 48. Adjectives may be introduced next as the particular objects of drill. Require pupils to write sentences containing a given noun with as many different qualifying adjectives as possible. Have them form sentences from such phrases as Sweet apples, A sour orange, etc., by placing the adjective in the predicate as, The apples are sweet. The orange is sour, etc. 49. Such exercises though of frequent occurrence should not be too lengthy, and when pupils have reached some degree of pro- ficiency in constructing simple sentences, they should have practice in writing very short compositions on very easy subjects or letters to friends, describing some simple objects or narrating tacts of their own observation. Perhaps it will not be best at first to call their efforts compositions, as there is something in the name that makes it seem something very difficult. Better say, write what you know about such a matter, and give such assistance at first in the way of outlines, questions, suggestions, etc., that the pupil will be writing compositions before he knows what he is doing. 50. To form the outlines of the first compositions let the teacher talk with the pupils on some subject, and by proper ques- tions ami suggestions a number of points may be drawn from the class which the teacher writes on the board for the pupils to copy. Pursue this plan until the pupils are able to construct outlines for themselves. 51. The following is an outline for a composition on dogs: — i A domestic animal, (The word "domestic" should be explained if not understood, and all other words which may be new to the pupils). 2. Are the companions of men the world over. 3. Vary much in size and appearance. 4. Kim!-. 1. Poodle. 2. Newfoundland. 3. Shepherd, Spaniel, etc. 5. Uses. 1. To guard property. 2. To hunt. 3. For pets 6. Intelligence. 1. Name some tricks they can be taught. 2. Stories about dogs. 7. Love for their masters, stories illustrating. 120 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 52. The horse, cow, sheep, cat, rabbit, squirrel and other ani- mals which the pupils may be fafiiliar with, may he given as sub- jects to be similarly outlined and written up. As examples of subjects a little more difficult take Wheat, Corn, Rye, Flax, Cotton, Wool, Iron, Coal, Lead, Gold, Sih>er. 53. The following is an example of an outline for a composi- tion on wheat: — i. The most useful grain. 2. Where grown. 1. What regions as to climate. 2. What countries produce most. 3. When sown or planted. 4. How sown or planted. 1. Preparing the ground. 2. Machines used. 5. When harvested. 6. Machines used in harvesting. 7. Threshing. 8 - How made into flour. Describe a flouring mill. 9. Kinds of flour. 10. Uses of flour. u. What would result if the wheat crop would be a failure everywhere for one year? 54. A good exercise is to have pupils write a letter to a friend describing what they did in one day. This may seem difficult, but not when you consider that if all the minutiae be described it will make quite a lengthy essay. What is easier, perhaps, as a prelim- inary to this, is for the teacher to perform a number of acts in pres- ence of the pupils, asking them to watch him closely and then write down all that he did. For example, he may walk to the door, open it and look out, then go to the window, then to the desk, move some books, take one in his hand, sit down in the chair, etc., etc. This is an excellent drill. 55. The suggestions given above are all i 11 regard to teaching beginners, and the outlines have been made very full and plain, and the subjects easy. But for all pupils except the most advanced who have had considerable practice in essay writing, outlines should be drawn up by the class with the assistance of the teacher, but they can be made more logical and less specific, single words generally instead of phrases or sentences forming the headings. For examples of outlines which may be used as skeletons of es- says, sec Systems of Outlining-. 50. All letters and essays should be inspected by the teacher and carefully criticised, the mistakes marked, and papers handed hark to the pupils for correction. The errors being pointed out the pupil will be able by the aid of the dictionary and grammar in most cases to correct them. At a subsequent recitation the criti- cisms may be discussed, the pupils calling attention to those parts marked which they have been unable to correct, and if others in COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 121 the class cannot point out the correction, the teacher should do so. 57. The errors are to be marked according to the following scale of criticism : — 1. Spelling. 6. Elegance. 2. Capitals. -. Strength. 3. Punctuation. 8. Paragraphing. 4. Grammar. 9. Accuracy. 5. Clearness. 10. Miscellaneous. Explanation. —The teacher marks the mistakes by the use of figures made with a pencil (a blue or red one is best) ; thus 1 placed over a word denotes incorrect spelling; 3, wrong punctuation or no punctuation; 5, want of clearness, etc. The first four points only should be marked in the essays of beginners, as it may discourage them to see so many marks and it cannot be expected of them that they would have very perfect productions. Gross errors, how- ever, in clearness and accuracy may be pointed out by the teacher after the other mistakes have been corrected. A much more ex- tended scale embracing as many as a hundred points in criticism might be given but for the purposes of the common school teacher these are sufficient. QUESTIONS ON COMPOSITION AND LETTERS. 4. What rules of punctuation may be taught very young pupils? 5. What are the rules for using Periods? 6. Commas? 7." Semicolons? S. Colons? 9. Interrogation Points? 10. Exclamation Points? 11. The Dash? Paren- theses? 13. Brackets? 14. The Hyphen? 15. Quotation Marks? if>. The Apostrophe? 17. Reference Marks? 18. How indicated to the printer I hat words shall be printed in italics? Small Capitals? Large Capitals? Bold-faced letters? Remark. — What are the only universally recognized accentual marks in English? 19. What is a paragraph? What is the rule for paragraphing? 20. What is meant by style? 21. What are necessary to clearness of style? 23. What is the first step in writing an essay? 25. What is the heading of a letter? 26. How written? 27. The introduction? 28. Write suitable names for the following titles: Mr., Mrs., Dr., Rev., Rev. Mr., Rev. Dr., Hon., His Excellency. 29. What is the salutation? 30 — 31. How should the address be written? 32. Where should the body of the letter begin? 33. What is necessary in writinga business letter? 34. What is the conclusion? 35. How written? 36. How fold a letter? 37. What is the superscription? 38. How written? 40. What difference is made in writing a formal note? 41. Write a letter ordering goods? 42. Write a letter applying for a school? 44. Write a letter of introduction? 47. What exercises should precede composition writing? 49. Is it best to say to pupils, "You must write a composition !" 50. How would you produce the outline for a composition? 56. How would you conduct a recitation in composition writing? 57. What are the ad- vantages of a scale of criticism? CIVIL GOVERNMENT. OUTLINE OF THE CONSTITUTION. The figures in parentheses refer to paragraphs quoted from the constitution. li Definition, i Time. — 1787. 2 1 Formation. - Place.— Philadelphia. ( Manner.— By Federal Convention. 3 1 Adoption.— By People of the States in convention. 4 1 Provisions. 1 2 As to Legislative Department, or Congress. (2). i 3 Houses. (2). 1* Senate. (11). i 5 Members. i° Number. — Two from each State. (11). 2'' Term. — Six years. (11). 3 6 Election.— By State Legislatures. (11). 1 Age 30 yrs. (12). Citizenship 9 yrs. (12). 4 fi Qualifications. ■] Resident of State. (12). Loyalty. (6). ( Official Disencumbrance. (5). 5 6 Privileges.— Arrest, Questions. (23). G> Compensation. (23). 76 Oath. (S6). 2 5 Presiding Officer.— Vice-President of U. S. or (13) President pro tempore. bcrs. C19). Powers and Duties. 1 6 Legislative. 2 6 Judicial. — In trying impeachments. (15). 1 7 Number nece'ssary to convict — two-thirds present. (15) 2 7 Judgment in impeachment. (16). 1 8 To remove from office and disqualification. 2 8 Subject to further trial in courts. 3 6 Elective. i 7 Vice-President. (57). 2 7 President fro tempore. (14). 3 7 Senate officers. (14). 4 6 Executive. i 7 Appointments. (64) 2' Treaties. (64). 5 6 Special. i 7 To judge the elections, returns and qualifications of mem- 2 7 To establish rules of proceeding. (20). 3 7 To punish and expel members. (20). 4 7 To keep and publish a journal. (21). 5 7 To adjourn for not more than three days without consent of House. (22). 2* House of Representatives. (3). i & Members. i« Apportionment —According to population. (7). 2 6 Term.— Two years. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 123 •js Election— Bv the People. (3). ( Age 25 yrs. Citizenship 7 yrs. 46 Qualifications. -' Residence in State. Loyalty. ( Olh*cial Disencumbrance. 56 Privileges.— Arrest, Questions. (23). 6 6 Oath. (86). a5 Powers and Duties. 1 6 Legislative. I* Exclusive as to bills of revenue. (25). 2 7 Concurrent. 2 6 Inquisitorial. — In finding impeachment. (10). 3 6 Elective. i 7 President U. S. (57). 2 7 House officers. (10). 46 Special.— Same as Senate. 2 3 Powers. i< Express. (27-45). x 5 To lay taxes, duties, etc. 2 5 To borrow money. tf To regulate commerce. Js To establish rules of naturalization and laws of bankiuptcy. %> To coin money and regulate its value. 6* To fix the standard of weights and measures. 75 To fix the penalties for counterfeiting U. S. coin. 8 5 To establish post-offices and post-roads. 5 To grant patents and copyrights. io 5 To establish U. S. courts. 116 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal. 1 2 5 To raise and support armies and navies. ,36 To make rules tor the government of the army and navy, etc., etc. 2* Incidental. i» To purchase foreign territory. 2 5 To establish military and naval academies. 35 To make internal improvements. $%S£*E2?2Lm,t.cmj into effect an express or plainly implied power of Congress. 3 3 Assembling. 1* Once a year. (18). 2* When President convenes it. (00). 4 3 Laws. 1* Passage. i» With President's consent. (2b). 2& Without President's consent. (26). c3 Prohibitions.- . i« To suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus. (46). 2* To pass bill of attainder. (48). i* To pass ex fost facto law. (48). 1* To lay taxes on exports trom States. (50). 5« To favor the commerce of particular States. (50). 6* To grant titles of nobility. (52) _ 7« To establish religion or to prohibit its exercise. (83). 4* To ibrid"-e the freedom of speech or ot the press. (63). I* S deny the right of assembling to petition the government (83). 2 As to Executive Department. Object. 1* To enforce the laws. 124 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART 2 3 Chief officer. I* President. I« Qualifications, j ^ h (3S) " Citizenshi P" 2 5 Term. Four vrs. 3 5 Election. i b By electors. (57). 2 T Number of electors. — The number of Senators and Repre- sentatives cur. (64). 3 7 Choosing as State Legislatures direct. 4 7 Voting by ballot. 5" Signing, sealing, certifying and transmitting lists of votes. 6 7 Opening lists. 7 7 Counting votes. 8 7 Declaring result. 2 6 By House of Representatives. i 7 Vote taken by States. 2 7 Majority necessary to choice. • Powers and Duties. i 6 To be commander-in-chief of army and navy. (63). 2 6 To grant pardons and reprieves. (63). 3 6 To make treaties provided two-thirds of the Senators con- 4 6 To make appointments. (64). 5 6 To fill vacancies. (64). 6 6 To recommend measures to Congress. (66). 7 6 To see that the laws are executed. (66). 3 2 As to Judicial Department. i 3 Object. — To interpret and apply the law. 2 3 In what vested. 1* Supreme Court. (68). 2 4 Inferior Courts. (68). i 5 Judges. i 6 How chosen. — Appointed by the President. (64) 2 6 Term of office. — During good behavior. (68). 4 2 As to States. I 3 Prohibitions. 1 4 To enter into a treaty or alliance. (53). 2 4 To grant letters of marque and reprisal. (53). 3 4 To coin money or emit bills of credit. (53). 4* To pass a law impairing the obligation of contracts. (53). 5 4 To grant any title of nobility. (53). 6 4 To lay duties only to pay for inspection. (54). 2 3 Powers and rights. I 4 To all powers not delegated to U. S. 2 4 To protection. i 5 In form of government. (S2). 2 5 Against invasion. (82). 3 5 Against domestic violence. (82.) 3 4 To fugitives from justice. (81). 4* To credit in records, acts, etc. (80). 5 2 As to Personal Rights. 1 The right to freedom of worship, of speech, of press. 2' Theright to bear arms. 3 3 Tin- right to domicile. (72). 4 3 The right to be secure against searches and seizure. (73). 5 :l The right to he accused by grand jury. (74). 6 s Not to be subject to two trials for same crime 7 a Not to be a witness against himself. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 136 8 3 Right to private property. (j 3 Right to jury trial. io 3 Right to witnesses and counsel. II 3 To habeas corpus writ. 12 3 To be protected against unreasonable bail, excessive fines, etc 6 s As to amendments. I 3 Manner of proposing. i* By two-thirds vote in Congress. 2* By conventions. 2 3 Manner of Adopting, i* By State legislatures. 2* By conventions in three-fourths of States. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. The quotations from the constitution arc numbered with figures in parentheses, the com- ments with figures in bold face. 1. The Constitution of the United States is the fundamental law of the land, prescribing the form and limiting the powers of the government. 2. Our Constitution unlike the British Constitution, does not comprise the whole body of public law; it is a plain, concise, writ- ten document which forms the basis of all our laws and in its main features is easily comprehended by all intelligent persons. 3. Of itself it is the best treatise on Civil Government that could possibly be written in the same space, and as this article is to be brief the greater part of it will be composed of quotations from the Constitution; such explanation being given as is thought necessary to interest and instruct those into whose hands this book may come. 4. The history of the formation and adoption of our Constitu- tion is as follows: Soon after the close of the Revolutionary War, it was found that the system of government formed during that war was inadequate to the control of a people with such diversity of interests as was found in this country. This system embodied in the Articles of Confederation, went in- to operation in 1781, and was little more than a league between the States for their mutual protection. In Mav, 17S7, a convention of delegates from all the States met at Philadelphia to remedy the defects in the existing government, by altering or abolishing it. This convention with George Wash- ington as its President continued in session with closed doors until the 17th of the following September, and the result of its delibera- tions was the formation of our present constitution without the sub- sequent amendments. The Constitution thus agreed upon was forwarded to the Con- gress of the Confederation then in session at New York. It was referred by this Congress to the legislatures of the .States, who called conventions of the people to consider its ratification or adop- tion. The adoption of the Constitution was violently opposed in some of the States. Rhode Island and North Carolina refused 126 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI HEART. their consent until after the new government went into operation in 5. Since the adoption of the Constitution there have been fifteen amendments added in the manner provided in the Constitu- tion itself. As amendments are component parts of the entire Constitution they will not be treated of separately, though they are usually classed so. 6. The Preamble states very clearly by whom and for what purposes the Constitution was formed. (i) We, the people of the United States in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of liberty, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America. 7. Ever since the formation of the Constitution different views have been held as to what it really is. It has been claimed by wise and honest statesmen that it is simply a compact between sovereign States whereby they strengthened their former govern- ment. This theorv makes the States sovereign and the general government subordinate. It has been maintained by statesmen equally wise and honest that it is the work of a sovereign people acting in their original capacity who permitted the States to exist under it, but possessing the power had they so chosen to destroy the agency of the States in the government of the people. 8. The War of the Rebellion was the fruit of the former theory, and since its termination the question has been generally re- garded as finally settled. For an able advocacy of both views the reader is referred to the debates of Webster, Calhoun and Ilaynein the Senate of the United States. 9. The Constitution divides our government into three distinct departments, exercising three distinct functions, and at the same time serving as checks and balances on each other. Those departments are: (i) the Legislative, or that which makes the laws; (2) the Judicial, which interprets the laws and applies them to particular cases; (3) the Executive, which enforces the laws. 10. The following provisions of the Constitution relate to the Legislative department : — (:) All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representa- tives. (3) The House of Representatives shall consist of members chosen every • second year by the people of the several States and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State L'^ r i ilature. (|j No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States and who shall not when elected be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 127 (5) No person holding any office under the United States shall be a mem- ber ot" either House during his continuance in office. (6) No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office civil or military under the United States or under any Shite who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to sup- port the constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House remove such disability. (7) Representatives shall be apportioned among the several Slates accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election lor • the choice of President and Vice-President of the United States, Representa- tives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of the State or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of repre- sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the whole number of such male citizens bears to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. (8) The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States and within every subsequent term of ten years in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall be entitled to at least one Representative. (9) When vacancies happen in the representation of any State the execu- tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. (ioj The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 11. Representatives are elected by the people of the States for a term of two years. If a person is entitled to vote for members of the most numerous branch of his own State legislature, he can vote for representatives. 12. The qualifications of Representatives relate to age, citi- zenships inhabitancy, loyalty and official disencumbrance. 13. Representatives are apportioned according to numbers, but the original rule for ascertaining those numbers has been changed to that given above, by an amendment. Formerly three- fifths of the slaves were counted, but since the' abolition of slavery and the adoption of the 15th amendment, all persons are included except Indians not taxed. The number of Representatives cannot exceed one for every 32,000, but the actual apportionment has always been much less than thi>. The present ratio is one Rep- resentative for every 130,533 inhabitants. The ratio is changed after each census or enumeration. 14. The House chooses its own officers. These are the Speaker, Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arm-, Doorkeeper, Postmaster and Chaplain. It has the sole power of impeachment or bringing an accusation against a public officer. The .Senate tries the impeach- ment. The following provisions relate to the Senate: — (11) The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six years, and each Sen- ator shall have one vote. 128 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. (12) No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years and been nine years a citizen of the Tinted State6,and \s ho shall not, when elected, bean inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. (13) The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. (14) The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. (15) The Senate shall have the sole power to trj all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. (16) Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall neverthe- less be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment accord- ing to law . 15. The States have equal representation in the Senate, and those representatives are chosen by the State legislatures for six years. The qualifications of Senators also relate to age, citizenship, inhabitancy and official disencumbrance. The Vice-President of the United States is President of the Senate, but the other officers are chosen by the Senate itself". They are a .Secretary. Chief Clerk, Executive Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arms Doorkeeper and Chaplain. 16. The power of trying impeachments is a judicial one. On the trial of the President the Chief-Justice shall preside, and in all cases t luri- can he no conviction without the concurrence of two- thirds of the members present. 17. Judgment may extend to removal only or to removal and disqualification to hold office, but no further than this latter punish- ment. But for a criminal violation of law the party convicted i--' subject to trial and punishment by the courts of law. (17) The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators ami Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress mav at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators: (18) Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such meet- ing shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day : (19) Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifica- tions of its own members; and a majority of eaeli shall constitute a quorum to do business, but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide: 120) Each House may determine tile rules of it- proceedings, punish it- members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, ex- pel a member : (ji) Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to lime publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house shall, at the de- sire of" one- fifth ot the members present, be entered on the journal: CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 129 (22) Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting: (24) The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, excepl treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their re- spective Houses and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any other place : (24) No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United. States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: (2cj) All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Repre- sentatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills: (26) Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered : and, if approved by two-thirds of that House it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes of both Houses shall be deter- mined by veasand nays; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a law : (27) Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uni- form throughout the United States: (28) To borrow money on the credit of the United States: (29) To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes: (30) To establish a uniform rule of naturalization and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States: (31) To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures: (32) To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States: (33) To establish post-offices and post-roads: (34) T° promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries: (35) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court: (36) To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations : (37) To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal and make rules concerning captures on land and water: (38) To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years: (39) To provide and maintain a navy: (40) To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces : 9 180 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. (41) To provide for the calling forth of the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions: (42) To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may he employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed hy Congress \ (_13) To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over sucii district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may by cession of Congress, hecome the seat of the Government of the United States; and to exercise like authority over all places purchase. 1, by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall he, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock- yards, and other needful buildings: (44) To make all laws which shall he necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this con- stitution in the Government of the United States or any of them. 18. The foregoing constitute what are called the enumerated or express powers of the United States Congress. Most of these provisions arc so plain that they may he readily comprehended and need no explanation. They will he found conveniently arranged under the outline. 19. Besides these express powers there are other powers called incidental, that have frequently heen exercised hut not without much discussion. The last paragraph of the above seems to recog- nize other powers than those here stated as auxiliary to the enforce- ment of these express powers, or as naturally incident to national sovereignty. The following incidental powers have heen exercised since the organization of our government. 20. Though there is no express power given to purchase for- eign territory, yet this power has heen frequently exercised as in- cidental to national sovereignty and as justifiable upon the ground that it was for the general welfare of the people. 21. The power to lay an embargo is not conferred, but it has been exercised as incidental to the war or commercial power. No express power is given to establish military or naval academics, and their establishment is only incidental to the power to provide for the common defence. 22. The power to make internal improvements is not stated in the Constitution, but its frequent exercise has (irmly established it as an incidental power. No power is given to create a corporation, but the exercise of this power by the creation of National Banks is justified as a means appropriately belonging to the commercial or revenue power. 23. Other incidental powers might be named, but the above are sufficient to indicate their general scope and object. Incidental powers should be exercised with caution, notwithstanding the fact that the Supreme Court has frequently affirmed that Congress has power to exercise them. All such should be clearly comprised in the general terms of the written constitution. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. \$\ PROHIBITIONS ON CONGRESS. (45) The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty "may be imposed on such importation not exceeding ten dollars for each person. (46) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended un- less when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. (47) No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. (48) No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. (49) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. (50) No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of ap- propriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. (51) No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no per- son holding any office of profit or trust under them shall without the consent of the Congress accept of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind what- ever from any king, prince or foreign State. 24. Paragraph 45 related to the foreign slave trade. This in any of the States existing at the formation of the Constitution could not he prohibited before the year 1S0S. It was prohibited by a law which took effect on the first day of January, 1808, as soon as the limitation of the Constitution expired. 25. The writ of habeas corpus is a command of the sovereign to the officer to bring a person deprived of his liberty by imprison- ment, before the court, with the cause of his imprisonment. The court then investigates the case, and if the imprisonment be illegal, commands his discharge. 26. This writ cannot be suspended only in cases of invasion and rebellion, and even then it cannot be suspended unless the pub- lic safety may require it. 27. A bill of attainder is an act of the legislature by which it inflicts death or other punishment without a judicial trial. 28. An ex post facto law is one which makes an act punishable as a crime which was not punishable when committed, or which inflicts a greater punishment than the law imposed when the crime was committed. PROHIBITIONS ON THE STATES. (52) No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit billsof credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, "or grant any title of nobility. (53) No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any Stite on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of Congress. 132 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. (54) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lav any duty of ton- nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into anv agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage "in war unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 29. Letters of marque and reprisal arc commissions of au- thority from the government issued to certain persons allowing them to seize the persons or property of subjects of foreign nations as a satisfaction for injuries to our government. They can be issued by the general government, hut not by the States. 30. Bills of credit are obligations of the State designed to cir- culate as money, on the credit of the State, in the ordinary uses of business. Bonds of a State issued for borrowed money are not bills of credit. 31. No State can pass a law impairing the legal obligation of a contract binding upon the parties at the time and place entered into by them. The word obligation signifies the binding force of a contract. States cannot lay duties on imports or exports, except such duties as may be necessary to execute the inspection laws of the States. Even the State laws on the subject of duties for in- spection are subject to the revision of Congress. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. (1^5) The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office for the term of four years, and to- gether with the Vice-President chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: (56) Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress, but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States shall be appointed an Elector. (57) The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhab- itant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the persons voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lkts they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Sen- ate. The Presidentof the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three on the list voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. Hut in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the Mates shall be neeessarv to a choice. And if the House of Repre- sentatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall de- volve upon them, before tin- fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- President shall art as President, as in the ease ot" the death or other Constitu- tional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes for Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a ma- CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 133 jority of the whole number appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-Pres- ident; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole num- ber of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person Constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. (58) The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors and the dav on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United Slates. (59) No person except a natural born citizen or a citizen of the United States at the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of Pres- ident; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have at tained to the age of thirty-five years, and have been fourteen years a resident within the United States. (60) In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on'the Vice-President; and the Congress may by law pro- vide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. (61) The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the time for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them. (62) Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the follow- ing oath or affirmation : I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the "United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States. (63) The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United . v tates and of the militia of the several States when called into actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant re- prieves and pardons over offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. (64) He shall have power by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided' two- thirds of the Senators present c< ncur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent ot the Senate shall appoint Ambassadors. a"nd other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appoint- ment are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior offi- cers as they think proper, "in the President in the Courts of law or in the heads of departments. (65) The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may hap- pen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of the next session. (66/ He shall from time to time give to Congress information of the state of the Union and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them and in cases of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully t xecuted, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. (67) The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be remove I from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 134 TEACHERS 1 AND STCD1 X I S' L/BRART 32. The manner of electing the President and Vice-President is fully described in the Constitution and nccd> n«i comment. The President and Vice-President are the only offices under our govern- ment that cannot he held by persons of foreign birth. 33. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation or inability, the duties of the office devolve upon the Vice-President. 34. There has been much discussion of late as to what would constitute " inability " to discharge the duties of the office, who is to determine this " inability, 1 ' and whether the Vice-President on a case of actual "inability" would really In- President or Vice-Presi- dent, exercising the duties of President. These questions arc yet open. For a discussion of these questions see November issue of the North American Review, 1S81. 35. Congress has provided by law that in case of the removal of the President and Vice-President that the President fro tempore of the Senate act as President, and in case there is no President pro tempore that the duties of President devolve on the Speaker of the House. The oath, powers and duties of the President are given clearly and concisely in the Constitution. 36. The following provisions relating to the Judicial Depart- ment of our government are given: — ■ (68) The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior and shall at stated times receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. (69) The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed. (70) Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. (71) The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate, except during the life of the person attainted. The following provisions relate to personal and State rights under the Con- stitution : (;j) No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war but in a manner prescribed by law. (73) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers anil effects again6t unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; ami no warrants Bhall issue hut upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirma- tion, and particularly describing tin- place to be searched, and the persons or things 10 be seized. ,- 1 1 No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise inlamous crime unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except In cases arising in the land or naval forces or in the militia, when In actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal ca6e i< be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty. CIVIL UOVERNMENT. 135 or property without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. (75) In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the Stale and district wherein the crime shall have been committed width district shall have been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa- tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory pro- cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. (76) In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. (77) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. (78) Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records aid judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceed- ings shall be proved. (79) The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. (80) A person charged in any State with treason, felony or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled be delivered up to be removed to the S'ate having jurisdiction of the crime. (81) No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. (82) The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a re- publican form of government and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the legislature or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. (83) Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or of the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. (84) A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. (85) This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made under the authority of the United States, shall he the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constituiion or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. (86) The Senators and Representatives before mentioned and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. (87) Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist in the United Slates or any place subject to their jurisdiction. (88) The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of race, color. or previous condition of servitude. AMENDMENTS. (89) The Congress whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or on the application 136 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States shall call a convention for proposing amendments which in either case shall he valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; no amendment shall he made by which a State, without its consent, is deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 37. There are two methods of proposing amendments and two methods of ratifying them. The fifteen amendments adopted thus far in the history of our country have been proposed by two-thirds of Congress and ratified by three-fourths of the State legislatures. 38. Most of the provisions relating to personal rights are found in the amendments. By the thirteenth amendment slavery was abolished, and by the fifteenth the rights of citizenship were con- ferred on the emancipated slaves. QUESTIONS ON CIVIL GOVERNMENT. The numbers in parentheses refer to ([notations l'ro-n the Constitution. Those not in paren- theses refer to sections of the text. i. Define the Constitution, j. Does it contain all the laws of the U. S.? 4. Give the history of its formation and adoption. 5. Amendments? 6, (1). For what purpose was the constitution formed? 7. Give the theories as to the Constitution. S. Of what theory was the war of the Rebellion the fruit? 1). Name and define the departments of our government. (2). Of what does Congress consist? (3). How are members of the House chosen? How long do they serve? (4), (5), (6). What are the qualifications of a Representa- tive? (7), (8). How are Representatives apportioned among the States? (9). How are vacancies filled? (10). Who chooses the officers of the House? Who has the power of impeachment? 13. What is the present ratio for each representa- tive? (n). How are the Senators chosen? For how long? (12). What are the qualifications of a Senator? (13). Who is the presiding officer of the Sen- ate? Does he have a vote? f 1 4 >. How are the other officers of the Senate chosen? (15). Who has the power to try impeachments? Who presides when the President is tried? (16). What is the extent of the judgment in cases of im- peachment? 15. What are the officer^ of the Senate? 17. If the President commits a crime, who has the power to try him? (17). Who prescribes the times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representative: iS). How often shall Congress assemble? (19). Who decides as to the elections returns and qualifications of the members of Congress? How many constitute a quorum? (20). State the powers of each House as to rules of proceeding, punishment and expulsion of members? (21). Give the regulations as to a journal. (--)• What are the prohibi- tions as to adjournment? (23). Can a member of Congress he arrested? (24). Can a member of Congress hold any other office? (25). What hills must originate in tin' House? (26). What is necessary be- fore a hi 11 can become a law? What is meant by the " President's veto"? Ans. — When the President returns the bill without his signature, stating his ob- jection-, he is said to veto the bill. What is necessary for a hill to become a law without the Preside 1 t|s -auction? (27 — 43) Give ten express powers of Congress. iS. What is an ex- press power? [9 What other powers has Congress? *o — 22. Name four inci- dental powers. 25. Define Habeas Corpus. l6. When can this writ be sus- pended? 27. Wli.it is a hill of attainder 3 18. An e\ post facto law ? (46 — 48). What arc the prohibitions on L'ongp-s-, : i>, io the abo\ e ? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 137 ( 4 S 49). What are the prohibitions as to direct taxes, exports and com- merce of each State? (50—51). As to the use of public money, titles of nobil- ity and presents from foreign States or rulers? (52—54). Name ten prohibitions upon the States. 29. What are letters of marque and reprisal? 30. Bills of credit? 31. What is meant by a legal obligation of a contract? (55). In whom is the executive power vested? (56—58). Describe the manner of electing the President. (59). Who is eligible to the Presidency? (60). In case the President dies or is removed from office, who fills his place? (61). What is the salary of the President? Ans.— At present, $50,000 per year. (63). Who is commander-in-chief of the army? (64—65). What are the powers of the President? (66). What are the duties of the President? (67). On what grounds mav the President be removed from office? 32. What offices under our government cannot be held by persons of for- eign birth? 35. In case the President and Vice-President both die or are re- moved from office, who fills the place of President? In what case may the speaker of the House become President? (6S). In what is the judicial power vested? How long may Judges ot the U. S. Courts hold their offices? (69). What provisions are made as to trial of crimes against the U. S.? (69). State the provisions as to the trial of crimes against the U. S. (70). What constitutes treason? (71). What is the limit to the punishment of trea- son? (72—77). What are the personal rights of citizens? (78). What are the relations between the States as to judicial proceedings? (79). What privileges have citizens of one State in other States? (80). Can a man escape from the punishment of crime by fleeing to anoth- er State? (82). What form of government must each State have? (83). Can Congress exercise any control over religious worship? (85). What is the su- preme law of this country? 37. How may the Constitution be amended? How many amendments have been adopted ? ••Ml^lW"— • PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. OUTLINE OF THE EARTH AS TO PHYSICAL FEATURES. (See Note to General Outline of Geography, p. 25.) THE EARTH. 1 1 As a part of the Universe (1). ****** 2 1 As a part of the Solar System. 8* Rising and sinking of (2—4). land. (32). 3 1 As a whole. 9* Artesian wells and mines. i J Temperature. (6—8). (33)- j» Phenomena. 2* Magnetic properties. (34). 1* Thermal Springs. (9— 10). ****** 2* Geysers. (11). 4 1 Asto the land. 3* Volcanoes. (14). i 2 As to contour. ***** i 3 Grouping of the land mass- 4* Fields of Fire. (23) es. (35). 5< Solf.tara-. (24). ' 2 3 Zone of fracture. (36). 6* Mud Volcanoes. (25). 3* Comparison ofland masses. 7* Earthquakes. (26). (37.) 138 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY 2 2 As to size of land masses. i 3 Continents. (37). 2 3 Islands. 1 4 Proportion of land in. 2* Classes. i' u Continental. (40). ***** 2 b Oceanic. 1 6 Volcanic. (42). * * * * 2* Coral. (43). * * * * 3 a As to distribution of land 1 5 Arrangement. i* In systems. 2 6 In chains. 3 6 Isolated or in groups. 2 & Parts. i 6 Crest, or summit, separated mto peaks. 2 6 Base. 3 6 Slope. 3 5 Origin. 1 6 By flexure. 2 6 By fracture. 4 5 Accompaniments. masses. 1 6 Valleys. 1 3 Hemispheres. (See General Geography) 1 4 Eastern. 2* Western. 3 4 Northern. 4 4 Southern. 5 4 Water. [ . 6 4 Land. p3»;- 4* As to Relief. 1 3 Lowlands. 1 4 Plains. (50—51). 1 As to mode of forma- tion. 1 6 Marine. 2 6 Alluvial. 2 5 As to nature of surface. i 6 Level. 2 6 Undulating. 3 5 As to vegetation. i 6 Destitute of trees. i 7 Prairies, steppes, llanos, pampas, landes or heaths. 2 Covered with trees. i 7 Selvas. 3* Destitute o f vegeta- tion. i 7 Deserts or 'plains." 4* Partly under water. i 7 Swamps, marshes, tundras, etc. 2* Valleys, gorges, ravines, canyons, passes, etc. 2 3 Highlands. 1 4 Plateaus, or table lands. (52)- r' Ol the 1st order — 10,000 to 13,000 ft. [Give examples. | J r ' Of the 2d order — 4,000 to 8,000 ft. I ( >iw examples.] 3 5 Ox the 3d order — 1,000 to 4,000 ft. |(ji\ e exampl* b. j 2* Mountains. (53), 2 6 Passes, gorges, ra- vines, canyons, defiles, etc. 5 1 As to the waters. I 2 Composition and properties. (See Chemistry). 2 2 Divisions. I 3 Continental, or inland. 1 4 Springs. (57). I s Origin. 2 : ' Classes. (59). i 6 As to flow. * * * * 2 6 As to temperature. ****** 3 6 As to ingredients. ****** 2 4 Rivers. (60—65). * * * * * 3 4 Lakes. (66—69). ***** 2 3 Oceanic. i 4 Divisions. 1,70). i 5 Oceans. * * * * 2 & Seas. 3 5 Gull's and Bays. 4 5 Straits, Sounds, Chan- nels, etc. 2* Character of waters, (71 — 72). ******** 3 4 Depth and nature of ba- sins. (73). * ******* 4 4 Movements. 1 3 Waves. (74). * * * 2 3 Tides. (75-77). ***** 3 3 Currents. (78—82). ***** * (A As to the Atmosphere. i 2 Composition and Properties. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 139 (See Chemistry and Nat. Philosophy). 3 3 As to moisture. 2 2 Height. (83). 2 4 Depending upon. (89). 3 2 Condition. (Climate). ***** i 3 As to temperature. (84). 2* Precipitation. (88). ****** ***** 2 3 As to winds. 7 1 As to life. 1* Depending upon. (85). 1 2 Vegetable. (92). ****** ***** 2* Classes. (86). 2 2 Animal. (95). **** ***** PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Subjects which have been discussed under the head of " Geography" are not repeated here except in some cases where they are mentioned for the purpose of treating- them more fully. 1. The earth is but one of the vast bodies which compose the universe. These bodies are in all probability very similar in their constitution. When compared in size with many heavenly bodies which have been weighed and measured, the earth is an insignificant ball. 2. According to the Nebular Hypothesis, all the matter which makes up the sun and the bodies revolving around it, was at one time in a gaseous state and whirling around a center. By its centrif- ugal force, rings of matter were thrown off from the outside, which, obeyino- the law of attraction, formed into globes. These globes became the planets, the earth among the number. 3 The fraseous matter in the course of time cooled down to a liquid ball. The outside of this ball by further cooling became a solid crust shutting up the heated liquid matter within; and thus we have the earth which in time became so modified as to be suited to the abode and development of vegetable and animal life. The earth is one of the smaller of the planets of the solar system. 4. These subjects belong properly to Astronomy and Geology. It is the province of Geography to discuss the condition of the earth as we find it at the present day. For facts which seem to sustain the Nebular Hypothesis, see works on Astronomy, Natural Phil- osophy and Chemistry. 5. The earth considered in detail is indeed a world of wonders. Whether we penetrate its crust, investigate the waters which cover three-fourths of it, travel over its land surface, or study the atmos- phere which everywhere surrounds it, we are met with a succession of phenomena which attest the greatness of the Hand which made it. 6. There are many phenomena which seem to prove that the interior <>f the earth has a high temperature independent of the influence of the sun shining on its surface. 7. The majority of scientific men maintain that this temperature increases from near the surface toward the center, which is a mass of molten material. This theory is not only in accordance with the nebular hypothesis, but seems to accord with the facts in regard to hot springs, artesian wells, volcanoes, etc. Others maintain that 140 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY the latter phenomena may be caused entirely by local chemical changes going on within the crust of the earth, and that we can know nothing certain of the interior. 8. The various natural phenomena which indicate a heated condition of a part or the whole of the earth's interior, may be grouped as volcanic phenomena. This term will include hot springs, geysers, volcanoes proper, mud volcanoes, submarine vol- canoes, sol fata ras, fields of fire, anil earthquakes. Observations made in artesian wells (33) and deep mines, also show the tem- perature of the interior of the earth. 9. Thermal, or hot springs are most common in mountainous regions, and especially where the earth's crust is most broken and disturbed. Springs of every kind are formed by the rain or melted snow sinking into the earth and issuing from it again at a lower level. The fact that the water is sometimes hot, shows that it must have come in contact with heated rock material within the crust of the earth. 10. They are found of every grade of temperature from that of slightly above the surrounding atmosphere, to the boiling point. Thev are found in all parts of the world, the most numerous, per- haps, in Europe. " Over 8oo have been described in France, 400 in Spain, and a still greater number in Germany, Bohemia, Swit- zerland, Italy and England." 1 1. Geysers, or intermittent, spouting, hot springs have a tem- perature ;it the boiling point. They arc found in Iceland, New Zealand, and in the "National Park" at the head waters of the Yellowstone R. in the Rocky Mts. The most celebrated is the Great Geyser of Iceland. It consists of an immense well or funnel 10 ft. wide at its mouth and about 70 ft. deep, surmounted at the surface with a basin 65 ft. in diameter and 7 ft. deep, formed by the deposit of mineral matter from the water. At intervals it sends up a column of water and steam to the height of 100 ft. 12. More remarkable even, than the geysers of Iceland are some that are found in the " National Park." One, the Giantess, throws water to the height of 200 ft. Grasshoppers and other insects, and pieces of wood which fall into the waters soon become encrusted with quartz which is held in solution by the water, thus Derma- nently petrifying them. 13. The intermittent action of geysers may be explained as follows; Water boils, or is converted into vapor, at a temperature of 212'' F. ;it sea level, or under the pressure of one atmosphere, but requires ;i higher temperature under greater pressure (See Nat. Philosophy ). When the proper temperature is reached in the shaft, steam is formed and escaping, expels a quantity of water with it. This relieves the pressure on the water below, which will now boil at a lower temperature, and it suddenly bursts into steam and is ex- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 141 pelled, in great masses carrying- a great quantity of water with it. The water reaching the cooler atmosphere, its temperature is much lowered, and running hack into the shaft, it requires some time again to reach the boiling point. 14. A volcano proper, or volcanic mountain, is an elevation usually conical in form, with a circular depression or basin at the top called the crater. In the center of this crater is a shaft extend- ing to an unknown depth from which may issue clouds of hot vapor and smoke, and at times great quantities of ashes, fragments of rock, and lava, or melted rock. 15. The volcanic cone, or elevation, is formed by the material thrown out from the shaft. The nature of the material determines the form of the cone. If it be more liquid the mountain will be broader and flatter than when the material is more solid. 16. The lava when it first issues from a volcano is somewhat like melted iron running from a furnace. It flows down the sides of the mountain or bursts out from fissures in its sides, and flows at first rapidly, scorching and destroying everything in its way, but it soon cools on the surface and forms a black, porous crust. Some- times the streams are so thick that the interior remains hot for 20 years. (See Geology.) 17. The ashes from volcanoes are composed of fine particles of lava. Sometimes they are carried hundreds of miles by the winds. Volcanic sand is the name given to coarser particles of lava. 18. • Volcanoes throw out an enormous amount of material. Whole islands and portions of continents, judging from the nature of the material composing them, have been formed from the ejec- tions of volcanoes. Iceland is an example of a volcanic island of large size. Towns and cities have been buried beneath the ashes and lava, and large sections of country laid waste. (20). 19. There are more than 500 volcanoes known, some of which are extinct, some intermittent, and others in constant action. They are usually distributed in lines more or less regular and nearly all are near the sea coast or on islands. In the New World the principal volcanic regions are the Andes, Central America, West Indies, Mexico, Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mts., Alaska, Aleutian Islands. In the Old World are the regions of Kamschatka, Japan, Oceanica, the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, India and Iceland. 20. Mt. Vesuvius on the shores of the hay of Naples, Italy, may he taken as a typical volcano. In the year 79, A. I)., occurred the first eruption of which we have any history. During this eruption the rain of ashes was s<. great as to bury completely two flourishing cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii. During recent years these cities have been exhumed and much interesting knowl- edge obtained in regard to the manners and customs of the people of that time. Since then it has had a number of eruptions. It ha^ 142 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. been quiet for centuries at a time, so that the sides of the mountain and the walls of the crater were overgrown with forests and again it has had eruptions at intervals of less than ten years. 21. The eruptions are generally preceded by earthquake shocks, and begin by a terrible explosion which shakes the moun- tain to its foundations and throws high in the air clouds of vapor and ashes. This is followed hy the lava, which runs over the top like a huge kettle boiling over, or bursts through fissures in its sides. It may continue to send forth steam, ashes and lava at intervals for months afterward. The dense clouds of vapor hang over the mountain somewhat in the shape of an immense umbrella, and are illuminated by the white hot furnace below. Flashes of lightning play among the clouds, and often a local thunder-storm occurs, the rain mingling with the falling ashes, the whole presenting an un- paralleled spectacle of magnificence and grandeur. 22. Stromboli, on one of the Lipari islands, is in a constant state of eruption. It is called the "Light-house of the Mediter- ranean." Mt. Etna on the Island of Sicily has less frequent eruptions than Vesuvius. We have history of an eruption occur- ring 480 R. C. According to Roman mythology, the thunderbolts of Jupiter were forged here. Mt. Hecla and Skaptar Jokul in Iceland; Chimborazo and Cotopaxi in Equador; Aconcagua in Chili and Popocatepetl in Mexico, arc noted volcanoes. 23. Fields of Fire. — In some localities an inflammable gas issues from openings in the ground. This gas frequently becomes ignited and burns for some time. There is a region of this kind on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. This gas is supposed to be from the decomposition of vegetable matter by internal heat. 24. " Solfataras are regions where sulphur vapors escape and form incrustations. They occur in volcanic regions, but away from intense volcanic activity." 25. Mud Volcanoes are small elevations found in volcanic regions, which emit vapor, hot water and mud. ^26. Earthquakes are movements of parts of the crust of the earth varying from a scarcely perceptible trembling to violent con- vulsions which disturb the whole face of nature, overturning cities, prostrating forests, depressing the land in one place and elevating it in another, and causing great rents and chasms in which houses, trees, men and animals are engulfed. 27. During an earthquake the surface is moved in various ways. Sometimes the force seems to act directly vertical as in an explosion from a mine; again it is undulatory, or wave-like; or it maybe rotary, or whirling, in which the earth seems to be twisted around. 28. The shocks rarely last longer than a minute, but are often repeated at Longer or shorter intervals for months, and even years. The greatest earthquakes known accomplished their work of destruction in a very few minutes. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 148 29. Earthquakes are most liable to occur in volcanic regions. In some places they are of such frequent occurrence that the inhab- itants build their houses but one story in height. On the coast of Peru they expect as many as 45 shocks in a year. 30. Some of the most remarkable earthquakes on record are as follows: The city of Lisbon, Portugal, was visited in 1755 by an earthquake which destroyed 60,000 people and laid the city in ruins. The effect of these shocks was felt for thousands of miles. The city of Caracas, Venezuela, was destroyed in 1S12, with 10,000 inhabitants; 40,000 persons were destroyed in Sicily in 1783. In 1797 Peru was visited by an earthquake which destroyed 16,000 persons. 31. As to the causes of earthquakes no very satisfactory expla- nation has been given. Many of them, especially those sudden and violent shocks occurring in the near region of volcanoes, would seem to be from a cause similar to that of a volcanic eruption, viz : The tension of pent up gases, as the vapor of water, beneath the surface of the earth, something on the principle of a steam boiler explosion. Those occurring outside of volcanic regions and extending over vast territories may be due to the contracting of the cooling crust of the earth. 32. The crust of the earth is in some places gradually and slowly rising, in other places it is sinking. The coast of North America, from Labrador to New Jersey, is slowly rising. The southern part of Greenland is sinking. The Scandinavian peninsula is sinking in the southern part and rising in the northern part. These changes are at the rate of a few feet only in a hundred years. The cause is probably the slow contraction from cooling of the earth's crust. 33. From observations made in artesian wells (see Philosophy, sec. 88), and deep mines, there appears to be an increase of heat toward the interior of the earth at the rate of about i° F. for every fifty-five feet. At this rate water would boil two miles below the surface, and at thirty miles depth, it would be hot enough to melt any material on the surface of the earth. The crust of the earth must be thicker than thirty miles, however, for substances do not melt so readily under pressure, and at that depth the pressure would be very great. 34. The earth exhibits the properties of a magnet. (See Nat. Philosophy.) The magnetic poles are about 20 , respectively, from the geographical poles. 35. The land masses are crowded about the N. pole, and appear to radiate in three lines, one comprising N. and S. America, and terminating in C. Horn. Another comprise- Europe and Africa, and terminates with the C. of Good Hope. The third comprises Asia and Australia, and terminates with the island of Tasmania. 36. If a circle be described having Behring Strait for its center 144 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. with a radius of about So°, near the circumference of the circle will be found a holt of peninsulas and islands, or broken lands. This belt is called die zone of fracture, as it includes the line of separa- tion of the southern continents from the northern. 37. Comparing the size and contour of the six continents, we may say : — Asia has the greatest area and greatest absolute coast line. Australia has the least area and the least absolute coast line. Europe has the greatest relative coast line and is the fifth in area. Africa has the least relative coast line and is the second in area. \. and S. America are the most elongated from north to south and have their sharp angles toward the south, and do not differ greatly in area. Europe and Asia have their greatest length from east to west. Africa and Australia narrow toward the south hut their from- east-to-west diameters an' about equal to their from-north-to-south diameters. Europe and Australia are the two smallest, and differ very little in area. The western coast of the Old World and the eastern coast of the New World seem to correspond like parts of a broken vessel. The great projection of the coast of Brazil would lit the Gulf of Guinea, and the projection from Africa would fit into die Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico, Labrador and Newfoundland would fill up the North Sea, and Greenland would wedge nicely between Scandinavia and the country north of Hudson Bay. 38. If a globe were cut into hemispheres so that the point which marks the position of London should occupy the center of one, that hemisphere would contain nearly all the land and the other nearly all the water. The former is called the continental, or land hemisphere, the latter the oceanic, or water hemisphere. 39. About one-seventeenth of the land is in the form of frag- mentary bodies, called islands. They may be considered as of two classes: (i) continental, those lying in the near vicinity of the continents, and really forming a pari of the continental structure; (j)oceanic, th<.se lying a! a distance from the continents in the midst of the oceans, and differing in structure from the continents. 40. The continental islands vary greatly in size— from mere rocky points to those which sustain great empires, :i- the British [sles and the fapan tslands, or such extensive tracts as Madagascar, Borneo and Papua, each of the three latter containing over joo,ooo square miles. The character of the rock structure, plants and ani- mals is similar to that of the near coasts of the mainlands. They are usual I v elongated in form and lie in lines parallel to the coasts of the continent-. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 145 41. Oceanic Islands are all small and usually occur in groups. Their rock structure is essentially different from that of the conti- nents, and the vegetation and animal life generally peculiar. Thev may be divided as to their formation and character into two classes — volcanic, or high, and the coral, or low. 42. The volcanic islands are the summits of active or extinct volcanoes projecting above the water. They are usually consider- ably elevated, with steep shores, and more or less circular in out- line. Some have peaks of great height, as one of the Sandwich islands, with the peak of Hawaii, 14,000 feet above the sea level. Many of them have appeared within the history of man. 43. Coral islands are amongst the most interesting phenomena of Physical Geography. They owe their existence to the work of colonies of small radiate animals called polyps (improperly called coral insects). The following from Guyofs Physical Geography explains the nature of the animal and its work : " The structure of the polyp consists of a cylindrical or sack like membrane, attached at the bottom to some solid body, and enclosing a second sack, which' forms the stomach. At the top is an opening, or mouth, which is surrounded by thread-like organs called tentacles. When expanded, the polvp resembles a flower in form and often in the beauty of its color. The solid coral which composes the reef is secreted in the cavity between the outer and inner mem- branes, as the bones are secreted i 1 the bodies of higher animals. 14 Coral polyps multiply by eggs, to a certain extent, but chieflv by a process of budding similar to the branching of plants. Thus they grow into vast com- munities, in which generation succeeds generation, each "individual leaving be- hind, as it dies, its contribution to the reef in the form of a small cell of carbo- nate of lime. Each community had its origin in a single free polyp, which was produced from an egg, and subsequently attached itself to the ground at the proper depth for its growth." 44. The polyps cannot live out of water, and hence their work must cease at low water mark. Fragments of the coral structure are broken off and thrown upon the top of the mass by the waves, and thus in the course of time a reef, as it is called, is formed, pro- jecting from the water. Upon this reef a vegetation finally springs up from the seeds which the winds and waves bring, and a soil is formed from the pulverized coral, drifted material and decayed vegetation. 45. The reef-building polyps exist only in tropical regions, or where the water never gets below the temperature of 68 : F. It is claimed that the polyp does not live at a great depth, not much he- low 100 feet, yet coral rocks are found at the depth of 1,500 feet. According to the theory of Darwin, the polyps begin to build on the edge of an island that is slowly sinking; as the base of their structure goes down, they build up, and this will account for their formations at so great a depth. 46. The varieties of coral formations are as follows: (1 ) fring- ing reefs, narrow bands of coral rock lying near the shores of vol- canic islands; (2) barrier reefs, lie at a considerable distance from 10 146 TEACHERS AND sir DENTS' LIBRARY the islands, Leaving a tract of quiet water called a lagoon between them and the islands; (3) encircling reefs, those which extend en- tirely around the island; (4) atolls, the usual form of coral islands, consisting of a ring, more or less broken, within which is a lagoon of shallow water. 47. Coral islands are never much over 12 ft. in height, and slope from the circumference toward the center. The vegetation is not varied, being mostly limited to those plants whose seeds are not injured by being drifted in the sea water. It is, however, lux- uriant because under tropical skies. 48. The level of the sea is taken as the standard for measuring the height or depth of the land. The highest land (Mt. Everest of the Himalayas) is 29,000 ft. above sea level. The lowest land (the region about the Dead Sea ) is 1,312 ft. below the level of the sea. This difference of elevation is very insignificant compared with the size of the earth. The proportion is about the same as particles of dust to a six inch globe. 49. The boundary line between Lowlands and highlands is taken at 1,000 ft. above sea level. Lowlands are divided into plains and valleys. As to mode of formation, plains may be di- vided into: (1) alluvial, those formed by deposits from fresh water of a river or lake; (2) marine, those formed by a deposit from the sea or any body of salt water. 50. Alluvial plains are very fertile ami generally very level. The great "bottom lands" along the Mississippi and Other large rivers are alluvial plains. Some of the great tracts of prairie in the U. S. which are so fertile were probably once ancient lake bottoms. The marine plains are usually barren, being composed mostly of sand, and frequently containing salt, soda and other minerals depos- ited from the sea water. The great deserts and other barren tracts are marine plains. A valley is properly the lower land between hills or mountains, and sometimes may be much higher than the limits assigned to lowlands. The great alluvial plains of rivers arc sometimes called valleys, as the valley of the Mississippi, etc. 51. Undulating plains approach the highlands in elevation, are uneven, and generally covered with forests. Prairies, steppes, pampas, sclvas, etc., are various names applied t<> plains indifferent parts of the world. In the outline we have attempted a classifica- tion of them. 52. Plateaus, or table lands, are usually between mountain chains, or bordering on them and connect with the adjoining low- lands, either abruptly or by a gradual descent. They vary in height from 1,000 ft. to [3,000 ft. The highest plateaus are those between the two chains of the Andes. The plateau of Thibet is remark- able for its height and extent. (See Outline). 53. Mountains are usually arranged in chains, or long ridges indented at the top, forming 1 scries of peaks. Sometimes a num- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 147 ber of ridges, or chains, are connected together forming a mountain system, as the Appalachian and Rocky Mountain systems. Occa- sionally a single mountain stands isolated, or several detached elevations are near together, forming a group. 54. « The force which upheaved the crust into mountain masses and plateaus, had its origin in the contraction of a cooling globe." Under this influence the crust has been flexed, or bent by gradual strain and thrown into wrinkles, or folds; or the contraction and pres- sure has fractured the crust and thrown up the rocks on their edges. 55. The valleys among mountains are longitudinal or trans- verse, the former lying parallel with the ranges, the latter crossing them. The longitudinal valleys are most numerous in the moun°- tains formed by flexure, the transverse-in those formed by fracture. Valleys owe their origin to folds and fissures of the earth's crust, widened by the action of water, frost and chemical action. 56. "The following peculiarities are noticeable in the relief forms of the continents: — i. The continents have, in general, high borders and a low interior. 2. The highest border lies nearest the deepest ocean ; hence, the culminating point, or the highest point of land, lies out of the center of the continent. 3- Tne greatest prolongation of a continent is always that of its predominant mountain system. 4. The prevailing trends of the mountain masses are the *ame as those of the coast lines, and are, in general, either north- east or northwest. 5. The greatest elevations of continents are nearly always found in tropical regions:'' — Houston's Phys. Geog. 57. The rain or melted snow and hail which sinks into the earth penetrates the crust until it reaches an impervious strata, when it runs along until it finds an outlet at the surface in the form of a spring, or gathers into underground reservoirs, some of which by their peculiar formation, having an outlet in the form of a siphon, (See Nat. Philosophy,) form intermittent springs. 58. Springs are: (1) constant, having a nearly uniform flow throughout the year, showing that their source is beyond the in- fluence of the seasons; (2) temporary, flowing only during, or for a time after, wet weather; (3) intermittent, having regular periods of rest and flow, without regard to the season; (57); (4) cold, when the temperature is not over 6o°F.; hot, or thermal, when the tem- perature is above 6o° (9); (5) mineral, containing various mineral substances, and admitting of the following classification : (a) cal- careous, containing lime; (b) silieious, containing silica, or quartz; (c) sulphurous, containing hydrogen sulphide and other combi- nations of sulphur; (d) chalybeate, containing iron; ( e) saline, con- taining common salt; (f) additions, containing carbonic acid gas. 148 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 59. The drainage from the surface and the water from springs form small streams which unite to form rivers. When the water from streams and from the surface collects in depressions on the earth's surface it forms lakes. 60. The source of a river is where it Starts to How as a stream. The month is where its waters empty into some other body of water. Its channel is the depression through which it flows. A river system is the main stream with all its tributary streams. A river basin is the tract of land drained by a river and its branches. The ridge of land from which the water runs in different directions is called a -.cater sited. 61. The course of a river from its source to its mouth is divided for convenience of description into three parts: (i) the upper course, or that part which extends from its source, which is usually in the hilly or mountainous country to the more level plains below; (2) the middle course, extending from where the stream leaves the hills to the lower plains near the mouth; (3) the loiver course, the remainder of the channel. 62. From the nature of the country the upper course of a river has the greatest velocity, and it is here where the rapids and falls, or cataracts, occur. The Falls of Niagara are the grandest, not on account of their height, which is only 160 ft., but on account of their immense volume of water. The highest falls are those of the Yosemite Valley in California. Projecting rocks here break the water into three falls whose total height is 2,000 ft. The erosion, or wear of the stream in the upper course, is chiefly at the bottom. 63. In the middle course the velocity is much less. Here the river widens its valley by wearing its banks. During freshets ma- terial is deposited where the banks overflow. In the lower course the velocity is less and the deposit of material is great. The allu- vial plains are thus formed by material brought down. (50). 64. The amount of material transported by rivers is some- times enormous; in fact, rivers are one of the chief agencies in affecting changes in the configuration of the land. The mountains are being carried down to the sea and the continents are decreas- ing in height and increasing in extent. The Missouri R. carries past a given point, in a single day, enough material to cover a square mile to a depth of 4 ft. It empties enough into the Mississippi in one year, to cover a square mile to a depth of 400 ft. 65. " The termination of rivers is commonly by a single mouth, but many streams flowing through alluvial regions, carry along sedimentary accumulations which they deposit at their mouths, pro- ducing formations of laud, and dividing the main stream into branches." These formations are triangular in form and named deltas from their resemblance to the Greek Utter, delta. The delta of the Mississippi occupies an area of i2,3(x> square miles. The Nile R. has 9,000 square miles of delta formation. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 149 66. Lakes arc much more numerous in the northern continents, North America containing more than any other continent. From the nature of the land the lakes of mountain regions are more nar- row but of greater depth than those of the plains. 67. Lakes may be divided into classes as follows: (i) Those having inlets but no visible outlets, {z) Those having outlets, but no apparent inlets. (3) Those having no apparent outlets or inlets. (4) Those having both inlets and outlets. t 68. The Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, and Great Salt Lake, are ex- amples of the first class. Such lakes are usually salt (71). The water is either all lost by evaporation or is absorbed by the earth. Lakes of the second class are usually found in mountainous regions and arc the source of some large rivers. The water evidently comes from springs and rises until it runs over the basin. Lake Albano, near Rome, is an example of the third class. Such lakes are usually situated in elevated regions, are supposed to be the craters of extinct volcanoes and are fed by springs. Lakes of the fourth class are by far the most common. 69. Lakes occur at varying elevations. Lake Sirikol, the source of the Amoor R. is 15,630 ft. above the level of the sea, while the Dead Sea is 1,317 ft. below the level of the sea. They vary greatly also in their depth. The surface of L. Huron is nearly 600 ft. above sea level, while the bottom is 400 ft. below the sea level, giving it a depth of about 1,000 ft. L. Baikal, in Siberia, is 3,000 ft. in depth. L. Erie is only about 90 ft. deep, and L. Supe- rior, the largest fresh water lake in the world, is 1,200 ft. in depth. 70. For convenience of description the great oceanic waters are divided into five parts, each called an ocean. The Arctic and Ant- arctic are separated from the others by the polar circles. The others are mainly separated by the continents. The Pacific is the largest, occupying about \ the entire water area. Of the others, the Atlantic occupies ^, the Indian i, the Antarctic T S, and the Arctic jfo of the entire area. The various names given to the articulations of the oceanic waters with the land have been explained in General Geography. 71. The water of the sea, besides common salt, or sodium chloride, contains many other mineral substances. The cause of the saltness may be sought in the fact that these minerals are soluble in water, and as the sea receives the water drained from the land it receives all the soluble material over which the water flows. It retains it because, in giving its water back to the land through evaporation, these minerals are not evaporated with the water. The great salt lakes, or seas, as the Caspian, owe their saltness to the sanu- causes. 72. The color of the sea varies, though usually a dark blue. The Black Sea, Yellow Sea, Red Sea, and Vermillion Sea are so named from the apparent tinge of the waters. The color is partly 160 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS L1BRART. due to the nature of the bottom, and partly t<> minute living organ- isms. The temperature of the sea varies from the freezing point, which, on account of its saltness is 26^4° F., to near 80 . At a depth varying from a point quite near the surface in the polar regions, to IO,000 ft. in the tropical regions, the water is of a nearly uniform and constant temperature (about 34° F.). 73. The bottom of the ocean is less irregular than the surface of the land. The greatest depth is not yet definitely known, hut it i- supposed that the greatest depth is about equal to the highest elevations of land. Deep sea sounding cannot always he relied upon. 74. Waves caused by the action of the wind arc sometimes raised as high as 60 ft. The distance between the crests of the waves varies from 10 to 20 times their height. 75. Tides are periodical elevations and depressions of the water caused by the attraction of the sun and moon. When the water is rising it is called the Jlood tide, when receding, the ebb tide. They affect the ocean in its whole extent and to great depths. The height of tides varies with circumstances. In the middle of the Pacific they rise only about 2 ft., hut in narrow channels the waters accumulate until a height of 70 ft. is sometimes reached. 76. The changes of level succeed each other with great regu- larity. The water rises until it attains its maximum height, remains at a level a few moments and then recedes, the interval between two consecutive high or low tides being \2 hours and 26 minutes, high water or low water occurring 52 minutes later each day. When the sun and moon act together on the same side of the earth the flood tides are highest, and the ebb tides lowest. These occur at full and new moon And are called spring tides. The highest of these occur in March and September. When the sun and moon are in such positions that they act somewhat in opposition to each other, the flood tides are not very high nor the ebb tides very low. These are called neap tides and are lowest in June and December. 77. Places remarkable for high tides are the Bay of Fundy, English Channel, Persian Gulf and China Sea. The currents pro- duced bv tides in some places come in contact with each other in such a manner as to produce whirlpools. The Maelstrom, oil the coast of Norway, is a noted example. 78. In waves produced by the wind or by the tides there is no real onward movement of the water, except under certain conditions. The water rises and falls, and like the waving of a field of grain there seems to he an onward motion, but such is not strictly the rase-. There are, however, progressive motions of the water of the ocean, by which there is an interchange of the water of the polar regions with that of the tropics. These movements are called ocean currents. 70. The water in the equatorial regions being exposed to the PHTSICAL GEOGRAPHT. 151 great heat of the sun is lowered to a considerable extent hy evapo- ration and made specifically lighter. .Some of the colder waters from the polar regions consequently will flow toward the equator, and some of the equatorial waters flow toward the poles. The rotation of the earth, the winds and the configuration of the ocean basins, will tend to change the directions of the currents, and consequently they will not be exactly in a north and south direction. A current toward the poles will be deflected by the earth's rotation toward the east, and those flowing toward the equator toward the west. 80. Ocean currents are sometimes hundreds of miles broad, thousands of feet deep, and of a temperature different from that of the surrounding waters. Thev exist not only on the surface, but there are under-currents going in the ojDposite direction to the surface currents. I 81. Ocean currents greatly modify climate. The Gulf Stream, one of the most noted currents, rises in the neighborhood of Cuba, and following north along the eastern coast of the U. S., turns about the latitude of New York to the east and crossing the Atlantic, divides about the Azores Islands, one branch going toward Norway, the other south along the coast of Africa. The mildness of the climate of the British Isles is due to its influence. 82. Near the center of the Atlantic O. is a large tract where the water is comparatively quiet and here have collected great quantities of sea-weed. This tract is called the Sargasso Sea. 83. The atmosphere extends to the height of about 50 miles according to estimates based upon the diminution of pressure with the height as shown by the barometer. (See Natural Philosophy). 84. (For a definition of climate see page 30.) The climate of a place as regards temperature depends upon : — 1. Latitude. — The general law is that the amount of heat is greatest at the equator, and diminishes toward the poles. There are three reasons for this: (1) The sun's rays fall perpendicularly upon the earth at the equator, and more and more obliquely as we go toward the poles. (2) The area covered by a given amount of heating power from the sun is smaller at the equator. (3) Where the sun's rays fall perpendicularly they pass through a less amount of atmosphere, and the absorption of heat is less. 2. Altitude. — The decrease in temperature is about 3 F. for every 1,000 ft. of elevation. As the air receives most of its heat by radiation and reflection from the earth, and as the higher we go the less dense the air, the less heat is absorbed either from the earth or from the direct rays of the sun. 3. Prevailing Winds. — Winds blowing from the tropical regions carry the heat with them and conversely winds from the polar regions lower the temperature. Whichever wind prevails throughout the year in a given place will consequently modify the temperature of that place. (86). 152 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS 1 LIBRARY. 4. Length of Day. — " During the day the earth receives from the sun more heat than it radiates into space; while during the night it radiates more than ii receives. Hence a succession ot long davs and short nights results in an accumulation of heat, rais- ing the average temperature and producing summer; while Long nights and short days result in a temperature below the average, producing winter." The heating power ot" the sun is greater in summer, because at that season it is shining more directly upon that part of the earth and conversely in winter. In the tropical regions the inequality of day and night is very little, hut increases toward the poles. The temperature in the tropics is therefore more uni- form. The length of day makes up for the lessened intensity of the sun's rays, hence a place in high latitude may have at times higher temperature than a place within the tropics. 5. Ocean Currents. — The warm waters of the tropical re- gions being brought toward the polar regions bring the heat with them, radiating it into space, and it is absorbed by the atmos- phere. 6. Mountain Ran ires.—" A mountain range will make a country near it warmer or colder according as it shields it from a cold or warm wind." 7. The Distribution of Land and Water. — "Land heats or cools rapidly, absorbing or emitting but little heat. Water heats or cools slowly, absorbing or emitting large quantities of heat. Hence, the land is subject to great and sudden changes of tempera- ture; the water to small and gradual changes. Places situated near the sea have, therefore, a more equable climate.'" S. Character of Soil. — Dry, sandy soil heats ami cools more rapidly than wet and marshy hinds, hence the latter will have a more uniform temperature. 9. Slope of the Land.— LiSitid which slopes so that the sun's ravs will strike it nearer vertically will receive more heat. The south side of a hill is warmer in winter than the north sick'. 85. In regard to winds the climate of a place depends upon :— 1. Temperature. —As winds are but masses ot" air set in motion by the unequal heating, the winds of any given place de- pend primarily upon the temperature, though not necessarily upon the temperature of that place. As the air is heated in the tropical parts of the earth by the sun, it rises and colder air Bows in from the polar regions to take its place, hence the primary currents which are modified in various ways by other causes. (84). 2. Rotation of the Earth. — The winds are turned out of their course by the rotation of the earth in the same manner as the ocean currents. (79). a. Laud and Water. — The land becomes wanner during the day than the sea and the air rising, a cooler air (lows in from the sea. At night the land parts with its heat more rapidly than the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHT. 158 water and becomes cooler, then the wind sets the other way. Hence we have the land and sea breezes. 4. Elevation of the Land. — Mountains, as has ahead} been stated, shelter places horn winds. Some of the great plains are subject to almost constant winds. 86. Winds may he classified as follows: — 1. Constant Winds. — They are called "trade winds," be- cause of advantage to commerce. Their direction is the same throughout the year. A current of air is named according to the direction from which it comes. The trade winds are northeast in the northern hemisphere and southeast in the southern hemisphere. They occupy a belt of 25 ° or 30° on each side of the equator. They are the result of: ( 1 ) The unequal heating of the polar and equatorial regions, causing the current; (2) the rotation of the earth giving the oblique direction. They blow with entire regularity only on the open sea, being modified on the land by local influences. 2. Periodical Winds are those which during regular pe- riods blow in opposite directions. Of these there are several classes: (a). Land and Sea Breezes (85). (b). Monsoons, winds which blow a part of the year in one direction and during the re- mainder of the year in another direction. They are trade winds in reality, which have been turned out of their course by the un- equal heating of the great land and sea masses. They occur in the Indian Ocean, Gulf of Guinea and the Gulf of Mexico and Carib- bean Sea. (c). Local Land Winds, caused by unequal heating of different parts of the land. Among them may be mentioned the Sirocco of the shores of the Mediterranean, the Khamsin of Egypt, the Simoon of Syria and Arabia, the Harmattan of Guinea, all hot and dry winds from the neighboring deserts; Ete- sian winds, blowing from the northeast during the summer over Greece and the Mediterranean toward Africa; the northers of Texas, cold, dry winds which blow over Texas and Mexico, de- scending from the upper regions of the atmosphere; mountain winds, ascending and descending the slopes of the mountains, called Pamperos and Puna winds in the Andes, the Bora in the Alps and the Mistral in Southern France. > Variable Winds. — Under this head are included those violent ^disturbances of the atmosphere called storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, cyclones, typhoons, whirlwinds, etc. The movement is nearly always a progressive, rotary one, and the velocity is some- times as great as 100 miles per hour. 87. On the ocean in the equatorial regions the ascending cur- rents of air are so great as to counteract the currents from the polar regions and consequently there are places which are subject to calms, when the wind does not blow at all 88. The humidity, or moisture of the atmosphere 1- caused by 154 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. the evaporation of water from the ocean and land. When the moisture in the atmosphere changes from the gaseous or vapor form it is said to be condensed and is precipitated as dew, mist, fog, cloud, rain, sleet, hail, or snow. In order that precipitation may occur the air must he cooled helow the dezv point. The dew point is the point of saturation, or where the air contains as much moist- ure as it is capable of holding. This varies with the tempera- ture. 89. In regard to moisture, the climate of a place depends upon : — 1. Prevailing Winds. — If a wind blows from large bodies of water in a warm region it will he laden with moisture which will he likely to he precipitated on reaching a colder country. 2. Mountains. — The contact of a moisture-laden wind with the cold sides of mountains will cause a precipitation of its moist- ure and the regions heyond the mountains will not receive it. 3. Forests, by shading the earth, keep its surface cool and this tends to condense the moisture. 4. Cultivation of the Soil, causing it to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and by capillary attraction in dry weather bring up moisture from helow to the surface. 5. Temperature. — Increased heat causes greater evapora- tion and hence more moisture in the atmosphere. More rain falls within the tropics than in the temperate or polar Regions. 6. Land and Water. — More rain falls on the coasts of a country than in the interior, hecause the winds are more moist. More rain falls in the northern hemisphere than in the southern because there is a greater diversity of land and water, the evapora- tion coming mainly from the ocean, and the condensation from the diversified land surface. 90. Glaciers are immense masses of ice formed by the accumu- lated snows upon the mountain tops. They till in vast valleys, and have an onward motion throughout like a liquid or semi-liquid body. Their course down the slopes is very slow, hut like rivers, they flow faster in the middle than at the bottom and sides. The lower extremities are constantly melting, forming torrents and mountain streams, while they are i'a\ at the upperpartsby the snows. Rocks of immense size are torn off and carried down by glaciers. (See Geology.) They occur in the greatest numbers in the Alps Mts. When the glacier reaches the ocean large fragments are broken off and float away as icebergs. 91. Isothermal lines, are lines drawn on maps connecting places which have the same average annual temperature. They are very far from corresponding with the parallels of latitude. 92. The plants of a country taken together are called its flora. Vegetation depends mainly for its development upon heat and moisture, hence the nature of the flora of a country will depend PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHT. 155 almost entirely upon its climate. Vegetation may be arranged in zones bounded by isothermal lines: — 1. The tropical zone, bounded by the isothermal lines of 73° F. on each side of the equator is characterized by palms, banan- as, spices and aromatic plants. The vegetation is very luxuriant. Trees attain enormous size, the leaves sometimes very large. Mam- plants attach themselves to trees and rocks, and derive their suste- nance from the water and air. The forests are almost impenetrable from the hanging and twining vines and the denseness of the vege- tation. The famous banyan tree grows in this zone. From its trunk branches are sent out which, taking root again, form other trunks, thus in time an entire grove is produced from a single tree. 2. The sub-tropical zones, in each hemisphere, lying between the isothermal lines of 73° and 68° F. are characterized by trees with thick, shining leaves, as magnolias, laurels and myrtles. The winters are so mild as scarcely to arrest the growth of vege- tation. 3. The -warm temperate zones, in each hemisphere, lying between the isothermal lines of 6S° and 55° F. are characterized by evergreen trees and shrubs with shining leaves, along with oaks, beeches and plants similar to the cold temperate zones. The olive, fig, cork tree and pomegranate are also characteristic. The vine here attains its greatest perfection. 4. The cold temperate zones in each hemisphere, lying between the isothermal lines of 55 and 41° F. are characterized by deciduous trees, as oaks, beeches, maples, elms, walnuts, larches, etc., while mosses, grasses, the rose, honeysuckle, clematis, holly, etc., form much of the smaller vegetation. ' This zone contains the most highly civilized peoples, and has the greatest variety of food plants, and the most extensive forests. 5. The sub-arctic zones, in each hemisphere, lying between the isothermal lines of 41° and the September isothermal lines of 36.5 ° F. are characterized by evergreen coniferous trees, as pines, hemlocks, cedars, firs, etc. Beeches, alders and willows are found in the moist grounds of the northern oortions, and grasses and flowers abound in summer. 6. The polar zones, extending from the limits of the sub- arctic zones to the poles, have very scanty vegetation. The trees are dwarfed, and are mostly birch, willow and alder. Mosses and lichens, with some sedges and grasses, t x Jst. 93. As we ascend above sea level, in a tropical country, the vegetation changes somewhat, as is seen in traveling from the "equa- tor to the poles; at a height of 15,000 feet and over, the flora cor- responds to the sub-arctic and polar zones. 94. The agencies which have been active in disseminating species of plants over the globe may be mentioned as follows: The winds; ocean currents; animals, cither by seeds carried in their L56 TBAi HERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. stomachs or adhering to their coats; and man. I For information concerning the origin, nature, etc., of our common food plants, fruits, spices, etc., see Index.) 95. The animals of a country taken together are called its fauna. " Flic distribution of heat, moisture and vegetation forms the true basis for the distribution of animal life.' 1 As a general law it may he stated that animal life, the same as vegetable, varies as we lc° from the equator to the poles, and also as the altitude above sea level increases, hut the lines are not so distinctly marked, and it is difficult t<> arrange them in zones. 96. As a general rule, the terrestrial animal life decreases in variety of forms, and luxuriance of development, as we go from the equator to the poles. Man is rather an exception to the rule, as the most highly developed races, both physically and mentally, are found in the intermediate regions. The reverse of the rule is true of marine animal life. Certain species are found in the Western conti- nents which are not found in the Eastern, even in the same latitude and under the same climatic conditions, showing that the ocean is a harrier to the dissemination of species. Australia has a fauna peculiar to itself, and the fact of its complete isolation from the other land masses, will in part explain it. QUESTIONS ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. (See Note to Questions on Geography). i. Is the earth a large body? 2 — 4. State the Nebular Hypothesis. 6 — 7. What is the probable condition of the interior of the earth ? 8. Name the phe- nomena which seem to indicate a heated interior, y. What are thermal springs? S. Where are they very numerous? 11. Geysers. 12. Name some remarkable gevsers in our own country. 13. Explain the action of geysers. 14. Define volcano; the crater; lava. 15. What forms the volcanic com:? 16. What is the nature of lava when it first issues from a volcano? 17. What are volcanic ashes? Volcanic sand? iS. What i- the origin of Iceland? 19. Number and distribution of volcanoes? 20. Describe Vesuvius. What cities were buried by its eruption? 21. Describe an eruption. 22. Name four important volcanoes and tell all vou can about them. 23. What are fields of fire? 24. Solfataras? 25. Mud volcanoes? 26. Earthquakes? 27. Movement- of the earth during an earth- quake? 28. Length of shocks? 29. Where most liable to occur? 30. What were some of the most noted earthquakes? 31. Cause of earth- quakes? 32. Does the level of the land remain everywhere the same? 33. At what rate (lor- the temperature increase as we go down in the earth? 34. Where are the magnetic poles? 36. What is the zone of fracture? 37. Compare and contrast the continents as to size and coast line. 38. Of what hemisphere is London the center? 39. How are islands classified? Define continental islands. Oceanic island-. 40. Whal Is the usualform and position of continental islands? 41. Of oceanic island- 5 How are oceanic islands . lassified? 42. Volcanic islands? 43. Coral islands? Describe the polvp which -sc- cretes coral. What is a coral net? 4.5, In what zone are coral islands found ? Does the polyp build up from the bottom of the ocean ? 40. Name the varieties of coral formations. 17. How high are coral islands? 48. Whal is the highest land? Lowest? 49. What is the boundary between PHTSIOLOGT. 157 highlands and lowlands? Define alluvial plains; marine plains. 50. Charac- teristics of each? 51. What are undulating plains' 52. Plateaus? 53. What is the usual arrangement of mountains? 54. Origin of mountains? 55. Origin of valleys? 56. What peculiarities of relief forms may be observed? 57. What is the ori- gin of springs? 58. Classify them. 59. Origin of rivers and lakes? 60. What terms used in describing a river? 61. How is a river divided? 62. What is the nature of upper course* of rivers? What cataract is characterized by the greatest volume of water? What by the greatest height? 64. What is one of the great agencies in effecting changes in continental structure? 65. What is a delta? 66. What continent contains most lakes? 67,6s. Classify lakes and give examples. 69. What is the highest lake? The deepest? 70. What are the relative sizes of the oceans? 71. What is the cause of the saltness of the sea? 72. What is the color of the sea? 73. The depth of the sea? 74. Waves? 75. Tides? 76. Spring and neap tides? 77. Places noted for high tides? Maelstrom? 7S. Ocean currents? 79. Cause? So. Extent? 81. Effect? Gulf Stream? 82. Sargasso Sea? S3. Height of atmosphere? 84. Upon what does climate as to temperature depend? 85. As to winds? 86. Classify winds? 87. Calms? SS. What causes the humidity of the atmosphere? In what forms is the moisture pre- cipitated? 89. Upon what does climate as to moisture depend? 90. What are glaciers? 91. Isothermal lines? 92. What is meant by the flora of a country? How are plants distributed? 93. What is true of the ver- tical distribution of plants? 94. What agencies have been active in effecting a distribution o r species of plants? 95. What is meant by the fauna of a country? How does it vary? How do you explain the peculiar fauna of Australia? .■||<>1I" PHYSIOLOGY. OUTLINE OF THE HUMAN ORGANIZATION. It is presumed that the pupil who has had exercise in outlining other subjects, has by this time acquired sufficient skill to enable him to elaborate such a subject as this with the assistance of these general heads, and the references to the text, where further suggestions will be found. i 1 Organs. i J Of Motion. (Motory Apparatus). i 3 Principal. (Muscular System). i 4 Muscles. (2l). * * * * 2 3 Accessorv. (Osseous System). 1* Bones." (The Skeleton). (2). ***** [In outlining and reciting let the pupil give the location, form, peculiarities, articulations and uses of each bone]. 2 2 Of Nutrition and Repair. (Nutritive Apparatus). i 3 Of Digestion. (Digestive System). i* Principal. (Alimentary Canal). (30). * * * 2 4 Accessory. (40). , •T* *F *h ^ ^ 2 s Of Circulation. (Vascular System). 158 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. i* Principal. (Circulatory System). (52). T* ^ ^ ^ 2* Accessory. (Lymphatic, or Absorptive System). (72). 3* Of Respiration. (Respiratory System). (77). $ $ ♦ ♦ 4 3 Of Secretion and Excretion. (Secretory, or Glandular System). (88). 3 2 Of Sensation. (Sensorial Apparatus). * I 3 Principal. (Nervous System). (100). i 4 Originating. (128). 2* Transmitting. (128). * * * * 3* Distributing. (128). * * * * 2 3 Accessory. (Organs of Special Sense). (129). *F *F •£ t» 2 1 Tissues. (161). ♦ ♦ $ 4 3 1 Functions. / [These points may be elaborated here, or be outlined in 4 1 Hygiene. f connection with each organ], PHYSIOLOGY. 1. Anatomy treats of the structure of the animal body. When applied to man it is called Human Anatomy, when applied to the lower animals, Comparative Anatomy. Physiology treats of the functions of the various organs. Hygiene treats of the preserva- tion of the body in a state of health. These three subjects are usually taught in schools under the general term of « Physiology." 2. The human skeleton in the adult is composed of 200 distinct bones. They may be conveniently divided into bones of the head, trunk and extremities. As to form, they may be classed as long, short, flat and irregular. The long bones arc found in the limbs. They are principally concerned in locomotion and act as levers. They consist of a shaft of a nearly cylindrical form and two ex- tremities, or heads. The short bones are those which are grouped together and united by ligaments for compactness and strength, and at the same time allowing a slight degree of motion, such as the hones of the wrist and ankle. The Jteit bones are those which are for protection to internal organs or for the extensive attachment of muscles. Some of the hones of the skull, the ribs, shoulder blade, etc., belong to this class. The irregular bones are such as cannot be classed with either of the others. 3. Certain terms are used in describing bones as follows: diaphysis, the main part of a long bone, apophysis, a portion of a bone which projects prominently but which has never been sep- arated from "i' movable upon the main bone; epiphysis, a portion which has been developed as a separate piece and afterward joined to the main hone. Eminences and depressions receive different names, thus we have: ( 1) tuberosities, broad, uneven elevations; (2) tubercles, small, rough projections; (3) spines, sharp, slender riirsroLoar. 159 projections; (_jj ridges, or lines, narrow, rough, extended eleva- tions. jFbssac, grooves, Jissit res, etc., denote depressions. The use of these depressions and elevations is to increase the extent of sur- face for the attachment of muscles and ligaments. 4. The hones of the head may be divided into those of the cranium, face and car. The cranium consists of S hones which are joined together in such a manner as to form a kind of box en- closing the brain. They are as follows: (i) The occipital form- ing the hack and lower part of the head, resting on the spinal column and perforated with a large opening called the foramen magnum for the entrance of the spinal marrow; (2) the parietals, two in number, forming the sides of the head ; (3) the frontal, forming the forehead and brows; (4) the temporals, one on each side forming the lower part of the side of the head, divided into three parts, the petrous, mastoid and squamous portions; (5] the sphenoid forming the lower front part of the base of the skull, articulating with all the other bones of the cranium and holding; them together; (6) the ethmoid, a light spongy bone at the an- terior part of the base of the skull between the orbits of the eyes. 5. The face contains 14 bones which form attachments for the softer parts. They are: (1) the two nasal, forming the bridge of the nose; (2) two superior maxillary, or upper jaw bones; (3) one inferior maxillary, ox lower jaw bone; (4) two molar, or cheek bones; (5) two lachrymal, very small bones at the inner corner of the orbits; (6) two palate, forming part of the roof of the mouth; (7) two inferior turbinated, scroll-like projections from the supe- rior maxillary in the nasal fossae; (S) one vomer, separating the divisions of the nasal fossae. The bones of the ear are very mi- nute, 3 in number, the malleus, incus and stapes, situated in a cavity of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 6. The trunk, for convenience of study, may be divided into the thorax, the spinal column and the pelvis. The thorax includes : (1) the ribs, 24 in number arranged in pairs, joined to the sternum in front and to the spinal column at the other extremity, the first seven pairs being united to the sternum directly by means of sepa- rate cartilages, and called true ribs, the next three pairs being in- directly united to the sternum, called false ribs, the last two pairs not united to the sternum and called footing ribs; (2) the sternum. or breast bone, in the adult divided into three portions, the manu- brium, the gladiolus and the ens i form appendage: (3) the clavicle, or collar hone acting as a kind of brace and extending from the Sternum to the scapula, being more frequently broken than any other bone in the body ; (4) the scapula, or shoulder blade afford- ing attachment to the arm. The two latter bones may be classed with the upper extremities. 7. The spinal column consists of 24 irregular bones called vertebra;. In general each vertebra consists of a body and a poste- 160 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBEAET. rior arch which is composed of two laminae and two pedicles with seven processes, (our articular, two transverse, and one spinous. Between the arch and the body is a foramen, or opening, which, when all the vertebras are put together, forms the spinal canal con- taining the spinal cord. They are divided into the cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions. There are 7 cervical vertebrae, the first ar- ticulating with the occipital hone is called the alias, the second which forms the pivot on which the head turns is called the axis, the seventh is called the vertebra pro/uiue>/s. The others have not received particular names. The bodies of the cervical are smaller than in the other vertebras and the spinous processes bifid. The dorsal vertebrae are 12 in number, their bodies larger than the cervical and the spinous processes directed more downward. The lumbar vertebrae, 5 in number, have larger bodies and the spinous processes directed horizontally. 8. The pelvis consists of the sacrum, the coccyx, and the two innominata. The sacrum consists of five solidly united vertebrae and is in reality a continuation of the spinal column. The coccyx is a small hone consisting usually of four united vertebrae being the extremity of the spinal column. The innominata, or hip bones, are very irregular, expanded bones which afford attachment to the femur. They are attached firmly tothe sacrum and consist of three- parts, the lower called the ischium, the front portion called the pubis and the upper broad portion the iiiium. The cavity which receives the head of the femur is called the acetabulum. It is com- posed of portions of the three parts. Between the ischium and pubes is a large opening called the obturator foramen. 9. The upper extremities consist of 62 bones as follows: ( 1 ) The humerus, or long bone of the arm. (2) The uli/a and radius, the bones of the forearm; the upper extremity, olecranon process. of the ulna may be felt at the tip of the elbow (called the "crazy hone,") and the lower extremity is on the same side as the little finger. The radius may be known by having its lower extremity at the side the thumb is on. It appears to revolve around the ulna when the hand is turned. The radius is longest and articulates with the carpal bones. (3) The carpus, or wrist, has S bones arranged in two rows, as follows, commencing with the one next the thumb: trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, unciform, scaphoid semilunar, cuneiform, pisiform; (notice this arrangement of the initial let- ters and it will help to remember the names and position of the hones: the upper row, T. T. ( ). I", lower row, S. S. C. 1'.); (4) the metacarpus, or hand, consists of 5 bones articulating with the carpus above and the bones of the fingers and thumb below; the hones of the fingers and thumb called phalanges are 1 ) ill number, three to each finger and two to the thumb. 10. The lower extremities consist of 60 hones ;1 s follows: 1 1 1 The femur, or thigh bone, the longest bone in the body. (2) The PHTSIOLOGT. 161 tibia, \X\c larger bone of the leg, (called the " shin bone"). (3) The Jibula, the smaller bone of the leg acting as a kind of brace to the tibia. (4) The patella, or knee-cap, is in the shape of a chest- nut, and lies over the heads of the femur and tibia, held in place by Strong ligaments. (5) The tarsus, or ankle, consists of 7 bones as follows: the os calcis,ox heel bone, the largest, the astragalus next in size supports the tibia, the scaphoid, the c/tboid and the three cu- neiform. (6) The metatarsus, 5 bones. (7] The phalanges, 14 bones, are analogous to the metacarpus and phalanges of the hand. 11. The os hyoides, or hyoid bone, has no articulations with any other bones. It is located just above the larynx, supports the tongue and gives attachment to many muscles. It is in the shape of a letter U. 12. Sesamoid bones are small rounded masses of a cartilagi- nous nature until adult life, and are found in tendons which exert great pressure upon parts over which they glide. The patella is really a sesamoid bone. Others are very small and are found mostly in male individuals of active muscular habit, in the region of the thumb, great toe and sometimes in other parts of the hand and foot. Wormian bones, or ossa triquetra, are small bones sometimes found between the sutures of the skull. 13. The following outline indicates the kinds of articulations of bones: — I. Synarthrosis, or immovable. 1. Sutura, interlocked like a seam. a. Sutura vera, by indented borders. (a) Dentata, tooth like processes, as between parietal bones. (b) Serrata, like saw teeth, as sometimes between parts of the frontal. (c) Limbosa, beveled indented processes as, in fronto-parietal. (b) Sutura notha, by rough surfaces. (a> Squamosa, thin beveled edges overlapping, as in tempero-parietal. (b) Harmonia, contiguous rough surfaces, as between two superior maxillary. 2. Schindylesis, a thin plate of bone fitting into a fissure in another, as vomer into sphenoid. 3. Gomphosis, conical process into a socket as the teeth in the jaws II. Diarthrosis, or movable. 1. Arthrodia, plane surfaces gliding upon each other, as clavicle with sternum. 2. Enarthrosi-, or ball-and-socket joint, spherical head fitting into a cup- like cavity, as in hip and shoulder. 3. Ginglymus, or hinge joint, admitting motion in two directions only, as in elbow, knee and ankle. 4. Diarthrosis rotatorius, a ring around a pivot, as in atlo-axoid. ill. Amphiarthrosis, or mixed. 14. Ligaments arc bundles of white fibrous or yellow elastic tissue, pliable and elastic, which are connected with nearly all movable joints and hold the bones in place, yet allow freedom of movement. Synovial membranes are delicate membranous tissue in the form of short, wide tubes attached by the open ends to the edges of the extremities of bones in the joints. They enclose a 1 1 162 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' UBRART. fluid, synovia, for the lubrication of the joints. Bursae are little sacs containing a viscid fluid and arc found in the neighborhood of joints. Their use is to lessen friction of the moving parts. 15. The structure of hone may he discussed under the heads: (i) mechanical, meaning those parts which may be seen with the un- aided eye; (2) microscopic, the more minute structure requiring the aid of a microscope; (3) chemical, meaning the ultimate and proxi- mate elements which make up the bone substance. 16. Mechanical Structure. — All hones are covered except at their cartilaginous extremities with a periosteum, which is a thin membrane intimately connected with the hone and containing nutrient vessels for the nourishment of the bone beneath. It is thicker and more vascular in young- hones, growing thinner and more adherent in old age. The marrow, or medulla, found especi- ally in the cavities of long hones, consists mostly of fat. Bone is made up of two kinds of tissue visible to the eye, cancellous, or spongy, and compact tissues, the compact being found on the ex- terior and cancellous on the interior. In long hones the cancellous tissue is mostly at the end. Blood-vessels ramify freely through the cancellous tissue. 17. Microscopic Structure. -The hone substance (matrix) seems to he arranged in layers {lamellae) around certain chan- nels which in a cross section appear as round and oval openings, in a longitudinal section of elongated open spaces. In the m of these lamellae arc numerous little openings, or cells (lacunae) ar- ranged in rows around the larger Openings, which are called Haversian canals. Fiom the lacunae, branching in every direction. arc little channels called canaliculi. In a very thin section viewed by transmitted light the Haversian canals appear as open spaces, the lacunae as dark spots and the canaliculi as dark lines. The canaliculi proceeding from one lacuna run into another or into a Haversian canal. The lacunae are thought to he hone cells and the Haversian canals and canaliculi arrangements for the circulation of nutriment for the growth of the hone. 18. Chemical Structure. — If a long hone he immersed in a dilute acid for a few days, the earthy or mineral part will he dissolved out, leaving a soft flexible mass which may hi' hent in any direction and even tied in a knot. This soft part is nearly pure gelatine. The following table gives the result of a chemical analysis of hone by Berzelius: — Organic Matter- Gelatine and Blood-vessels, - 33-3° Inorganic or Earthy Matter, Calcium phosphate, ..... - 51-04 " carbonate, - ii-3° " fluoride, - 2.00 Magnesium phosphate, - - 1.16 Soda and Sodium chloride, - - - t.30 100.00 ri/rs/OLoc)-. 163 The proportions of earthy ami organic matter varies: (i) in the different bones of the same skeleton; (2) with age; (3) with certain diseased conditions. In the disease called rickets, the earthy matter is so small in quantity that the hones are not stiff enough to support the weight of the body and become bent and variously de- formed in consequence. In old age the hones become brittle by a lack of organic matter and old people are more liable to receive fractures. If a hone be burned in the fire the organic matter will he consumed, having the earthy matter. It will retain its form but will he very brittle and fragile. 19. From the nature of the material of bone it will appear: (1) that children should not be encouraged to walk too soon lest the weight of the body bend the bones of the limbs before they become sufficiently solid, thus producing " bow legs; " (2) that old persons should take great care to avoid falls lest they receive frac- tures; (3) that tight lacing, sitting too long in one position, bend- ing over a table and all other actions and positions which will exert continued pressure on bones, should be avoided. 20. Bone is produced by a kind of petrifaction of cartilage, i. e. all hone is first in a soft condition but develops into solid bone by deposit of earthy matter. This process is called ossification. It begins at different times in different bones. Ossification commences at certain points, or centers, and extends in all directions from these centers. In most of the short bones there is but one center of ossi- fication, in long bones generally three. 21. The motions of the bodv are caused by the contraction of bundles of fibers called muscles. There are over 500 muscles in the body. Thev are connected with the bones, cartilages, liga- ments antl skin, directly or by means of tendons, (fibrous cords) or aponeuroses (fibrous membranes similar in structure to the tendons) and covered with thin membranes called fascia. 22. As to form muscles may be: ( i) radiated, fibers diverging from a point like a fan; (2) penniform, converging to one side of a tendon like a feather; (3) bipennifonn, converging to both sides of a tendon; {^^ fusiform, when the fibers converge to both ends; (5) sphincter, when the fibers run round in a circle. 23. As to the mode of action, they are: (1) extensors, those which straighten a part from a bent position; (2) Jiexors, the oppo- site of extensors; (3) abductors, those which move a limb away from the body; (4) adductors, the opposite of abductors; (5) pro- nators, those which turn, or roll a part over so that it lies on its face * as the hand turned so as to lie with the palm downward; (6) supin- ators, the opposite of pronators; (7) sphincters, those which act like a draw-string to close an opening. 24. As to position thev mav he superficial, near the surface, or deep seated, near the hone. As to volition, thev are voluntary^ under control of the will, or involuntary acting independent of the will, 164 TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. or mixed, partly under control of the will. As to structure the \nhintarv muscles arc striped, or striated, and the involuntary generally unstriped. The fibers of the heart differ very much from other striped muscles. 25. In describing a muscle it is customary to give: (i) its origin, the more fixed or central attachment toward which the force of the muscles is exerted; (2) its insertion, the more movable point upon which the force is exerted, (in the greater number of cases, however, the muscles may he made to act from either ex- tremity, then these points change places); (3) relations, stating what other organs or parts lie in the immediate neighborhood; (4) actions, or nse. 26. Muscles are named : ( 1 ) from their form, as Deltoid, Rhom- boidcus ; (2) from their location, as JVbialis, Ulnar is ; (3) from their attachments, as Stcrno-clcido-mastoid ; (4) from their use, as Flexors, Extensors j (5) from number of divisions as Biceps, Triceps. 27. In mechanical structure (15) striped muscles, which com- prise all the ordinary muscles of the trunk and limbs, are made up of a vast number of small cylindrical Jibers arranged parallel to each other and bound together in little bundles, fasciculi, by con- nective tissue. These bundles are united into still larger bundles and these again into one whole by connective tissue which usually thickens at one or both ends to form the tendon or aponeurosis (21). Under the microscope the muscular fiber (sometimes called ultimate fiber) appears as a transparent sheath, sarcolemma, enclosing a bundle of what appear to be still smaller fibers called fibrils, or fbrillac, each of which is made up of rows of minute particles ap- pearing like a string of beads. Under some circumstances the fiber will separate transversely into discs, in other words the fiber seems to be made up of minute parts which are so arranged as to present a striping and admitting of a cleavage in two directions, transversely and longitudinally. Smooth, or unstriped muscles consist of flattened bands interlac- ing in various directions. In chemical structure the muscles consist of a substance called syntonin, resembling the fibrin of the blood. 28. We have nol -pace to describe the divisions of the muscular system. We will only name a few of the most important. (See Outline). The pupil should describe these in the order given in Sec. 25. 1. Occipito frontalis. 2. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 3. Digastric. 4. Masseter. s- Temporal. 6. Sterno-cleido-mastoid. 7. Deltoid. 8. Latissimus dorsi. 9. Pectoralis major. 10. Biceps. 11. Triceps. 12. Gluteus maximus. 13. Sartorius. 14. Gastrocnemius. There are many others which are perhaps of equal importance, but it would be asking too much to expect a pupil to remember so many when there are so many other things of more importance that should be learned. PHYSIOLOGY. 103 29. The healthy condition of muscles depends upon a suffi- cient supply ot" pure blood and a proper alternation of exercise and rest. In order to secure pure blood it is necessary that the digestive apparatus be in good condition, the lungs be supplied with pure air, and the skin kept in proper condition bv bathing, proper clothing and tree access of air and .sunlight. Exercise should not be violent, nor long continued without rest, and to be beneficial it should be regular and frequent and of such a nature as to give all the muscles their proper share. The state of the mind has also to do with muscular contraction. A cheerful, hopeful disposition will accom- plish more work with less weariness than a fretful, peevish disposi- tion. 30. The Digestive System consists of the Alimentary Canal and Accessory Organs. The former is a musculo-membranous tube about 30 ft. long extending throughout the entire length of the trunk and lined by mucous membrane. It consists of the moutli, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and intestines. The accessory organs are the teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas and spleen, 31. The mouth is the beginning of the alimentary canal and needs no description here. It is the receptacle of the food where by means of the tcet/i, tongue, checks and the action of the saliva it is masticated and prepared for the further action in the stomach. 32. The pharynx is the next division of the digestive canal, between the mouth and the oesophagus. Likening the body to a house the mouth woidd be as a door, or entrance, the pharynx a hall, or vestibule, from which proceed openings into other parts. The pharynx has seven openings, one into the mouth, one to the oesopha- gus, one to the larynx, two to the nose and one to each ear, the Eustachian tubes. 33. The next division is the oesophagus, or gullet, the tube leading from the pharynx to the stomach. It is about 9 inches in length and lies Jiehind the trachea (80), the heart and the lungs, and passes through the diaphragm (84). It is composed of three coats, an external, muscular, middle, cellular, and internal, mucous. The muscular coat consists of fibers in two layers, the external run- ning longitudinally and the internal in a circular manner. 34. The stomach, the mosl important organ in the body, is a pear-shaped sac, or enlargement of the alimentary canal, where the food is dissolved and reduced to chyme. The greater portion is to the left of the median line of the body. It varies in size according to the amount of food contained, and also in different subjects. It averages when moderately full, 12 inches in length (transversely), and 4 inches in breadth (vertically). The left extremity is the larger, and is called the greater, 6r splenic end. The part which projects beyond the entrance of the oesophagus is called the fundus or greal cul-de-sac. The entrance of the oesophagus is called the cardiac orifice. The opposite extremity, or where the digested food passes Kj(j TEACHERS' AND STL DENTS' LIBRARY. into the intestine, is called the pyloric orifice. It is guarded by a kind of valve formed of a fold of the mucous membrane called the pylorus. Thi walls of the stomach are composed of four coats— the outer, or serous, derived from the peritoneum j the next a mus- cular, having fibers running longitudinally, transversely and ob- liquely; the next a cellular st$b-mucous or vascular, inside of' which is the mucous coat, or mucous membrane, which is but a part of the mucous lining of the entire alimentary canal. Under the micro- scope the mucous membrane presents a honey-combed appearance, due to numerous little depressions, alveoli, in the bottom of which are seen orifices of minute tubes, gastric follicles. Some of these tubes are lined with cells, from which, it is supposed, comes the gastric mucous, and hence called mucous glands; others contain nucleated cells and granules, and are called peptic glands, sup- posed to he the origin of the gastric juice, the immediate agent in the solution of the food. 35. The intestines are divided into the large and small. The duodenum is the first division of the small intestine which receives the contents of the stomach and effects further changes upon the food. It is S or 10 inches in length. Commencing with the py- lorus, it extends upward, backward and toward the right side, then • descends and turns to the left, crossing in front of the spinal column and terminating in the jejunum to the left of the second lumbar vertebra. 36. The jejunum, the second division of the small intestine, is about 7 ft. in length, and, together with the ileum, the third di- vision, lies coiled chiefly in the central part of the cavity of the ab- domen. The ileum is about 12 ft. in length and somewhat smaller in diameter than the jejunum. 37. The large intestine is about 5 ft. in length and is divided into the ciccum, the colon and the rectum. The -caecum, the com- mencement of the large intestine, is a blind pouch or cul-de-sac (34) about l\ inches in length and the same ill diameter. The ileum opens into the large intestine at the junction of the <\rcum with the colon. At this point is a folding of the mucous membrane which is called the ileo-carcal valve, or valvula Bauhini. Attached exter- nally to the caecum is a worm-like tube from 3 to 6 inches long and the thickness of a goose quill, called the appendix vermiformis. It is supposed to be the rudiment of the lengthened caecum found in nearly all mammals. 38. The colon is divided into three parts, the ascending, trans- verse and descending portions. These terms describe its course, surrounding in a manner the small intestines. The terminal part of the large intestine and the alimentary canal is the rectum. 39. The intestines are composed, like the stomach, of four coats serous, muscular, cellular and mucous. The mucous and cellu- PHYSIOLOGY. 167 lar coats in the small intestines are wrinkled by numerous folds called valvules conniventes. Their office is to retard the food in its passage and afford j greater surface for absorption. The villi are minute projections from the mucous membrane, giving the surface a velvety appearance. These villi contain the lacteals and blood- vessels, to he hereafter described (73). There are also found in various parts of the small intestines certain glands — the duodenal, or Brunner's, the solitary and Pcvers glands; also simple follicles, or follicles of Licbcrkuhn. 40. In the human body there are two sets of teeth, appearing at different periods of life. The first set, 20 in number, called tem- porary, deciduous, or milk teeth, begin to make their appearance about the 7th month, and are generally all developed by the end of the second year. The second, or permanent set, 32 in number, appear between the 5th and 21st years. Each tooth consists of the crown, or part above the gums, the root, ox fang, concealed within the jaw-bone, and the neck, the constricted part between root and crown. As to form and use, there are four kinds of teeth, as fol- lows: incisors, four in each jaw, located in front part of Jaws, thin, broad and sharp, adapted for cutting, having one fang; canine or " eye teeth," two in each jaw, placed one on each side of the in- cisors, are sharp, conical, with single long fangs, and adapted to tearing; bicuspids, or pre-molars, four in each jaw, two behind each canine, have two cuspes, or eminences on the crown, with generally a single fang, which is grooved, indicating a tendency to become double; molars, 6 in each jaw, largest of the teeth, adapted for grinding, have several cuspes and from two to five fangs — gen- erally, however, three fangs in those in the upper jaw and two in those of the lower. The third molar does not appear until late — usually about the 19th or 20th year — hence called the wisdom tooth (dens sapiential). Of the temporary teeth there are 4 incisors, 2 canine and 4 molars in each jaw. The roots of the temporary teeth become absorbed and the crowns drop out as the permanent set push up from the alveolar processes of the jaw. 41. In structure the tooth consists of a solid portion and a pulp cavity. This cavity contains a vascular and very sensitive substance called dental pulp. It is traversed with bloodvessels and nerves which enter at the point of each fang. The main portion of the solid part is called dentine. It is a dense, white substance, somewhat similar to bone, but contains more earthy matter. Un- der the microscope it is seen to consist of minute branching tubes, radiating from the pulp cavity outward. These tubes are called dental tub uli and the substance hetwecn them inter/ 'ubn lar tissue. The crown of the tooth is covered with a very hard, compact sub- stance called enamel. It is the hardest Mil 'stance in the body and is made up of minute hexagonal rods, lying parallel and pointing toward the dentine. It consists ,,! ,,(>.^ per cent, of earthy mattei 1(>8 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. The fane of the tooth is covered with a substance called crusta pctrosa, cement^ or cortical s/fbstancc, resembling in structure and composition true hone. 42. Four rules may be laid down, the observance of which will tend to the preservation of the teeth : i. Avoid extremely hot food or drink. 2. Avoid extremely cold food or drink. 3. Avoid sweet fond. 4. Avoid sour food. Now the first two rules need no modification, hut in regard to the last two we will simply say you may eat as much as you desire of sweet and sour, provided always that you clean your teeth after eating. Acids injure the teeth, and sweet foods form acids hy fermentation, a process which takes place when such food remains a short time in a warm place exposed to the air. Extremes of heat and cold crack the enamel and allow air to enter to the dentine, and thus cause decay. Crack- ing nuts, biting thread and picking the teeth with a knife blade or metal tooth-pick will injure the enamel. The temporary teeth should he removed in many cases, that the permanent set may grow regularly. When permanent teeth are crowded in consequence of a narrow jaw, the removal of one or more may he necessary. Teeth may be extracted and replaced, and even removed from one person to another, and grow solid and tight in the jaw. Some persons have teeth naturally SO good that they wear out before they decay, while the teeth of others will decay before they have reached their maturity. 43. The salivary glands are three, the parotid, the submax- illary and the sublingual. The parotid is the largest, located im- mediately below and in front of the ear. It communicates with the mouth hy means of Stents duct, which opens on the inner side of the cheek, opposite the second molar tooth of the upper jaw. The submaxillary, next in size, located below the angle of the lower jaw, and communicates with the mouth by means of Wharton's duct, which opens on the floor of the mouth. The sublingual, the smallest, is beneath the tongue. It has from 8 to 20 ducts (ductus Riviniani), one or more of which form a tube which joins Whar- ton's duct, called the duct of Bartholine. The salivary glands consist of numerous lobes, which again are made up of smaller lobules, each of which consists of numerous vesicles opening into a com- mon duct. The saliva secreted by these glands is a ckar, some- what viscid fluid, of an alkaline reaction, and consisting mostly of water. 44. The liver, the largest glandular organ in the body, is lo- cated mostly in the light side of the abdomen, just helow the dia- phragm. It is from 10 to 12 inches transversely, 6 to 7 antero- posteriorly and about 3 inches thick in its thickest part, and weighs from 3 to 4 lbs. Looking at the under surface, 5 Assures may he seen, which divide it into 5 unequal lobes. In structure the liver consists of a mass of lobules held together by areolar tissue, among PHrSIOLOGY. 16!) which ramify the portal vein, the hepatic duct, hepatic veins, he- patic artery, lymphatics and nerves. The bile, the secretion of the liver, is collected hy numerous ducts which unite to form the he- patic duct, which receives as it issues from the liver the cystic duct, coming from the gall bladder, the two forming the ductus com- munis cholcdochus, opening into the duodenum. The gall bladder is a membranous sac attached to the under surface of the liver, and is the reservoir of the bile. The bile is a clear, yellowish, some- what tenacious fluid, neutral in reaction and composed of about 97 per cent, water, with certain characteristic ingredients, biliary salts and several mineral salts. 45. The pancreas, a long, flattened gland, located behind the stomach. Its length is from 6 to S inches, breadth [A inches, and thickness from 1 to 1 inch, and weighs about 3 oz. It is similar in structure to the salivary glands. It secretes the pancreatic fluid, which is almost identical with saliva, and is emptied into the du- odenum through the pancreatic duct, or canal of Wirsung. 46. The spleen, located to the left of the stomach, is classified as a ductless, or blood gland. It is oblong, flattened, varying much in size, but usually about 5 inches in length and 3 or 4 in breadth, and 1 y 2 in thickness, weighing about 7 oz. It has arteries, veins and lymphatics, but no excretory duct. Its use is not well deter- mined but it is thought that it acts as a kind of reservoir for surplus blood during digestion, and that it effects some changes in the na- ture of the blood. 47. Of the processes which food undergoes in order to pre- pare it for supporting the body the first is mastication and insali- vation. The food is kept between the jaws by the action of the tongue and cheeks, and being moistened by the saliva is by the grinding action of the teeth reduced to a pulp which is now ready for deglutition or swallowing. It then passes into the pharynx and is prevented from going into the larynx by the epiglottis (82) over which it glides into the oesophagus, which by the alternate rel- axation and contraction of its circular muscular fibers forces it on to the stomach where it comes in contact with the gastric juice. The muscles of the stomach keep up a kind of churning action which thoroughly mixes the food and permits the gastric juice to come in contact with every part of it. This process is continued until the food is converted into chyme which then passes into the small intestines where it receives the bile and pancreatic fluid, also the intestinal juices from the intestinal glands, and it is converted into a milky white fluid called chyle. This is taken up by the lac- teals (73) and passed into the blood, and thus reaches every part of the system where nourishment is needed. The waste portions pass along the intestines and are excreted from the body. The effect of the saliva is mainly to change the starch of the food into .sugar. This change takes place partly in the mouth but is contin- 170 TEACH Ells AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. ued in the stomach. Besides moistening the food and thus aiding in mastication and deglutition it is an aid to taste, i"<>r substances to have a flavor must l>c in a state of solution. It also keeps the in- terior of the month moist and prevents the disagreeable sensation of dryness. The gastric juice dissolves the albuminous portions of the food and also effects certain chemical changes. The bile, though primarily an excretion, or waste material, seems to effect some changes in the food, especially on the fatty material, preparing it for absorption by the lacteals. The pan- creatic fluid has an action similar to the saliva converting starch into sugar. The secretion from Brunner's glands seems to perform also a similar office as well as an office similar to that of the gastric juice. The follicles of Lieberkuhn secrete a fluid the use of which in digestion is not well understood. 48. " By the term food, or aliment, we denote such solid sub- stances as are capable or being converted into chyle, and such liquid substances as can be readily absorbed for the wants of the system. In some parts of the world, however, mineral substances, such as earth, are occasionally eaten alone or mixed with bread, but no such nutriment is derived from such articles." As to nutritive value, foods may be classified as follows: — I. I Iistogknktic, sometimes called nitrogenous, or azotized, as all ot" this class contain nitrogen, also called albuminoids, i. e. resembling albumen a sub- stance found nearly pure in the white of an egg. i. Albumen fropcr. 2. Casein, found in milk. It forms the principal part of cheese. 3. Fibrin, the principal part of lean meat. 4. Vegetable Casein, found in beans, peas, and some other vegetables. 5. Gluten, found in all grains, especially in wheat. II. Calorifacientt, contains no nitrogen, hence called non-nitrogenous or non-azotized. 1. Carbo-hydrates, those in which carbon predominates. (a) Amylaceous, or food containing starch, as grains, seeds, roots, and many fruits. (b) Saccharine, food containing sugar. (c) Gum. (d) Cellulose, or woody fiber. 2. Hydro-carbons, those in which hydrogen predominates, (a) Oleaginous, food containing oils and fats. The tVxxls of tlie fust class, or tissue making tend toward nourishing the system, supplying the material which forms bone, muscle, nerve, etc., and is in constant demand to supply the waste which is constantly going on, and to main- tain the growth of the body. Those ot' the second class, or heat making, are burned up in the system and thus keep up the animal heal. 49. The following hygienic inferences may be drawn from the nature of food: A mixed diet is generally preferable, but, as the vegetable kingdom contains nitrogenous, or histogenetic food material, a person can, by proper selection of food, do well on an exclusively vegetable diet. As animal food is more stimulating ami more highly concentrated, the greater bulk of our food should PHTSIOLOGT. 171 be vegetable. As more animal heat is required in winter than in summer, our food should be regulated accordingly; more starch, sugar, fat, etc., than meat, should be eaten in winter. Some kinds of food are more easily digested than others. Va- riety is essential, as an exclusive use of easily digestible food will weaken the organs from want of proper exercise, and an exclusive use of food difficult of digestion will overwork the organs. Food should be coarse rather than fine, or rather more bulky than too highly concentrated. Graham bread, corn bread, oat meal, fruits and vegetables, will make a more healthful diet than meat, and bread made from fine flour. The in- testines need a gentle stimulus to maintain their proper action. This stimulus is given by coarse food. Habit, however, has much to do with it. Persons inclined to constipation should use coarse food. 50. As to the amount of food necessary to the system, it is impossible to lay down rules. It should vary: (i) With age, persons while growing need more food than at other times; (2) temperature, more being required in winter aid in a cold climate than in summer or in hot climates; (3) exercise, those persons whose occupations demand more muscular exercise need more food to supply the waste; (4) temperament, persons of active tem- perament needing more than those of a sluggish temperament; (5) habits, much depends on what persons accustom themselves to; most persons eat more than is really necessary ; (6) mental condi- tion, under a depressed state of mind the digestive organs do not work so well and a less amount of food should be taken. 51. Food should be from animals or plants in a healthy condi- tion, be -well cooked and prepared with care as to cleanliness and served in such a variety of forms as to please the taste. A variety from day to day but not too great a variety at one meal, merely to provoke the appetite is best. We should eat slowly, taking plenty of time to masticate thoroughly and giving the stomach time to provide the proper amount of gastric juice. Cheerful conversa- tion and flow of humor at the table will aid digestion. Grief or fright arrests digestion. We should not take great quantities of liquid with our food as it dilutes the gastric juice and digestion cannot go on so well until it is absorbed by the vessels of the stomach. Avoid extremely hot and extremely cold food and drink as the former unduly stimulates the mucous lining of the mouth and stomach, ami the latter lowers the temperature of the stomach be- low the degree proper for digestion. It is not best to eat just before or just after severe physical or mental exercise, as the vital forces being concentrated somewhere else cannot be given to the stomach. Hearty meals should not be taken just before going to sleep, as the stomach needs all the nervous power of waking mo- ments. 172 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS LIBRARY. Pure air for the lungs, and the skin kept clean are necessary to have pure blood, and without pure blood there can be no good diges- tion. A daily attention to the evacuation of the alimentary canal is also necessary to pure blood, as the waste matter in the intestines if not evacuated will be absorbed and taken into the blood, where it be- comes an irritant poison. If you would keep your health, by all means avoid everything tending to constipation. Attention to such mat- ters should be more than religiously observed. So long as the oc- cupation and the hours of sleep are regular the time of eating should be regular. Habit has much to do with the frequency of eating. The system may adapt itself to one, two, three or four meals a day, just as one may habituate himself. 52. The organs of the circulatory system are the heart, the arteries, the veins, and the capillaries. The heart is a muscular or- gan, hollow, and of a conical form, located between the lungs, the greater part being to the left of the median line of the body. b lies obliquely, the broadest part or base extending upward and back- ward to the right, the apex downward, forward and to the left. A line drawn perpendicularly to the axis of the body along the upper border of the cartilage of the 3d rib will mark the upper portion. The apex corresponds to the space between the cartilages of the 5th and 6th ribs and may be felt beating two inches below the left nipple. It usually measures 5 inches in length, 3^ inches in breadth, and zy 2 inches in thickness, and weighs from 8 to 1 2 oz., being heavier in the male than in the fem.de. It is divided into two lateral halves by a longitudinal septum, each half being divided by a transverse constriction into two cavities, the lower called ven- tricles, the upper, auricles. The right side of the heart receives and discharges the venous, or impure blood, the left the arterial, or pure blood. The walls of the auricles are thinner than those of the ventricles. The heart is surrounded with a fibro-serous mem- brane which is reflected so as to form a sac containing a fluid, which prevents friction. This investment is called the pericardium. 53. The right auricle is a little larger than the left, with thin- ner walls and exhibits on dissection: — I. Openings. 1. The mouth of the superior vena cava, or the large venous trunk which brings the blood from the upper part of the body. 2. The mouth of the inferior vena cava, the venous trunk of the lower part of the b dy. 3. The coronary sinus, or the mouth of the vein which returns the blood from the heart itself. 4. Foramina Thcbesii, the mouth of the small veins which return blood from the substance of the heart. 5. A uriculo- ventricular, or the opening into the ventricle. II. Valves. 1. The Eustachian, serve to direct the blood across to the left auricle through the foramen ovale previous to birth. 2. Coronarv, prevents the blood from flowing back into the coronary vein. PHYSIOLOGY. 173 54. The right ventricle is of the same size as the left, but with thinner walls presenting: — I. Openings. 1. Auriculo- ventricular. 2. Of the pulmonary artery which carries the blood to the lungs. II. Valves. i. Tricuspid, which guards the auriculo-ventricular opening preventing the return of the blood to the auricle. 2. Semilunar, prevents the return of blood from the pulmonary artery. III. Attachments of the tricuspid valve, i. Columns carnae. 2. Chorda' tendinae. 55. The left auricle exhibits: — i. The openings of the pulmonary veins, 4 in number, 2 on the right and 2 on the left not provided with valves. 2. The auriculo-ventricular opening. 56. The left ventricle exhibits: — I. Openings. 1. Auriculo-ventricular. 2. Aortic. II. Valves. 1. Mitral, guarding the auriculo-ventricular opening and preventing the return of the blood to the auricle. 2. Semilunar, guarding the aortic opening and preventing the return of the blood from the aorta. III. Attachments of the mitral valve. 1. Chordae tendinae. 2. Columnar carnae. 57. The endocardium is a serous membrane lining the internal surface of the heart, assisting in forming its valves, and is con- tinued into the greater blood-vessels. The heart in intimate struct- ure consists of muscular fibers intricately interlaced, and of fibrous rings surrounding the auriculo-ventricular and arterial orifices and serving for the attachment of the muscular fibers. 58. The arteries are cylindrical, tubular, elastic vessels which convey the blood from the ventricles to all parts of the body. With the exception of the pulmonary artery which conveys impure or venous blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, they carry pure, or oxygenated blood. The svstemic arteries, or those which carry blood to the body for its nourishment, commence in one grand trunk, the aorta from which they branch like a tree until they have pene- trated every part of the body except the hairs, nails, epidermis, cartilages and cornea. The usual mode of division is dichotomous^ but sometimes several branches are given off at one point. The branches communicate with one another in many places forming what are called anastomoses. This arrangement is of peculiar interest to the surgeon, as by this means the blood flows around, or a collateral circulation is established, in the case of tying an artery. The combined area of all the branches greatly exceeds that of the 174 '/'/■:. 1 ( '.HER& . l.V /> S TUDENTS ' A //>'/,' I ' aorta so that the arterial system may be considered as a cone, the apex of which is the aorta. The large arteries in their course through the body generally run very deep following near the bones. 59. The aorta is about an inch in diameter and commences at the upper part of the left ventricle making a curve or arch as it first ascends behind the sternum, upward and forward toward the right, then passes from left to right, and from before backward toward the left side of the third dorsal vertebra, then descends along the left side of the spine to the lower border of the fourth dorsal ver- tebra where it takes the name of the thoracic aorta. The portion described is called the arch, and is divided into the ascending, trans- verse and descending' portions. The tJioracic aorta extends to the opening of the diaphragm in front of the last dorsal where it takes the name of the abdominal aorta which terminates on the left side of the fourth lumbar vertebra where it divides to form the common iliac arteries. 60. The aorta gives off from its arch generally five branches; two small ones, the right and left coronary, are given off from the ascending portion and supply the heart itself with blood; and three larger ones, from the transverse portion the innominate, the left carotid and the left subclavian. The innominate artery ascends and opposite the sterno-clavicular articulation divides into the right caro- tid and right subclavian. The two carotid arteries pass one on each side of the neck, and divide opposite the thyroid cartilage into the internal and externa/ which supply respectively the brain and out- side of the head and face. The external carotid may be felt pulsating under the angle of the jaw, a branch of it, the temporal, may be felt in front of the ears. The subclavian arteries supply the upper extremities and part of the chest, one branch the vertebral, passing up along the spinal column, enters the brain and communicates with the internal carotid. The suhclavians take the name of axillary arteries under the arm and brachial in the upper arm, dividing into the ulnar and radial in the forearm. The radial may be felt at the wrist and is known as "the pulse." 61. The com men iliac arteries which arise by a division of the abdominal aorta (59), are about 2 inches in length. They diverge from the aorta and divide opposite the articulation of the last lum- bar vertebra and the sacrum, into the internal and external iliacs. The former sends branches to the organs within the pelvis, and to its walls and to the inner side of the thigh. The latter extends to the thigh where it takes the name of the femoral artery which continues along the inner side of the thigh to near the lower part where it becomes the popliteal artery. This artery divides below the knee to form the anterior and posterior tibial arteries. 62. The abdominal aorta gives ofF some important brain ins the principal of which is the cozliac axis, a short, thick trunk which arises at the margin of the diaphragm and divides into the gastric PHTSIOLOG1'. 173 hepatic and splenic arteries supplying respectively the stomach, liver and spleen. The superior and inferior mesenteries arise helow the cocliac axis and supply the internes. 63. The veins are the system of tubes which return the im- pure blood from the body to the right auricle with the exception of the pulmonary veins which return the oxygenized, or pure blood from the lungs to the left auricle. The systemic veins are found in nearly every part of the body and unite in two great trunks, the superior vena cava receiving the blood of the upper half, and the inferior vena cava the blood from the lower half of the body. Veins are not so elastic as the arteries, and collapse when empty. They contain folds called valves on the inner side. They are divi- ded into three sets: (i) supcrjiciul, found near the surface or im- mediately beneath the skin; (2) the deep, found accompanying the arteries and usually enclosed in the same sheath with them ; (3) the sinuses, venous channels found only on the interior of the skull and formed by a separation of the layers of dura mater. The veins anastomose with each other the same as the arteries, and are alto- gether more numerous. 64. The principal deep veins take similar names and follow nearly the same course as the arteries. They are called the vena comitcs. The blood from the stomach, intestines and spleen is col- lected by the gastric, inferior and superior mesenteric a?id splenic veins which unite in one common trunk, the portal vein which ramifies through the substance of the liver, and is again taken up by the hepatic veins, three in number, and conveyed to the inferior vena cava. This is known as the portal circulation. The puhnonary veins, four in number, return the blood from the lungs in a purified condition to the left auricle. 65. The capillaries are the minute network of vessels which are the termination of the arteries, and the commencement of the veins. They are found in nearly every tissue of the body. Their diameter varies, being usually about -snrW of an inch. Their walls consist of fine, homogeneous membrane. 66. Structure. — The arteries are composed of three coats, the external cellular, or tunica adventitial, the m\cic\\c Jihrous, or circtilar, and the internal, serous, or epithelial. The middle and inner coats are easily divided by the application of a tight ligature, while the outer coat will remain uninjured. The veins have also three coat- in structure nearly like those of the arteries, the principal difference being the comparative weakness of the- middle coat. The valves are formed by a reduplication of the middle and inner coats, semi- lunar in form and arranged so that the blood will pass readily inone direction, but not in the other. 67. The process of circulation is as follows: The blood in the capillaries in all parts of the body having performed its office, is col- lected by the veins which continue to unite in larger trunks until it 176 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS LIBRARY is poured by two main trunks, the vena cava inferior and superior, into the right auricle from which it passes through the auriculo- ven- tricular opening into the right ventricle, being prevented from re- turning by the tricuspid valve. ISy the contraction of the ventricle it is forced into the pulmonary artery, through the semilunar valves which prevent its return. The pulmonary artery conveys it to the lungs, distributing it to every part by its minute ramification. Here it receives oxygen from the air and gives off carbon in the form of carbonic oxide, and is again collected by the pulmonary veins and returned to the left auricle. It now has a bright-red appearance. From the left auricle it descends through the a uriculo- ventricular opening, prevented from returning by the mitral valve. By the contraction of the ventricle it is forced into the aorta, prevented from regurgitation by the semilunar valves. From the aorta it is distributed through every part of the body. There is then a double circulation, tin. right side of the heart engaged in receiving the impure- blood and sending it to the lungs, from whence it is returned purified to the heart. This is called t he "pulmonary < irculation. The left side of the heart receives the blood made pure by the lungs and distrib- utes it to the various parts of the bod\ from which it is brought back by the veins. This is called the systemic circulation. The passage of the blood from the organs of digestion through the liver is a subordinate act, before mentioned as> the portal circulation. f<->-j-). The passage of the blood through the capillaries is sometimes desig- nated as the capillary circulation. 68. Although the heart propels the blood with considerable force into the arteries, its action will not account for all the phe- nomena of circulation. The apparatus of the portal circulation com- mences in a capillary system and ends in one without a propelling organ analogous to a heart. This fact is pointed out by Draper to show that the cause of circulation must be looked for in something Other than the contractions and dilations of the heart. Fishes have no true heart, but the blood is sent from the capillaries of the gills to the aorta, and from thence to the systemic capillaries. The circulation of the fish is thus seen to be analogous to the portal cir- culation in man. The causes of circulation in man are, no doubt, various. The arterialization of the blood in the lungs, the action of the heart, the elasticity of the arteries, the valves in the veins, the action of the muscles and capillary attraction or osmose, all are concerned in the motion of the blood through the system. (See Draper's Human Physiology.) 69. The motions of the heart consist of alternate contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of its walls. The two auricles contract simultaneously at the same time that the two ventricles relax, and vice versa. When the ventricles contract, the heart is tilted so that the apex strikes the walls of the chest. The heart pulsates on an average in the adult about yo times per minute, being much PHTSIOLOGT. 177 greater in infancy and youth and less in old age. At birth it is 130 to 140 per minute. It is more frequent in women than in men, less frequent during sleep than when awake, more frequent after eating and during exercise. It varies greatly in diseased conditions. During each pulsation two distinct sounds may be heard. The first is dull and caused by the contraction of the ventricles and the striking of the apex against the walls of the chest, also by the opening of the semilunar valves and the rush of blood into the pul- monary artery and aorta. The second sound is sharp and caused by the shutting of the semilunar valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery. There is an interval of silence between the second and first sounds. 70. The blood in a human being amounts to about one-eighth of the weight of the body, or in a person of average size about 10 quarts. It is a little heavier than water, and is of a bright-scarlet color in the systemic arteries, and of a dark-red color in the system- ic veins. It has a slightly alkaline or saline taste, and an odor pe- culiar to itself. Fresh blood consists of a transparent liquid called plasma, or liquor sanguinis, in which float numbers of bodies called cells, corpuscles, globules, or disks. These cells are of two kinds, red and white. The red corpuscles are circular disks, appearing concave on both sides in profile. When seen singly they are of a shghtly yellow tinge, but when seen in masses they appear red and give the blood its characteristic color. In man the red blood cor- puscles are on an average about s^ m of an inch in diameter, the white corpuscles being a little larger. In some of the lower animals as in the frog and turtle, the red corpuscles are oval in shape and much larger than in man. The proportion of red and white corpuscles is variously estimated : 300 or 400 red to one white ( Harley ), 50 to one, (Todd & Bowman), others a much less proportion of the white. The blood on standing about 10 minutes after being drawn from the body coagulates, separating into serum, a thin fluid consisting mostly of water holding mineral salts in solution with some albumen, and clot or coagulum which is composed of fibrin and the corpuscles. The fibrin is in a state of solution in the plasma, and the coagulation arises from the tendency which fibrin has to collect together form- ing an agglutinated mass in which the corpuscles are entangled. The fibrin may be separated from fresh blood by beating it with a stick. As to the cause of coagulation it is very probable that the blood is constantly coagulating in the system, and the fibrin thus formed is being immediately used in building up the tissues and sup- plying waste. The muscle fibrin, or syntonin does not differ greatly from the blood fibrin. (See Draper's Human Physiology.) 71. The function of the red corpuscles seems to be that of conveyors of oxygen to the various tisMies of the body. The ani- mal heat is maintained by the union of oxygen with the carbon of the tissues. The carbonic oxide thus produced is given off by the 178 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARV. lungs and constitutes a great part of the waste of the system. The use of the white corpuscles is not certainly known. They are more numerous after digestion of food, and resemble very closely the corpuscles of lymph and chyle and the cells found in pus, and it is thought that they are an earlier stage of the reel corpuscles. « For every beat of the pulse," says Draper, a nearly twenty millions of these organisms (corpuscles) die." 72. The lymphatic, or absorptive system, consists of lymphatic vessels and lym pliatic glands. The lymphatic vessels are exceed- ingly delicate tubes of a nearly uniform thickness, but having a knotted appearance due to valves in their interior. They are found in nearly all parts of the body with the exception of the substance of the brain and spinal cord, the eyeballs, tendons, cartilages, nails, epidermis and hair. It is doubtful whether they exist in the sub- stance of the bones. They are divided into: ( i) superficial, lying immediately beneath the skin and accompanying the superficial veins, also near the surface of the abdominal, thoracic and cranial cavities; (2) deep, accompanying the deep blood-vessels. In any organ or part the lymphatic vessels are more numerous than the veins, but are much smaller ami anastomose more frequently. With the exception of those of the small intestine (73) they contain a clear fluid called lymph (75). 73. The lymphatic vessels or the small intestine (35) are called lacteals, their office being to take up and carry into the circulation the chyle (47). The lacteals and all the lymphatics of the body except those of the right side of the head, neck and thorax, and the upper right extremity, the right lung, right side of the heart and the convex surface of the liver, empty into one main trunk called the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct is about 18 or 20 inches in length, extending from the second lumbar vertebra to the seventh cervical vertebra where it empties into the left subclavian vein near its junction with the left internal jugular. It commences at the lower extremity with a triangular dilatation called the receptaculum chyli. It passes up in front of the spinal column through the aortic opening in the diaphragm. Its diameter is about that of a goose quill. The lymphatics which do not empty into the thoracic duct unite into a short trunk about one inch in length and about a line in diameter which empties into the light subclavian vein at its junction with 1 he right jugular vein. This duct is called the right lymph- atic duct. 74. The lymphatic glands (absorbent, or conglobate glands) arc small bodies situated in various parts of the body in the course of the lymphatic vessels. The principal localities are in the neck, in the axilla, groin, popliteal space and in the mesenteries (folds of membrane which connect the small intestines to the walls of the abdomen). They are in size from a hemp seed to an almond and of a pinkish gray color. The lymphatic vessels pass through these PHYSIOLOGY. 179 glands. In the substance of the gland they divide into several branches which again unite on leaving it. 75. The lymphatics proper, as has been said, convey lymph, and the lacteals chyle. The composition of chyle differs very little from that of lymph except that the chyle contains the oily globules which give it the milky white appearance. Lymph differs but little from the serum of the blood (70). The conclusions are that the uses of the lymphatics proper are to collect the albuminous matter which has transuded through the blood-vessels or been set free by the tearing down of the tissues, and which is in a certain sense waste material, and by means of the lymphatic glands to convert it into fibrin to be again used in building the tissues. The lacteals with their glands perform a similar office upon the albuminous matter of the food. The lymphatics proper also per- form another office. It is well known that certain medicines rubbed on the skin are taken up by it and carried into the general circula- tion, and that persons bathing in water have their thirst assuaged by the water absorbed through the skin. Persons have also been nourished by immersing the body in soup or other nourishing liquid. The absorbing vessels in such cases are the lymphatics. From this fact we infer the necessity of keeping the skin clean, as the materi- als thrown out, or excreted by the skin are poisonous to the system, and if allowed to remain on the surface they are liable to be again absorbed along with other deleterious matter that may be with it on the body. A great number of diseases might be prevented if greater attention was paid to this matter. (96). 76. The veins also participate in absorption. Certain elements are absorbed in the stomach and taken into the portal circulation (64). Medicines are absorbed by the veins of the stomach, and when a great quantity of water is taken with the food the greater portion is absorbed before digestion can properly go on. 77. The organs of the respiratory system are primarily the lungs, assisted by the larynx, trachea, diaphrag?n, and the ribs and muscles of the thorax. The lungs are two in number, one in each side of the cavity of the thorax, and separated from each other by the mediastinum. The latter is the space in the median line of the thorax extending from the spinal column behind to the sternum in front, and longi- tudinally the entire length of the thorax. It contains the heart, some of the larger blood-vessels, some important nerves, the trachea, oesophagus, thoracic duct, etc. Each lung is of a conical form, the apex extending a little above the level of the first rib and the base resting on the convex surface of the diaphragm. The external sur- face is smooth, convex and corresponds in form to the interior of the cavity of the thorax. The internal surface, or that next the mediastinum, is concave. 78. The right lung is the larger; broader on account of the TEA ( ' ///•: A'.s ' . 1 ND S TUDENTS* L I BR. I R ) '. heart being nearer the leftside, about an inchshortei because of the diaphragm rising higher on that side to make room for the liver; .iiul is divided by fissures into three lobes. The left lung has only two lobes. Each lung is connected to the trachea and heart by its root which consists of the bronchial tube <>r main division of the trachea, the pulmonary artery (58) and the pulmonary veins (64). The two lungs taken together weigh about \i ounces; the right weighs about two ounces more than the left. They are heavier in proportion to the body in the male than in the female. The specific gravity varies from 345 to 746, water being I, ooo.^ The color at birth is pinkish white, growing darker as age advances. 79. The structure of the substance of the lungs is that of a light, porous, spongy and elastic body, which will float in water, and gives a cracking sound when pressed by the hand. It may be said to consist of parenchyma, or cellular tissue, bronchi and cover- ings. The parenchyma is the main part of the lung tissue, and consists of lobules connected by interlobular areolar tissue and each consisting of the extremities of one of the bronchi and the air cells, which terminate it, and of the ramifications of the pulmonary ca- pillaries, lymphatics and nerves. The bronchi, or divisions of the trachea, enter the lungs and divide and subdivide in a dichotomous manner; each one of the smaller divisions entering a lobule, and again dividing, terminates in air cells and intercellular passages. The coverings arc two, one external serous coat covering the entire surface, and an internal coat of areolar tissue which also extends in- ward between the lol es. 80. The trachea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical tube made up of cartilaginous rings connected by membrane, and extending bom opposite the 5th cervical vertebra to a point opposite the 3d dorsal, where it divides into the two bronchi, in length about 45^ inches, and from 7>/ x to an inch in diameter, being larger in man than in woman. The rings are from 16 to 20 in number, and are not com- plete rings, one-third of the space behind being filled up with mem- brane. 81. The larynx is the organ of voice. It is placed at the up- per part of the trachea and forms the projection in the neck called "AdamV apple." It is larger in man than in woman, and is but a continuation of the trachea, being made up of cartilages sim- ilar in structure to the rings of the trachea, but of different shape. The cartilages are 9 in number, as follows: The thyroid, the larg- est, and can be felt externally; the cricoid, below the thyroid, ring- like in form; the two arytenoid; two cuneiform; two cornicula laryngis, and tin- epiglottis. 82^ The epiglottis deserves special mention. It i- leaf-like in shape and acts somewhat like a trap door to the trachea, rising to admit the air and closing, whe/i food is swallowed, allowing it to pass over it into the cesophagus. If we attempt to breathe and piirsioLoc r. ibi swallow at the same time, food will pass into the trachea and cause great irritation and violent efforts will be made to expel it. 83. The vocal cords are fibrous bands covered with mucous membrane which stretch across the interior of the larynx and di- vide it into two cavities. There are four of these cords, two supe- rior, or false, and two interior, or true vocal cords. The space be- tween them which admits the air and forms the communication between the two cavities of the larynx is called the glottis, or rima glottidis. These cords are made more or less tense and the form of the cavity changed by the action of certain muscles, and it is by their vibration combined with the form of the passage that the va- rious sounds arc produced as the air passes through the larynx. 84. The diaphragm is a very important organ which, perhaps should be classed with the organs of respiration. It is a musculo- fibrous septem which divides the cavity of the trunk into two parts, the upper division containing the lungs, heart, etc., and called the thorax; the lower division containing the stomach, intestines, liver, etc., anil called the abdomen. By its contraction and relaxation as- sisted by the muscles of the chest and abdomen, the thoracic cavity is alternately enlarged and diminished in size. 85. The process of respiration consists of two distinct acts, inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is effected by the elevation of the ribs and sternum, by their proper muscles, a depression of the diaphragm by the contraction of its fibers and a relaxation of the muscles of the abdomen, all of which movements combine to enlarge the cavity of the thorax and the air enters the lungs through the trachea as into a pair of bellows, by pressure from the outside. Expiration is mainly passive, as the muscles of the chest relax, allowing the ribs and sternum to fall, and the diaphragm is forced upward by the contraction of the walls of the abdomen. 86. The respirations per minute average in the healthy adult about i S, rarely ever exceeding 25, nor falling below 14. They are more frequent in children than in adults and in women than in men. They are increased by food, exercise, moderate cold, stimulating medicines and disease and diminished by moderate heat, inactivity, depressing medicines, starvation and disease. Sighing, yawning, coughing and sneezing are modifications of the respiratory act, the two former caused by mental emotions or a close atmosphere, the two latter by irritation of the air passages. 87. Oxygen is taken into the blood during the act of respira- tion, and carbon is given out in the form of carbonic anhydride, (C U-. See Chemistry). Animal heat is the result mainly of the chemical changes which take place, the carbon of the tissues uniting with the oxygen of the air, being in a certain sense similar to the combustion of fuel in a stove. The fuel is mainly carbon, the combustion simply the combining of the oxygen of the air with it. 88. Secretion is the separation from the blood by means of 182 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS" LIBRART. glands, certain materials which are in a more or less liquid condi- tion. These materials answer certain purposes in the system, either effecting certain chemical changes, or lubricating surfaces. In some eases glands separate a material which is a mere waste and must he thrown out of the system. This act is called excre- tion. The terms secretion and excretion are used to denote the products separated as well as the act of separation. Some liquids, as the bile, seem to partake of the nature ofboth a secretion and an excretion. As far ;is the food in the intestines is concerned, the bile effecting certain changes upon it, it is called a secretion of the liver, hut in retrard to the blood, the bile is a waste material and is excreted by the liver. 89. The principal secreting glands have been described. They are the salivary glands, mucous -lands, intestinal glands, peptic glands, pancreas and liver, to which may be added the lachrymal -lands of the eves, the sebaceous ami sudorific -lands of the skin, to be described hereafter. The principal excreting glands may be mentioned as the liver, the kidneys, the glands of the skin and the lungs. To sum up, all excreting organs are secreting also because the material is separated from the blood, and all secreting organs are excreting in the sense that they throw out the material secreted, but not in the sense that it is waste matter. 90. Certain membranes as the synovial, serous and mucous membranes are considered as secreting organs, but these are more properly transuding organs, as the material is merely strained through the pores, unaltered in chemical nature. 91. The kidneys are excreting glands, situated, one on each side of the spinal column, extending from the t ith rib to the crest of the ilium, the right one being lower than the left. They are in the shape of a bean, and in structure composed mainly of a system of tubes called the medullary substance, covered with agranular body called the cortical substance. 92. The skin, or integument, is made up of two layers, the derma, cutis vera, or true skin, and the cuticle, OT epidermis. The derma is tough and elastic and consists of fibro-areolar tissue, inter- mingled with blood-vessels, lymphatics and nerves and within or immediately beneath are sudoriferous, or sweat glands, sebaceous, or oil glands and hair follicles, and on the surface are little projec- tions called papilhc in which the sensitive nerves terminate. 93. The derma differs somewhat in its structure in the deep and superficial parts, and hence is described as composed of two layers, the corium or deep layer and the papillary or superficial layer. On the general surface of the body the papillae are few in number and but slightly sensitive, but on certain parts as on the palms of the hands, ends of the fingers, they are very numerous. highly sensitive and arranged in parallel curved lines. They con- stitute the little- ridges seen on the palmar surface of the hand, giv- PHI SIOLiH.T. 183 ing it the appearance of a file. The corium varies in thickness, from )£ to i y 2 lines. 94. The epidermis is a non-sensitive structure composed of epithelium and varies in thickness, being thickest in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, or where pressure is frequent. It lies over and falls into the spaces between the papillae of the co- rium, so that the form of the surface of the latter is maintained. Its use is to protect the corium from injury and to prevent evapora- tion. The black color of the negro and the various complexions of persons and the spots called freckles are caused by a coloring matter, or pigment, in the cells of the epidermis. The epidermis is constantly being thrown off in little scales and replaced by a new growth. 95. The part immediately beneath the skin is called subcuta- neous cellular tissue and contains usually a large amount of adi- pose tissue, or fat. The glands, hair and nails may be considered as appendages of the skin. 96. The sebaceous and sudoriferous glands are small and are located in the corium and just beneath it. The former secrete an oily liquid and are more numerous about the face and on the scalp. This secretion is what makes the hair oily. The latter are found in nearly all parts of the skin and are the organs through which a large part of the waste material is thrown out of the body. They have spiral ducts which terminate on the surface, the openings called pores. In the palm of the hand there are as many as 2,800 pores to a square inch. 97. Hairs are modifications of the epidermis. The root of a hair is a bulbous enlargement and is lodged in a kind of sac called a hair follicle. Some of the follicles are found in the corium but most of them extend beneath it. The shaft or main body of the hair consists of a fibrous part covered with scales and a medulla, or marrow in the center. This medulla contains pigment cells which give color to the hair. When they are wanting, the hair is gray. 98. Nails are also a modification of the epidermis. The horns, hoofs, claws, scales and feathers of the lower animals are of the same nature. 99. The following hygienic inferences may be derived from a knowledge of the circulatory, lymphatic, secretory and excretory systems : — 1. Clothing should not be worn so tight as to obstruct the free circulation of the blood. Exercise, proper temperature and temperate habits promote proper circulation. If great hemorrhage results from a wound, do not wait for a surgeon but attempt to stop the flow of blood. If the blood flows in jerks and is of a bright, scarlet color an artery is wounded; if it flow steadily and is darker in color, veins only, or very minute ar- teries arc injured. If an artery, apply ;i bandage above the wound, 181 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. that is, between the wound and the heart ; it" veins, on the other side. Take a handkerchief, tic a knot in the middle and the ends to- gether, place the loop thus made over the limb with the knot over the blood-vessel next the wound, or in the wound itself, and put- ting a stick through the loop twist it around until theblood stops. 3. Pure air is an essential to health. A loom is properly ventilated when there is a free access of fresh air and a free egress of foul air, and arranged in such a manner that the inmates are not exposed to drafts. 4. "Taking cold" is simply a closing of the pores of the skin, caused by a current of air when the body is warm and inactive, or by a chill of the entire system. A cold draft is not injurious when one is exercising, but when quiet and the system is warm and relaxed it is sometimes fatal. 5. The skin and lungs are two excretory organs, constantly throwing waste matter out of the system. This waste matter is poisonous if allowed to remain circulating through the blood. When the pores are closed the skm cannot perform its office, and the lungs and mucous membranes of the bronchi, trachea, larynx and! nasal passages attempt the work of excretion and having double duty to perform are irritated and inflamed and thus result, pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, nasal catarrh, etc. 6. A person should often take full; deep inspirations. Yawn- iner, though sometimes a mere involuntary act of imitation, is usually nature's demand for more air to the lungs, a kind of spas- modic effort. Persons a long time in a close room will yawn. When worn out with fatigue one will yawn because the oxygen is stimulating to the system and nature seems to make an effort to obtain it. Under certain circumstances, then, yawning should be encouraged. 7. The same clothes should not he worn at night as are worn in the day-time. Clothes worn next to the- skin should be changed frequently. Clothes may be worn a longer time without washing if they are allowed to air. S. Hair that is in a healthy condition is naturally oily and needs no application of hair oil. Dyeing the hair makes it brittle and liable to break. 9. A healthy skin needs no cosmetics to make it beautiful. All applications to improve the complexion injure the skin by clos- ing the pores, and some of them are actually poisonous and are ab- Borbed into the bl< tod. 10. Attention should he paid to evacuating the secretion of the kidneys. Disease of the organs is often a result of a retention beyond a proper period, as the matter may be again absorbed and poison the- system. 100. The nervous system, comprising the primary organs <>f sensation, is divided by Gray into (Ik- cerebrospinal center, the gan~ pf/rs/OLour. m glia and nerves. It is frequently considered also as composed of two systems, the cerebrospinal system and the sympathetic, or £■«»- glionic system. (Sec also our arrangement in the Outline.) The arrangement of Gray is the most convenient for anatomical descrip- tion, the others are based on physiological distinctions and will be explained further on. 101. The cerebrospinal center, or more properly, the encepha- lo-spinal axis, is composed of the encephalon and the spinal cord. The encephalon, or brain is composed of the cerebrum, the cere- bellum, the pons varolii and the medulla oblongata. 102. The brain occupies the entire cavity of the cranium and weighs on an average in the adult male 49^ 07.., in the female 44 oz. The prevailing weights in the male range from 46 to 53 oz., and in the female from 41 to 47 oz. Cuvier's brain weighed over 64 oz., Dr. Abercrombie's 63 oz., and Dupuytren's 6214 oz. The brain of an idiot rarely weighs over 23 oz. The human brain is relatively larger than that of any other animal, and absolutely larger than any other except that of the whale and elephant. 103. The cerebrum (126) is the largest division of the brain, resting in the anterior and middle portions of the base of the crani- um. It is ovoid in form, broader behind than in front and is divided into two lateral hemispheres, right and left, by a longitudinal fis- sure, extending through its entire length and reaching to the base in front and behind but only part way down in the middle, the two halves being connected by a body of white matter called the cor- pus callosum. The outer surface is .thrown into folds, or convolutions, sepa- rated from each other by depressions called sulci, the object of which arrangement seems to be to increase the amount of surface. They are more numerous and deeper in individuals of intellectual power, and as we descend in the scale of animal life they become less complex until the lowest orders of mammalia are reached where they disappear entirely. (See Zoology.) 104. The cerebellum (125) or little brain, lies in the back and lower part of the cranium beneath the posterior part of the cerebrum. It is about y% the size of the cerebrum. It is oblong in form, the greater diameter being from side to side and it is flattened from above downward. Its surface is not convoluted but traversed by curved sulci which separate the la vers, of which the outside is composed. It is divided into two hemispheres by deep notches in front and behind. 105. The pons Varolii, mesocephale, or middle brain, lies be- tween the hemispheres of the cerebellum and forms a connection between the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. It is divided into two halves bv a septum of fibrous matter. 106. Tiie medulla oblongata (124) is really the upper en- larged part of the spinal cord. It extends from the pons Varolii to 180 1 HAL HERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. the spinal cord which begins at the upper border of the atlas. It is about i 5j£ inches in Length, i/ x of an inch thick and y 2 of an inch wide, being largest at the upper end. 107. Structure of the Brain. — If a cross section of the cere- brum be made on a level with the corpus callosum there will be seen two masses of white matter, one in each hemisphere, connected by the corpus callosum which will be seen to be a fibrous white substance more dense than the white matter. The white matter is surrounded by a border of gray matter about J^ of an inch in thick- ness. The sulci of the convolutions may be seen, the gray matter bor- dering each. If the corpus callosum be cut away slightly two rather large cavities may be seen, called the lateral ventricles. These cavities are lined by a serous membrane and contain a small amount of serous fluid. There are three smaller cavities in the brain called respectively, the third, fourth and fifth ventricles. Their position cannot be made clear by description. (117). On cutting through the cerebellum vertically in the central part of each hemisphere will be seen a mass of white matter which sends out plates which are covered with gray matter, the whole presenting the appearance of the leaves and branches of a tree. hence called arbor vitae. The pons varolii consists of alternate layers of transverse and longitudinal white fibers intermingled with gray matter. The structure of the medulla oblongata is similar to that of the spinal cord. 108. The brain has three coverings: — i. The dura mater, "a thick, dense, inelastic membrane which lines the interior of the skull." Its outer surface adheres closely to the skull and forms its internal periosteum. It sends a process into the fissure between the hemispheres of the cerebrum called the falx cerebri, one between the cerebrum and cerebellum called the tentorium eerebe//i, and one between the hemispheres of the cerebellum called the falx eerebelli. 2. The arachnoid membrane, a very thin serous membrane which envelopes the brain and is reflected on the inner surface of the dura mater. It is like other serous membranes, a closed sac containing a serous fluid. 3. The dura mater consists of minute blood-vessels united by areolar tissue and lies next to the brain, dipping down into the sulci of thi' c< evolutions. 109. The spinal cord (121) is a long cylinder of nervous mat- ter contained in the spinal canal and extending from the occipital bone to the lower body of the first lumbar vertebra. It consists of white and gray matter like that of the brain, but differently ar- ranged. The white- matter is on the outside, the gray in the center in such a manner as to present on across section two crescent-shaped nia-s,..., united bv a transverse hand of gray matter. It is covered PHTSIOLOGT. 187 with a continuation of the same membranes which invest the brain. 110. The nerves are cylindrical cords of matter similar to that of the brain and spinal cord. They may be considered as exten- sions of these organs, like the branches of a tree. They arc given off (i) from the brain, called cranial nerves, and (2) from the spinal cord called spinal nerves, and besides these is the sympathetic nerve which seems to be a kind of system itself. A ganglion is a knot, or small ma-s of nervous matter. 111. The cranial nerves are arranged according to Gray in 9 "pairs, named numerically from the order in which they pass out of the cranium. They receive other names also from their functions and parts to which they are distributed. Some make 12 pairs by considering the 7th as two, and the 8th as three. 112. The names, distribution and uses of the cranial nerves are as follows : — 1st. Olfactory. — Consists of fibers which are sent off from the olfactory bulb in the front part of the brain, and pass through the ethmoid bone to be distributed on the mucous membrane of the nose. It is the nerve of smell. 2d. Optic. — The nerves of opposite sides are connected to- gether at a point called the optic commissure, and from this they may be traced to the brain under the name of the optic tracts. One goes to each eyeball. It is the nerve of sight. 3d. Motor oculi. — Distributed to a part of the muscles of the eye. A nerve of motion. 4th. Trochlear, or Pathetic. — Distributed to the superior oblique muscles of the eye. The smallest of the cranial nerves. A nerve of motion. 5th. Trifacial, or Trigeminus. — Resembles the spinal nerves in having two roots, a posterior, sensory and an anterior, motor. On the sensory root is a ganglion, the Casseriau, from which proceed three branches: (1) The opthalmic going to the parts about the eyes and nose, a nerve of common sensation. (2) The superior maxillary, to the upper part of the face a nerve of common sensa- tion. (3) A branch which unites with the motor root of the main nerve and forms the inferior maxillary which is distributed to parts of the face and tongue. One branch, the gustatory, is a nerve of taste. The other branches are nerves of common sensation with motor filaments. 6th. Abducens. — A nerve of motion which is distributed to the external rectus muscle of the eye. 7th. Portio-dura, or Facial, and Portio-mollis, or Audi- tory. — This nerve is considered as two by many anatomists, although it begins as one nerve in the brain. The first portion, the facial, is the nerve of motion of the muscles of expression in the face; the second portion, the auditory, is the nerve of hearing and is dis- tributed to the internal ear. 188 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 8th. Glossopharyngeal ; Pneumogastric, or Parvagum; and Spinal Accessory. — The first part glosso-pharyngeal is dis- tributed to the tongue and pharynx, a nerve of motion to the muscles of the pharynx, of common sensation to the mucous mem- brane of the pharynx and hack part of the mouth, and a nerve of taste to part of the tongue. The second part, pneumogastric passes through the neck and thorax to the abdomen, composed of both motor and sensitive filaments. It supplies the organs of voice and respiration with motor and sensitive filaments and the stomach, oesophagus and heart with motor influence. It is one of the most important nerves on account of the vital organs which it controls, and has a more extensive distribution than any of the other cranial nerves. The third part, the spina/ accessory, arises from the spinal cord, enters the skull and is connected with the pneumogastric. 9th. Hypoglossal. — This is the motor nerve of' the tongue* It passes out at the hack part of the cranium. 113. " All the cranial nerves are connected to some part of the surface of the brain. This is termed their superficial, or apparent origin. But their fibers may, in all cases, he traced deeply into the substance of the organ. This part is called their deep, or real origin." 114. Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord and pass out of the spinal canal through openings called intervertebral foramina, on either side of the spinal column. There are 31 pairs and they have been arranged in groups and named according to the divisions of the spinal column through which they pass. Thus there are 8 pairsof cervical nerves, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar, 5 sacra/ and 1 coccy- geal. They are distributed throughout the trunk and limbs. Many of the branches after leaving the spinal column reunite to form net- works, called plexuses. Thus there are the cervical plexus, the lumbar plexus and so on, named from the region in which found. 115. The spinal nerves each arise by two roots, the posterior, or sensory, and the anterior, or motor root. The first so named be- cause it arises from the hack part of the spinal cord and conveys sensation from the parts to which distributed; the second is so named because it arises from the front part of the cord and conveys motor influences to the muscles. There is n ganglion upon the posterior root of each spinal nerve. 116. "The Sympathetic nerve (127) is so called from the opinion entertained that through it is produced a sympathy between the affections of dilfcrenl organs. It consists of a series of ganglia, connected together In" intervening cords, extending on each side of the vertebral column from the base of the skull to the COCCyx. It may moreover be traced up into the head, where the ganglia ( which are all in connection with the 5th cranial nerve) occupy spaces be- tween the cranial and facial bones. These two gangliated cords lie parallel with one another as far as the sacrum, on which hone they PHYSIOLOGY. 189 converge, communicating together through a single ganglion (ganglion impar.), placed in front of the coccyx." The ganglia are connected with the adjacent ganglia and with the cerebro-spinal axis by nervous cords. The nerves are dis- tributed to the organs of the thorax, abdomen and pelvis. 117. Structure. — Nervous matter is of two kinds : — Vesicular, or gray, consisting of a collection of vesicles, called ganglionic, or nerve corpuscles, which arc each composed of a delicate wall in- closing granular pigment matter with nuclei. The ganglia and gray matter of the brain and spinal cord are composed of these nerve corpuscles imbedded in a granular material and intermingled with some fibrous matter. (2) Fibrous, or white composing "the nerve-fibers forming the cranial and spinal nerves and the white strands of nervous matter which are found in the cerebro-spinal axis. The nerves are composed of bundles of fibers, which are called funiculi, and are inclosed in a fibrous sheath, the peri- neurium ; the funiculi being separated from each other by an in- vesting fibrous membrane formed by reflections inward of the peri- neurium. YLach funiculus is formed of a number of. fibers, ox tubules. If these tubules are separated and individually examined during life they will appear to consist of a simple homogeneous transpar- ent investment, which incloses a soft transparent structureless sub- stance." After removal from the body, changes take place and the tubule appears to consist of a sheath called the neurilemma enclos- ing the medullary substance, (white substance of Schwann,) in the center of which is a gray, flattened, threadlike filament, called the axis cylinder. 118. The function of the nervous system as a whole seems to be to exercise guidance and control over the other parts of the body. Its true nature and function, however, are not yet thoroughly understood. Many experiments have been made upon living and dead animals to determine the functions of every part, and though much has been learned, we are still in the dark on some points. For example, in the base of the brain there is a curious arrange- ment of parts, distinct and definite in form, and while the anatomist has accurately described and named them, the physiologist fails to define definitely their uses. 119. When impressions, as by blows, pricks, heat, etc., are made from without upon parts of the body containing nerves (and there is scarcely a point on the surface which does not contain them), in some mysterious manner the impressions are eon, eyed to the brain, or central organ. These impressions we call sensations. They may he pleasurable or painful. Again, we will to move a limb and the muscles contract and the part moves. The brain is the seat of volition, or will, and an impression is conveyed along the nerves to the part moved, and, as it were, tells it to move. The impression of sensation is conveyed by the sensory, or afferent nerve 1!hi TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. filaments and the impression which causes motion hy the motor, or efferent nerve filaments. These facts we learn by experiment. If certain nerve filaments which are distributed t«> a part he severed, the power of motion will be lost in that part, hence we infer that the impression which produces motion is conveyed by those fila- ments. So also if certain other filaments he severed, the sensation is lost and the part may he pricked, or burned, and no feeling result, and we infer that the sensory impression is conveyed hy these fila- ments. 120. The vesicular, or gray matter, seems to be the originator of nerve power, and hence the brain, spinal cord and ganglia which contain it arc called nerve centers. In fact, the spinal cord may be considered as an elongated brain and the ganglia as so many little brains; or the brain may be considered as a large ganglion or an expansion of the spinal cord. In the fish the brain is but little broader than the spinal cord and does not weigh as much. In the articulates the nervous system is composed of ganglia and nerves only. 121. There are certain actions of the body which take place without the exercise of the will. If a person be tickled during sleep his muscles will act while he is unconscious of it. One invol- untarily withdraws his hand from the fire or when pricked with a pin. This is called reflex action. The impression is sent along a sensory nerve to the gray matter of the spinal cord and another impression sent along a motor nerve to the part, causing the con- traction of the muscles. Spasms, or convulsions, are only intense reflex actions caused by some irritation of the nerves. 122. The spinal cord not only originates impressions but is a medium of communication between the distant parts of the body and the brain. Note that it is composed of gray and zvhitc matter; the former may originate impressions (reflex action) and the latter transmit impressions. It is, however, an unsettled question whether the transmission of impressions is always direct, or whether it is by aid of the gray matter of the cord acting as relays, or aids to the nerve force. 123. The motor nerve fibers of the anterior part of the spinal cord decussate, or cross each other at the lower part of the me- dulla oblongata. As a result of this fact an injury to one side of the brain results in paralysis, or loss of motion on the opposite side of the body. The sensory nerve fibers cross each other through the entire length of the spinal cord, hence an injury to one side of the brain or to our si. k- of the cord will produce loss of sensation on the opposite side of the body below the injury. 124. The medulla oblongata is a kind of connecting link be- tween the brain and spinal cord. It transmits and originates im- pressions. It appears to be the center of the force which controls respiration and deglutition. The brain of an animal may be cut PHTSIOLOGT L91 away down to the medulla oblongata and nearly all the spinal cord removed without producing death, as breathing still goes on. When the phrenic nerve, which arises from the upper part of the spinal cord and is distributed to the diaphragm, is severed, breathing he- comes much labored because the action of the diaphragm ceases, but when the medulla oblongata is destroyed respiration stops at once and life is extinct. Indeed, there is a small portion of the me- dulla which, if injured, death results at once. This was called by Flourens the -.vital knot, or ganglia of life. It is also called the respiratory center. 125. The functions of the cerebellum appear to be that of a regulator of muscular movements. In experiments on pigeons, when the cerebellum was removed, the bird does not lose conscious- ness, but is unable to control its actions and staggers as though in- toxicated. 126. The cerebrum is the great organ of consciousness, and controls voluntary motion. It is the seat of will, judgment, intelli- gence and reasoning power. If the cerebrum be removed from a frog it will act exactly as a machine, capable of performing all the actions of a sound frog, but only by some external stimulus. Thus, if thrown into the water, it will swim until exhausted unless it comes in contact with something on which it can rest; when it does it will climb upon it and remain at rest until some new stimulus is applied. If its sides are stroked it will croak, and the croaks follow regularly with each stroke, so that it may be played upon like a musical instrument. If a birti be deprived of its cerebrum it will in like manner remain stupid and passive until acted on by some stimulus. If food be placed in its mouth it will swallow, digestion will go on, and it may be kept alive for a long time. If thrown into the air it will fly for some distance before it comes to rest. 127. The sympathetic system has been termed the system of organic life, as it appears to be intimately connected with the func- tions of the organs of nutrition and growth, or with what might be called the vegetative life, as distinct from the animal life, which is characterized by sensation, volition, etc. The cerebro-spinal sys- tem, looking at it in this light, has been called the system of animal life. 128. In the outline we have arranged the nervous system as to originating, transmitting and distributing organs. The originat- ing have been described as the nerve centers, or the gray matter of the brain, spinal cord and ganglia. The- transmitting as the white matter of the brain and spinal cord, and the nerves. The distribut- ing organs are (i) the tactile corpuscles of Wagner and the end- bulbs of Krause, which were regarded by their discoverers as spe- cific organs of touch, and which arc found in the sensitive papillae of the skin; (2) the motorial c?id-platcs of Kuchne, regarded as the terminations of the motor nerves of the voluntary muscles; (3) 192 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. taste buds or gustatory bulbs, supposeVl to be the terminations of the nerves of taste; (4) the olfactory celts of Schultze, regarded as the terminations of the olfactory nerve; (5) the auditory hairs,'\r\ the internal car, the vibrations of which arc supposed to create the sensation of hearing; (<'>) the rods and cones of Jacob, the termination of the optic nerve and having something to do with the sensation of vision. 129. The organs which are specially designed to aid the nerves which transmit certain impressions are called the organs of special sense and we have classed them as accessory organs of sensation, They are the eye, the ear, the sensitive papillae of the skin, the tongue and the nose. 130. The Eye. —The cavity in which the eye is located is called the orbit, and is formed by hones of the cranium and face. The eyeball is in the form of a sphere which lias a segment of another sphere engrafted upon it, making its antero-posterior diameter longer than its transverse diameter, the latter being about one inch, the former a line longer. 131. The eyeball is composed of several coats, or tunics which inclose certain refracting media, or humors. The first, or outer tunic, is composed of the sclerotic and cornea. The second, or mid- dle tunic ikcomposcd of the choroid, iris and ciliary processes. The third tunic is the retina. The humors are the aqueous, the crystal- line lens and its capsule and the vitreous. 132. The sclerotic coat is linn and unyielding and serves t< maintain the form of the eyeball, it is of a white color and ver\ smooth outside except where the muscles arc inserted. Behind it is pierced with the optic nerve and in front is continuous with tin. cornea. Il occupies about live-sixths of t he external tunic. 133. The cornea is the transparent part of the external tunic which projects from the main part of the eyeball and forms about one-sixth of the surface of the glbbe. It appears to lit into the sclerotic coat as a watch crystal does in its case. It is more convex as a rule in voting individuals than in old and varies also in different individuals. 134. The choroid coat is a thin, vascular, dark-colored mem- brane, which lines the inside of the sclerotic coat. It is pierced be- hind b\ the optic nerve and extends forward as far as the cornea. Tile ciliary processes are foldings of the choroid at its anterior margin, "They consist of about 60 to So somewhat conical-shaped bodies, situated with their bases internally.'" The iris is a libro- muscular curtain with a circular perforation in its center, called the pupil, which is susceptible "f great variations in size. This cur- tain is suspended between the cornea in front and the crystalline lens behind, the space in front and behind ii being tilled with the aqueOUS humor. The muscular libers of the iris are of two kind-, circular and radiating, and by their alternate contractions and relax- PHrSIOLOGT. 1.ircolemma of muscles. 198 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' UJiliAli)'. 2 . Fibrous. a. White, bundles of fibers interlaced with each other, each composed of minute fibrillae. Ex. — Tendons and most of the ligaments. b. Yellow elastic, fibrillae larger and curling up at their broken ends. Ex. — Certain ligaments, as the ligamentum subfiava of the vertebrae. c. Areolar, or connective, composed of meshes or net-work. Ex. — The subcutaneous tissue. . 3. Cellular, composed of cells more or less distinct. a. ( 'art t'lti gt . 1. Permanent, remaining as such through life. Ex. — External ear, and nose. 2. Temporary, afterward converted into bone. b. .1 iipose, small cells filled with fat and connected by areolar tissue. It occupies spaces not otherwise filled up and varies exceedingly in quantity. C. Pigmentary, cells which contain a coloring matter. Ex. — Skin, hair, choroid coat, lungs. d. dray nervous matter, or the nerve cells. 4. Sclerous, a. Bone. b. Teeth. 5. Epithelium, membrane made up of cells. a. Tessellated, or pavement, cells in the shape of flattened scales, many sided. Ex. — Epidermis and in serous membranes. b. Columnar, cylindrical cells. Ex. — In mucus membrane of ali- mentary canal. c. Spheroidal, or glandular, globular cells with granular contents. Ex. -Kidneys and secreting glands. d. Ciliated, has minute processes like hairs. Ex. — In ventricles of the brain and respiratory passages. II. Compound. 1. Tubular. Ex. — Nerves and muscles. 2. Fibro-cartilage, a mixture of white fibrous and cartilaginous tissue. Found about the joints. t ) . Serous membranes, composed, of a structureless membrane called the basement membrane and epithelium. They are always shut sacs and secrete a fluid, serum, which is the water of part of the blood transuded through the basement membrane. All cavities of the body not accessible to air are lined with serous membrane. The peritoneum lines the abdomen, and covers its organs, the pleura lines the thorax and covers the lungs, the pericardium covers the heart, the arachnoid, the brain, etc. .). Mucus membranes, consist of basement membrane, areolar tissue and epithelium and contains various glands, among which the mucus glands secrete mucus. Mucus membranes line all cavities exposed to the air, as the respiratory passages and alimentary canal. 5. Synovial membranes, similar to the serous membranes in structure, but secret a fluid resembling mucus. HINTS TO THE TEACHER. 162. There is no study more important than Physiology and none more interesting. If the teacher he enthusiastic in his work he will have no trouble to maintain an interest in his classes. The subject is one rather easy to outline and it is hoped the teacher will profit by the aids presented in that line. 163. Specimens may be procured from the hutcher which will illustrate main parts of the human anatomy. The eye of a hog is very nearly the same in size and structure as the human eye. The lungs, trachea, larynx, stomach, heart and brains of animals may he pro lired and will illustrate the corresponding parts in the human PHYSIOLOGY. 199 system. If a bone be immersed for a day or two in a mixture of 6 parts water to one of sulphuric, or hydro-chloric acid, the mineral matter will be dissolved out and the bone may be tied in a knot. These acids may be obtained at any drug store for a few cents. The cancellous and compact tissues of bone may be seen by sawing a beef bone longitudinally. The structure of joints may be shown also by specimens to be procured from the slaughter house. QUESTIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY. i. Define Anatomy ; Physiology; Hygiene. 2. How many bones in the human body? How are they classified? 3. What terms are used in describing bones? What are the uses of elevations and depressions on the surface of bones? 4. Name and locate the bones of the cranium. What bone forms the " key- stone " of the skull? 5. Bones of the face? 6. How is the trunk divided? What is the use of the clavicle? What bone is most liable to fracture? 7. De- scribe the spinal column. What bones glide upon each other when you " make a bow?" What when you "shake your head?" 8. Name and locate the bones of the pelvis. 9. Name and locate the bones of the upper extremity. How tell the radius from the ulna? What is the "crazy bone?" 10. Describe the bones of the lower extremity. What is the longest bone of the body? What is the technical name of the "shin bone? " 11. What bone is in the shape of a letter U and what is its use? What bone has no articulation with other bones? 12. What are sesamoid bones? Wormian bones? 13. Make an outline of the kinds of articulations. 14. What are the ligaments? Synovial membranes? Synovia? Bursae? 16. Describe the mechanical structure of bone. 17. Mi- croscopic structure? 18. Chemical stiucture? Why are old persons more liable to receive fractures? 19. Why is tight-lacing injurious? Why is it in- jurious for children to begin walking loo soon? Why should we sit erect when reading or writing? 20. Ossification? 21. Define muscles; tendons; aponeuroses; fascia? 22. Forms of muscles? 23. Kinds as to mode of action? 24. As to position? As to volition? As to structure? 25. Terms used in describing a muscle? 26. How are muscles named? 27. Mechanical construction of muscles? Microscopic structure? Chem- ical structure? 2S. Name and locate 12 important muscles and give tneir uses. 29. What is necessary to a healthy condition of muscles? 30. Name the general divisions of the digestive system. 31. Describe the mouth. 32. The pharynx. 33. The oesophagus. 34. Stomach. What is the pylorus? Where does the gastric juice come from? 35. How are the intes- tines divided? Describe the duodenum. 36. The jejunum. 37. What is the length of the large intestine? 38. Describe the colon and rectum. 39. Struc- ture of intestine? 40. How many permanent teeth? Temporary? When does each set make its appearance? Parts of a tooth? Kinds of teeth? 41. Structure of teeth? 42. How preserve the teeth? 43. Salivary glands? Saliva? 44. Location and form of the liver? Structure? 45. Pancreas? 40. Spleen? 47. Describe the processes the food undergoes from the time it enters the mouth until it is ready for circulation through the blood-vessels Name the fluids used in digestion ? 4S. Define food. Classes as to nutritive value. 49 Arguments for a vegetable diet ? Kind of food in winter? Why a variety in our food? Why use coarse food? 50. What conditions should regulate the amount of food? 51. How should food be prepared and served ? Win eat slowly? How does the state of the mind affect digestion ? Why not too much liquid with the food? Why not 200 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. work immediately before or after meals ? Why not eat just before going to sleep? Time and frequency of eating? 52. Organsof circulation ? Give form, size, divisions and location of heart. Pericardium? 53. Describe the right auricle. 54. The right ventricle. 56. The left auricle. 57. The left ventricle. 57. The endocardium? Describe structure of the heart. 58. Give a general description of the arteries. Anas- tomoses? 59. The aorta? 60. Branches of the aorta? What artery mav be felt at the wrist ? What one below the angle of the jaw? What one in front of the ears? 61. The principal arteries of the lower extremities? 62. Princi- pal arteries of the internal organs? 63. Give a general description of the veins. Sinuses? 64. Vena comites? Portal vein ? Trace the blood from the walls of the stomach to the heart. 65. Capillaries? 66. Structure of arteries and veins? 67. Trace the blood the round of the circulation, naming all the parts it passes through. What is the portal circulation ? 6S. Cause of the circulation of the blood ? 69. Motions of the heart? 70. Amount of blood? Structure and composition of blood? Cause of coagulation? ft. Function of the red corpuscles? 72. Lymphatic vessels? 73. Lacteals? Thoracic duct? Right lymphatic duct? 74. Lymphatic glands? Mesenteries? 75 Composition of chyle and lymph ? What office do the lymphatics per- form besides conveying lvmph ? What hygienic inference from the functions of the lymphatics? 76. How does medicine get into the blood? 77. Name the organs of the respiratory system. Describe the lungs. 78. How does the right lung differ from the left? 79. What is the structure of the lungs? 80. The trachea? Si. The larynx? 82. Describe the epiglottis and sjive its function. 82. What is the epiglottis and its use? 83. Vocal cords and their use? 84. The diaphragm and its use? 85. Describe the process of respiration. 86. How many respirations per minute on an average in a healthy adult? 87. What is the cause of animal heat? 88. What is the difference between secretion and excretion? Is the bile a secretion or an excretion? S9. What organs secrete and what excrete. 90. What are transuding organs ? 91. Describe the kidneys. 92. Descrioe the skin. 93. What are the little ridges we see on the palm of the hand? 94. Why is the negro black ? 95. What are the appendages of the skin? 96. Describe the sebaceous and sudoriferous glands. What are pores? 97. Describe a hair. 98. What is the nature of the nails? 90. Whv should clothing be worn loosely? What would you do in case an artery were injured ? A vein ? When is a room properly ventilated? Explain "taking cold." What is yawning? Why the necessity of a frequent change of clothing? Is hair oil necessary ? 100. What are the general divisions of th nervous system? 101. Name the parts of the brain. 102. Size and weight of the brain? [03. Cerebrum? 104. Cerebellum? 105. Pons Varolii? 106. Medulla oblongata? 107. Struc- ture of the brain ? 108. Coverings of the brain? 109. Spinal cord? io 9 Absolute. 1- fic gravity. (41 ) * 2 9 Relative. (Speci- 3 9 Equilibrium. (49). * * * * y Applications I s Moving Machinery. 2 8 Pendulum. (53). 1 9 Kinds. * * * * j 9 Laws. * * * * ^ Uses. * * * 2 6 Muscular. 3 6 Elasticity. 2 5 Applications. i f ' Mechanical Powers. (68) •c * * * z 1 ' Mechanics of Liquids. 1' Liquids at Re6t. (Hy- drostatics. (84' I s Pressure. i 9 Transmission * * * * 2 9 Amount. * * * * 3 9 Applications. * * * * 2 8 Equilibrium. 3 8 Buoyancy. 4 8 Compressibility. 2 T Liquids in Motion. 3* Mechanics (Pneumatics). (95). I 7 Pressure. * * * * 2' Tension. 3 7 Buoyancy. 4 7 Compressibility * * * * 5 7 Elasticity. * * * * c; 7 Friction. * * * * 3' Results. I s Motion. I 7 Irregular. 2 7 Regular. I 8 Oscillations. 1 9 Of Pendulums. 2 9 Of Elastic Bodies. 2* Undulations. I 9 Kinds. I lu Of Liquids. 2 10 Of Gases. 2 9 Result. i 10 Sound. (Acous- I 11 Transmission. * * * * 2" Quality. 3 11 Intensity. 4" Pitch. 5 11 Reflection. * * * * C 11 Refraction. * * * * 7 11 Interference. * * * * S" Music. * * * * tics.) (105). 2* Molecular. I* Kinds. 1* Attractive. 1 7 Cohesion. (78'. 2 7 Adhesion. (79). [See Norton's l'lnlosophyj. 3 7 Electricity . 2* Repellant. 1" Heat. (Pyronomics.) (125). NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 203 i 8 Sources. (126). 1 * * # * 2 8 Communication. (X3*>; i 9 Conduction. * * * * 2 9 Radiation. * * * * 3 9 Connection. * * * * 3 8 Transmission. (131). i 9 Absorption. 2 9 Reflection. 3 9 Refraction. 4 8 Amount. (127). i 9 Relative. (Specific Heat). 2 9 Absolute. i 10 Latent. 2* * * * * I 3 2 10 Sensible. * * * * 3 9 Fixed Points. * * * * 5* Phenomena. i 9 Evaporation. (130)- * * * * 2° Expansion. (128). * * V * 2 3 3 9 Ebullition. (130). * * * * 3 3 6 8 Measures. Thermometers. (129). 7 8 Applications. I 9 Steam Engines. 79 * * * * 3 6 Undulatory. 1 7 Light (Optics). (117). [Outline similar to Heat]. 2 7 Electricity. (132). i 8 Kinds. * * * * 2 s Phenomena. *P "f" T> ^ 3 8 Applications. 2 a Applications. Energy. (33). « Kinds. i 5 Visible or Mechanical. i 6 Of Position — Potential. 2 6 Of Motion — Kinetic. 2 5 Invisible or Molecular. i° Heat. 2 6 Light. 3 6 Electricity. Conservation. / , % Correlation. p3*;- NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1. Natural Philosophy, or Physics, is the systematic study of matter and the forces which act upon it, without destroying its iden- tity. (4). 2. Matter is whatever occupies space. Existence includes matter and force (29). A body is any single mass, or portion of matter, whether great or small. A molecule is the smallest portion of a body which we can conceive of as retaining its identity. An atom is a division of a molecule. 3. Suppose we take any quantity of water and conceive it to be divided until we reach a limit. The last particle which we could call water would be a molecule. Now let a current of elec- tricity be passed through a quantity of water, and it is separated into two gases, essentially different from each other, and differenl from water. A given quantity of water will produce a certain quantity of gas, the proportion in volume of the two kinds being as 1 to 2. If one pint, say of water, produces one volume of one gas, and two of the other, one-half pint would produce one-half the amount of one gas and one-half the amount of the other, and so on down until we have made the ultimate division which for convenience we call a molecule, then we can truly say that the molecule is com- 31 1 | IE. I ( HERS ' . [\/> .s / I 'DEJSI 7V LIBRAR ) '. posed of two parts of one gas and one part of the other, and for convenience we call these parts of the molecules, atoms. 4. Natural Philosophy deals only with masses and molecules. Chemistry deals with atoms. When we tear a piece of paper in pieces or grind it to a pulp, we separate molecules and have affected a -physical change only. When we burn the paper in the fire we separate atoms and have affected a chemical change. In the first case we have effected a change of form but the matter is identically the same. In the second case, the gases and ashes produced by the burning are totally different, and the paper has lost its identity (1). 5. The universal properties of matter, or those which are common to all bodies are, weight, impenetrability, mobility, iner- tia, divisibility, porosity, compressibility, expansibility, and inde- structibility. 6. The specific properties of matter, or those which serve to distinguish one kind of matter from another are, tenacity, hardness, brittleness, ductility, malleability, flexibility and elasticity. REMARK. — The properties of matter are somewhat variously classified by authors. It is thought all bodies have elasticity, yet some have it in such a degree that it serves to distinguish them from other bodies, hence is classed among both universal and specific properties. The same may be said of flexibility, which may be also regarded as a variety of compressibility. 7. By magnitude is meant the size of a body, or that it occupies a certain amount of space. Matter has three dimensions: length, breadth, thickness. 8. Weight is the measure of the force which tends to draw all bodies on or near the earth to its center. The mere measure of the attraction may he called absolute weight, and when the weight of one body is compared with another it is specific weight. (40). 9. By impenetrability we mean that no two bodies can occupv the same space at the same time. 10. By mobility we mean the property of being moved, or having the position changed. In one sense all bodies are in motion. The earth, and all heavenly bodies are in motion, but their parts may be at rest in relation to each other. Thus we may have absolute motion and relative motion. We are all in absolute motion, being carried around the axis of the earth and also around the sun, but we may be at rest in relation to other bodies on the earth's surface. 11. Inertia is that property of matter by virtue of which it tends to remain at rest when in a state of rest, or move on when in motion. 12. By divisibility we mean that matter is capable of being separated into distinct parts. Theoretically, there is no limit to the division of matter until we reach the atom, but practically, there is a limit long before we reach the molecule. Nevertheless, wonder- fullv small divisions may be made. 13. The molecules of a body do not touch each other, but spaces exist between them. These spaces are called pores. There are NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 205 also larger spaces between aggregations of molecules which may be seen with the eye or with the microscope. These are also called pores, but improperly. The latter are sometimes called sensible pores and the former physical pores. The property of possessing pores is called porosity. 14. Compressibility is that property of matter by virtue of which it mav be made to occupy less space. It is a result of poros- ity. The molecules are forced nearer together. 15. Expansibility is the opposite of compressibility. The molecules are forced farther apart, and the body occupies more space. 16. Matter cannot be annihilated. The form may be changed, but the same number of atoms exists. A substance is consumed, we say, in the fire, but the gases and smoke and ashes will weigh as much as the substance did before; in fact more, as it gains some- thing from the atmosphere. Matter, then, has the property of Indestructibility. 17. Tenacity is that property of some bodies by virtue of which they resist a force tending to pull the particles apart. 18. Hardness is the resistance some bodies offer to an attempt to force a passage between their particles, and is measured by the readiness with which one body scratches another. We give below a Scale of Hardness in which each substance will scratch the one above it. Any body which will not scratch or be scratched by one of these substances, is of the same degree of hardness. i. Talc. 4. Fluor-spar. 7. Quartz. 2. Gvpsum. 5. Apatite. 8. Topaz. 2.5 Mica. 6.5 Scapolite. 9. Sapphire. 3. Calc-spar. 6. Feldspar. 10. Diamond. 19. Bodies that are easily broken by a blow are said to possess the property of Brittleness. Glass is a good example. 20. Ductility is that property by virtue of which a body may be drawn out into a wire. Platinum is one of the most ductile of substances. It has been drawn into wire suhm part of an inch in thickness. 21. Malleability is that property by virtue of which a body may be hammered or rolled into thin sheets. Gold is the most malleable of substances and has been beaten into sheets _,.,J , of an inch in thickness. 22. Flexibility is that property of a body by virtue of which it may be bent or folded upon itself. It is one variety of compressi- bility', the particles on the side to which the bodv is bent being compressed. Very brittle bodies may lie bent if a thin and long piece be taken, as a strip of glass. 23. Elasticity is that property by virtue of which a bodv being compressed returns to its original form and bulk. 20G TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. Rf.makk. — A body which, when Hent, returns to its original state, is both flexible and elastic, it it remains bent it is flexible, but not elastic. 24. Matter may be a solid, a liquid or a gas. The- term fluid includes both liquids and gases. Quite recently claim lias been laid to the existence of a fourth state of matter. 25. A body is, in a solid state when its molecules cohere so that their relative positions cannot be changed without the application of considerable force. A solid will retain any shape given it. 26. A body is in a liquid state when its molecules cohere so . slightly that their relative positions may be changed on the appli- cation of a slight force. A liquid always assumes the form of the vessel containing it with its free surface horizontal, the force of Efravity causing each molecule to seek its lowest level. 27. A hotly is in the gaseous state when its molecules tend to separate almost indefinitely from each other. Essentially there is no difference between a gas and a vapor. The term gas is generally applied to those bodies which are ordi- narily in a gaseous state, and the term vapor to that which is formed by heating a liquid or solid. Steam is the vapor of water, but it is a gas as much as oxygen or hydrogen. 28. Heat seems to be the great repellant force in nature. (36). Most solitl bodies have been Liquified and vaporized by the application of heat, and it is probable that could we obtain the requisite degree of heat, all bodies could be made to assume the solid, liquid or gaseous form according as we increase or diminish the amount of heat. For example, water when frozen is solid. We apply heat and it becomes liquid, and still more heat and it becomes gas. Many of the metals can be made to pass through the same stages. 29. Force is whatever produces, destroys or modifies motion. The terms motion and force are sometimes used interchangeably. For example, heat is considered one of the great forces of nature, yet it is called a mode of motion, or a vibration of the molecules. 30. We can change but cannot annihilate force. Thus a stone being elevated falls to the ground. The force of gravity is expended and its motion stops, we say. Rut not so. If we examine closely we will find that it is warmer than before. The molecules which compose it have been set in motion and we have heat, another kind of force. This heat might be applied in producing Steam, which on expanding will move whatever is before it and we have a mass motion again similar to that produced by the force of gravity. The body moved by the force of steam when stopped or retarded, produces heat again, and so on. 31. Again, the sun's light and heat are forces which cause plants to grow. The tissues of the plant thus formed, supply fuel for the action of chemical force in the process of combustion which again produces heat and light. Animals consume vegetable tissue NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 207 and the force is exhibited in muscular power which may be applied to moving objects. This subject is frequently discussed under the head of correlation and conservation of forces. 32. Gravitation is the great force which acts upon matter in the mass but we apply the term massic force to whatever produces visible mechanical motion, as the muscular power of animals, the flowing of water, the elasticity of a spring, the expansibility of steam, etc. These forces are applied to the production of work by means of machinery. This power of d-oing work is called energy. This energy may be produced by molecular changes as in the case of the expansibility of the steam ami the elasticity of the spring or by atomic changes as in the contraction of the muscle, or by the force of gravit\ , as in the flowing stream. 33. A stone elevated above the level of the earth has what we may call energy of position for although it remains passive it pos- sesses the power of performing work, or overcoming resistance if allowed to fall. A stone falling has energy of motion. The former is called potential energy, the latter, kinetic energy. The water of a mill-pond or lake which is elevated above the surround- ing country has energy of position. If the water flows over a dam its weight and velocity give it power to move machines and we call it energy of motion. 34. The forces which act on the molecules of matter are : cohesion, adhesion, heat, light, electricity, magnetism. 35. Chemism, or chemical affinity, is that force which holds the atoms of a molecule together. 36. Heat is the great repellant force (28). The molecules of a solid body are held together by a force we call cohesion (78). One kind of solid is held to another kind by a force we call ad- hesion (79). We subject a solid body to heat and its molecules are separated, or the cohesive force is partially overcome and the separate molecules being subject to the force of gravitation seek the lowest level and we have what we call a liquid. Still more heat causes a further separation of the molecules and the body as- sumes the gaseous form, the repellant force overcoming both cohe- sion and gravitation. 37. It is one of the laws of motion that a body once set in motion will continue to move on in a straight line unless stopped by some other force. When a ball is whirled in a circle by means of a string the tendency the ball has to fly off in a straight line by virtue of the force imparted to it by the hand, is called centrifugal force. The strings holds it or tends to draw it toward the hand and this force is called centripetal force. The result of the com- bined forces is to make the ball move in a circle. These are only convenient terms to represent these laws of motion and are not properly forces. 38. All separate portions of matter in the universe have an TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS" LIBRARY. attraction for all other portions. This attraction we call gravita- tion. The attraction which the earth exerts on bodies on and near its surface \vc call terrestrial gravitation. The attraction between distant bodies, as the earth, sun, moon and planets we call univer- sal gravitation. 39. Gravitation varies directly as the /miss and inversely as the square of the distance. This is the great law of gravitation. To illustrate: (i) If one body has twice the amount of matter that another body has it will attract a third hotly with twice the force. If the amount of matter be doubled the force of attraction is doubled, and so on. (2) If one body be twice as far from another 'body at one time as it is at another time, its attraction in the first case will he only one- fourth as great as in the second case. If the distance be three times as great, the attraction will he only one-ninth and so on. 40. The measure of the force of gravitation is weight. A body weighs most at the surface of the earth because it is then at- tracted by the entire mass of the earth acting at a short distance. Below the surface it weighs less because the entire mass does not act upon it in the same direction. Away from the surface it weighs less because the force decreases according to the law stated above. 41. Specific gravity is the ratio between the weight of a body and the weight of an equal volume of another body taken as a standard. The standard for solids and liquids is distilled water at a temperature of 39.2°F. or 4°C. For gases the standard is air or hydrogen. 42. To find the specific gravity of solids: Weigh the body in air. Then weigh it suspended in water. It will lose in weight, according to the principle of Archimedes, as much as the weight of the water it displaces. It will displace its own hulk of water. Its loss of weight in water then will equal the weight of an equal hulk of water. If the weight in air be divided by the loss of weight in water the quotient will be the number of times the body is heavier than an equal bulk of water or in other words its specific gravity. To put it as a formula let xv be its weight in air and iv' its weight in water, then we have: w Specific gravity ,--= w — TV ' If the body is lighter than water attach it to a body heavy enough to sink it. Find the loss of weight of the two combined, also for the heavier body. The difference between the loss of the two combined and the loss of the heavy body divided into the given body, will equal the specific gravity. 43. There are several ways of finding the specific gravity of liquids. The mosl convenient way is by means of the hydrometer, an instrument which can be constructed so as to represent the prin- .V. I TURA L PHIL OSOl'li ) ". 209 ciple as follows : Take a long narrow test tube and fill witli sand until it will just sink to a depth of 100 degrees as shown by a scale marked on a strip of paper pasted on the outside of the tuhe. If this tuhe sink to exactly ioo degrees in distilled water at a tempera- ture of 39.2 c F.,it will if immersed in other liquids sink to a greater or less depth according as they arc lighter or heavier than water. Thus in alcohol it will sink 125 degrees. 100 -s- 125 = .80, the specific gravity of alcohol. If immersed in milk it will sink to 90 degrees. 100 -^-90 = 1. 11 J, the specific gravity of milk. 44. To find the specific gravity of gases : Fill a vessel with the gas and weigh it. Then weigh the same vessel filled with air or hydrogen, whichever is to he taken as the standard. The weights of equal volumes are then known, and the comparison can be made. 45. The following are general laws of falling bodies: — 1. All bodies fall with equal rapidity, or traverse the same distance in the same time, irrespective of weight or size, provided there be no resistance of air. 2. A body falls 16 ft. in the first second, and attains a ve- locity of 32 ft. at the end of the second. The velocity attained at the end of each succeeding second is found by multiplying 16 by the respective even numbers 4, 6, S, 10, etc., and the distance traversed in each second by the respective odd numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. 3. The whole distance traversed in a given number of sec- onds is found by multiplying 16 ft. by the square of the number of seconds. 46. The same principles apply, in a reverse order, to bodies thrown upward. 47. The center of gravity is that point in a body about which all the matter is evenly balanced. 48. To find the center of gravity: Suspend a body from any point. Drop a plumb line from the point of suspension and mark its direction. Suspend the body from any other point not in line with the first, and mark the plumb line as before. The center of gravity will lie directly under the point of intersection of these lines. 49. When the center of gravity of a body tails within the base of support, the body will return to its position when slightly dis- placed, and is said to be in stable equilibrium. 50. "When a body is supported so that when slightly displaced it falls further from its position, it is said to he in unstable equilib- rium. In this case the center of gravity is above the point ofsuo- port. 51. When a body is supported so that when slightly displaced it tends neither to return nor fall further from its position, it is said to be in neutral or indifferent equilibrium. The center of gravity in this case is neither raised nor lowered. 210 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' UBRART. 52. A plumb line let fall from the center of gravity is called the line of direction. When this line falls within the base, or that part of the body on which it rests, the body st.nuK. When this line falls outside the base, it falls. 53. A simple pendulum exists in theory only, and is defined to he a single material particle supported by a line without weight, and capable of oscillating ahout a fixed point. The physical, or compound pendulum consists of a weight suspended so ;is to swing freely to and fro. 54. When the weight is drawn up so that the bar or String is no longer in a vertical position, the force of gravity brings the weight to the lowest point and inertia carries it onward until stopped by gravity, when it returns ami passes beyond the lowest point again on the other side, each oscillation, as it is called, be- coming shorter until it is finally brought to rest by friction and re- sistance of the air. The path which the weight traverses is called the arc, and the extent to which it travels on either side is called its amplitude. 55. The pendulum is subject to the following laws: — 1. The oscillations, or vibrations of the same pendulum in the same place on the earth will he performed in the same time, irrespective of the length of the arc. The vibrations are said to be isochronous. This is strictly true only of a cycloidal pendulum. 2. The weight or material of which the pendulum is com- posed does not affect its vibration. 3. The times of vibrations of different pendulums are pro- portional to the square roots of their respective lengths. 4. The same pendulum will vibrate in different times at different places on the surface of the earth; slowest at the equator, most rapidly at the poles. 56. The upper part of a pendulum tends to move faster than the lower part. There is a point in its length which tends to move at an average rate, the particle of matter at this point oscillating as if it were suspended by a string without weight, thus fulfilling the conditions of a simple pendulum. This point lies a little below the center of gravity, and is called the center of oscillation. The real length of the pendulum then is the distance from the point of sus- pension to the center of oscillation. 57. Uses of the pendulum: 1. It regulates our clocks. 2. It is used in ascertaining the dimensions of the earth. 3. To measure the velocity of falling bodies. 4. To prove the revolution of the earth (sec Foucault's Experiment). 58. The product of the mass and velocity of a body is called its momentum. It is sometimes called its quantity of motion. For example, a body moving at the rate of 2 feet per second and weighing 4 lbs. will have a momentum of 8, which will be the NATURAL PlllLOHOPUr. 211 same as if the body weighed 2 lbs. and was moving at the rate of 4 feet per second. 59. The momentum of a body must not be confounded with its vis viva, or striking force. The former denotes the amount of force necessary to bring the body to a state of rest, if applied for one unit of time. The latter denotes the force required to keep a body in motion with a constant velocity, or to overcome resistance through a unit of space. 60. Illustration. — In the case of the balls above mentioned (58), the 4 lb. ball with a velocity of 2 ft. per second will have the same momentum as the 2 lb. ball with a velocity of 4 ft. per sec- ond, but the latter will penetrate farther into any body which it may strike. In the case of a rifle, the velocity of the ball multi- plied by its weight represents its momentum. The force of the powder acts as powerfully against the gun as against the ball, but the gun is not sent backward with the same velocity that the ball is sent forward. Its velocity, however, multiplied by its weight, will equal the velocity of the ball multiplied by its weight. In other words, the ?nome?ztzim is the same. But no one will say that the power of overcoming resistance in a given space is the same. The mome?itum of the ball is the same as the momentum of the gun, but the vis viva of the ball is the greatest. 61. The vis viva equals % the square of the velocity, multi- plied by the mass. 62. The principal resistances to motion are: Resistance of the air ; Friction ; Gravity. 63. Friction is that resistance which one body meets when made to move on the surface of another. It is of two kinds, sliding and rolling. Were a body perfectly smooth, there would be no friction, but every body, even the most highly polished, contains on its surface minute projections and indentations. The projections of one body fall into the indentations of another, and thus lock them so that force is necessary to move them. Grease, oil and other substances, by filling up these indentations, diminish friction. 64. If a ball at A be met by a force sufficient to carry it to B, and by another force sufficient to carry it to C, the ball will move in the direction of A D, or in the diagonal of the figure, which is called the parallelogram of forces. 65. The line A D is called the resultant of the two forces represented by the lines A B and C D. 66. Circular motion is the resultant of centrifugal and centripetal forces. 67. When one body is thrown against another, if one or both bodies are elastic, the projected body will rebound or fly back 812 TEACHERS AND sir DENTS' LIBRARY. a< cording to the law ; the angle of incidence is equal c to the angle of reflection. To illustrate, let a ball be thrown in the direction A 15 against the surface CD. It will rebound in the direction R E. H F c is a line perpendicular to the surface C D, and the angle of incidence, A 1> F is equal to the angle of reflection, F B E. 68. Machines do not create force hut enable us to apply and direct the forces of nature, as muscular power, wind, falling water, Steam, etc. The simple, or elementary forms of machines are gen- erally considered as six in number, the lever, the inclined plane, the screw, the wedge, the wheel and axle and the pulley, but there arc really only two elementary forms, the lever and the inclined plane., the others being but modifications of these two. 69. The power or energy multiplied by the distance through which it moves equals the weight, load or resistance multiplied by the distance through which it moves. Two lbs. of power moving through 8 ft. equals 16 lbs. moving through i ft. What is gained in power is lost in time or distance. This is the fundamental law of all machinery. 70. A lever is an inflexible bar capable of turning on a fixed point. The force used is called the power, the object to be moved, the weight, and the fixed point or pivot, the fulcrum. 71. The following are the kinds of levers: — 1. Lever of the 1st class. Power at one end, weight at the other, fulcrum between them. 2. Lever of the 2d class. Power at one end, fulcrum at the other, and weight between them. 3. Lever of the 3d class. Fulcrum at one end, weight at the other, and power between them. 72. Let pd = distance of power from fulcrum and wd dis- tance of weight from fulcrum ; p = power and w = weight. Then we have the proportion: p: w:: wd: pd. 73. The compound lever consists of several levers connected together in such a way that the short arm of one acts upon the long arm of the next and so on. 74. The wheel and axle is a modification of the lever in which the center of the axis of the wheel is the fulcrum, the dis- tance from the rim of the wheel to the axis or the length of the crank, the long arm, and the distance from the circumference of the axis to its center its short arm. 75. The pulley is a modification of the lever, where the dis- tances from the axis to the circumference represent equal arms of the lever. No advantage is gained in a fixed pulley except change of direction. By means of a number of movable pulleys the pow- NATURAL PUILOSOPHT. o 1;( er distance is increased, the cord having to pass through a greater distance to gain greater power. 76. An inclined plane is a smooth, hard surface inclined so as to make an angle with direction of the force to be overcome, p: w:: height of inclined plane: length of inclined plane. Compar- ing it with the lever, the length corresponds to the long arm and the height to the short arm. 77. The wedge is simply a movable inclined plane, its power depending upon friction as well as upon its form. The screw is an inclined plane wound around* a cylinder. 78. Cohesion is the force which hinds together molecules of the same kind. As before stated, the solid condition of matter depends on the cohesion of its molecules. Cohesive force acts at insensible distances. The process of welding metals illustrates the principle of cohesion. Two pieces of lead if the surfaces are made smooth and clean, may be made to cohere by pressing them togeth- er with a twisting motion. Oil, water, quicksilver, etc., collect in drops by virtue of the cohesion of their molecules. The phenomena of crystallization depend also upon this principle. 79. Adhesion is the force which binds molecules of one kind to the molecules of another kind. On this principle glue fastens wood together, mucilage fastens paper, mortar cements bricks, solder fastens tinware, dust clings to the wall, paint to objects, liquids to solids, etc. 80. The principal varieties of adhesion are: capillarity, dif- fusion of liquids, diffusion of gases, osmose. 81. Capillarity, or capillary attraction, is that form of adhe- sion by virtue of which liquids tend to rise upon the surface of solids. When the vertical sides of two solids are brought very near together as in the case of fine tubes, or when two plates of glass are placed together, or as in the fibers of cloth or paper, liquids will rise to a considerable height upon the principle of capillary attrac- tion. Blotting paper absorbs ink, the wick of the lamp draws up the oil, the earth absorbs water, and many other phenomena are explained on this principle. 82. Liquids of different densities will gradually mix. by virtue of the adhesion of their molecule-,. This is called diffusion of liquids. The same is true of ^ases. 83. When liquids or g:ises of different densities are separated from each other by a thin porous membrane or by a porous sub- stance like plaster of Paris, they will mingle, not uniformly, hut varying with the nature of the substances. Thus if a bladder be filled with alcohol and immersed in a vessel of water, there will be a current of alcohol passing out and a current of water passing into the bladder. The current which passes to the liquid which increases in volume is called endosmose and the other exoswosc. Both oper- ations are called osmose. 214 TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 84. Hydrostatics treats of liquids in a state of rest. 85. Liquids transmit pressure equally in all directions. Fill an oyster can provided with holes in sides, bottom and top, by pouring water from a long tube. The water will spurt out in every dii ection. 80. Pressure exerted anywhere upon a mass of liquid is trans- mitted undiminished in all directions and acts with the same force upon equal surfaces and in a direction atright angles to those sur- faces. A necessary deduction from this law is that surfaces of ves- sels sustain a pressure proportional to their area. This is called PascaPs Law. 87. The hydrostatic press is a very powerful machine, by means of which a pressure of two or three hundred tons may be obtained. It is sometimes called the hydraulic press. (See Desch- ancPs Nat. Philosophy.) It is a practical application of Pascal's Law. 88. An Artesian Well acts upon the principle that liquids press equally in all directions, that water as it is said, " always seeks its level." By boring through strata of rocks or earth imper- vious to water and striking a basin of water which has descended from a greater height through a porous strata, a well is formed which sometimes will throw the water to a great height. The water will be thrown nearly as high as the fountain head, being re- tarded somewhat by friction and resistance of the air. Such bor- ings have for a long time been in existence in the Province of Ar- tois, France, hence the name " Artesian Well." 89. If a glass tube be idled with any liquid so that it holds only a bubble of air, and placed in a horizontal position, the bubble will stand at the center of the tube, explained on the principle above stated. A- alcohol, which will not freeze, is the fluid gener- ally used, it is called the spirit level. 90. Hydraulics treats of liquids in motion. 91. The velocity of a jet of water is equal to the velocity of a body falling from the same height. To find the quantity of water discharged in a given time, mul- tiply the velocity bv the area of the orifice and that product by the time. 92. A stream runs more swiftly in the center and at the surface than near the banks or at the bottom, because the friction of the shores and bottom retard it. 93. Barker's Mill consists of an upright cylinder with horizon- tal arms, with apertures in the opposite sides, the cylinder so ar- ranged as to turn easily. When water is poured into the cylinder, the pressure being equal in all directions, it would remain at rest did not the water flow out at these orifices, which, relieving the pressure on the one side, causes the arm to move in the contrary direction, and thus the cylinder is made to revolve. The experi- NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 215 ment may be performed in a very simple maimer with a flat oyster can by making small holes in the broad sides near the diagonally op- posite corners and suspending with a string. [See Easy Experi- ments in Chemistry and Philosophy.} 94. The Turbine Water Wheel is a practical application of the principle of Barker's Mill. 95. Pneumatics treats of the physical properties of gaseous bodies. The principles of transmission of pressure, specific grav- ity and buoyancy of liquids apply also to gases. 96. The air pump is a machine for removing the air from within a vessel. It consists of a cylinder supplied with a valve opening inward and one outward, and a piston fitting accurately. When the piston is raised the air rushes into the cylinder through the first valve to fill the vacuum; as the cylinder descends the air closes the first valve and opens the second and is driven out. Every stroke of the piston thus removes a portion of air. The second, or escape valve, may be in the side of the cylinder or in the piston it- self. 97. Gases have weight, compressibility, expansibility, and elas- ticity. 98. Torrieelli took a glass tube about a yard in length, closed at one end and filled it with mercury. Placing his thumb over the closed end he immersed it in a vessel of mercury. Removing his thumb the mercury sank until it stood at the height of 30 inches. The space above the mercury was as nearly a complete vacuum as has ever been attained. By this experiment he proved that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a column of liquid which it will sustain. 99. The pressure of the atmosphere is equal to about 15 lbs. to the square inch at the level of the sea, being the weight of a column of mercury one inch in area, and about 30 inches in height which will be sustained by a column of air one inch in area. 100. The pressure of the atmosphere at sea level will sustain a column of water about 34 ft. in height. The common pump is an application of this fact. The piston, or sucker, being raised the water is forced up the tube by the pres- sure of the air on the surface of the water in the well, there being no resistance in the tube, for the piston lifts the air out. As the pis- ton descends, the valve in it opens upward and allows the water to pass through above the valve, which, closing as it rises again, the water is lifted out and more is forced into the tube below. Owing to the necessary imperfection of the parts, water cannot be raised by atmospheric pressure more than about 27 ft. 101. The barometer is an instrument for the measurement of atmospheric pressure. It is useful in ascertaining heights above sea level and for estimating the condition of the weather. It consists es- sentially of the apparatus used in Torricelli's experiment, with ;. 316 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. graduated scale affixed to the glass tube. As the instrument is car- ried up a height, the mercury falls, being subject to less pressure and vice versa. 102. The siphon consists of a tube benl in the Bhape of a lettei U with unequal arms. 103. Fill the siphon with water closing both ends with the ringers. Insert the short arm in a vessel of water with the long arm on the outside with its end lower than the end of the short arm. The column of water in the long arm will run out by its own weight and the tendency would be to produce a vacuum in the bend of the tube, but the water is forced up by the pressure of air through the short arm and thus the stream is kept up so long as the outside arm is lower at its orifice than the orifice of the inside arm. The flow may be started by exhausting the air from the long arm by suction, then it will not be necessary to fill the siphon with water. 104. Acoustics treats of sound. 105. Sound is the sensation produced in the brain through the auditory nerve from vibrations of matter. According to this defini- tion there can be no sound without an organ of hearing, but there may be vibrations of matter which would produce sound were there an organ to transmit it and a brain to receive it. 106. The velocity of sound depends upon the nature of the medium through which the vibrations are transmitted. Sound travels through air (at the freezing point) at the rate of 1,090 ft. per sec; through water at the rate of 4,700 ft. per sec. 107. As sound is transmitted to the ear through a medium like air or water, it travels in waves, the molecules swinging back and forth. The amplitude, or distance the molecules move back and forth, determines the intensity of the sound. Wn- intensity dimin- ishes as the square of the distance. 108. When sound waves strike the surface of an opposing medium a part of them are reflected or thrown back. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection as in reflected motion. 109. If sound waxes strike a medium of different density those waves which are transmitted are refracted, or bent out of their course. 110. The effect of a direct sound joined by one or more re- flected sounds so as to increase the intensity, is called resonance. It is because of the resonance that a speaker can be heard more easily in a room than in the open air. When we can distinguish the reflected sound from the direct one it is called an echo. This is the ease when sounds arc reflected from a distance. 111. Regular vibrations when produced with sufficient rapidity blend into one sound. This is a musical note. A succession of musical notes so modulated as to please the ear constitutes music. 112. The Telephone is .hi instrument which reproduces articu- late speech or other sounds at a distance. In the acoustic, or string NATURAL PHILOSOl'J/1'. 217 telephone it is only necessary to have a membrane which can be set in vibration by the impulses of the air made by the voice on an in- strument, and a string or wire attached to it to carry the vibrations to a similar membrane at the other end. This second membrane •rives back to the air the same kind of vibration received at the other end. In the electric telephone, the vibrations of the mem- brane cause changes in the electric current produced by a battery, these changes being capable of reproducing the same kind of vibra- tions in the membrane at the opposite end. 113. The Microphone is an instrument for increasing the in- tensity of sound. It consists of an upright piece of carbon, held between two horizontal carbon plates, which are attached to a light sounding board, or box. The horizontal pieces of carbon are with- in the circuit of an electric telephone. The upright carbon is thrown into vibrations by the impulse of the sound, which alter- nately lengthens and shortens it. This by impairing or strengthen- ing the connection of the circuit, alternately lessens and strengthens the force of the current. Corresponding to these electric changes, the membrane of the telephone vibrates and gives out sound. It is so sensitive that the walking of a fly on the sounding board, may be distinctly heard at the telephone, and the ticking of a watch sounds like blows of a hammer. 114. The Phonograph is a machine which writes sounds on a strip of tin foil and reproduces them again with great distinctness. It consists of a mouth-piece and vibrating membrane the same as the telephone, with a needle attached to the center of the membrane the vibrations of which cause the needle to make impressions in the tin foil which is rolled on a grooved cylinder made to revolve. By so adjusting the machine that the needle may retrace its path on the tin foil the membrane is set in vibration again and the sounds are given back exactly as they were received. Articulate speech as well as all other noises are reproduced with wonderful accuracy. 115. The Photophone is an invention of quite recent date. With it sounds mav be heard at a distance by means of light. Changes are produced in the electric current by means of the light falling on a plate of " selenium.' 1 '' With this exception the princi- ple is the same as in the ordinary telephone. 116. Optics treats of light. 117. Light is that mode of wave motion which affects the optic nerve producing the sensation of vision. (125). 118. When light passes through a body so as to enable objects to be seen distinctly beyond it, the body is transparent; when light passes through but not sufficient to allow the perception of objects, it is translucent; when no light passes through, it is opaque. 119. We see all objects by the light which is reflected from them. Li'dit always moves in straight lines. The angle formed 218 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARr. at the eye by the rays coming from the extremities of an object is called the visual angle. The size of the angle varies, of course, with the distance of the object. 120. Light passes from a luminous body equally in every direc- tion and travels through a medium of uniform density in straight lines. The intensity decreases inversely as the square of the distance . 121. Light moves at the rate of about 185,000 miles per second, or about 10,000 times faster than the earth moves in its orbit. 122. When a beam of light from -a luminous body falls upon the surface of an opaque bod}' a portion is reflected, and a portion absorbed. The law of reflection is the same as that of reflected motion i. e., the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflec- tion. When liglit passes from ()|lL> medium to another of different density it is refracted, or bent out of its regular course. 123. A lens is a transparent body, generally of glass, having one or two curved surfaces. Lenses are of two principal kinds, convex and concave. A convex lens converges the rays of light, or brings them to a focus at a point varying in distance according to the degree of convexity. A concave lens causes the rays of light to diverge. If the eye be placed at the point where the rays from an object are brought to a focus by a convex lens, the object will appear magnified. The convex lens may be used to converge the rays of the sun, thus becoming a burning glass. An object seen through a concave lens appears diminished. 124. If a sunbeam be passed through a prism the light is de- composed and appears as a band of seven colors, viz : violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. (If you can remember the meaningless word vib-gy-or the letters of which form the initials of the colors in their order from top to bottom, you will always rc- member the colors of the solar spectrum, as it is called). There are three classes of rays in the solar spectrum, calorific, or heat rays, colorific, or color rays, and aclinic, or chemical rays. The heat is the greatest in the red rays, the actinic power in the violet. 125. Heat is a form of vibratory molecular motion. Cold is properly the absence of heat. The molecules of matter are in constant vibration, perhaps revolving around each other in minute orbits. If this motion be increased, the body, we say, is heated, if decreased, it is cooled. All space, even that between the molecules of bodies is supposed to be tilled with a substance called ether. We are obliged to assume (he existence of this medium to carry out our theory of heat and liglit. The heat and light come to us from the sun in wave motions of this ether the molecules impinging on each other ;.s a row of bricks falling one against the other. Many facts lead us to the conclusion that heat and light are but variations of the game motion, the longer undulations producing the sensation of heat and the more rapid one's the sensation of light. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 219 126. The sources of heat are: the sun, moon and stars; mechanical action; chemical action. The greater part of the heat of our globe comes from the sun, a very minute quantity fronf the other heavenly bodies. Great heat may be developed by mechani- cal action, as friction and combustion. Count Rumford caused water to boil by the friction of metals. A blacksmith can make a piece of iron red hot by hammering, the Hint strikes lire from the steel, particles of the metal being torn off and heated to redness. Chemical action is seen in the combustion of fuel, the union of oxygen with carbon and hydrogen. 127. When a solid body is subjected to heat a part of the force- is expended in overcoming the force of cohesion and is not sensible to the touch. This is called latent heat. The other portion ele- vates the temperature and is called sensible heat. The amount of heat necessary to raise a given body one degree in temperature compared to that required to raise the same quantity of water one- degree, is called specific heat. It expresses the relation between latent and sensible heat. 128. All bodies expand under the effects of heat. The degree of expansion is directly as the amount of heat but different substan- ces expand in different degrees. All bodies contract by cold. 129. The thermometer is an instrument to measure the temper- ature by means of the expansion of mercury. Mercury freezes at 40°F., below zero; alcohol is used for very low temperatures,. The principal scales used are: Fahrenheit's, in which the space between the two fixed points, boiling and freezing is divided into 180 de- grees; the Centigrade, in which this space is divided into ioo degrees; Reaumer's, in which it is divided into So degrees. 130. Water changes from the liquid to the gaseous state, or boils at the level of the sea at a temperature of 2i2°F. As we ascend above this level the pressure of the atmosphere is less and it boils at a lower degree. (See Geysers in Phys. Geog). 131. Heat is communicated in three ways: by conduction; convection; radiation. When a solid body is heated, as a poker in the fire, the heat is conveyed from one molecule to another until it has pervaded the entire mass. This is called conduction. Different bodies have different powers of conductibiliiy. the metals being the best conductors. When gases or liquids come in contact with a heated body they become heated and rise while their places are filled by other particles until the whole mass is heated. This is called convection. Radiation is the process of heating by the transmission of rays which proceed from the heated body in straight lines. These ruys like those of light may be absorbed, reflected or refracted. 132. Electricity is a molecular force which manifests itself by the phenomena of attraction and repulsion. 220 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Authors -litlVr very much in their plan of treatment of this subject. We have followed the classification inrr, dull, opaque, massive, red, yellow or brown in color. Blood- stone and touchstone are varieties. 7. Flint, various colors, breaking with aconchoidal or shell-like fracture. 8. Hornstoue, nearly like flint but breaking with a splintering fracture. 9. Chert, dull looking, with lime as an impurity. 10. Opal, contains water in combination, little softer than other varieties of silica and soluble in a heated solution of potash, color white with reflections. 11. Bukrstone, a cellular variety, the cells formed by the partial dissolving out of the limestone, which forms a part of it. 12. Sand, and much of the gravel are composed of fragments of quartz of varying size and appearance. 9. Alumina is a compound of the simple element aluminum and oxygen. It is harder than quartz and when pure and crystal- line and blue it is the sapphire, when red the oriental ruby. Cor- undum and emery are dull colored varieties. 10. To the calcia or lime series belong the various combina- tions of the simple element calcium with other elements. Thus we have the carbonate of calcium of which there are the following varieties : — 1. Limestone, of various colors caused by impurities, but easily distin- guished by its being easily scratched with a knife, effervescing with an acid and by its peculiar odor when two pieces are struck together. There are many varieties generally named from the locality where found. 2. Iceland-spar which has the power of double refraction; dogtooth-spar and ncaUiead-spar are varieties of the crystalline form. 3. Chalk is a porous, light variety, generally white but sometimes of va- rious colors. 4. Stalactites and stalagmites, formed by dripping water, holding a carbonate of calcium in solution from roofs of caves; calcareous tufa and petrified moss formed by deposit of the same on growing moss or other vegetation. 5. Oolite, in the form of small rounded grains compacted together, resem- bling the roe of a fish. 6. Marl, mixed with clay and in a loose, friable condition. 7. Dolomite and rhomb-spar are varieties containing magnesia, sometimes called magnesian limestone. The sulphate of calcium or gypsum is softer than the carbonate, may be scratched bv the finger nail, and does not effervesce with acids. When burned it forms " plaster •■/'Paris." The varieties are satin-spar, sclenilc and alabaster. 11. Silicates are compounds of silica with other compounds. We have the following principal varieties: — 1. Fi Id -spar, not so hard as quartz, with regular cleavage in two directions nearly at right angles with each other, and does not dissolve in acids. It is a silicate of alumina with either potassium, sodium or calcium. When potassium is an ingredient it is orthoclase, when sodium, albite, when calcium, labradoriti . 2. Hornblende, black or greenish black generally. Asbestos is a fibrous variety remarkable from the fact that it may be woven into cloth which is fire- proof. 3. Talc, one of the softest of rocks, can be easily scratched with the fin- ger nail — has usual! v a greasy or soapy feel. "French cha/h," soapstone, or steatite serpentine are varieties. 4. Mica, erroneously called isinglass by some, is readily distinguished by its quality of splitting into exceedingly thin elastic plates which are transparent generally, but in a mass of considerable thickness the whole is opaque. GEOLOGT. 229 5. Tourmaline, black, red, green or white in long prisms which are 1 , 6, 9 or 12 sided and usually furrowed. 6. Clay is a mixture of finely pulverized feld-spar and quartz with some limestone, magnesia and oxide of iron. The presence of the latter causes the bricks burned from clay to be red. 12. Varieties ot" rocks arc distinguished ordinarily by the fol- lowing characters: — 1. Relative hardness ascertained by scratching one with another or with the finger nail or knife. 2. Specific gravity. 3. Cleavage. 4. Fusibility. 5. Action of acids. 6. Crystalline form. 7. Color and luster. 8. Chemical composition. (6). 13. As to manner of formation, or origin, rocks may be clas- sified as: 1. Sedimentary, or those which have been formed by the deposit of solid material in water, and usually is in layers. 2. Igne- ous, those which have been thrown to the surface in a melted state, not usually in layers; 3. Metamorphic, which have been originally sedimentary but have been altered by heat and great pressure. 14. Of sedimentary rocks we may have the following divi- sions : — 1. Sandstone, simply consolidated sand (8) sometimes mixed with ime- stone or clay when it may be : ( 1) siliceous, nearly all quartz sand ; (2) argilla- ceous, mixed with clay ;'(3) calcareous, mixed with limestone. 2. Conglomerate, gravel consolidated. As to nature of the pebbles it maybe: (1) pudding stone, rounded pebbles; (2) breccia, angular fragments. As to nature of cementing material it may be: (1) calcareous ; (2) siliceous; (3) ferruginous. 3. Shale, consolidated clay with other ingredients mixed, separated into thin layers, very fragile. "4. Limestone, frequently containing many fossils when called fossilifcr- ous; sometimes almost made up of a certain kind of fossil as crinoids, when called crinoided. 15. Igneous rocks are variously classified by authors. We will here mention only a few kinds: (1) basalt which is principally horneblende and feld-spar; (2) dolorite, almost the same but more granular, often in columns ; (3) porphyry, consisting of compact feld- spar with crystals of the same through it; (4) amygdaloid, cellular, resembling almonds; (5) trachyte, rough, porous; (6) lava, matter from volcanoes, with following varieties: (1) scoria, very porous and light; (2) pumice stone lengthened cavities caused by running of the lava stream; (3) obsidian, glassy and solid. (See Physical Geography). 16. The most important metamorphic rocks are: — 1. Granite, which is composed of feld-spar quartz and mica in varying proportions. When feld-spar predominates it is called feldsfathxc granite, when quartz, quartzose, and when mica, micaceous. Sometimes the different ingredi- ents are in large masses so that while the entire rock would be called granite, small fragments could be broken out representing pure specimens respectively of quartz, feld spar and mica. Again the fragments of each may be so small and so intimately mixed as to seem almost a homogeneous mass. •230 TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LIU MART. i. Gneiss is similar to granite except that the ingredients are arranged in layers, giving it stratification. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them, however, as they grade into each other insensibly. 3. Syenite differs from granite in that horneblende takes the place of mica. Much of that which is called granite by builders is really syenite, "Quincv granite " being an example. .(. Mica Schist is composed mostly of mica in small scales, with some quartz and sometimes feld-spar. Mica schist and micaceous granite thus grade into each 01 her. 5. Marble is limestone changed by heat and pressure. It isoften colored bv oxides of iron and presents a beautiful, mottled appearance. Such is the '• Tennessee marble" 6. Slate is metamorphosed clay or shale. Talcosc schist, chlorite schist are also metamorphic rocks of the slaty variety. 17. As to structure, rocks are stratified or unstratified. A few definitions are here necessary. A stratum is a collection of layers of one kind of rock, varying in thickness from a few inches to hundreds of feet. A number of strata which were formed at the same time and having a general similarity as to fossil remains, is called a formation. Geologists, however, are not uniform in their use of this term. Strata are horizontal, vertical, inclined or con- torted. The angle which an inclined strata makes with the horizon is called the dip. It is by means of this angle and the extent along the surface that the thickness of inclined strata may be calculated. Vertical cracks or fissures in rocks often occur and the strata on one side may slip down so that the twosidesdo not correspond. This is called a fault. Concretions are rounded masses of rock sometimes with layers like the coats of an onion. They are formed by the tendency of matter to collect around a center, the nucleus some- times being a fossil plant or animal. Geodes are peculiar concre- tions containing crystals generally of quartz, sometimes hollow con- taining loose grains or crystals, and sometimes the cavity contains water. Veins and dikes are fissures in rocks which have been filled with material in a melted state. Veins are filled with quartz, metallic ores, calcareous spar, etc. Dikes are filled with volcanic matter or other igneous rocks. Veins containing metallic ores are called lodes. 18. As we may divide the history of the U. S. into periods or divisions based upon certain great events or changes, so we may divide the history of the earth's crust. Thus we may classify rocks as to time of formation. The first grand divisions of Geologic history are called Times. Times arc divided again into Ages, ages into Periods, and periods into Epochs, epochs sometimes into Groups. These are all marked by differences in animal and vege- table remains, and by difference in kinds of rocks. This book of Nature is a hard one to read. The lines are not plainly drawn between these divisions. Strata were not formed over the earth at the same time nor under the same conditions and great convulsions have from time to time disturbed the order, as shown by the strata GEOLOGY. 231 being inclined, set up vertically and even turned completely over so that the oldest rocks lie on top of the later formations. A number of facts must be considered in determining the age of rocks, but the principal one to be relied upon is the nature of the fossil remains. The study of Paleontology then, is necessary to the study of Geology. 19. We have not space here to discuss the Nebular Hypothe- sis but according to its demands there was a time when the earth was in a gaseous state, then cooled to a liquid and finally to a solid shell or crust enclosing a molten mass and covered with an ocean of water too warm for animal or vegetable life. By further cool- ing and contracting, portions of the solid nucleus beneath were elevated above the water. This first land was of course without life. So the oldest rocks have been called Azoic, without life. New discoveries are almost constantly being made and life has been traced much further than was formerly supposed, and at present we know not exactly where to draw the lines. The term Archaean has lately been applied to include what was formerly called the Azoic time. The next grand division is called the Paleozoic Time. Next going up in the scale we have the Mesozoic Time and lastly the Cenozoic Time. Thus we have four grand divisions of Geolo- gic history based upon the development of life. 20. The rocks of the Archaean time are supposed to be the foundation of the earth's crust, underlying all others but covered so deeply by later formations that they cannot be seen except at a few points where they " crop out" and form the surface rocks. In North America they form a V shaped tract extending from the great lakes to Labrador and the Arctic Ocean. (See maps in any good text-book). The rocks of this division are generally granite, gneiss, marble, etc., being mostly metamorphic showing that they were not the original crust but washings deposited in the ocean bed changed by the internal heat and upheaved and mingled with vol- canic material from the internal molten mass. That life existed is probable from the existence of such rocks as limestone, graphite, iron, silica, etc., which are shown in marry cases to be of organic origin. The first life must have been vegetable since the animal sub- sists upon the vegetable, but whatever existed it was of the lowest form. The Eozodn Canadctise is the oldest, or first form of life that has been identified by its remains. It is supposed to be an animal of the class Rhizopods of a very low order. This time has been divided into two ages, the Azoic and Eozoic, but as the exact point where life began has not been determined, the line can- not be definitelv drawn. Two distinct periods have been recognized and are frequently referred to by geologists as Laurentian and Huronian. As the Eozoic Age is not definitelv fixed we cannot siv that these periods are divisions of this age, but simply conven- ient terms for describing formations which differ in their arrange- ment and kinds of rock. 232 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 21. The Paleozoic Time is divided into three ages marked by characteristic forms of life. They are the •Silurian, the Devonian and the Carboniferous. 22. The Silurian Age or age of mollusks has for conven- ience been divided into the Upper Silurian and Lower Silurian, which may be considered as sub-ages. Each of these have been divided into periods. The rocks of this age crop out or form the surface rocks in most of the interior States, especially in New York, Ohio, Indiana, Missouri and along the borders of the Archaean rocks in Canada, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The kinds of rock are various, consisting of immense beds of limestone, sand- stone, shales, marl, millstone grit, etc. Many of them are abundant in fossils representing the sub-kingdoms, Protozoa, Radiata, Mol- lusca and Articulata. Vertebrata represented by some very low forms of fishes make their appearance only in the upper part of the Upper Silurian. The vegetable kingdom is represented by sea- weeds and some lower forms of land plants. The most interesting fossil perhaps is the Trilobite, an articulate, several species of which are found in a very perfect state of preservation. The eves in some species are so perfectly preserved as. to show their compound nature like the eyes of most insects of the present daw There are no living representatives of this order. 23. The Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes, comes next to the Silurian. It forms the surface rocks in New York, where it has been particularly studied and the periods named, and in Ohio, Indiana, and most of the northern interior States. Limestones, sandstones and shales principally compose the formations. Much valuable building material is obtained from the Devonian limestone and sandstone. Petroleum is frequently found in the rocks of the carboniferous period. Fossils of all the sub-kingdoms are found, but the age is especially noted for the number of fossil fishes. Insects first make their appearance in this age. Higher forms of land plants also appear. 24. The third or upper division of the Paleozoic Time is called the Carboniferous Age, or Age of Coal Plants. These rocks come to the surface over a large part of the I . S., the principal regions being from .Southern New York, through Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee and Alabama, on both sides of the Mississippi R., in parts of Indiana, Illinois, Missouri and Iowa, with isolated regions in Michigan and Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. The rocks are mostly limestone and sandstone, with seams or beds of coal varying in thickness from that of a sheet of paper to p> feet. The presence of coal, together with the evidence of its being of vegetable origin, and the immense number of fossil plants found, warrant us in concluding that at this stage of the earth's history vegetation flourished in much greater luxuriance than now. The principal bulk of coal is carbon, which is also the GEO LOOT. 233 principal constituent of all vegetable structures. Plants get carbon from the carbonic oxide of the air. It is evident, then, that the at- mosphere of this time was heavily loaded with this gas, and that only lower forms of animals could exist, and this we find to be true, as remains of higher forms do not appear until in later formations. The sub-kingdoms of animal life are all represented, but there are no large forms, and most of the life belongs to the water-. 25. The Mksozoic Time comprises but one age, the Age of Reptiles, which is divided into three periods, Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous. The two former are not well separated in the U. S. They appear in the Atlantic States and in the Rocky Mt. region, the rocks consisting mostly of sandstone. The fossils are charac- teristic and wonderful. Immense forms, half reptile and half bird, sported in the waters or flapped through the air. Birds and mammals make their appearance for the first. The Cretaceous rocks appear along the Atlantic coast, in Texas and on the eastern slopes of the Rockv Mts. They are mostly limestone and sand- stone in this country, but in England immense beds of chalk occur. The " marl beds " of New Jersey belong to this period. The fossils are similar to the Triassic and Jurassic, many strange reptilian forms occurring. 26. The Cenozoic Time, the last grand division of Geologic history, is divided into two ages, the Tertiary, or Age of Mammals, and the Quaternary, or Age of Man. The rocks of the Tertiary Age appear on the borders of the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific in North America, and consist principally of marine and fresh water deposits, forming beds of sand, clay, marl, and sometimes sandstone, limestone and buhrstone, and lignite or car- bonized wood, and in Colorado, Utah, California and some other places valuable beds of coal. The strange and huge reptilian forms now give place to immense mammalian species which reach their greatest size in the Quaternary. The Mastodon, Mammoth, and others of that type existed just previous to the advent of man, in fact claimed by some to be contemporary with primitive man. 27. The term drift is employed to designate the immense de- posits of sand, gravel, clay and boulders or loose rocks which exist over a great part of the American continent. The origin of this material is referred to a " Glacial Period" when from some cause a change of climate caused immense masses of ice, either in the form of icebergs or glaciers, to plow their way over the continent, bringing the material from the Archaean beds and depositing it over the existing formations, and at the same time scoring and groov- ing the underlying rocks. It is our pin pose here only to call atten- tion to this interesting question, not having the space to explain further. We would refer the student to his text-book on Geology for arguments and facts concerning the " Glacial Period." 234 TEACHERS' AXD STUDENTS' LIBRARY. HIXTS TO THE TEACHER. 28. It will be best to begin the study of Geology with a study of the inorganic constituents of rocks, and continue until the pupil is somewhat familiar with the principal kinds of rocks which may be gathered by the pupils, or which may be found in the cabinet of the institution. 29. Pupils should have the privilege of handling and testing the specimens in various ways, as by scratching with a knife, ap- plying acids, etc., and be taught to distinguish them by these tests and by general appearance, as cleavage, reflection, transmission and refraction of light, by color, specific gravity, etc. In no other way will pupils acquire a practical knowledge of the composition of rocks. 30. Excursions to fields, quarries, streams, etc., for the purpose of collecting specimens and observing natural formations, should be of frequent occurrence. There is scarcely a place in the U. S. where " drift " material is not abundant, and from which cabinets of from 25 to 50 specimens may be obtained, showing the many varieties of quartz and other igneous rocks, while in all mountain- ous and hilly regions there are many minerals which may be col- lected by the pupils. Each pupil should be encouraged to secure a cabinet of his own gathering, which lie may afterward enlarge by exchanges and purchases. 31. The teacher may illustrate the divisions of Geologic his- tory and the inclinations, breaking up, folding and divisions of strata, by means of books laid on top of each other in various posi- tions, and by folding the leaves of a book. 32. Geology may be taught to a certain extent incidentally with Geography, and as a general exercise for the whole school by means of brief lectures, accompanied with questions, exhibitions of specimens, etc. Children in country schools will take delight in collecting specimens and bringing them to the teacher. A school cabinet may be formed in this way, by successive teachers, which will be of great value. The various ores of iron, copper, lead and silver, and varieties of coal, marble and building rocks should form a part of every school cabinet. Many of tjiese may be obtained by exchanges between teachers, pupils and others. QUESTIONS OX GEOLOGY. i. Define Geology. 2. What is rock in a Geologic sense? Define petri- faction; fossil. 3. What is meant by ultimate and proximate elements; define and illustrate each. 4. Of what is "the greater part of the bulk of the earth made up? 5. Of what is a greater portion of the solid part of the earth com- posed : 6. Classify rocks as to composition. 7. What are the characteristics of silica? What is quartz? s. Name six varieties of silica. Describe rock crys- tal, chalcedony, amethyst, jasper, flint, hornstone, chert, opal and buhrstone. BOTAN1". 235 9. Name and describe the rocks of the alumina series. 10. Describe lime- stone, Iceland-spar, chalk, stalactites, stalagmites, petrified moss, oolite and marl. What is gypsum? What is the origin of "plaster of Paris?" What is ala- baster? Selenite? 11. Describe feld-spar, hornblende, talc, mica, tourmaline, and state the se- ries to which they belong? 12. How distinguish rocks? 13. Classify rocks as to mode of formation. 14. Name the kinds of sedimentary rocks. 15. Name the kinds of igneous rocks. 16. Granite? Gneiss? Syenite? Micaschist? Marble? Slate? 17. Define the following terms: Stratum, strata, formation, fault, concretion, geode, dip, dike, lode, vein. 18. Classify rocks as to time of formation. Define paleontology. How de- termine the age of rocks? 19. What does the nebular hypothesis demand? 20. Describe the Archaean Time. What is the oldest known form of life? 21. What are the divisions of the Paleozoic Time? 22. Silurian Age, loca- tion, kinds of rocks and fossils? 2}. Devonian Age? When do insects first appear? What is the Age of Fishes? 24. Where is coal mostly found? What is the origin of coal? What evidence have we that plants flourished most lux- uriantly during the Carboniferous Age? 25. When was chalk formed? When do birds first appear ? What charac- terized the Mesozoic Time? 26. In what age lived the largest animals? When did man appear? 27. What is drift? — i0i — BOTANY. 4 5 As to Divisions. 3 4 Modifications. I 5 Branches. 2 5 Buds. 3 5 Leaves. 4 5 Flowers. 5 5 Fruit. GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE PLANT. [See Note to Outline of Physiology] The plant. ii Parts. (Organography). i 2 Main Axis. i 3 Descending. (Root). 1* Parts. 2* Kinds. i 5 As to Mode of Develop- ment. 2 1 Structure. (Anatomy). 2 5 As to Situation. 1 2 Organic Basis. (Cell). 3 5 As to Physical and 2 2 Tissues. Chemical Properties. 3 2 Types of Structure. 3* Uses. 3 ] Functions. (Physiology). 2 3 Ascending Axis. (Stem). i 2 Germination. 1* Parts. 2 2 Fertilization. 2* Kinds. 3 2 Absorption. 1 5 As to Mode of Develop- 4 2 Circulation, ment. 5 2 Respiration. 2 5 As to Position. o 2 Transpiration. 3 s As to Situation. 4 1 Classifications. BOTANY. 1. Botany is the science of the vegetable kingdom, and includes, a systematic knowledge of the forms, organs, intimate structures growth, history, classification and uses of plants. 886 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 2. Naturalists have not been able to draw tbe line between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, so closely do they seem to grade together, and as it were, overlap each other. Lindley's definition of a plant is at least approximately true. He says: "A plant is a cellular body, possessing vitality, living by absorption through its outer surface, ami secreting starch." It is, however, claimed by later scientists that some of the lower animal forms secrete starch. 3. The flower is the collection of organs which directly or in- directly contribute to the process of reproduction by seed. It may consist of essential and non-essential organs. 4. The outer whorl, or circle of Leaves, generally green,* sometimes colored, separate, or united into a ring or cup, is called the calyx. Its diyisions are called sepals. 5. The inner whorl, or circle of leaves, separate, or united, usually colored, is called the corolla. Its divisions are called petals. 6. If there be but one whorl, it is always the calyx, that is, there maybe a calyx without a corolla, but there cannot be a corolla without a calyx. Both calyx and corolla may be wanting. The calyx and corolla together are called the perianth, or floral enve- lopes. They are not directly concerned in the production of the seed, but are only for protection of the other organs, hence they are called non-essential organs. 7. The thread-like organs varying in number from one to a hundred or more, situated just within the perianth, are called sta- mens. Taken together they are sometimes called the andrecium. The thread-like portion of the stamen is called the filament. It is non-essential, and sometimes wanting. The anther consists of a closed sac divided into cells and containing a fine yellow dust called pollen. The use of the pollen is to fertilize the embryo seeds. When the filament which is but the stalk of the anther, is wanting, the anther is said to be sessile. 8. The organs which occupy the center of the flower compris- ing the fourth whorl, are called pistils. Taken together they are called the gynecium. A complete pistil is composed of the ovary, style and stigma. The ovary is a closed case containing the embryo seeds, or ovules. The style is the thread-like portion which when present bears the stigma on its end. The stigma is the tip, or ex- tremity of the style or of the ovary when the style is wanting. The use of the ovary is to bear the embryo seeds (ovules) where they are fertilized by the pollen from the anther falling on the stigma and penetrating the ovary through the style. 9. Flowers vary greatly in the number, form and position of their parts, but in all flowers the four whorls, or sets of organs, al- ways maintain the same relative position with regard to each other and the central axis. The whorls may be compared to the parts of *In Botany the term color means any color (including white) except «reen BOTANT. 2:37 :i wagon wheel, the pistil or jjistils representing the hub, the sta- mens the spokes, the corolla the felloes, and the calyx the tire. There is, however, this difference, the parts in the typical flower are attached to the central axis and not to each other as in the wheel. Any one of these parts may be wanting or they may be united to each other, but their relative position is always the same. Flowers are thus said to be constructed according to a certain definite plan, carried out with greater or less accuracy as to detail. A flower which represents this plan completely, is called a typical flower. 10. The typical flower must be: (1] complete, having the four sets of organs arranged in concentric circles; (2) perfect, having both kinds of essential organs; (3) regular, having the parts of each set of the same shape and size; (4) symmetrical, having the same number of parts in each set; (5) alternating, having the several parts of each set stand alternating in position to the parts of the next set; (6) distinct, having all parts disconnected. 11. The torus, or receptacle, is the end of the flower stalk on which the parts of the flower rest, sometimes called the axis of the flower. 12. The variations from the type have been classified as follows : — I. Incomplete, deficient in respect to floral envelopes. 1. Corolla wanting, apetalous, or monochlamydeous. 2. Calyx and corolla wanting, naked, or achlamydeous II. Imperfect, deficient in respect to essential organs. 1. Pistils wanting, staminate, or sterile. 2. Stamens wanting, pistillate, or fertile. Remark. — When staminate and pistillate flowers are found ou the same plant, it is called monoecious. When on different plants of same species, dioecious. When either dioecious or monoecious, the term diclinous is used. 3. Pistils and stamens both wanting, neutral. III. Irregular, when the parts of each set are unlike in size or in form. The almost infinite variety in the forms of flowers is due to the modifications of form and size in special parts. IV. Unsymmetrical. — The typical flower has the same number of parts in each set. Whatever the number may be it is called the radical number. It is expressed by the term, or signs as follows: (1) dimerous, two parted; (2) trimerou', three parted, etc. Any variations from this number in any of the whorls make the flower unsymmetrical. V. Organs opposite, those of one whorl standing opposite to those of the next. VI. Cohesion, the parts of the same whorl united. 1. Sepals united, monosepalous. 2. Petals united, monopetalous or gamopetalous. 3. Stamens united. (a) In one set, monadelphous. (b) In two sets, diadelphous. (c) In many sets, polydelphous. (d) By their anthers, svngenecious. 4. Pistils united, compound pistil, divisions called carpels. VII. Adhesion, the parts of one whorl united with the parts of another whorl. 2:'.s TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 1. Hypogynous, a term denoting that the organs are inserted on the receptacle at the hase of the ovary. In this case there are no adhesions, but the parts are said to be free. 2. Perigynous, the stamens, corolla and calyx united in a cup or tube around the free ovary. The calyx and corolla are apparently one up to a certain point and the stamens appear to grow out of the cup formed bv the calyx and corolla. 3- Epigynous, all the organs united to the ovary to its top making them appear a> it" they were inserted on the ovary, as in the'apple and pear. 4. The terms " calyx superior," " ovary inferior,"" ovary adherent," "calyx adherent," all mean the same as " calyx epigynous" The terms " calyx inferior," " calyx free," "ovary superior," " ovary free," all mean the same as "calyx hypogynous." These terms are used frequently in analysis. 13. The characteristic forms of the perianth are as follows: I. Regular polypetalous. 1. Cruciform, cross-shaped, four petals with long claws placed at right angles to each other, as in mustard and cabbage. 2. Caryophvlaceous, pink-like, having five petals with long erect claws and spreading blade. 3. Rosaceous, rose-like, having five petals with short claws, corolla open. 4. Liliaceous, lily-like, six divisions, but little or no distinction be- tween sepals and petals. II. Irregular polypetalous. 1. Papilionaceous, butterfly-like, having five petals, dissimilar, the upper and outer being largest called the banner or vexillium, the two side petals called wings or alae, the two lower often partly united called the keel or carinum. Example, the Pea, Locust and Clover. 2. Orchidaceous, irregular, 6ix-parted and variously deformed, peculiar to the order Orchidaceae. III. Regular gamopetalous. 1. Rotate, wheel-shaped, star-shaped, a short tube with spreading border. 2. Cup-shaped, concave border. 3. Campanulate, bell-shaped, the tube widening rapidly at bottom and more gradually in the border 4. Infundibuliform, funnel-shaped, tube gradually enlarging to the top as in the morning-glory. 5. Urceolate, urn-shaped, globular or oblong with a narrow opening. 6. Salver-form, tube nearly even, with border joined at aright angle. 7. Tubular, spreading slightly or not at all at the border, as in Honeysuckle. IV. Irregular gamopetalous. 1. Labiate, lip-shaped. (a) Galeate, orhelmeted, upper lip concave as in Catnip. (b) Ringent, or gaping-throat or mouth wide open. (c) Personate, or masked throat closed as in Snapdragon. 2. Ligulate, strap-shaped, as If a tubular corolla were split open on one side and spread out as in some of the compositae. V. Reduced forms. 1. Pappus hair-like calyx of compositae and some other orders. 2. Setae, bristles, the reduced perianth of the sedges. 14. Certain terms are used to denote the varying duration of the perianth as follows: — 1. Caduceous, falling off immediately. 2. Deciduous, falling off with the stamens. BOTAXi: 239 3. Persistent, remaining on until the fruit ripens. 4. Accrescent, continuing to grow after flowering. 5. Marescent, withering without falling oft". 15. The following terms are used to denote certain appendages of some flowers. 1. Spurs, tubular processes projecting from petals or other organs, as in Larkspur. 2. Scales, smafl, flat appendages attached to the inner side of the corolla as in the Buttercup. 3. Crown, a circle of conspicuous scales having the appearance of a crown and sometimes attached to the stamens. 16. The term inflorescence denotes the arrangement of the flowers and their position on the plant. The peduncle is the stalk of the flower and may be either simple or compound. Pedicels are the branches of a compound peduncle each bearing a single flower. The main axis, or stem of a compound peduncle is called the rachis. The scape is a flower stalk which springs from a subterranean stem. Bracts are small modified leaves on the peduncle, or scape. Bract- lets are still smaller modified leaves growing on the pedicles. A spathe is a large bract completely enveloping the flowers as in In- dian Turnip. An itivolucre is a whorl of bracts beneath the flower, sometimes mistaken for a calyx. An involucel is an involucre situ- ated on the pedicel. Chaff is the general name for the bracts of the grasses. Glumes are the larger bracts at the base of a spikelet of flowers in the grasses, corresponding to an involucre. Pales are small bracts at the base of each flower in the grasses. If the pe- duncle is wanting the flower is called sessile. 17. The various forms of inflorescence may be arranged un- der two general heads : ( 1 ) Axillary, Centripetal, or Indefinite ; (2) Terminal, Centrifugal, or Definite. In the first case the main stem, or axis being terminated by a leaf-bud continues growing, de- veloping flowers in the axils of bracts. The flowering commenc- ing with the circumference of the flower cluster and proceeding to the central, or terminal bud, is called centripetal. In the second case, the central axis is terminated by a flower, the blossoming pro- ceeding from the center outward, hence called centrifugal. 18. Of axillary inflorescence we may have the following kinds: — - 1. Spike, a long axis or rachis with scattered, clustered or crowded ses- sile flowers as in Mullein, Plantain. 2. Spikelets, the branches of a compound spike, as in wheat and others of the Grass family. 3. Spadix, flowers closely arranged on a thick, fleshy rachis sometimes with a spathe (16) enveloping it as in Indian Turnip. 4. Catkin, or Ament, slender spikes, pendant with scaly bracts as in Oak and Willow. 5. Raceme, the same as a spike, except the flowers are on pedicels as in the Currant. 240 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 6. Corvmb, a raceme with the lower pedicels lengthened, making all the flowers stand at nearly the same height. It may be simple or compound. 7. Umbel, when several pedicels of nearly equal length proceed from a common center, giving the appearance of an umbrella. The pedicels may themselves become umbels producing a compound umbel, the primary pedicels then called rays, and the secondary umbels, umbellets. 8. Head, a kind of compact umbel, the flowers all sessile on the end of the stem as in the Clover and Compositae. 9. Panicle, an irregular, loose flower cluster, as in Oats. 10. Thrvse, a compact, pyramidal panicle, as in the Grape. 19. Of terminal inflorescence we may have the following : — 1. Cyme, a level-topped or convex flower cluster, resembling the corymb except that the flowers are centrifugal, as in the Elder. 2. Fascille, a modified cyme with the flowers crowded and almost ses- sile, as in the Sweet William. 3. Glomerule, a more compact cluster or sort of head, axillary, with centrifugal evolutions as in many of the Labiatae. When they meet round the stem in the axils of opposite leaves they form a verticil or verticillaster. 20. The fruit is the perfected ovary. It consists of the pericarp and the seed. The seeds are the perfected ovules and are embryos of the future plant. The pericarp is the envelope of the seeds or the perfected walls of the ovary. The divisions are called carpels. The pericarp does not always completely enclose the seeds, plants of the pine kind and some other being exceptions. 21. The pericarp may be dry, when it is either membranous, coriaceous, or woody; or it may be succulent, or juicy as in the grape, peach, etc. It consists of three parts, the external layer or coat called the epicarp, the middle, the sarcocarp and the inner, the cu- docarp, e.g. in the peach the skin is the epicarp, the flesh the sarco- carp and the stone which encloses the kernel, the endocarp. These p;rrts are not always apparent, significant, however, as showing the analogy between the pericarp and a leaf 22. The opening of the pericarp to discharge the seed is called dehiscence. Some pericarps do not discharge their seeds, the latter being liberated only by the decay of the pericarp, or by its bursting in germination. Such are said to be indehiscent. The following- are the modes of dehiscence : — I. Valvular, opening vertically, regularly and either wholly or partially around the axis, forming several pieces called valves. Of these we have four varieties as follows: 1. Sutural, at the sutures of a one-celled or simple pericarp. 2. Septicidal, when the separation is between the carpels of a com- pound ovary. The carpels may then open separately or remain indehiscent. 3. Loculicidal, when each carpel opens at its back into the cell. 4. Septifragal, when the valves come away from a compound ovary leaving the partitions (dissepiments) or inner walls of the carpels remaining. 11. Porous, as in the Poppy where the seeds are disciiarged by means of orifice^ at the top of the pericarp. III. Cfrcumscissili , when the whole top of the ovary comes off like the lid of a box. In Jefiersonia (Twin Leal; it takes place only half around the fruit. BOTANY. 241 23. The pericarp assumes a great variety of forms. The fol- lowing outline exhibits the principal types: — I. IndeMscent pericarps. i. Aohenium, small, dry, one- seeded pericarp, free from the seed and tipped wi'h the remains of the style, as in the Anemone. They are some- times mistaken for seeds. The strawberry is an example of achenia inserted in a fleshy receptacle. 2. Utricle, small, thin pericarp fitting cmite loosely to the one seed. 3. Caryopsis, the pericarp of the grasses, thin, dry", inseparable from the seed. 4. Samara, thin, dry, papery, one-seeded, with membranous wings as in the Maple and Elm. 5. Glans, as the Acorn, Hazelnut, Beechnut and Chestnut. 6. Drupe, stone fruit as Cherry and Peach. 7. Try ma, a dry-like drupe as the Hickorynut and Butternut. 8. Etario, numerous small drupes united to each other as in Rasp- berry or to a fleshy receptacle as Blackberry. 9. Berry, as the Grape, Currant and Gooseberry. 10. Hesperidium, as the Lemon and Orange. 11. Pepo, the Melon and Pumpkin. 12. Pome, Apple, Pear, Haw, etc. II. Dehiscent pericarp:,. 13. Pyxis, many-seeded dry pericarp with circumscissile dehiscence, as Jeflersonia and Plantain. 14. Follicle, single carpel one-celled, many-seeded opening at ventral suture, Larkspur and Columbine. 15. Legume, Pea and Bean, variety the Loment, jointed pod sepa- rating across into one-seeded portions. 16. Silique, a two-celled pod as in Mustard. Siltcle is a short, wide siligue, both peculiar to the order Cruciferae. 17. Capsule, opening by as many valves as there are carpels, by twice as many as by pores. 18. Regma, carpels separating elastically. 19. Stroble or cone, as Pine, etc. 20. Sorosis, as Mulberry, Osage Orange and Pineapple. 24. The seed consists of a kernel and coverings. The outer covering is called the testa. It varies in diiferent phints, being membranous, leathery, bony, horny, woody or fleshy, and some- times clothed with long hairs, as in the cotton plant, sometimes winged, as in catalpa. The inner coat is thin and delicate, called the tegumen, and is often scarcely to be distinguished from the testa. The aril or arillus is an occasional investment or appendage. It is a growth from the seed stalk. The celastrus and envoymus and the mace of the nutmeg are examples. The hilum is the scar left where the seed separates from i its stalk. The kernel is composed of embryo, or embryo and albumen. The former is the rudiment of the future plant. It is sometimes called the germ. The latter consists mostly of starchy matter, and is designed as a store of nourishment to be used in germination. The embryo consists of the cotyledons, plumule and radical parts, which will be noticed under the subject of Germination, 25. The leaf is the organ of digestion and respiration in the 16 242 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. plant, and may be considered as a development from the bark. The leaf may consist of the blade or lamina, which is the expanded portion, the petiole or leaf stalk, and the sti pules, which are leaf- like appendages at the base of the petiole. These parts are subject to almost infinite variation, either part being wanting or trans- formed into spines, tendrils, etc., or parts. of the flower. In structure the leaf is a framework of veins and intervening tissue called par- tnchym, and covered on both sides with an epidermis. 26. Venation is a term used to denote the arrangement of the framework of leaves. There are three principal modes of venation, which are each characteristic of grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom : — 1. Reticulate, or Net-veined. (The Exogens.) 2. Parallel-veined. (The Endogens.) 3. Forked-veined. (The Ferns, etc.) Of the net-veined leaves we may notice two principal forms, the pinnatrly- veined and the palmately -veined. 27. The forms of leaves are almost infinite, yet they may he reduced to a few general types. The general form of the leaf is determined by the arrangement of the veins. The compound leaf may be considered as arising from a want of development of the tissue between the veins, thus cutting the leaf into parts. When this development is only partial, we have the lobed, cut, parted, etc., to simple leaves. 28. The arrangement of leaves upon the stem is worthy of particular notice. The study of leaf arrangement is called p/iyllo- taxy. When leaves grow from the stem at or beneath the surface of the earth, they are called radical/ when upon the stem above the ground, eattliiie; when they are placed one above the other on opposite sides, they are alternate/ when two are set against each other, they are opposite; when more than two are opposed around the stem, they are verticillate or whorled. The general law of ar- rangement seems to be that of the spiral. 29. Some very interesting particular laws respecting this spiral arrangement have been pointed out by Braun, a German naturalist. For example, in the elm and many others, t he 3d leaf is placed im- mediately over the 1st, the 4th over the 2d, and so on. This makes a cycle, which he expresses by the fraction 14, the numerator de- noting the revolutions, the denominator the number of leaves in each, and the fraction the angular distance between the leaves — /. e. Y 2 of 360 . In the birch and others this fraction is 1 j : iu the cherry, apple, etc., it is | ; in Osage orange and others, 3/£. These fractions form a scries in which the terms of each are equal to the sum of the corresponding terms of the two preceding. The next then would be ^ =| s , which is the cycle of the cones of most of the pines. The next, fa is represented in the house leek and Scotch pine. BOTANY. 243 30. Buds arc the rudiments of stems or branches. They con- sist of a number of scales overlapping each other and enclosing a tender, cone-shaped axis, which develops into a stem or branch, hearing leaves or flowers. In respect to their contents, we have leaf buds and Jlower buds. In respect to their situation, we have axillary and terminal buds. The axillary buds may be active or latent. If terminal buds only grow while axillary all remain latent, we have the simple straight stem without branches. If the axillary buds grow, we have the branching stem. Accessory buds are sometimes formed immediately above the axillary, and buds some- times appear at any place along the stem, or even from leaves. These are generally caused by accident — that is, when the terminal buds are destroyed, as in pruning. These accidental buds are called adventitious. 31. Vernation is a term employed to denote the mode of fold- . ing and arrangement of the leaves in the bud. The arrangement and folding of the floral envelopes in the bud is called aestivation. As the flower is but a modified leaf, nearly the same arrangement is found and similar terms are employed in describing them. The forms of vernation are: — I. As to folding of each separate leaf. i. Conduplicate, when folded perpendicularly, with lateral halves face to face. 2. Plicate, or plaited, like a fan. 3. Circinate, coiled from apex downward. 4. Convolute, rolled up from one side or twisted. 5. Involute, both edges rolled in. 6. Revolute, both edges rolled out. II. As to folding of leaves together. 1. Valvate, edges meeting, fitting closely. 2. Intricate, edges overlapping like shingles on a roof " breaking joints." 1. Equitant, riding astride, conduplicate leaves alternately embracing. 2. Obvolute, half equitant, the outer leaf embracing only one of the margins of the other. 3. Triquitrous, bud triangular in cross section and leaves equitant at each angle, as in sedges. 32. The leaf is subject to various transformations, or modifi- cations, a few of which we shall notice: — 1. Scales of underground stems and those which cover the buds in win- ter are undoubtedly modified leaves. 2. Cotyledons, or seed lobes. 3. Ascidia, or pitchers. 4. Tendrils. 5. Spines, or thorns. 6. Bracts. 33. The leaf, as we have seen, is a modified form of the stem, and the flower is but a modification of the leaf. This is called by botanists, metamorphosis. A gradual change maybe noticed from the leaf to the bract, from bracts to sepals, from sepals to petals, 244 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. petals to stamens and stamens to pistils. In so-called double flowers the stamens and pistils revert to petals. Such flowers will of course produce no seed, and they are sometimes called monstros- ities, because unnatural. 34. The central or substantial portion of the plant is called the axis. The part which bears buds, which produce branches, leaves and Howers, tends upward in its growth and is generally, but not always, mostly above ground, is called the ascending axis or stem. The part which forms the basis or support of the plant does not bear buds, tends downward in its growth, and usually beneath the ground, is called the descending axis or root. 35. One distinguishing character of the stem is the jointed ap- pearance produced by the places where the leaves are developed. These definite positions where leaves appear with a bud in their axils are called nodes. They occur at more or less regular inter- vals and give symmetry to the stem and branches. The spaces be- tween the nodes are called internodes. The growth of the stem is then simply the enlargement of the internodes. In the bud there is no appreciable space between the nodes. A stem may be then considered as simply an elongated bud. The root has no buds, consequently no nodes or internodes, but its branches proceed irreg- ularly from the axis, or it simply divides and subdivides itself. 36. Stems may be divided into two general classes, scale stems and leaf stems. The former have only partially or unde- veloped internodes, generally remain under the ground, and do not bear leaves, but have scales instead. The latter have fully devel- oped internodes, are always above ground, and bear leaves and branches, flowers and fruit. 37. The principal forms of scale stems are: — i. Creeper, running prostrate on the ground or just beneath it, rooting at every node and sending up erect stems from its terminal buds, as the Witch- grass and Peppermint. 2. Rhizome, shorter and thicker than the creeper, with partially devel- oped internodes, mostly wholly subterranean, as the Calamus and Water-lily. 3. Tuber, a thickened, fleshy portion of a scale stem, subterranean, hav- ing numerous latent buds (eyes), as the potato. 4. Corm, a solid, subterranean, bulbous stem, the nourishment stored up in the axis, condensed internodes at the top, roots proceeding from the bot- tom, as in Indian Turnip. 5. Bulb, may be considered a large underground bud, the nourishment being s'tored up in the scales, which are very thick anil numerous. Examples, the Onion and Lily. 38. The principal forms of leaf stems are: — 1. Caulis, the annular, aria) stem of herbaceous plants. 2. Culm, the stem <>t" grasses and Bedges, generally hollow and jointed. 3. Trunk, the stem of trees. 4. Vine, woody or herbaceous, trailing or climbing by twining or by tendrils. BOTANT. 345 39. Stems may be: (i) as to position: (a) erect, rising per- pendicularly ; (b) procumbent, prostrate, or trailing, when lying flat on tbe ground; (c) decumbent, rising at base, then bending to the ground; (d) ascending, rising obliquely; (e) subterranean; (2) as to situation: (a) subterranean ; (b) serial. (3) as to divi- sions: (a) simple; (b) branched. 40. The following terms are used to denote parts of branches used in propagation: — 1. Sucker, a branch issuing from an underground stem, having roots of its own, and when separated becomes a distinct plant. 2. Stolon, or Layer, a branch which bends over and taking root in the ground, sends up new branches. Some plants do this naturally ; in others the branch is buried bv the nurseryman. 3. Cion, a twig with one or more buds, used in the process of grafting. 4. Slip, or Cutting, a portion of a branch which, when placed in the ground, takes root and becomes an independent plant. 5. Runner, a branch which runs on the ground and takes root at its extremity, as in the strawberry. 41. The root is the principal organ of nutrition in plants and serves to hold the plant in position. The part where the root joins the stem is called the collum, the ends of the fibers or rootlets are called spongioles, being the organs of absorption. They are de- veloped when the leaves are, and perish when the latter fall off*. 42. Roots are divided as to their mode of development into Axial and Inaxial, the former consisting of a central axis continu- ing downward called the tap root, the latter having no central axis, but dividing at the collum into numerous branches. 43. The principle axial forms are: — 1. Ramous, the woody main root of most trees and shrubs. 2. Fusiform, thick, succulent, tapering both ways from the middle. 3. Napiform, breadth exceeding length. 4. Conical, tapering from above down. Of inaxial roots there are: — 1. Fibrous. 2. Fibro-tuberous. 3. Tubercular. 4. Coralline. 5. Nodulous. 6. Moniliform. 44. The basis of vegetable structure is the cell. In its active condition it is a closed membranous sac containing a fluid and a solid point or nucleus. (See Lindley's " Introduction to Botany" vol. 1, p. 35.) The typical form of the cell is spheroidal but there are many departures from the primary form, the principal modifica- tions being that of the cylinder as in the cells of wood, and the tubular or flattened, as in the cells of the epidermis. These forms are still further modified bv external pressure resulting from the 346 TEACH lilts' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. crowding of cells against cells producing cubical, octahedral, pris- matic and other forms. The walls of the cell are porous and fluids circulate freely from one cell to another. They consist of a sub- stance called cellulose, the ultimate constitution being carbon, hydro- gen and oxygen. Cells vary greatly in size. .Some may be seen with the naked eye as in the pulp of the orange and snowdrop, while others are so small as to require a magnifier of considerable power to see them. 45. The contents of a typical cell may be said to be: ( 1) the cytoblast or nucleus which seems to be the generator of new cells; (2) the protoplasm or original semifluid matter from which new cells are formed; (3) the thin fluid or sap which circulates from cell to cell and consists of water holding in solution various substances as chlorophyl, which is the green coloring matter of leaves, starch, sugar, gums, resins, various salts, acids, alkalies, etc., in fact, what- ever gives the peculiar properties of plants as poisonous, medicinal, etc. 46. The growth of the plant is simply the multiplication of cells. Cells multiply in some cases with wonderful rapidity as we see in mushrooms which reach to great size in a single night. Lind- ley cites an instance in which a certain plant produced according to estimate, 66 millions of cells in a minute. Though most plants consist of a multitude of cells a single cell is capable of existing as an independent plant. Diatoms and some species of Conferva? con- sist of single cells. 47. Botanists have classified the tissues of plants according to the form and arrangement of the cells as follows:—- 1. Parenchym, cellular; utricular or vesicular tissue, generally made up of cells in the form of little bladders or vesicles. It is transparent and gener- ally in itself colorless; when appearing otherwise the color is due to contents of the cells. It is the most common form and occurs in all plants. In the pith of the elder and the pulp of fruits it may be most easily seen. 2. Bothrenchym, pitted or vasiform tissue, consisting of tubes appearing as if full of holes but which upon close inspection are found to be pits or de- pressions in the walls. 3. Pleurenchym, woody or fibrous tissue consists of transparent mem- branous tubes tapering at each end ami overlapping so as to form continuous fibers. It makes up the greater part of all wood and bark and of the veins of leaves. 4. Trachenchym, or vascular tissue, consists of simple membranous tubes joined end to end and having a spiral fiber in the inside. It is found in the succulent parts of plants, in petioles and veins of leaves and petals of flowers. The spiral vessels may be seen by pulling the petiole of a strawberry leaf asunder, when these vessels unroll and appear as tine cobwebs. Ducts are according to Lindlev, modifications of trachenchym. 5. Cinenchym, or laticiferous tissue, consists of branching tubes anasto- mosing with each other. This tissue is difficult to find not having any definite direction, but distributed irregularly among the parenchym. These vessels secrete peculiar juices of plants as the white juice of the poppy and milkweed, the red juice of bloodroot, etc. It is not well understood by vegetable anato- mists. BOTANY. 247 » 48. Plants like animals arc covered with an epidermis, or cuticle which adheres closely to the cellular tissue beneath. It is not distinguishable in some of the lower forms which seem to be com- posed entirely of cellular tissue. It covers all parts of the plant exposed to the air except the spongioles and the stigmas. It is usually a thin, delicate, transparent membrane but in some eases so dense and hard as scarcely to be cut with a knife. 49. The epidermis of most plants is perforated with little slit- like openings in the center of oval or lens-shaped spots. These openings are called stomata. They lie over the inter-cellular spaces and are guarded by a kind of membrane which has the power of contracting and closing the openings. In a moist atmosphere they are open, and closed in a dry. They appear to be connected with respiration. They are most abundant on the under surface of the leaves but are found on all green parts exposed to the air. There are sometimes as many as 160,000 to the square inch. 50. Hairs are appendages of the epidermis and are either single elongated cells or a series of cells placed end to end. They vary much in size, form, rigidity, etc., and take many names in conse- quence. Thus we have down or pubescence, bristles, stings, hooks, barbs, etc. Glands are peculiar cellular structures which secrete the characteristic products of plants as oils, resins, honey, poisons, etc. 51. The vegetable kingdom has been divided into four great classes based upon the structure and mode of growth of the ligne- ous or woody framework : — 1. The exogenous structure consists of bark, ivood and fitk. The pith is in the central part of the stem, consists of parenchym and is found mostly in young woody plants and in herbs. Its office is to furnish fluids to nourish the buds. When the plant gets older it becomes dry or disappears entirely. It is surrounded bv the medullary sheath which is" a delicate tissue consisting of spiral vessels'and woody tissue and is in connection with all the appendages of the axis as the veins of leaves, flowers and fruits. The wood consists mostly of fleurcnckvm and ducts and is arranged in concentric rings or layers around the medullary sheath, one ring being produced each year. Medullary rays are plates of cellular tissue which extend from the medullary sheath and from the successive lavers of wood to the circumference of the stem. In across section of a stem they appear as fine lines running from the center like spokes of a wheel. In a "longitudinal section they appear as shining plates, the "silver grain " of carpenters. When wood becomes a few years old it changes its color and is then called heart wood or duramen. The newer growths in which no coloring matter has been deposited are called sap wood or alburnum. The former may be considered as dead wood, for it is no longer of any use to the growing tree. The change consists in deposits of solid and coloring matter in the cells and the thickening of the cell walls. The bark consists of three distinct layers, the inner or liber, the middle or cellular, and the outer or cortical. The liber is composed mostly of pleural, hym and is tough and strong. It forms the fiber of linen and hemp and the tough hark of many trees as the Linden and Hickorv. The cellular layer is composed of tissue resembling that of the body of the leaf and performs a similar office. The cortical layer is the brown or gras part which gives trees their peculiar aspect. It i< generally cracked and roughened by the pushing outward of the 2-kS TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. inner parte. Cork is this laser in a certain species of tree. Between the bark and wood is a layer of mucus-like material which exists in the spring of the jrear and is called cambium- It is the organizable matter from which both wood and hark are formed. 2. The endogenous structure consists of parenchym through which are scattered irregularly bundles of woody fiber, ducts and spiral vesels. Its growth consists in the increase of new woody fibers in the interior. There is no dis- tinction of bark, wood and pith. 3. In the acrogenous structure the growth takes place only at the end, the stem advancing with its diameter fully formed. 4. The thallogenous structure is the lowest in the scale consisting en- tirely of cellular tissue growing in all directions. 52. When a seed is placed under the proper conditions of light heat and moisture, it sprouts or germinates. The radicle protrudes from embryo and descends forming the root, the plumule ascends and becomes the stem. The plumule is a bud at first and expands into leaves and stem. The nourishment for the radicle and plumule is generally stored up in the cotyledons or seed leaves, the thick leaves that first appear above ground in many plants, and which constitute the greater part of the hulk of many seeds. In some cases the nourishing material is outside of the embryo and is called the albumen.* In germination water is absorbed, the starch is con- verted into sugar and is then soluble and fitted to nourish the young plant. Gluten is converted into diastase which acts as a ferment. In this chemical action heat is produced. 53. We have seen that in order to the perfection of seeds the ovules must be fertilized. This process of fertilization is not well understood. The pollen falls upon the stigma, expands or lengthens into a tube which penetrates the style until it reaches the embryo sac of the ovule where by some mysterious process it causes the development of the ovule into a perfect seed capable of germina- tion and reproduction. It is the opinion of Schleiden that the end of the pollen tube itself becomes the embryo of the new plant and is only quickened by the embryo sac which acts as a receptacle or nest for it. As in many cases the anthers are below the stigma in many others on different flowers of the same plant (monoecious) or in difFercnt plants (dioecious) the question will arise how does the pollen reach the stigma? Insects are the most common con- veyors of pollen as they roll themselves in the flower of one plant and then fly to another bearing the pollen adhering to the down of their bodies. In some cases tin- pollen is conveyed by the winds. 54. Absorption of liquids is by means of the sfongioles^ or ex- tremities of the rootlets. The water absorbed contains various ele- ments in solution which contribute to the growth of the plant. The phenomena of absorption is explained on the principles of 01- dosviose and capillary attraction. The leaves and green bark are also capable of absorbing not only liquids, but gases. Some plants this must n<>t lie- confounded with the word albumin denoting .1 chemical compound. botaxi: ;Ui> grow when suspended in the air, and others which cling by their roots to solid objects, as rocks and trees, their roots being simply for support, must get their nourishment entirely by absorption through the leaves and bark. 55. The liquid which is absorbed and flows upward through the stem to the leaves is at first mostly water, and is called the crude sap. It contains in solution mineral salts and gases obtained from the earth; also sugar and dextrine which it has dissolved from the cells in its upward passage. Maple sugar is made by concen- tration of this sap from the sugar maple and other trees. When the sap arrives at the leaves it loses part of its water by exhalation and gains carbon from the carbonic oxide absorbed from the atmos- phere. It is now much more dense and rich in nutritive material and is called the true sap, and as it descends it is assimilated or built up into the tissues of the plant. In certain parts, as in the pericarps, cotyledons and albumen of the seed, tubers, corms, bulbs and roots, as well as in the stem, certain nourishing material is de- posited for future use. This material consists generally of starch, and forms the food of animals and man. On the ripening of fruits and other parts, much of the starch is converted into sugar. 56. The leaves are in the plant analogous to the lungs in an animal. In leafless plants the same office is performed by the bark. Leaves take in air at their stomata, and as it circulates through the intercellular passages of the parenchym and comes in contact with the sap, it bears the same relation to the latter as the air does to the blood in the lungs of an animal. Under the light of the sun, carbonic oxide (CO.,) is absorbed, is decomposed, its carbon retained, and the oxygen given off. Oxygen is also ab- sorbed in the absence of direct solar light, uniting with the carbon of the tissues to form carbonic oxide, which is exhaled again to the atmosphere. This process is called respiration. As has been stated, the leaves and other green parts give off water in the form of vapor. This process is called transpiration. HINTS TO THE TEACHER. 57. The Spring, Summer or Autumn is the proper time to study Botany, for then sj^ecimens are abundant, and the attempt to study Botany without the plants before us is labor thrown away. If the study of this interesting science were simply the committing to memory of the numerous technical terms, then it might be well to study it in winter; but it is not necessary to know all, nor even a considerable number of these terms to gain a useful knowl- edge of the subject. 58. Technical terms are necessary, as thev save the use of many words in description. They are best learned by use, and those which we need not use, of course we need not learn. A great many are given in the text; not that we expect the reader to 850 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS- LIBRARY. learn them, but that he may refer to them as occasion demands, and that he may gain general ideas by the classifications presented. 59. The first lesson in Botany should he on the parts of the flower. Each member <>f the class should have specimens of some nearly typical dower and learn the names of the parts by referring to the books. The first recitation should be a drill upon the parts of the flower. Let the teacher place an outline of the subject on the blackboard and require pupils to read the definitions in the text-book and try to find the part defined among the specimens in their hands. At the next recitation the teacher calls on individuals to name and de- tine some part of the flower ami exhibit the part to the class, and so on, until they are as familiar with them as with the important terms in arithmetic and grammar. 60. The next step should be to begin the analysis of a plant. It may require a week to analyze the first plant, but proceed pa- tiently, explaining the manner of using the Key to Analysis in the text-book and looking up the technical terms as they occur. A certain portion of the Key may be assigned as a lesson — that is, the pupil may attempt to trace the plant a certain distance, as to the co- hort, order or genus. Besides this, a certain portion of the text describing stems, leaves, roots, etc., ma)' be assigned at each lesson for the pupils to read in the meantime, that they may obtain some general ideas. 61. Pupils will soon learn to handle the Key to the Analysis, and in two weeks the class, with the aid of the teacher, will have analyzed perhaps five or six plants. Now certain topics may be assigned different pupils. Say one pupil is given Inflorescence, an- other Vernation, another Leaf Arrangement, and so on. Each pupil is expected to explain briefly what he can on these points and in many cases present an outline of the subject as we have done in the text. 62. A part of each recitation, however, should be devoted to analysis in the class, but after the third or fourth week pupils will be able to analyze so readily that one plant may be disposed of in about 15 minutes or more, and the class may average a plant a day. \'<>w will come the proper time to study the physiology of plants, and topics such as Fertilization, Germination, Absorption, etc., may b, assigned, not to individual pupils, but to the class as a whole. The analysis may still be kept up every day, or on alternate days. The class may be divided into sections of four or live members each, with leaders, who may conduct the analysis of plants outside of recitation hours, taking excursions to W Is and fields. 63. Ten or twelve weeks spent in this maimer cannot fail to produce good results. On the other hand, if the text-book be taught, so main pages assigned as a lesson and tin- pupils be re- quired t<> commit to memory the technical term- without seeing how they are used, the whole work will he dry and repulsive. BOTANY. 251 64. Instructions in regard to forming herbariums are given in the text-books, but a few words here in regard to simplifying the work will not be out of place. A very simple arrangement for drying plants may be made as follows: Take two boards about 1.2x15 inches in size and bore them full of holes with an inch auger. Ar- range the plants to be dried on sheets of paper the size of the boards, placing five or six sheets between the plants. Place the papers and plants between the boards and fasten them together with a wooden clamp, or by tying with a cord. Five or six plants may be placed in the press at one time, and the air being allowed to pass through the holes in the boards, they will dry very rapidly. Pieces of old newspapers will answer very well for the drying sheets. QUESTIONS OX BOTANY. i. Define Botany. 2. Define a plant. 3. What is the flower? 4. Calyx? Sepals? 5. Corolla? Petals? 6. Can there be a calyx without a corolla ' Can there be a corolla without a calyx? 7. Stamens? S. Pistils? Ovary? 9. What is meant by a typical flower? 10. What must it have? 11. Torus? 12. What are the variations from the type? Define adhesion; cohe- sion. 13. Make an outline of the characteristic forms of the perianth. 14. Does the perianth always fall off before the fruit ripens? 15. Name some of the appendages of flowers. 16. Inflorescence? 17. Forms of inflorescence? iS. Outline axillary in- florescence. 19. Outline terminal inflorescence. 20. Define fruit. 21. Peri- carp? What is the flesh of a peach? 22. Dehiscence? 23. Look up the tech- nical terms which define each of the following: apple, peach, cherry, acorn, pumpkin, currant, pea, blackberry. 24. What are the parts of the seed? 25. What is the use of the leaf? 26. Venation ? 27. From your text-book make out an outline of the forms of leaves. 28. Phvllotaxv ? 29. What is interesting about the arrangement of leaves on the stem? 30. What are buds? 31. Vernation? 32. Name some of the transforma- tions of leaves. 33. What is a double flower? 34. Define axis. 35. What dif- ference between a stem and a root? 36-39. Outline stems. 40. What is a cion? 41. What are the uses of the root? 42-43. Outline roots. 44. What is a cell? 45. Contents of cells? 46. How does a plant grow? 47. Give a classification of vegetable tissue as to arrangement and form ot tells. 4S. Epidermis? 49. Stomata? 50. Hairs, bristles, down, etc. ? 51. Ex- ogenous structure? What is the " silver grain "? What is cork, botanically ? Endogenous structure? State whether the following are endogenous or exoge- nous: corn, apple-tree, oak, palm-tree. 52. Tell all you can about germination. Place some beans in a vessel on some cotton and* keep the cotton saturated with water and note the result. 53. Describe fertilization. Cats kill field mice, the field mice destroy the nests of bumble bees, the bumble bees assist in fertilizing the clover seeds. Query— What relation does the cat sustain to the farmer in this respect? 54. What is absorption? How explained? 55. What is the use of the sap? 56. If the leaves are the lungs of a plant, how do leafless plants respire? HISTORY. OUTLINE OF GENERAL HISTORY I. Introduction, i. Definitions. a. History (general). b. Political History. c. Philosophy of History. d. Chief Elements in the Study History. e. Kindred Branches of Study. (i). Philology. (2). Physical Geography. (3). Geology. (4). Ethnology. (5). Archaeology. (6). Anthropology. f. Races of Men. g. Antiquity of Man. h. Linguistic Families. (1). Aryan. (2). Indo-European. (3). Turanian, i. Divisions of History. (1). Ancient. (2). Modern. II. Ancient History. 1. Egypt. a. Antiquity. b. Records(Hieroglyphics) (1). The Rosetta Stone. (2). Literature. c. Race and Language. d. Government. e. La us f. Political History. (1). Periods. (2). Dynasties. (3). Pyramid and Temple-Bui ing Epochs. (4). Shepherd Kings and raelites. (5). Material Prosperity. g. Mechanical Sciences, h. Art. (1). Sculpture. (2). Painting. (3). Architecture, (a). Pyramids, Temples, Obe- lisks. Sphinxes, Tombs. i. Religion. (1). Polytheistic, of (2). The Priesthood. (3). Embalming. (4). Trial of the Dead. (15). Theological Works i. "Caste. (1). Evil Effects of. k. Resources of the Country. 1. Reflections on History of Egypt. 2. Assyria.* 3. Chaldea. 4 Judea, Phoenicia. 5. Persia. 6. India. 7. Greece. {Outline in full, laxus, manners, cus- toms, home life, etc.] 8. Rome. {Outline fully special points named above for Greece, also Roman polity, char- acter, language, laws and influence on modem civilization.] III. Modern History. [Mediaeval) 1. Middle Al;c>, Dark Ages defined. 2. Character of the Germans. 3. The Franks ami Saracens. 4. England in the Middle Ages. 5. France in the Middle Ages. 6. Italy in the Middle Ages. 7. Germany in the Middle Ages. Id- 8. Tartar Conquerors. 9. The Feudal System. Is- 10. Chivalry. 1 1. Rise of Popery. 12. The Crusades. 13. Civilization of the Middle Ages. (Modern History proper.) 1. The "(ilea' Powers." 2. Maritime Enterprises. ♦It would occupy ti»> much valuable space to give a full outline for eacli country here. The student should prepare such outlines of each country, using Egypt as a model. HISTORT. 268 3. Great Events of Sixteenth Cen- d. Civilization of the Seventeenth tnry. Century. a. The Reformation. 5. Great Events of the Eighteenth b. Rise of the Dutch Republic. Century. c. Religious Wars of France. a. Rise of Russia. d. Reign of Elizabeth. b. Prussia. 4. Great Events of Seventeenth Cen- c. Poland (fall of). tury. d. England. a. England under the Stuarts. e. The French Revolution. b. The Thirty Years' War in Ger- f. The Wars of Napoleon, many. 6. The Nineteenth Century. "c. Reign of Louis XIV. IV. History of the United States. INTRODUCTION. 1. History is any record of events. A record of the life of a nation or people is hi 'story proper ; a record of the life of an indi- vidual is Biography. 2. Political History, that is, a mere record of wars, conquests, massacres, plots, and the doings of kings and rulers, has heretofore constituted the great bulk of all history. 3. The Philosophy of History is an examination into causes and effects. It should receive careful attention from the student of history, as only a clear understanding of the causes which lead to wars and revolutions can make intelligible the events themselves. The origin, character and surroundings of a people must be well understood before we can correctly estimate the part which that people plays in the history of the world. 4. The Chief Elements in this estimate of the character of a people are race, geographical location, religion and natural re- sources of their country. 5. Kindred Branches of Study. — The branches of study nec- essary to a proper understanding of history are Philology, or the science of language; Geology, or the science which treats of the formation and development of the earth; Physical Geography, which treats of the earth with reference to the conformation and structure of its surface, its climate and its natural resources. G. Philology. — The history of nations and their kinship to other nations may be traced by means of language. For instance, the occurrence of the same root words tor father, mother, brother, sister in the languages of the Greeks, Romans, Goths, Hindoos, Persians, Kelts and their modern descendants, shows these nations to have sprung from the same people. The fact that most words describing the conveniences of advancing civilization are different in these languages shows that these peoples separated at a very re- mote period of antiquity. 7. Geology explains the gradual processes by which the earth was fitted for the habitation of man. Fossil remains with the ac- companying rock formation indicate relatively the time at which various kinds of animals and man appeared on the earth. 254 TEA CJ/ERS' AND STUDENTS' L //.'A'. 1 R ) ', 8. Physical Geography treats of the natural resources on which the commercial and political importance of nations depend. 9. Ethnology treats of types of mankind and race distribu- tion. 10. Archaeology deals with the inscriptions and other records found on ancient monuments, or buried in tombs and ruins; also the utensils, implements of war, etc., which have descended from antiquity. Its contributions to history are numerous, valuable and reliable. 11. Anthropology treats of man as an animal and his place in natural history. 12. The Antiquity of Man is much greater than is indicated by any kind of written records whatever. This is distinctly proved by Philologv, Geology and Archaeology. Human bones, imple- ments of war, domestic utensils, etc., have been found in such situa- tions as to show clearly that they were placed there long before the dawn of authentic history, which scarcely dates back to 3,000 years before Christ. 13. Races. — Mankind is divided into five well recognized races or types, differing in intellect, features, color, stature, etc. They are the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, Negro and Ameri- can. These are the strongly marked divisions. In fact, there are from twentv to thirty different types slightlv differing in physical characteristics. 14. The Caucasian is the great historical and progressive race of the world. Its history is the history of civilization. 15. Language. — The human race is divided with respect to language into three great divisions, the Aryan, the Scmit' ' ic and Tura' ' nian, The two former are well defined; the last is a some- what indefinite term, covering all not included in the others. 16. The Aryans { Indo- Europeans) include the ancient Hin- doos, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Teutons, Kelts and Slavonians, and their modern descendants, comprising nearly all the nations of Europe and America. In their influence on civilization the Aryans predominate, as the Caucasians predominate among races.* 17. The Semitic languages are those spoken by the Assyrians, Hebrews, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Phoenicians and modern Arabs. 18. Divisions of History. — History is usually divided into An- cient, extending from the earliest times to the fall of Rome, 476 A. D., and Modern, extending from 476 A. D. to the present. Tlio dates of important events :irc used for convenience in dividing periods. The changes which distinguish the periods may h.ive occupied centuries. Hence the student must not inter that the world differed materially ;t few years after a given date from what it was before that .i.ite. *The word Aryan is derived from a root found in the Zend and Sanscrit 1 manages, and means n >bl* or txt ■•lien/. The primitive Aryans lived in the regions east of the Caspian Sea, whence they were supposed to have emigrated ;it least -jooo B. C. The original Aryan language is lost, but has been partially reconstructed by scholars. U IS TORT. 255 ANCIENT HISTORY. 19. The most ancient nations were Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, the Phoenician cities, Persia, Judea and India. EGYPT. 20. Egypt has the oldest authentic history, beginning in the reign oiMehes about 2700 years before Christ. The numerous in- scriptions on temples, monuments and tombs, together with the numerous papyri (paper books ), determine the earliest history of Egypt with greater fullness and accuracy than is the case with almost any other ancient nation. 21. Hieroglyphics. — The characters used in these records are hieroglyphics, an arbitrary system of picture and sy?nbol writing. The dryness of the climate, combined with enduring materials, have preserved the historical monuments of Egypt remarkably well. 22. The Rosetta Stone found by the French at Damietta, in 1 798, furnished a clew to the deciphering of the hieroglyphics which had heretofore been unintelligible. It contained inscriptions in Greek, Demotic (the language of the common people), and hieroglyphics. It was naturally supposed that the three inscriptions were the same. Certain wor'ds in the hieroglyphics were always enclosed in ovals. These were surmised correctly to be the names of kings, and the deciphering of the names of Ptolemy and Cleo- patra furnished a basis for deciphering the entire system of hiero- glyphics. This threw open to the world not only the contents of numerous inscriptions, but also of books on a great variety of sub- jects. Their literature was lifeless and uninteresting. 23. Race and Language. — The Egyptians were Caucasians and spoke a Semitic language, which shows evidences of a fusion with a Turanian element. 24. The Government of Egypt, like that of nearly all an- cient nations, was an absolute monarchy somewhat modified by priesthood influences. The combined authority of the crown and the priesthood constituted a government which often became an in- tolerable despotism. 25. Laws. — Many of the laws of Egypt were wise and sal- utary. Penal laws were very severe. One of the laws of Amasis was that every citizen should appear before a magistrate annually and give an account of his profession or business and his means of income. Severe punishment was decreed against those who could not show that they lived by honest means. He who had it in his power to save the life of a citizen ami neglected to do so, was pun- ished as a murderer. 26. The Political History of Egypt may be divided into three periods: (1) extending from 2700 B. C. to the conquest of 256 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS* LI BR ART. the country by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, about 2080 B. C.; (2) including the reign of the Shepherd Kings, 2080 B. C. to 1525 B. C; (3) from the expulsion of the Shepherd Kings to the con- quesl by Persia 525 B. C. 27. Numerous dynasties or lines of royal families successively held sway in Egypt. At different periods of her history the country was divided for a time into several independent or semi-in- dependent monarchies with contemporaneous sovereigns. 28. The great pyramids were built during the first period, 2^00 to 2200 1). C. 29. The Israelites were in Egypt during the reigns of the Shepherd Kings. There is a difference of opinion as to the time of the Exodus. Some writers place it about 1650 B. C; others 1450 B. C. 30. The great temples were built during the splendid period following the expulsion of the Hyksos, 1525 to 1085 B. C. 31. The prosperity of the country was now at its height. In addition to the great architectural triumphs which have immortal- ized Egypt, foreign wars were successfully carried on. Ethiopia and a large part of Western Asia became subject to Egypt. But a rapid decline, with intervals of renewed prosperity, ended in the conquest of the country by Persia, 525 B. C. 32. Art. — The Egyptians early attained a very high degree of skill in the arts and mechanical sciences, as the pyramids, colossal temples and towering obelisks sufficiently attest. During the third period they exhibited a remarkable degree of proficiency in architecture, sculpture and the application of colors in painting. 33. In Architecture they aimed at the colossal and their grand conceptions bad sublimity in execution. The size of Egyptian structures has never been equaled by those of any other nation. The great temple at Karnak covered an area twice as large as that of St. Peter's at Rome. The great hall in this temple is the largesl room in the world. It is a parallelogram ^42 feet long by 1 70 feet wide. It contains sixteen rows of columns, BOmeofwhich are 62 feet, high 1 1 feet 6 inches in diameter, with capitals 22 feet across. 34. The great Sphinx at Gizeh, one of the seven wonders of the world, has the body of a lion in a crouching attitude, with a human bead. The height from the platform on which it rests to the top of the head is IOO feet; the length of the body is 1 \6 feet; from the top of the head to the chin is 28 feet 6 inches; across the shoulders, 34 feet A small temple was built between the paws. With the exception of the paws and the temple the whole was cut out of solid rock. 35. The pyramids it is generally supposed were used as the epulchers of kings. Tin- Btructure was begun when the monarch. . -an hi- reign and added to year by year till his death, when it was HISTORY. 257 hastily completed. Many of the well-known tombs in the " cities of the dead" are decorated with paintings, the colors of which are as fresh as when applied 3,000 years ago. 36. Art was constantly fettered by certain definite forms pre- scribed by custom and religion. Hence, though the Egyptians showed a high degree of skill in execution they failed* to progress because invention had no play. The perfect carving of heiroglyph- ics on flinty granite and the raising of enormous masses of stone into place, indicate a mastery in the use of tools and mechanical appliances. 37. Religion. — The religion of the Egyptians was Polytheistic. It was a degrading and superstitious idolatry. Different names were given to different manifestations of the Deity. As judge of men and father of mankind he was Osiris. Isis was the sister and wife of Osiris. Seth (Satan) was the spirit of evil afterward slain by Horus, son of Isis. Animals of all kinds were worshiped. Strange to say, the animals venerated in one city were hunted and despised in the next. This often led to serious seditions and even civil war. The deities were supposed to reside in the bodies of animals. Thus Osiris was represented in the sacred bull Apis. When the bull died he was embalmed at enormous expense, and public mourning followed. 38. The priesthood formed a very large and influential class, many of whom were not actually priests. They alone were well educated. They were wealthy and it was constantly to their in- terest to keep the common people poor and ignorant by means of degrading superstition and the heavy taxes necessary to support it. 39. Embalming the human body was practiced universally. The Egyptians believed that the body would be resurrected entire as at death. The loss of a member was considered a dire calamity. These mummies were so well preserved that they yet exist in excellent preservation in the tombs of Egypt and in the museums of the world. Animals were also often embalmed. The secret of this process is now lost. The dead were not allowed to pass to the " city of the dead "until judges had held an inquest on the moral life of the deceased. In some instances even kings were refused the right of interment. The Learning of the Egyptians related largely to the mys- teries of their religion. Books (papyri) on various subjects have however, been discovered, especially works relating to medicine. 40. Caste. — The pojjulation was divided into several caste-. priesthood, soldiers, husbandmen, artificers, ete. The son nearly always followed the occupation of the father, though not absolutely obliged to do -,,. This system was a constant incubus on the pro- gress of the people. Genius and merit had little chance for prefer- ment outside their own caste. The result was bad continually. The priests and soldiers were the only classes enjoying political rights. TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 41. Resources. - The annual overflow of the Nile rendered Egypt a land of wonderful agricultural resources. It i> estimated that it cost only about $4 to rear a child of the lower classes. 42. Conclusions. — The Egyptians were a people of great in- tellectual power and abundant genius. Their civilization neverthe- less was a failure, because it added to the burdens of the people- without increasing their happiness. Their genius died fettered by traditions and repressed by priestcraft. Their mighty works are not the works of beneficent rulers, wise statesmen, and a free peo- ple. They stand through all time as the monuments of a false religion, perverted faith, and unholy ambition. WESTERN VSIA. ASSYRIA, CHALDEA, JUDRA, PHOENICIA. 43. Assyria and Chaldea (or Babylonia) attained a high civili- zation at a very early date. Much light has lately been thrown upon their history by the deciphering of inscriptions and Libraries. These writings are in the cunc' iform or arrow-headed characters, and are found stamped upon hricks and on the clay tablets which constituted the libraries. 44. Race and Language. — The people of Assyria and Babylon were of Semitic stock and the Babylonians were close! v related to the Hebrews. The Assyrians were a warlike, aggressive people. The Babylonians were more luxurious and effeminate. 45. Babylonia ( Chaldea). — The earliest date in the history of Babylonia is .2234 B. C. This date depends upon an unbroken series of recorded astronomical observations covering a period of 1900 years, discovered by Alexander the Great 331 B. C. 46. Babylon was one of the greatest cities the world has ever seen. It was laid out in the form of a square, each side of which was 25 miles. According to Herodotus the walls were ^^ feet high and S5 feet thick. The hanging gardens built by Nebuchad- nezzar consisted of terraces elevated one above another on enor- mous pillars. They were one of the seven wonders of the world. Babylon flourished as a great power until 1250 B. C, when it was conquered by Assyria. 47. Assyria now became the dominant power in Western Asia. Nineveh was its capital, situated on the Tigris. The Assyrian Empire was ended 625 B. C. by the joint attack of Persia and Babylon. The independence of the latter city ended 538 B.C., when it was taken by the Persians. From their proximity to the Hebrews the Assyrians and Babylonians are frequently mentioned in the Bible. Sennacherib, King of Assyria, lost 185*000 men in one night near Pelusium in an expedition against the Jews. 48. The Arts and Sciences were in an advanced stage of development among the Assyrians and Chaldeans. The latter peo- ple were proficient in astronomy. Sculpture was carried to a high degree of perfection as shown by the bas-rclicfs on the walls of HISTORY. 259 Nineveh. The utensils of domestic and commercial use were numerous. Astrology was universally practiced. The Social Life of these nations is little known. Many of their customs were revoltingly corrupt. Their religion was an idolatry less absurd than that of Egypt. 49. Commerce made the people of Babylon rich. They were a nation of merchants. They handled much of the merchandise of the East. Agriculture was a leading interest in the rich Tigro- Euphrates valley. 50. The Hebrews were a Semitic people. They were never a great nation in a political sense, and were repeatedly conquered by the surrounding nations. Their kingdom reached its zenith under Solomon 1015-975 B. C. Under Solomon's successor Rhe- hoboam ten of the twelve tribes revolted and formed the Kingdo?n of Israel which was conquered by Assyria 72 1 B. C. after an independ- ent existence of 250 years, yerusalem the capital of the kingdom of Judah (two tribes) was captured by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon 586 B. C. The people were carried into captivity to Babylon for 70 years. 51. The final destruction of Jerusalem took place 70 A. D., when the city was taken and destroyed by the Romans and the people dispersed over the earth. 52. Religious development is the most remarkable feature in Jewish history. In their code of morals the Hebrews were far in advance of their neighbors and their religion gave rise to the Chris- tian religion. 53. Phoenicia, a narrow strip of country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, was early noted for the extent of its com- merce. Tyre and Si don, so often mentioned in the Scriptures, were the chief cities. Carthage was the chief Phoenician colony. The Phoenician products were very valuable. The celebrated Tyrian purple was the chosen raiment of royalty. This dye was obtained from the juice of a shell-fish. 54. The commerce of the Phoenicians extended along the shores of the entire Mediterranean and as far as Cornwall in Brit- ain, whence tin was obtained. 55. The first alphabet in general use was invented by this people and l>v them probably transmitted to the Greeks. 56. Tyre was captured 5S5 B. C. by Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of thirteen years, and again by Alexander the Great 332 B. C, when 8,000 citizens were massacred and 30,000 sold into slavery. Not a vestige of this great city now remains. PERSIA AND INDIA. 57. The Persians were of pure Aryan descent. They were a simple, hardy, virtuous race. In character they were far superior to most of the ancient nations. 260 TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 58. The religion of the Persians strictly speaking was not an idolatry. They worshiped fire on the mountain tops. They made no images and built few temples. Zoroas'ter was their great prophet. They believed the deity consisted of two principles, the spirit of c*oo<\ Omi/tzd, and the spirit of evil, Akriman. The sacred writings were called the ZendAvesta. Later their religion hecame corrupted, and magianism sprang up. This was merely a species of magic. The magians were also called fire-worshipers. They kept sacred fires continually burning. 59. Political History. — The Persians were originally subject to the Medes. Cyrus the Great threw off the Median yoke 558 B. C. and the two peoples hecame united under the empire of the A/cdes and Persians. Cyrus captured Babylon 53S B. C. Cambyses his son conquered Egypt, 525 B. C. Cambyses was a cruel, bloodthirsty tyrant. 60. Darius II was the greatest of the Persian monarchs. His empire extended from Thrace to India. He divided it into provinces each of which was governed by a satrap. He made wise laws, coined money and established post roads. 61. Xerxes (supposed to be the Ahasuerus of the Bible) invaded Greece with an immense host. (See Sec. S6). He was ignomini- ously defeated and obliged to flee for safety. Under his reign which began 486 B. C. the empire commenced to decline. It was finally overthrown by Alexander the Great at the battle of Arbela Oct. 1 331 B. C. 62. The civilization of the Persians did not equal that of the Egyptians, Assyrians or Chaldeans. The ruins of Persepolis indi- cate a city of great extent which contained many magnificent edifices. 63. India. — The Hindoos were Aryans of the purest stock. Their language, the Sanscrit, is one of the oldest and one of the most perfect in existence. It ceased to be a living language several centuries before Christ. It is rich in literature, chiefly of a religious character. The Vcdas arc the sacred books of the Brahmins. They are in the form of epic poems and are the oldest religious works in existence. 64. The Religion of the Hindoos is Brahminism. This reli- gion has existed in substantially its present form since 2000 B. C. One of its important doctrines is the belief in the transmigration of souls. According to this belief the soul of man finds an abode in different animals at various stages of its existence. For example, the soul may first exist in the body of a dog, afterward in a horse and so on till a human habitation is furnished it. For this reason the Hindoos refrain from killing animals lest they may disturb a human soul. 65. Buddhism, a reform religion, sprang up in India about the 6th century B. C. It was founded by Oau'tama, sometimes called HISTORT. 261 the " Christ of India." This religion has now more followers prob- ably than any other extant — but is almost extinct on its native soil. It is the religion of large areas in Central and Eastern Asia. The Brahminism of to-day is a barren form having little influence on the morals of the people. There are also about 40,000,000 of Mahometans in India. 66. Caste. — Since the time of Alexander the Great, the earliest period at which anything is known of India, the people have been divided into castes. These are the Brahmins, including the priests and educated chisses; the Kshatriyas who attend to affairs of state; the Vaisyas, merchants and farmers; the Sudras, laborers and arti- zans, and the Pariahs or outcasts, who perform the most menial and degrading labor. From intermarriages many half-castes have arisen. A person intermarrying or even eating with one of another caste- loses caste and can no longer be entitled to the full privileges of his original caste. Every person is obliged to follow the occupation to which hi| father belonged. Hence there can be no real progress, and India has remained immobile from time immemorial. The upper castes are descended from conquering Aryans, the lower were probably subject aborigines. 67. llic following striking features of Oriental History deserve especial notice. 1. Universal power of religion. Every interest was subservient to re- ligion. Mighty temples and other works were erected at such enormous cost as to doom unhappy millions to hopeless slavery and the pangs of hunger. Ancient religions, perverted by a cunning priesthood, were the means of misery rather than of happiness to mankind. 2 . The utter absence of republican ideas. Despotism everywhere su- preme. The privileged classes bore the honors and shunned the burdens. The common people were not recognized usually as having any political rights. 3. Might prevailed over right. Slavery was universal and usually ex- cessively cruel. The conquered were nearly always sold into slavery. 4. The wonderful stability of ancient works. The colossal structures of antiquity have in most cases succumbed to the ravages of man rather than to those of time. Antiquity renders painfully apparent the fiimsiness of our own times. 5. The want of progress in most of the ancient nations, caste, tradition, and despotism, prevented real advancement. 6. The inclination of the orientals toward despotic government, as the natural condition of mankind. There has never been an oriental republic. GREECE. 68. Race and Language. — The Greeks belonged to the Aryan stock and werccloselv related to the Latins from whom the Romans descended. The Greeks called their country /Alias and the people Hellenes. In addition to peninsular Greece, Ancient Greece included the islands of the Mediterranean, the coast of Asia Minor, Sicily and Southern Italy (Magna Graecia), and the Greek colonies of Mnrseilles and Northern Africa. 262 // .i< HERS 1 AXD STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 69. Geography. — The southern peninsula now called the Morea, was anciently called the Pcloponnc' shs. The whole country- was about 250 miles long by 180 miles wide. It was divided into numerous petty States, the principal of which were Attica, whose capital was Athens, and Laco'nia, capital Sparta. As cities had such a preponderating influence in ancient times, the name of the city was usually employed for that of the State. Other important States were Bceo'tia, Corinth, Acha' ia and Messe'nia. 70. The Greeks were divided into four great branches, the Ionia ns, Dorians, Achceans ;mtL Sto' Hans. These branches spoke different dialects of the same language and differed widely in na- tional traits and customs. The branches were scattered into many localities by migrations. The chief nation of the Ionians was Athens; of the Dorians, Sparta. /. Period. — The Heroic Age, from the earliest times to about J IOO B. C. 71. The Heroic Age is so called because the principal events in the history of that period are the exploits of heroes. These ex- ploits are related in the legends or myths which survived to a Inter date and in the poems of Homer. These myths are doubtless in some instances symbolical of certain truths. Thus the " labors of Hercules" probably represent the triumph of law and order over primitive savagery. The expedition of the Argonauts and the Trojan war doubtless were actual occurrences. 72. The Trojan "War was the great event of the heroic age. All that we know of this war is recorded in Homer's great poem the Iliad (from Ilium, the name of Troy.) Homer is thought to have lived about 850 13. C. and the Trojan War probably occurred about 300 to 400 years earlier. Homer gives exact details in regard to the principal events of the war. Many have doubted the truth of Homer's narrative and even that the Trojan war ever occurred. There is scarcely any room however, to doubt that there was such a war, and that the details given in the Iliad are in the main correct.* 73. The cause of the war was the carrying of! of Helen, the beautiful wife of Menela'us, king of Sparta, by Paris, son of Priam, the king of Troy. The Greeks united under Agamemnon, king of Argos, to avenge the insult. After a siege of thirteen years Troy was taken and burned. Helen was returned to her husband. 74. The greatest heroes of the war were Achilles, a Greek chieftain, and /lector, a Trojan. 75. The striking features of the heroic age were: — 1. Religious feeling strong. The desecration of an altar or temple looked mi with horror. Temples, as in later ages, places of refuge. •The recent excavations of Dr. Schliemann on the site of Troy conclusively prove the exis- of Several distinct cities at different periods, each built on the ruins of its predecessor. One of the cities w;is burned, so (ar confirming Homer, but the discoveries cannot be said to throw much additional iii_'ht on the Trojan war. 1USTOR1. 36* 2. War considered the natural state ot" man. Carried on with a brutality at striking variance with the many excellent traits of character prevailing in pri- vate life. 3. Generous hospitality. Fugitives protected sacredly. 4. Simplicity of manners. Kings not ashamed to engage in manual labor. 5. Women held in high regard. 6. Family ties properly esteemed. 7. Slavery universal. S. The State predominated over the city. In historical times the city be- came the State. //. Period. — Greek Development, 1100 to 500 B. C. 76. The first authentic date in Greek history is 776 B. C, the beginning of the first Olympiad. From that time there is a con- secutive chronology. As we have seen, Greece was divided into a great number of independent petty States. These were often at war with each other, though the feeling of common origin was great enough to cause them at times to unite against a common enemy. 77. Sparta. — The Spartans belonged to the Dorian race. Ly- curgus (850 B. C.) was their first law-giver. His laws, which had untold influence on the Spartans, may be summarized as follows: ( 1 ) Weakly children were exposed to perish, that the race might not deteriorate. (2) Children were taken in charge by the State when seven years of age, to be educated. The education of the sexes differed but little. Both were obliged to spend a large por- tion of their time in severe athletic exercises. Book learning was despised. (3) The citizens were obliged to eat at public tables, to which each contributed a fixed amount of food. Their diet was very plain. The public tables effectually prevented luxury among the citizens. (_|) Men were not allowed to marry till thirty years of age, and then under the supervision of the State. (5) Citizens could not engage in commerce. This was left to foreigners and menials. (6) Citizens could not lawfully own gold or silver. The coined money was of iron. 78. The government of Sparta was a monarchy. There were two kings, and an adyisory council of Jive JSpAors elected from the citizens. The government was aristocratic in its tendencies, and in Grecian quarrels Sparta was usually found on the side of the aris- tocratic party. 79. Spartan Character. — Spartan courage has been the con- stant boast of the world, and judged from the standpoint of mere brute force it has never been excelled. Viewed from a modern standpoint there is little in Spartan character either to admire or commend. Their courage was not of that true quality which en- ables men to stand up and die in defense of the right. It was rather the courage of the hull-dog which needs onlv the prospect of blood to inflame it. The Spartans were cruel beyond their cruel times. Their treatment of the helots, their miserable slave-. j>fA TEACHERS' AN.D STUDENTS' LIBRART. sufficiently proves this. At stated periods these unhappy beings were hunted like wild beasts to prevenl their becoming numerous enough t<> be dangerous, and to exercise Spartan youth in the noble callhig of war. The Spartans were pre-eminently selfish. They allowed Athens to hear almost alone the brunt of the first great Persian war when failure meant slavery and ruin to all Greece. 80. Athens. — The Athenians belonged to the Ionic race, ( I which they were the great representatives. Their first law-givers were Draco and Solon. The code of the former was so severe that it was soon abolished. Solon prepared a new code, which completely remodeled the government, 594 B. C. Servitude for debt was abolished, and the right of trial by jury established. 81. The government gradually became democratic, and Athens was the first real republic. It was not a republic such as the United States, vet there was more real freedom than had ever been enjoyed before by any nation. All free residents were declared citizens. A legislature was elected by the people. Kingly gov- ernment had been abolished by the Athenians at a very early period in their history. Under the republic the chief executive officer was called Archon. lie was elected at first for life, afterward for a term of years. The number of Archons varied. At one time there were nine, one of whom had the chief executive power. The senate or council originated measures, which must be passed on by the assembly of the people, or citizens, in mass meeting. Changes were made from time to time in the details of government. 82. Tyrants. — Popular government was interrupted for a time by Pisis'tratus the Dictator, called " Tvrant." He was a wise ami able ruler. He and his successors held power from ^60 to 510 B.C. After the conquest of Athens by Sparta the former was for a time under the rule of the " Thirty Tyrants." 83. Athenian character is in striking contrast with that of the Spartans. The Athenians were as brave as the Spartans when oc- casion demanded the highest courage. They were more humane and generous. The Athenians were polite, sociable and hospitable. Women were treated with great consideration, but were carefully secluded from society and spent their time in domestic duties. The Athenians loved and cultivated to extraordinary perfection oratory, literature and the fine arts. ///. Period. From the Persian Wars to the Supremacy of Macedon, 500 to jjS />. C. 84. The Persian "War grew out of trouble between the Greek colonies on the Asiatic coast and Persia. Athens aided the Ionian colonies, an interference which Persia determined to punish. 85. First Invasion. — Darius, king of Persia, sent out an ex- pedition under Mardo'nius, his son-in-law. Nothing was accom- plished, and Mardonius returned in disgrace. A second expedition H2STOR2'. 2G3* numbering 100,000 men and 600 triremes (vessels with three banks of oars) under command of Da' to, set out, 490 B. C, for the conquest of Greece. Miltiades, the Athenian general, had 10,000 men, 1,000 of them Platae'ans. The narrow pass oi Marathon, on the eastern coast of Attica, was the key to Southern Greece. Here the Greeks made a stand and defeated the Persians in the ever memorable battle of Marathon. Only 192 Greeks fell. 86. The second invasion was begun by Xerxes, son of Darius, 48^ r>. C. The mighty host of the Persians has been variously estimated. Herodotus says it consisted of 2,600,000 men, soldiers and sailors, besides numerous attendants. The fleet numbered 1,200 triremes and 3,000 smaller vessels. To meet this immense host with hopes of success required unanimity on the part of the Greeks. This did not exist. The island States and the greater part of Boeotia submitted to the Persians. It was the season of the Olym- pic games, and these festivities kept many others away. 87. Battle of Thermop ' ylse. — Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, with 7,000 men marched to Thermopylae to aid the Athen- ian forces. Thermopylae was a narrow pass on the eastern coast of Greece, near the northern boundary of Thessaly. The position proved untenable. A traitor showed the Persians a passage over the mountains by which they could flank the Greeks. Retreat was necessary. Leonidas, with 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, de- termined to hold the Persians in check as long as possible. After waiting five days Xerxes ordered a chosen body of troops to force the pass. They were repulsed with great slaughter. A picked corps called the " Immortals" met the same fate. Next day the Greeks were attacked in front and rear, and all perished, fighting desperately. 88. The Spartans now abandoned the Athenians and com- menced to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth for the defense of the Peloponnesus. Athens was abandoned by the citizens and burned by the Persians. 89. Battle of Sal' amis. — The only hope of the Greeks now lay in the Athenian fleet commanded by Themis' toclcs. The Greek fleet engaged the Persian in the narrow strait of Salamis, east of Corinth, and completely defeated them. Xerxes in great alarm re- treated precipitately into Asia, leaving ^500,000 men under Mardo- nius to continue the war. 90. Platsea and Myc'ale. — Next spring, 479 B. C, hostilities were renewed. The Persians were defeated at Platcea with tre- mendous slaughter by the Greeks, now numbering 1 10,000 men. On the same day the Persian fleet was again completely defeated at Mycale. The Persians returned to Asia, leaving immense spoils in the hands of the victors. 91. These wars did much to promote a feeling of nationality among the Greeks. Thev also showed that some of the Greeks SM TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. were willing to sell their country for gold and that no danger trom foreigners could completely extinguish petty jealousies at home. All things considered, the triumph of the Greeks over the vast re- sources of Persia may well he considered the grandest event in human history. The Age of Per' ic hs. 92. The Age of Pericles was the most brilliant period of Athenian history. This period includes the time during which Peri- cles was the most influential leader of the Athenians, though many other men of very great ability took an active part in public affairs. Just after the Persian wars Themistocles, the hero of Salamis, was acknowledged the greatest Athenian leader. His chief rival was A rist i 'des, called the just. By a law in force then, any citizen could be banished by a majority of the people. This was called ostra- cism (because the ballots were written on oyster shells, Ostrea.\ Aristides was banished. By the advice of Themistocles, Athens greatly increased her navy, making her the greatest naval power in the world. The "long walls" were built, connecting the city by a fortified avenue sJ50 feet wide and seven miles long, with the Piraeus, the seaport of Athens. 93. Themistocles and Pausa'nias, the hero of Plataea, were de- tected in treasonable correspondence with Persia. The former died in exile, the latter perished at the altar of a temple where he took refuge. M iltiades, the hero of Marathon, also died in disgrace, a sad commentary on the influences which surrounded Greek politics. 94. Pericles now became supreme in political influence (460 B. C.), and occupied that position for thirty years, until his death. The last vestiges of aristocracy were swept away, and the will of the people was supreme. Every citizen could hold office, and al- most every citizen was competent to discharge the duties of office. The hisfh average intelligence of the Athenians at that time has rt fy O never been equaled elsewhere in the world. Oratory, literature, sculpture, painting and architecture flourished. Athens was embel- lished with splendid temples. The Parthenon, the finest example of ancient architecture and sculpture, was erected on the rocky acropolis overlooking the city. The Peloponne' sian War, 4JI-404 B. C. 95. This war was a struggle for supremacy between Athens and her allies and Sparta and her allies. The islands and mari- time State's sided with Athens; the inland States took the side of Sparta. For the first eight years the results were mostly favorable to Athens. During the second year a terrible plague carried off one-fourth, the inhabitants of Athens. Pericles was among the victims. 1 7 IS TOR T. 267 96. The siege of Platica, an ally of Athens, began in the third year. After a siege of two years the heroic little city was taken, and about one-half the garrison escaped. The others were condemned to death. 97. After ten years of war a truce (the peace of Nicias) was de- clared for fifty years, but war was resumed a few years later. Al- cibi'ades,a talented but dissolute Athenian, persuaded his people to invade Syracuse, a city of Sicily, 415 B. C. The Athenian fleet and an army of 40,000 men were lost in this disastrous enterprise. The miserable survivors were sold into slavery. 98. An alliance with Persia was basely entered into by Sparta near the close of the war. The naval battle of yEgos Pot' ' - amos utterly ruined Athens. The terms of peace were very hu- miliating to her. The "long walls" were razed, the Athenian fleet taken and « Thirty Tyrants " placed over Athens. A few years later the tyrants were driven out and a new alliance of powers against Sparta restored Athenian independence. The chief histo- rians of this war were Thttcyd' ides and Xen' ophon. 99. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — Soon after the close of the Peloponnessian War 10,000 Spartans went to Asia to assist the revolt of Cyrus, the younger son of Artaxerxes, king of Persia. Cyrus was defeated at Cunaxa near Babylon. His defeat placed the Greeks in very great danger. Their generals were invited to a council and slain. The Greeks accomplished a safe retreat to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of Xenophon, the historian. This retreat is one of the famous military exploits of history. 100. Sparta and Thebes. — Sparta was now without a rival, but soon engaged in war with Thebes. Epaminon' das totally de- feated the Spartans at Leuctra 371 B. C, and Thebes became the leading State, a position she occupied till the death of Epaminpn- das 362 B. C. Supremacy of JMacedon. 101. Continual wars had ruined Greece and prepared her foi foreign domination. Philip of Macedon had designs on Greece, and finally acquired some territory which entitled him as a Greek to sit in the Amphyctionic council, which was a general congress of the Greek States. Demos' thenes continually denounced Philip in his famous speeches called Philip' pics. Open war was finally declared and the battle of Chaerone ' a, 338 B. C, gave Philip control of Greece. 102. Alexander the Great. — Philip was assassinated, and the Greeks tried to throw off the yoke of his son Alexander. The latter easily quelled the rising 1 , and set out with 35,000 men to con- quer Persia. At the battle of Issus, 333 B. C, he utterly defeated Darius, king of Persia. He took Tyre after a siege of seven months, occupied Jerusalem without opposition, and took possession of Egypt. 868 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 103. Arbela. — The- battle of Arbela, 331 B. C, decided the fate of Persia. Alexander with ^0,000 Greeks defeated the Per- sian arm} estimated at 1,000,000. Darius fled and was treacher- ously slain. Alexander died at Babylon, at the age of thirty-two, B. C. 323. 104. 'The effect of his conquest was to Hellenize the entire Easl to a great extent. The Greek language, customs and institu- tions became widely disseminated in consequence. 105. Alexander's Successors. — The empire of Alexander went to pieces on his death. lie left a son who was a weak hoy, incapable of assuming the reins of government. Quarrels between the principal generals followed. No attempt will be made to des- scribe the wars which followed. The empire was finally divided into four parts: Egypt, Syria and the East, Thrace, and Macedonia. The Greek States revolted and were again subdued. Under the Ptolemies Egypt became a flourishing nation. 106. The Achaean and iEtolian leagues at a later date re- vived to some extent the glory of the Greek name, but Roman in- terference became more and more marked until all Greece became a province of Rome under the name of Acliaia, 146 B. C. Greek Civilization. 107. The civilization of Greece was grand, considering the time at which it flourished. In intellectual ability this people have never been excelled. The versatility of their genius made them masters in literature, oratory, architecture, sculpture, philosophy and mathematics. Their attainments were great in painting, medi- cine, and the other arts and sciences of the times. But genius alone- does not constitute true greatness, ami Greek fame is too often tar- nished by vanity, selfishness, jealousy, treachery and cruelty. On the whole we find much more in them to admire than in any na- tion which preceded them. 108. Politics. — The Greeks were the first civilized nation who enjoved real liberty, and Athens the first State to extend political rights to the whole people, i. e., all freemen. After ages of despot- ism it at last dawned upon the world that the common people had rights, ami the hardy western nations dared maintain their rights. 109. Religion. — The Greeks had a multitude of i^ods; in fact, nearly every manifestation of nature had a presiding deity. There were twelve principal gods, of whom Zeus {Latin, yupiter) was chief. As the Romans held substantially the same faith as the Greeks, we shall give the Latin names of the gods instead of the Greek, as more familiar. The following are only the principal ones, there being a host of minor deities: Apollo* the sun god, was god of music; Mercury* messenger of the gods; Minerva* goddess of wisdom; ¥»»o, wife of Jupiter; Venus, goddess of love; Mars, god of war; Ceres, goddess of plenty; Diana, goddess of the chase. 1I1STORT. 209 110. Oracles. — The Greeks were very superstitious. They consulted oracles and read omens in the movements of animals and in the entrails of victims. Numerous sacrifices were offered. The most famous oracle was that of Apollo, at Delphos. 111. Temples were numerous and magnificent. The chief seat and home of the gods was Mount Olympus. 112. Art. — The Greeks passionately loved the beautiful. This love found its greatest development in their architecture and sculp- ture, any just description of which would require a volume. Hence we shall only say that the chief ornamentation of their temples lay in the graceful columns which formed a prominent feature of every temple, and in the sculptures on the pediments (gables), friezes and cornices. There were three styles of architecture, distinguished by the different columns and capitals, or tops of the columns. These orders were called Ionic, Doric and Corinthian. The most cele- brated temples were the Par' tkenon (Doric) at Athens, and the great Temple of Diana (Ionic) at Ephesus. 113. Literature. — The Greeks were the first nation to pro- duce a really great original literature. Homer was called the father of Poetry and Herodotus the father of History. Thucydides and Xenophon were historians of eminence. The Anabasis of the latter is a school book to-day. Aristotle systematized the knowl- edge of his day. He was the tutor of Alexander. Socrates was a philosopher, and was one of* the purest men of ancient times. The xVthenians compelled him to drink poison on the charge of "corrupting youth." Plato was a profound philosopher, and the pupil of Socrates. Plutarch (2d century A. Th) wrote the " Lives" of the noted men of antiquity. 114. Festivals. — The Greeks had four great public festivals, the principal of which were the Olympian games, held once in four years, in honor of the Olympian Jove in the plain of Olympia in E ' lis. The exercises consisted of boxing, wrestling, foot and chariot racing, contests in oratory, poetry, etc. All Greeks were admitted. The prizes, which were held in very high estimation, usually con- sisted of a simple crown of leaves, oak, laurel, etc. These games constituted a great holiday. Hostilities were suspended during their continuance. 115. Home Life, Dress, Customs. — The early Greeks were a frugal people. Their food was chiefly vegetables, bread, cheese and fish. Butchers' meat was little used. They took a light re- freshment of bread and wine on rising, at noon a light meal with one or two hot dishes. Business affairs were transacted in the forenoon and the men spent the afternoon in visiting and talking politics. At Athens the women spenl nearly all their time seclud- ed at home. At Sparta they had more freedom. Dinner, the principal meal, occurred about four o'clock. The Greeks, like the Romans, and other Eastern nations, reclined on couches round a •27(1 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. table which formed three sides of a hollow square. Spoons and knives were little used and forks unknown. The fingers were wiped on pieces of bread. The drink was water and wine-and- water. The bread of the poorer classes was not baked but merely dried. When eaten it was moistened with oil or wine-and-water. The rich had usually baked wheaten bread. Honey took the place of sugar. There were many sorts of cake. Butter was little used and deemed unwholesome. After the feast there was a drinking 1 bout presided over by a master selected by the company. In drinking healths they drank a small cupful for each letter in the name of the person whose health was drunk. 116. The houses of the Greeks were plain and cheap. Mil- lionaires were unknown, $10,000 constituting a large fortune in the early times. Later houses were more expensive but never built for show. They were mostly one story in height, built around a sort of court. The kitchen alone had a chimney. The better classes lived almost exclusively in cities. The farm labor was performed by slaves. 117. The dress of the Greeks was very simple. That of the men consisted of a long undergarment, or sort of shirt and a man- tle (usually white). It was a breach of etiquette to appear in pub- lic in the undergarment alone, though the mantle alone might be made to serve as a street costume. There were two styles of dress for females. The Doric, worn at Sparta, consisted of a long garment fastened down the sides by clasps and a short mantle, leaving the arms exposed. The Ionic women wore a long linen undergarment reaching to the ground, with sleeves. Over this a loose wrapper, fastened with a girdle. Only travelers wore hats. Jewelry was worn by both sexes. 118. Education was general. .Schools were supported by the State in .Sparta only, and then for physical training rather than mental. Teachers were not held in high esteem and their wages were low. The branches taught were grammar, rhetoric, arith- metic, geometry, music, writing, and gymnastics. 119. Influence of Greek Civilization. — Considering the smallness of Greece the influence of the Hellenic race upon the world has been marvelous. Athens at her zenith had a population variously estimated at from 120,000 to 192,000, a number utterly insignificant compared with her place in history. ROME. 120. Races, Language, Geography. — The Romans were Aryans closely related to the Greeks. At the beginning of the historic period the Latins (Romans) occupied Latium, a small ter- ritory on the west coast of Central Italy. Adjoining them were the Etruscans, and various Italian nations. Northern Italy was occupied by the Gauls. Southern Italy by the Greeks. The HISTOR2: 371 Etruscans were a highly civilized people much older than the Romans. But little is known of them. 121. Origin of Rome. — Roman tradition ascribed the founding of Rome to Romulus, who gave it his own name. He quarreled with his twin brother Remus while the work was in progress and slew him. Romulus was reputed to be the son of Mars, the god of war. A fable relates how he was miraculously saved from drowning, fed by a woodpecker and suckled by a she wolf. The facts are, Rome seems to have been founded about 753 B. C, by a colony from Alba Longa, a city of the Italian confederation. It is doubted whether Romulus ever even existed. The story of his descent from the god of war was merely a pleasing fiction to tickle the pride of the warlike Romans. 122. Early Wars. — The Romans engaged in frequent wars with the Etruscans, their powerful neighbors, and also with the Sabines, who lived on their eastern border. The Etruscans were gradually overcome until they ceased to exist as a nation. The Sa- bines were incorporated with the Romans, adding greatly to the strength of the new nation. These were the first steps which led to the conquest of all Italy and afterward of nearly the whole world. 123. The Early Government according to tradition was an elective monarchy. The names of seve?i king's remain to us though little is known of their reigns, as all the public records were burned by the Gauls when they captured Rome, 390 B. C. 124. Patricians and Plebeians. — The people were at first di- vided into pat ricians [fathers), the nobility; and the plebeia?is y literally people. The last king, Tarquin the Proud, was expelled because of his tyranny and the monarchy abolished. A nominal republic was established, though political rights belonged to the patricians only. Early in the regal period the people had been divided into tribes, the tribes into curiae, and the curiae into houses. The heads of the houses constituted the senate or legislative body of the nation. The number of tribes gradually increased from three to thirty-five, and changes were constantly made in the form of government during successive ages. There was a long and bitter struggle between the patricians and the plebeians, which ended in the complete triumph of the people. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 125. The history of the republic may, for convenience of study, be divided into four periods: — I. The struggle for existence and growth of the constitution, 509—343 B. C II. The conquest of Italy, 343—264 13. C. III. Foreign conquest, 264 — 133 B. C. IV. Civil strife, 133—31 B. C 272 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS" LJBRARr. 126. Form of Government.— When the kings were expelled two consuls were elected. They held office for one year and per- formed the duties of their office for one month at a time alternately. Bach consul was attended hy twelve lietcrs who hore the fasces or symbols of authority. The consuls commanded the armies, and in cases of extreme danger they had the right to name a Dictator who had supreme power, his time of office being limited to six months. There were occasional changes in the details of government, at times usurpations of power, and sometimes violence was employed to obtain power, hut this was the general form of government for a long time. The senate was the legislative body. 127. The Early Laws were in general very oppressive on the lower classes. The laws regarding collection of debts were unu- sually severe. Old soldiers returning victorious from the field were cast into the dehtor's prison with no hope of release until every farthing was paid, while imprisonment cut off the very means of payment. If payment was not made the debtor might be sold as a slave, put to death, or his body cut in pieces and divided among the creditors. Taxes were very heavy. Reform was absolutely necessary. 128. Tribunes of the People (two) were elected, 493 B. C. They had no special duties, hut were elected as " protectors of the people." Their powers were chiefly negative. A tribune could prevent the passage of any law by the simple veto, I forbid. 129. Laws of the Twelve Tables. — The election of Tribunes did not end the diificulties between the patricians and the plebeians. All parties agreed that a more perfect code of lazes was necessary. Ten men (decemvirs) were elected, 450 B. C, to frame new laws. They for the time superseded all other officers. They examined the laws of Greece. A code of ten tables was framed, and next year txvo more laws unfavorable to the people were added. Dissatisfac- tion followed, and the plebeians a second time threatened to secede from the city in a body. A compromise was, however, effected. 130. The Consulate had heretofore been confined to the pa- tricians. A new law created Military V^ribnnes, who might be chosen from the plebeians. They took the place of the consuls. Sometimes tribunes were elected, sometimes consuls, according to which party predominated. The people had now a firm foothold in the government of the nation. Censors were appointed at the same time to look after public morals, revenues, enrollment of the senate, etc. 131. The public lands were still held hy the patricians, which was a source of grievance to the plebeians. The Licin' ian laws were passed, 367 IS. C, after a ten years 1 struggle. The chief fea- tures were: (1 ) provisions for the more equitable payment of old debts; (-') limitations as to the amount of public land the patricians could hold; (3) one consul should always he a plebeian. The UISTOR). 273 long struggle of the people was thus ended in a substantial triumph. Wars for the conquest of Italy, 343-264 B. C. 132. The nations conquered were the neighboring Latins, the Samnites of Southern Italy, the Greeks of Southern Italy, the Gauls of Northern Italy. In the wars with the Greeks, Byrrhus, the eelebrated king of Macedon, entered Italy with a Greek army and defeated the Romans in two battles, but really accomplished nothing. 133. The Roman State. — A brief glance at Roman polity will give a better understanding of the means by which Roman power was built up. The Roman policy was conciliatory. Conquered people were allowed as far as possible their own religion, local cus- toms and laws. Latin was the legal language, and this, with Roman colonization, gradually Romanized the provinces. Citizen- ship was often conferred on a provincial city, but the people were obliged to go to Rome to vote. Rome always reserved to herself: (1) The right to coin money; (2) To receive embassies; (3) To declare war and make peace. In Italy there were three classes of free citizens, Romans, Latins, Italians. Only the first had all the rights of citizenship. Hence we see that in all her vast dominions Rome was the source of all political power. Colonization was the effective engine by means of which the world was Romanized. Foreign Conquest, 264-133 B. C. 134. After becoming master of all Italy, Rome began to extend her conquests outside of Italy. Carthage in North Africa was her great rival. Little is known of Carthage except that she was a Phoenician colony and a very wealthy people. The Cartha- ginians were a brave but very cruel people, and the Romans claimed they were also treacherous and untruthful. But the Romans were not the most trustworthy witnesses in the case, as the two nations bitterly hated each other. The wars with Car- thage were called the l y u7iic wars. 135. The first Punic War began 264 B. C. and lasted twenty years. It was caused by the interference of the Romans in the affairs of Sicily, a part of which belonged to Carthage. At first the Romans had no navy and the Carthaginians swept the sea. But a fleet was built and the Romans were so successful that the Carthaginians were driven out of Sicily and Africa was invaded. But the tide soon turned against the Romans. Regains, a Roman general, was totally defeated in Africa and himself taken prisoner. The Roman fleet of 260 vessels, carrying 100,000 men, was totally destroyed by a great storm on the coast of Sicily 255 B. C. A new fleet was destroyed 253 B. C. Regulus was sent to Rome on parole to obtain terms of* peace. He advised war, returned to 18 274 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' TAB R ART. Carthage, and it is said was put to death with horrihle tortures. Peace was finally made, hy the terms of which Carthage gave up Sicily and other islands, and paid an indemnity of 2,000 talents (nearly $2,500,000). 136. Second Punic War. — The terms of peace were not satis- factory to either party. The Carthaginians felt that they had been humiliated and the Romans were determined that Carthage should eventually he destroyed. A mercenary war broke out at Carthage, caused by the insubordination of returned soldiers. It was quelled after horrid atrocities. The Romans interfered and compelled the Carthaginians to pay an additional fine. The quarrels of the Car- thaginian nobility in their disgraceful contest for power had well nigh ruined their country. The Barcine family at this time was one of the most powerful of the Carthaginian nobility. Ha mil' car, its head, devoted his energies with success to the conquest of Spain. He caused his son Hannibal to swear, at the age of nine years, eternal enmity to Rome. Hannibal was one of the greatest men of ancient times. At the age of eighteen he fought in the battle where his father was killed. He served under his brother-in-law Has'drubal and at the death of the latter was appointed to the chief command in Spain. He began at once to carry out his scheme of yengeance. His own brother Hasdrubal was left in command in Spain, while Hannibal set out with a large army to cross the Alps into Italy. After several battles with the natives and incredi- ble sufferings from October snows, he landed on the plains of Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse, 30,000 men having perished since he crossed the Rhone. 137. Hannibal recruited his army with Gauls and Italians and for fifteen years maintained himself in Italy with little or no .-issis- tance from home. He defeated the Romans in three great pitched battles, Tre'bia, 218 B. C, Lake Thrasyme'ne, 217, Cannae, in Southeastern Italy, 216. In the last-named battle the Roman loss was dreadful; of 90,000, the slain numbered 40,000, including both consuls. The Carthaginians were, however, defeated in Spain and Hannibal was obliged to evacuate Italy. 138. The battle of Zama, near Carthage, resulted in the total defeat of the Carthaginians. The terms of peace were very severe. Carthage was obliged to give up her fleet and pay within fifry years, in installments, an indemnity of $10,000,000. Sciftio, the victorious Roman general, received a great triumph at Rome and was called African/is, a title meaning conqueror of Africa. 139. The Third Punic War was forced upon Carthage. A large party at Rome insisted on the complete destruction of the hated rival city. Porcius CatO, one of the leaders of this party, ended every speech he made in the senate with the sentence " De- lenda est Carthago "—Carthage must be destroyed. The Cartha- ginians were ordered to surrender their arms. They refused, and HIS TO in: 275 their city was taken 146 B. C. and burned, the fire raging seven- teen days. The population, estimated at 700,000, was massacred, enslaved and scattered abroad. 140. Important Conquests in the East were made during the period of the Punic wars. Anti'ochus, king of Syria, was de- feated at the battle of Magne'sia 190 B. C, and lost a large part of his territory, besides paying tribute. The Maccdonia7i power was ruined by the Romans at Pydna, 168 B. C. Greece was re- duced to the condition of a province, on the destruction of Corinth by Mummius 146 B. C. 141. The power of Rome was now supreme. Instead of being one of the great powers, she was the sole great power. The con- quered countries were called provinces. Each was ruled by a governor, who had the rank of prcctor or proconszil. No salary was attached to this office, but the governor was allowed to make levies on the people. This system led to shameful abuses, and it was almost impossible for the unfortunate provincials to obtain re- dress, as the very spoils of the governor enabled him to defy suc- cessful prosecution. 142. The Military Strength of Rome at this period consisted of about 800,000 able-bodied men. Armies were not so large as during the existence of the unwieldy Oriental empires. Briefly, the great success of the Romans depended on: ( 1) rigid discipline and admirable tactics; (2) superiority of weapons and armor; (3) the qztinc7inx battle order, as opposed to the rank-and-file system ; (4) national unity and intense patriotism; (5) promotion for bravery. 143. Condition of Rome. — Rome was now wealthy and en- riched by the treasure and works of art of many conquered cities. Great public improvements were made. The streets were paved, 174, and sewers built. The Ma'rian aqueduct, built 144 B. C.,cost $10,000,000. Strangers poured in, many of them Greeks. The lat- ter introduced the elegant culture of Greece. The study of the Greek language and the aping of Greek customs became very popular. 144. Senseless extravagance began with increased wealth. Fortunes were spent on a single dinner. As much as 100,000 ses- terces ($5,000) were paid for a superior cook and 200,000 for a first- class literary Greek slave. Sumptuary laws regulating expendi- ture were passed, but availed nothing.* 145. Public morals declined rapidly under the influence of wealth and the introduction of effeminate Oriental and Greek cus- toms. A slave population crowded out the freemen. It is esti- mated that the slaves in Italy in the first century B. C. numbered 7,000,000, while the freemen were only 5,000,000. The extinction of 7n id die class free77icn was the death knell of R0771C. *The wealth of ancient times is greatly overestimated. The rich men of to-day are un" questionably the wealthiest that the world has ever seen. 876 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. lipoch of Civil Strife, ijj-iji B. C. 146. Society at Rome was now very different from that of the early ages. Instead of the old distinctions of Patrician and Plebeian, there were the rich and the pour. The merchants, chief officials, and the tax farmers (men who collected the taxes on spec- ulation) grew enormously rich. The small land-owners of Italy grew year by year poorer and diminished in numbers. The country people flocked to the city, where, without means of support, they gradually learned to sell their votes to corrupt politicians for bread. It had been the custom in early times for the rich families to have numerous clients. These clients were poor but respectable, and in return for a certain degree of protection gave their services when called upon in times of danger. Now these clients were little else than a venal mob, ready to parade the streets of Rome and inau- gurate bloodshed at the beck of their master. 147. Seditions of the Gracchi. — Tiberius Gracchus, one of the Tribunes, proposed, 133 B. C, an agrarian law similar to the Licinian law (see Sec. 131). The object of this law was to redis- tribute the public lands so that no citizen could hold more than 500 ju' oera (about 320 acres). Many citizens had held lands so long undisturbed that they considered their claims amounting to owner- ship. The law was passed and the colleague of Gracchus vetoed it. Gracchus had his colleague expelled from office. A sedition arose and Gracchus, with many of his adherents, was murdered 133 B.C. Ten years later his brother, Caius Gracchus, revived the law and secured the passage of a law by which grain was sold at a nominal rate. Later it was given away, thus establishing a dangerous precedent by which a large part of the populace of Rome became idlers and paupers. Another massacre followed, in which Caius Gracchus lost his life, 121 B. C. 148. The Social War, 90-SS B. C, followed, in which 300,000 men of Rome and Italy fell in battle. It ended by Rome con- ceding to the Italians most of the rights so long withheld. 149. Wars of Ma ' rius and Sulla. — The time had now arrived when the people of Rome held the interests of a faction above those of their common country. Caius Marius and Lucius Cor- nelius Sulla were rivals, the former the leader of the popular power, the latter of the aristocratic. Marius was an old and tried soldier, rough, hut an excellent lighter and successful general. lie had de- feated the Teutons and Cimbri, 102-101 B. C, with great slaughter, and contrary to custom, was six times elected consul. Sulla had served under Marius. lie was not only a soldier, but also a man of culture, fond of literature and the arts. They were rivals for the command of the- expedition against Mithrida' tes, king of Pontus. 150. Marius secured the passage of a law by which the newly enfranchised Italians were distributed among the tribes in such a I f IS TOli r. 277 way as to control a majority of the whole. They easily passed a law recalling Sulla and appointing Marius to the command of the expedition. Sulla marched to the city and Marius fled. After in- credible hardships and escapes he reached Africa in safety. Cinna, one of the consuls, now espoused the cause of Marius and, by means of revolution, took possession of Rome. Marius returned and Rome was given over to scenes of cold-blooded massacre. Those whom he wished put to death he refused to salute. The friends of Sulla were proscribed, that is, lists were made out and posted in public places and all whose names appeared in the lists were slain wherever found. In the midst of these disturbances Marius died and the leadership of the party devolved upon Cinna. In the meantime Sulla had overcome Mithridates, who was a brave and skillful leader and the only enemy who had really much pros- pect of opposing Rome successfully. Sulla returned and took Rome 83 B. C. He began a still more dreadful proscription of the opposite party. A reward was placed on each head. The heads of the victims were brought to Sulla and piled on his porches. In these wars 200 senators and 150,000 citizens perished. Sulla ruled with absolute power. He styled himself the " Fortunate." To the surprise of everybody he suddenly resigned power and re- tired to private life. 151. The Triumvirate (rule of three men). — Rome was no longer a republic. It was destined to be ruled by ambitious men. The infamous Cat' aline, leader of the insubordinate elements, formed a plot to burn Rome. It was detected and defeated by Cicero. Cataline and his followers all perished in battle. The three chief leaders now were Cneius Pompey, Publins Licinius Crassits and Caius yulius C.n7 king of England. The Saxon kings of England had innumerable diffi- culties to contend with. Their subjects were ignorant, semi-bar- barous and turbulent. Their country was beset by foreign invad- ers from time to time. These invaders were Danes and the kin- dred Scandinavian tribes of Northern Europe, called Norsemen, Northmen and Normans. These fierce invaders came in succe-^- ive hordes until a large part of Eastern England became Danish. Those who overran Northern France were called Normans. 199. Alfred the Great (871-901), one of the Saxon kings of England, was one of the wisest and best rulers of his time. HfSTORT. 28? During his reign the Danes invaded England and overran almost the entire country. But Alfred finally defeated them and compelled them to remain in their own part of the island as his subjects. He founded the University of Oxford and encouraged the establish- ment of schools. 200. Canute the Great was a Dane. His father conquered England in revenge for a terrible massacre of the Danes. He was a wise ruler. 201. The Norman Conquest. — The Northmen gave name to the province of Normandy in France. They had adopted the French language and become more highly civilized than the Eng- glish. Edward the Confessor, the last Saxon king whose title was undisputed, died without heirs. He was by his mother a relative of William, Duke of Normandy ( William the Conoueror). Edward favored his succession to the English throne. Harold was elected to succeed Edward. His claim was disputed by his brother Tostig, who claimed descent from the Danish king's. Tostigf and his allies the Scots and Norwegians, were defeated. 202. Battle of Hastings. — In the meantime William of Nor- mandy landed at Hastings (1066), with a powerful army. Harold was killed altera long contest, in which the English suffered dread- fully. Most of the Saxon nobility perished and William became master of England. 203. William reduced the Saxons to a condition little short of absolute slavery. The lands were all parceled out to the great Nor- man barons or retained as royal estates. Every precaution was taken to prevent the English from regaining their liberty. Curfew bells were rung at dusk, after which it was unlawful for any person to keep a light or fire burning. The Saxons, however, stuck tenaciously to their mother tongue and their own customs. It was a long time before the two peoples really united, and then they were more Saxon than Norman. The union was accelerated when King John lost Normandy. The Normans of England then felt obliged to become a part of the English people. 204. The Plantagenets. — The direct Norman line ended with Stephen, 1 1 54. His successor was Henry Plantagenet, called Henry II. He was neither Norman nor English except in the female line. Henry attempted to reform the vices and check the growing power of the clergy. In this he was opposed by the church. The Archbishop of Canterbury, the famous Thomas Cl Becket, was slain at the altar bv some zealous followers of Henry. For this crime the king afterward did penance. The Conquest of Ireland was completed during the reign of Henry II, 1171. 205. Henry was succeeded bv his rebellious son, Richard Cceur de Lion. This renowned hut haughty monarch achieved great fame as a leader of the second crusade. (See Sec. 247). 206. Magna Charta. — John the brother of Richard, was an TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARr. inefficient tyrannical prince. He lost Normandy, which was taken by the French. When his tyrannies grew insupportable, the no- bility compelled him to signal Runny mede, June 15, 12 15, the Mag- na Charta, " Great Charter." This instrument granted certain ina- lienable rights to the people forever. It was the foundation of English liberty. 207. The Conquest of Wales was accomplished by Edward I, }. lie prosecuted a war with Scotland in which the renowned William Wallace defeated an English army of 40,000 men at Stirling^ 1297. Edward, however, established the English power in Scotland for the time. 208. Robert Bruce was the rightful claimant to the Scotch throne. He defeated the English with great slaughter at Bannock- n (1314), and established his right to the throne. Edward III of England again brought the .Scots to submission. 209. War with Trance. — Edward now laid claim to the throne of France as he was related through his mother to Charles IV of France, who died without heirs. He began a series of wars which lasted for one hundred years. The details of these wars are un- profitable. The principal events were: (1) The battle Crecy, 1346, a great English victory. Cannon were first used in this battle, the English having a lew small pieces. * (2) The siege anil capture of Calais. (3) The great battle of Poitiers in which the Black Prime with 12,000 men defealed 60,000 French. By the treaty of peace the English held Aquataine. (4) The battle of Agincourt, 1415. English victory. The treaty of peace which followed declared that Henrv V of England should succeed to the crown of France on the death of Charles V 1 of France. Both kings died at the same time, 1422. War renewed. (5) Great uprising of the French under Joan of Arc. the Maid of Orleans. Victories of the French. Burning of Joan of Arc by the English in the market place of Rouen, 1431. Total expulsion of the English •453- 210. During the reign of Richard II a great insurrection took place headed by Wat Tyler, 1 38 1. The people demanded the abatement of an unjust poll tax. Violence and bloodshed followed. Tyler was killed. Concessions were afterward granted to the peo- ple, whose claims were just. But these concessions were soon re- called and the leaders of the people tried and executed. The revolt was suppressed with great cruelty. 211. Wars of the Roses. — A terrible war broke out 1 (S.S between the houses of York and Lancaster, rival claimants for the English throne. This was called the war of the roses, because the rkists wore as a badge a white rose and the Lancastrians a red. These wais continued at intervals for thirty years and ended in the triumph of the house of Lancaster. In this struggle the English nobility was almost exterminated. BUROPE A\i> Asia i\ GENERAL. 212. France in the Middle Ages. —The history of France dur- ing the middle ages affords few lessons of importance to the student. HISTORY. 289 The points in her history of most interest to English readers have heen given in the History of England. Her annals record little but a succession of worthless kings and hopeless oppression of the people. 213. The Jacquerie (Zhak'er-e). — A frightful insurrection of the peasantry (nicknamed Jacquerie) took place throughout France during the reign of John who ascended the throne 1450. It was caused by the misery and utter hopelessness of the peasantry. Cas- tles were sacked and their inmates put to death with shocking bar- barity. At length the peasants were defeated and a general mas- sacre began. They were hunted and destroyed like wild beasts until whole sections of country were nearly depopulated. 214. Italy in the Middle Ages. — Italy had nominally belonged to Germany as a part of "the Holy Roman Empire" founded by Charlemagne. But the powerful influence of the popes combined with local causes resulted in long wars between the Guelphs and Ghibellin.es. The latter sided with the German Emperors. The Guelphs upheld Italian interests and were usually sustained by the Pope of Rome. The struggle ended in the complete overthrow of German influences. 215. The Italian Republics had their origin during this long period of disorder. Venice grew to be a wealthy maritime city with powerful naval and military influence. Her government was really not republican at all. It consisted of a close aristocracy who elected a chief officer called Doge. Genoa was the chief maritime rival of Venice. Florence was noted for the wealth and culture of her citizens. Her gold coin called the Florin circulated all over Europe. The great family of the Medici (Med' e-che) acquired the chief power at Florence in the 15th century. Under the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici, Florence became noted for the attainments of her painters, sculptors and architects. 216. Germany for several centuries after the time of Charle- magne was one of the greatest powers in Europe. Her rulers were not only kings of Germany but emperors of " the Holy Roman Empire," revived by Charlemagne. The power of the empire gradually declined. No attempt will be made to give the details of its history here. The constant quarrels with Italy were the most important. Switzerland declared its independence of the Empire 130S. After a long struggle it was acknowledged 1499. 217. The Hanseatic League was formed by Hamburg, Bre- men, and Lubec about the middle of the 13th century. It con- sisted of a union for mutual defence against private and other foes, and for the promotion of commerce. It finally included nearly all the cities of Germany, and became so strong that it engaged suc- cessfully in wars with the great powers. The last convocation of the representatives of the league was in 1630. 218. Tartar Conquerors. — The plains of Central Asia have '9 900 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. at various times poured forth hordes of savage conquerors both cast and west. The Huns, a Tartar people who invaded the Roman Empire in the 5th century, were the terror of the adjoining nations. ( See Sec. 1S6). They were a coarse, savage and brutal people. 219. The Seljuk Turks ( Sel'yook) or Turcomans, took Jerusa- lem from the Saracens, 1076, and threatened the Greek Empire. The Seljuks were in turn overthrown by the Mongols, or Moguls^ Tar- tar race under the renowned Jenghiz Khan, who reigned from 1206 to 1227. It is said that he caused the destruction of 5,000,000 of human beings. For a century these Mongols cruelly ravaged and plundered from China to Poland. Their atrocities exceeded those of the Turks even. In 125S they overthrew the Saracen cali- phate at Bagdad. In 1299 the Ottomans ox Ottoman Turks began a career of successful conquests which lasted a century and a half. They are the Turks of the present day. Tamerlane or Timour was another great conqueror. He totally defeated Baj'azet the Ot- toman sultan in a tremendous battle in Angora 1402. He also defeated the Mohammedan sultan of India. The Mongols finally conquered India and established the empire of the " Great Mo- gul," 1526. All these Tartar invaders adopted the Moslem faith. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 220. The barbarians who overthrew the Roman empire a< - knowledged as supreme authority some great chieftain. In that age of incessant warfare the chief was nearly always a. man whose Strength, skill and daring enabled him to excel in feats of battle. The invaders parceled out the lands of the conquered, allotting a large portion to the king or principal chieftain and smaller portions to the subordinate chiefs and freemen, according to the German cus- tom which allowed every freeman a portion of land. In that age of violence the individual could not hope to hold his land ami enjoy its fruits in peace. Union was necessary to protection. Hence the chieftain granted the right of using the lands to his followers, and they in turn agreed to take up arms in defense of the chieftain and for the common weal. The king could from his large domain make grants to any one. This grant was called a feudum or //<•/" and the tenure by which it was held a feudal tenure* This tenure was entirely different from an original allotment or allodium. This latter belonged to the holder as his own, to do with as he pleased, while the feudal -rant might he retailed if the person holding it failed to perform the service on which it depended. 221. Growth of Feudalism. — Owing to the turbulence of the times, the tendency on the part of the small landholders, holding allodiums, was to surrender their lands and take them again on feudal tenure, thus placing themselves under the protection of the great barons. The person granting a feudal tenure was called liege, lord* or suzerain. The dependent was called a liegeman*. HISTORY. 291 •vassal or retainer. Soon all the lands of the kingdom were held under this system of tenure. The king had for his vassals the great barons; these were lords of the lesser chiefs. The church also held large estates. 222. The fief consisted of the castle where the owner lived with his family and men-at-arms; and the attached domains, includ- ing the villages and the lands. The villagers were called villains, from villc, a town or city. They were freeborn men. The serfs belonged to the soil and were sold with it. Though not slaves in the ordinary sense of the word, their condition was a species of slavery which soon led to gross abuse of power on the part of the ruling classes. The power of the lords may be seen in the fact that they were the magistrates of the district, from whom there was no appeal unless the king chose to interfere. 223. The influence of feudalism was bad. It was at first a necessity of the times, but it soon led to oppression of the lower classes. It prevented the growth of nationality. It suppressed in- dividual effort, and thus prevented progress and crushed the spirit of the common people. It originated with the German tribes and the old Roman custom of allotment. It gradually extended all over Europe. The chief influences which contributed to its down- fall were: — (i) The rise of cities which, as we have seen in the case of the Hanseatic league and the Italian republics, became very powerful. (2) The influence of royalty, which began to be exerted against the feudal system because of the in- subordination of the great barons. (3) The clergy, which constantly sought to aggrandize the church at the expense of all other powers. . CHIVALRY. 224. Chivalry naturally grew out of Feudalism. The Teu- tonic tribes had always paid woman great respect compared with the other ancient nations. Their admiration of deeds of bravery amounted almost to a passion. The true soldier necessarily com- bined gallantry and bravery, and the cultivation of the two pro- duced the knight of the middle acres. 225. It was the custom for the vassals of a lord to send their sons to the castle to receive training in military exercises and the etiquette of the times. From the ages of seven to fourteen these boys were called pages. The page associated with the ladies and accompanied them when they went hawking or hunting. The ladies and their knights taught him courtly manners by precept and example. 226. At the age of fourteen the page became a squire and at- tached himself to some knight as his assistant. He assisted his knight to don his armor, handed him fresh lances and came to his rescue when the master needed assistance. 227. At twenty-one the squire, if worthy, became a knight. 292 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. This required much ceremony. He fasted, confessed his sins, and passed the night in watching and prayer. Then, having bathed, he was clothed in new garments handsomely adorned. lie went to the church and was examined. If deemed worthy he received the sacrament and took the vows. lie vowed that he would he good, brave, loyal, just and generous, that he would be a champion of the church, a protect or of woman and a redresser of wrong. He vowed to assist the widow, the orphan and the helpless. To com- plete the ceremony the prince gave the candidate a slight blow on the neck (dubbed) with the fiat of a sword. This was the last blow he was to receive unresented. 228. The knight was covered from head to foot with chain or plate armor. lie was armed with a sword, battle-ax, mace, which was a heavy missile weapon, and a lance. His horse was also pro- tected by armor. Knights rode about the country in search of ad- ventures, and were then called kniifhts-erra)it. 229. The characteristic amusement of chivalry was the tourna- ment. The contesting knights fought on horseback in the lists, in the presence of the royal household and the gentry of the vicinity. These combats were innocent, as the participants did not engage in a life-or-death struggle, as did the gladiators of Rome. 230. Each knight usually selected some lady to whom he vowed perpetual constancy, and in whose name he went forth to win renown. 231. On the whole the influence of chivalry was good. It in- culcated gentle manners, respect for the female sex and charity to- ward the helpless. Some of its practices degenerated into absurd- ity, and its beautiful precepts were often disregarded. Still, chivalry largely laid the foundation of that gentleness which is so marked a trait of the moderns when contrasted with the savagery of some of the most polished of the ancients. Chivalry may be said to have continued from iooo to 1500 A. D. RISE OF POPERY. 232. The influence of popery upon the history of Europe from the fall of Rome until nearly the present time has been so great that a correct understanding of its rise and growth is abso- lutely necessary to the student of history. That understanding may best he obtained by taking a connected view of the Papacy. 233. In the general chaos which resulted from the downfall of ancient Rome the Christian church, as the most widely spread and the best disciplined organization of the times, naturally exerted .1 great influence upon social and political affairs. The bishop of Rome, as the highest functionary of the church in a city whose prestige made her the first in the world, gradually began to assume the leadership of the entire church. At first the arbiter in spiritual affairs, he soon learned to wield his influence in political disputes. HIS TORT. 293 This assumption of supreme authority in spiritual affairs on the part of the bishop of Rome was opposed by the Eastern Christians and resulted at an early day in splitting the church into the Eastern or Greek Catholics and the Western or Roman Catholics. The head of the Greek church is the "patriarch of Constantinople. 234. The Roman pontiff '(a name derived from Pontifex Max- imus, the chief priest of pagan Rome) was called papa (father), to which was affixed the epithet sanctus, meaning in English "The Holy Father," or "His Holiness the Pope/ 1 235. The papacy first became a temporal power at the close of the 8th century. Pep 'in of France invaded Italy to rescue it from the Lombards. The eastern and southern part of Italy had always belonged to the Greek empire, under the name of the "Ex- archate of Ravenna." The Lombards took this territory from the Eastern empire. Pepin in turn wrested it from the Lombards and bestowed it upon the Pope of Rome. Charlemagne, son of Pepin, when crowned Emperor of the West (8oo A. D.), confirmed the grant. The pope now became not only spiritual ruler of all Europe, but also a temporal prince. 236. The power of the Popes gradually increased for two centuries until about the middle of the ioth century, when it re- sulted in an open rupture between the Pope and the Emperor of Germany. The emperors claimed and for a long time exercised the right of investiture, that is the right of bestowing on bishops and abbots the ring and the staff, which were the symbols of their office. The bishops on whom office was thus bestowed really be- came vassals of the emperor and naturally sided with him in all cases of dispute. 7/ildebrand, who was crowned Pope Gregory VII, 1073 A. D., determined to deprive the emperors of the right of investiture. He had it proclaimed by a general council, that if any one should accept investiture from a layman, both the giver and receiver should be excommunicated. 237. Henry IV, Emperor of Germany and Italy (the latter nominally), openly defied this decree. Gregory absolved Ucnry^s subjects from their allegiance. Henry prepared for war, but to his consternation found that his German subjects refused to fight for a monarch who was under the ban of the Pope and by the logic of llic times consequently under the ban of God. The Italian cities and bishops offered Henry ample assistance, but he preferred to undergo the most humiliating penance, and receive the papal absolution. Ik- stood for three days and nights in the dead of win- ter in an open court barefoot and with no clothing but a woolen shirt. This degradation of the greatest monarch of bis time did not avail to prevent strife. The Lombards were indignant. Henry besieged Rome and committed terrible devastation. Greg- ory was obliged to <^o into exile. 238. During its early career the power o( the papacy and the 2M TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. church was without doubt oftenest exerted in behalf of the right and in defence of the oppressed. The tierce spirits of the times were restrained as they could he by no other means. At one period the church in Fiance proclaimed a truce ij God. This began Wednesday evening and vnded Monday morning. The Emperor of Germany ordered its observance, and for a time all hostility ceased. But later, in the plenitude and arrogance of its power Popery became one of the most merciless and cruel des- pot ivms of which the world has furnished an example. It stirred up the crusade which destroyed the peaceful Albigenscs in the south of France (1226). It hunted the Vaudois of the Piedmont valleys like wild beasts. It fired Spanish big, .try to make war on the people of the Netherlands, and attempted to crush the stout- hearted, liberty-loving Dutch. It established the Inquisition which racked, tortured and burned the bodies of its victims for opinion's sake. It opposed real liberty and true progress. After the Reformation (1520) the influence of the Pope gradually declined. His te?nporal power ended in 1870, when Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, took possession of the " States of the Church." THE CRUSADES. 239. For two hundred years the most important events in the history of Europe were the crusades. They had their origin in a desire' on the part of Christians to rescue Palestine from the Ma- hometans. The word crusade, from the French eroi.x (cross) means a war for the cross. It was the custom among pious Chris- tians to perform pilgrimages to the holy sepulcher at Jerusalem. The Saracens had allowed these pilgrims to visit that country in peace, but when Palestine was conquered by the Turks near the close of the 11th century (see Sec. 219) the pilgrims were subjected to many indignities and scoffed at as unbelieving dogs. 240. Peter the Hermit, a French monk, returned from the pilgrimage and received the sanction of Pope Urban II to preach a crusade. He traveled over Europe speaking everywhere to mul- titudes, and aroused popular enthusiasm to a high pitch. Two councils of the church were called and a crusade was determined on, 1095. It was agreed that a red eross worn on the breast or shoulder should be the badge of the crusaders. 241. In the spring of 1 096 a rabble consisting of 250,000 men, women and children, unarmed, and without supplies, set out to march through Europe and Asia to Palestine. They plundered the people of tin- country through which they passed. The en- raged peasantry dispersed them and slaughtered them by thou- sands. A miserable remnant crossed the Bosphorus and were cut to pieces by the Turks. iiiSTonr. 295 242. The flower of European chivalry followed, 600,000 strong, under various leaders, chief of whom were Godfrey of Bouillon and Robert, Duke of" Normandy. The cavalry formed the choicest part of this grand army. It consisted of 100,000 men, knights, squires and attendants. They wore beautifully embroid- ered and ermined surcoats and glittered in polished armor. 243. The first engagement was at Nice (Nicaea) in Asia Minor, which city was captured. At Dory lse ' urn the Sultan of Roum attacked the crusaders with an immense cavalry force esti- mated at 300,000. In close conflict the light-armed soldiers of the East could not withstand the heavy blows of the strong-armed, well-disciplined Europeans. The Turks were defeated with a loss of 30,000. 244. The crusaders continued their march to Antioch, incur- ring terrible losses from the heat of the desert, famine, and the enemy. The march was begun with 100,000 horses, but only 2,000 remained when Antioch surrendered, June, 1098. The city was besieged for seven months and only surrendered through the treachery of a Syrian officer. A force of 200,000 Mohammedans, sent by the Sultan of Persia, arrived to assist the city, and the Christians were now besieged in turn. The Mohamme- dans were driven off finally, but of the 600,000 crusaders there re- mained only 1,500 cavalry, 20,000 foot and an equal number of camp followers. 245. Jerusalem was stormed by Godfrey, July, 1098, after a siege of five weeks. The Jews were burned in their synagogues and 70,000 Moslems massacred. 246. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was formed, with Godfrey as king, and the first crusade closed. A Second Crusade (1147-1149) was organized to assist the kingdom of Jerusalem, which was hard pressed by the Saracens. Conrad III, Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII, of France, led 300,000 choice troops. The Emperor was defeated in Asia and his army nearly annihilated. A small remnant of the two armies succeeded in reaching Jerusalem, hut accomplished nothing. 247. A Third Crusade (1189-1 192) was led by Richard I, of England (Richard the lion-hearted), Philip Augustus, of France, and Frederick Barbarrossa (Red-beard) of Germany. The Em- peror was drowned while bathing in a little stream in Cilicia. His army fell into disorder and suffered terrible losses. 248. The English and French went by sea to Acre, where they were joined by the remnant of the Germans. Acre was taken (1191) after numerous battles and a siege of twenty-three months. The leader of the Saracens in this war was the cele- brated Sal'adin, a brave, chivalrous and generous soldier. He had united the .Saracens from the Nile to the Euphrates and his power was well nigh invincible. The leaders of the crusaders quarreled 396 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. among themselves, and Richard remained to continue the war. lie soon made favorable terms of peace with Saladin, who greatly admired him. Several other crusades took place but they were all barren of results. Gradually the Mohammedans regained the whole of Pal- estine. 249. Influence of the Crusades. — Though the crusades failed in their immediate object their influence on Europe was great and lasting. The results may he summarized: — (i) The transportation of supplies by sea gave rise to a prosperous coin merce which proved permanent. The taste for oriental spices, silks, and othei productions led to that interchange of products which is so necessary to modern civilization. (2) The intermingling of so many different nations tended to break up local prejudices. Men learned to respect the people of other countries. Eu- ropeans learned that even the reviled Moslems were as brave, generous, and polished as themselves. (3) The crusades contributed much to the breaking up of the feudal sya tern. The great barons incurred such expense in fitting out their forces that many were obliged to dispose of a portion of their lands to free themselves from debt. The long wars broke their power, and thenceforth the nation began to prevail over its great subjects. (4) Thev promoted the diffusion of knowledge by bringing the civilization of the Saracens and Greeks in contact with that of Western Europe. (5) Lastly but not least, a multitude of robbers, murderers and thieves went for the sake of pardon or plunder, and never returned. CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLli AGES. 250. From the fall of Rome to the close of the nth century was a period in which ignorance and superstition reigned supreme, hence this time is often called the « Dark Ages." The universal ignorance of the Dark Ages depended on several causes. All the knowledge of Western and Southern Europe had been in the Latin Language. When the dominion of Rome ended, her lan- guage became corrupted so rapidly by the influx of foreigners and the absence of instruction that it soon ceased to be spoken by the common people. Latin necessarily continued to be the language in which the laxvs were written and in which all legal business was transacted. It also continued to be the language of the church and of the educated classes. The modern languages then forming were deemed unworthy of culture. No hooks were written in them and the masses of the people were thus effectually cut oil' from all means of learning. 251. Learning was almost exclusively confined to the clergy and the monks. Even kings could not write their own names. Monasteries were numerous, and though monkish learning was not inventive it was preservative, and to the church we owe most that remains to us of ancient knowledge. 252. Another cause of the prevailing ignorance was the e\- pensiveness of hooks and their consequent scarcity. Papy'rus, HTSTORT. 297 which had been imported from Egypt, became very clear when that country was conquered by the Saracens. Parchment was the only available material, and books became so costly that only wealthy persons could afford them. In some cases the loan of a book was a transaction of such importance that the person borrow- ing was obliged to give a heavy bond for its safe return. 253. The ignorance of the times grave rise to the grossest su- perstition. The trial of 'battle was universal. By this custom an accused person was obliged to fight his accuser. Prisoners were obliged lo undergo the ordeal, that is, handle red-hot iron, walk on red-hot plowshares, etc. It was believed that the innocent would escape all these trials unharmed. 254. The common people were poor and the wealth of the nobility was comparatively insignificant compared with Roman times or our own day. The rich everywhere as a rule oppressed the poor. The upper classes owned everything, the people were little better than slaves. Clannishness and suspicion of foreigners prevailed. The Jews were universally despised and persecuted. Slavery died hard and only disappeared at a comparatively modern date. Horrible atrocities were usually committed in war. The people were often brutal to a degree beyond credence. 255. The conveniences of life were few and simple. Labor- saving machinery was little used. Stoves, carpets, china ware, etc., were unknown, even to the rich. Chimneys came into use about the 15th century. Glass windows were introduced into England in the 12th century and were taxed as a luxury for a long time. Time was measured by means of sun-dials, though Alfred the Great devised a system of measuring the hours by means of burn- ing candles. Haroun al Raschid presented Charlemagne a clock at the end of the Sth century. 256. The only really great works of the middle ages were the cathedrals. In the nth, 12th, 13th and 14th centuries these splendid edifices rose all over Europe. Some of them occupied from one to two or more centuries in building:. Some of the most noted of these great churches are the cathedrals of Stras- burg, Milan, Cologne, St. Peter's at Rome, and St. Paul's at London. 257. Revival. — One of the earliest signs of advancing civili- zation was the springing up of cities. These were all zcallcd, and thus afforded security to life and property. They fostered learning and promoted commerce. The influence of cities was very great. (See Sec. 215). 258. The Great Universities were another means of stimulat- ing the intellectual growth of the period. These great schools be- came popular to a degree almost incredible to us of the present time. The University of Oxford was said to have been founded by Alfred in the 9th centurv. In the 12th century it had 3,000 stu- TEACHERS AND STUDENTS LIBRART. dents. In the 12th century the University of Bologna had 10,000 student-. In the 15th, the University of Paris had 25,000. 259. A New Literature began t<> spring up in French, Span- ish, Italian, and German about the time of the crusades. Chaucer, the lather of English literature, was born 1328. There was little worthy of the name of science in the middle ages. Some of the arithmetics consisted of less than a dozen pages. The Arabic notation was introduced from Spain in the 10th century. Al'chcmv was universal and gave rise to chemistry. 260. Inventions. — The mariner's compass, gunpowder and cannon came into use early in the 14th century. (See Sec. 207. The invention of printing from movable types is claimed both by the Dutch and Germans. The latter seem to have the best grounds for claiming the invention. (in' tenburg, a German, printed a quarto Bible some time between 1450 and 1455.* MODERN HISTORY PROPER. 261. As stated before, modern history may for convenience be divided into the middle ages and modern history proper. The latter period begins about 1450 A. D. The great inventions, the general spirit of enterprise and the rapid dawn of enlighten- ment fix the 15th century as the true dividing line. 262. The Great Powers have heretofore been England. France, The German Empire, TJie Italian Cities, The Greek Empire, The Eastern Saracens, or their successors, the Turks, and The Saracens of Spain, called Moors. Besides these the Pope exercised a sort of general spiritual and temporal power. The Christian kingdoms of Spain, Aragou, Castile and Navarre were rising into power, as were also Sweden, Poland and Russia. 263. Important changes in the political map of Europe took place at the beginning of the modern period. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) ended the Greek Empire. The capture of Grenada (1492) ended the decayed Moorish king- dom in Spain. The nations of Europe began to assume largely their present boundaries. 264. Maritime Enterprise. — A period of great maritime ac- tivity began near the close of the 15th century. The great events were the Discovery of America by Columbus (149-) under the auspices of Spain and the doubling of the Cape of (iood Hope by Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator ( 1498). The leaders in maritime discoveries were the Spanishand Portuguese, followed by the English, Dutch, brench, Swedes and others. • Acopyofthh BibU in excellent pn was sold for $S,ooo at the Brinley book sale ..• II irtford, 1 "nn., April 11,1 HISTORT. 299 GREAT EVENTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. /. The. Reformation. 265. In the beginning of the sixteenth century the papacy was in the zenith of its power. All Europe, except Turkey and Russia, was Roman Catholic. But prosperity had begotten nu- merous abuses. One of the most flagrant of these was the sale of indulgences (which absolved the holder, on payment of a specified sum, not only from sins committed but even from sins which he in- tended to commit). This afforded a large revenue to the depleted papal treasury. Tctzc/ y who was agent for the sale of indulgences in Germany, carried on the traffic in a manner especially odious. 266. Martin Luther, professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, opposed the traffic and vainly sought to have it suppressed. He appealed to the people and published ( 1 517) ninety-five theses condemning the sale of indulgences as con- trary to reason and Scripture. Pope Leo X issued a /W/ (decree) declaring Luther excommunicated and his theses heretical. Luther burned the bull in the presence of a multitude at Wittenberg. This act declared open war between the papacy and the Reform- ers (1520). 267. The cause of Luther was now openly espoused by Fred- erick, Elector of Saxony. Other German princes followed, and the Reformation soon acquired great political power. 268. Leo X determined to crush the new doctrines, and ap- pealed to Charles V, Emperor of Germany, to cany out. this design. Charles V was the most powerful monarch of his time. He was a son of Philip, Archduke of Austria, and Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Spain. He inherited the crown of Austria, the government of Flanders and of Spain, which latter included Naples, Sardinia, Sicily, and a large part of America. In addition to all this he had been elected Emperor of Germany. 269. This powerful monarch determined to crush the Reforma- tion. He summoned the German Diet (the Princes of the Em- pire) to meet at Worms, and ordered Luther to appear before it under " safe conduct." Luther was asked to retract, but boldly refused to do so. He was then declared a heretic. The new doc- trines rapidly spread into Switzerland, France, England, Scotland, and in fact all Northern Europe. 270. In 1529 the Diet of Spires renewed the outlawry of Luther, and the condemnation of his doctrines. Seven princes and fifteen cities protested against this decree. From that time the reformers were called Protestants. The most important feat- ures of the new church were: :;ia) and Auerstadt (Our' stat) Oct. 14. Prussian loss, 40,000 men killed, wounded and prisoners. Joseph Bonaparte made king of Naples, Louis Bonaparte king of Holland. 1807. Drawn battle at Eylau (f'hnu) Feb. 8. Russian loss, 25,000 killed and wounded. French loss, 30,000 killed and wounded. Russians defeated at the bloody battle of Friedland, June 14. Peace of Tilsit, favorable to Napol- eon. New Kingdom of Westphalia, on the Rhine, with Jerome Bonaparte as king. Milan Decree against English commerce. 1808. The French lose and gain ground in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte de- clared king of Spain, June 6. 1809. Battle of Aspern and Esseling ; French defeat. Battle of Wa- gram, July 5 and 6; Austrians defeated. Capture of Vienna. Austria deprived of more territory. 1810-1811. Continuous war between French and English in Spain. Zenith of Napoleon's power. 1812. Invasion of Russia by the " Grand Army," numbering 500,000 men. Battle of Borodino (Bor-o-dee' no). Russians defeated with loss of 47,000 men killed, wounded and prisoners. French loss 50,000. Burning of Moscow. Horrors of the Winter retreat. Total loss of the grand army, 450,000. 1813. Napoleon defeats the Prussians and Russians at Lutzen and Baut- zen May. Is defeated by the allied Austrians, Prussians and Russians at Leipsic (Life' sic) Oct. 16-19. French loss, 60,000. Loss of the allies, 40,000. 1814. Occupation of Paris by the allies. Abdication of Napoleon and his retirement to the island of Elba, with the rank of Emperor. 1815. Napoleon again assumes the government of France — " The 100 day6." Defeated at Waterloo, June 18. Exiled to St. Helena. Died 182 1 THE NINETEENTH CENTUIiY. 331. China and Japan. — But little was known accurately of these countries until the present century. China lias a very ancient civilization, dating back to at least 2000 B. C. The religion of the country is Confu' danism, from Confucius its founder. Many of the great inventions were made independently by the Chinese, • is the mariner's compass and gunpowder. Both countries were closed to foreigners until recently. The Japanese are progressing rapidly in civilization. 332. France. — After the exile of Napoleon the Bourbons were restored to the throne of France. A war began between England and the United States in 1S12 and lasted until 1815. The results were favorable to the United States (see history of U. S.). The South American Republics, the Empire of Brazil, the Centra 1 American Suites and Mexico became independent between the 812 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. years [810 and [821. Greece, with the aid of European powers established her independence, 1S21. 333. The Bourbons continued to rule France until a revolution drove them from the throne, 1830. The cause was a renewal of the old Bourbon absolutism. Louis Phillippe was elected king. He reigned until another revolution took place, in 1848, when a republic was established for a time. 334. Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the great Napoleon, ille- gally seized the government, and was declared Emperor, with the title Napoleon III, Dec. 2, 1852. He reigned until 1870, until a republic was proclaimed at the close of the Franco-Prussian war. 335. Reform in Great Britain The old manner of electing members of parliament had grown obsolete and afforded many op- portunities for corruption. Boroughs existed which had scarcely a dozen voters. These sittings were of course held by wealthy men and were often corruptly bought. The Reform Bill of 1832 abolished all these " rotten boroughs" and greatly increased the number of voters by allowing all who owned a certain amount of property or who paid a certain rent, to vote. The corn laws levying duty on grain and cattle were repealed 1846. Another reform bill in 1867 still further extended the Franchise. In 1869 the Irish Church was disestablished, i. e. declared to be no longer the State Church of Ireland as it still is in England. 336. A Sepoy (Se'poy) rebellion broke out in India in 1S57, led by Nana Sahib. The Sepoys were native soldiers in the British service. They rebelled because they supposed their cartridges were greased with lard, an abomination to them. The rebellion spread among the natives and was only suppressed after awful atrocities had been committed. The chief events were the mas- sacre of C awn pore and the siege of Lucknow. 337. Internal troubles in Hungary in 1S4S finally led to civil war. Austria and Russia interfered and the Hungarians were overwhelmed. The patriot leaders, Kossuth and others went to the United States in exile. 338. The Crimean War took place in 1854-5 because tnc Czar Nicholas seized some Turkish territory. France^ England and Sardinia aided Turkey lest Russia should destroy the balance of power in Europe by the acquisition of too much territory. The principal events were the battles of Alma and Inkerman and the siege of Sebastopol. Russia was forced to abandon her designs. 339. Unification of Italy. — France aided by Sardinia took a large portion of the Austrian territory in Italy, after a short, sharp war, the principal battles of which were Magenta, June 4, 1859, and Solferino, June 24. Part of Lombardy was ceded to the king of Sardinia, who in turn ceded Nice to France. Garibaldi in [860 in- augurated a revolution which finally drove out the king of Naples nd Sicily, which territories were annexed to Sardinia. This last HISTORY. 313 State now became the Kingdom of Italy. The unification was completed in 1870, when the Papal territories were added to Italy. 340. Unification of Germany. — A quarrel took place in 1S66 between Prussia and Austria over the disposition of Schleswig — Ilolstein which they had just taken from Denmark. In the great battle of Sadowa the Austrian* were totally defeated with terrible loss. The North German Confederation was then formed with Prussia as the leading State, instead of Austria. 341. The Franco-Prussian War. — France and Prussia had long been jealous of each other. Leopold, of Hohenzollern, a rela- tive of the King of Prussia ( 1S70), became a candidate for the Spanish throne. France objected and both sides began operations at once, July, 1S70. This terrific contest was soon over. The French were beaten everywhere and finallv Napoleon surrendered to King William, at Sedan, Sept. 2. Paris endured the horrors of a prolonged siege but was forced to surrender Jan. 28, 1871. A French Republic was established; France had to cede Alsace and part of Lorraine, which had been taken from Germany by Louis XIV, and pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs. 342. A war between Russia and Turkey in 1S7S ended in the defeat of the latter after a bloody struggle. At Plevna the Turks won a decided victory. Ronmelia and Servia became independent and Bulgaria semi-independent. 343. A war broke out between Chili and Peru during the year 1S79. It ended in the total defeat of Peru and the capture of Lima (1881.) At the present writing (1882) Peru is without a stable government and in a condition bordering on anarchy. 344. The Irish Land League kept up a continual agitation in Ire- land forthe reduction of rents and a redress of Irish grievances. These grievances were so real and pressing that Parliament finally passed the Irish Land Bill late in the year of 1881. A war with the Dutch Boers in South Africa was ended at the same time by Eng- land's granting most of the concessions asked by the Boers. In 1S79 a war had been waged against the Zulus of South Africa; it ended in their submission. 345. To enumerate all the wonderful inventions of the nine- teenth century and to describe adequately the works of great artists, authors, engineers, architects, the various triumphs of genius, would require a volume, hence we pass them by in silence. This is indeed an age of wonders. The true story of the struggles, difficulties and wonderful successes of many modern enterprises would read more like a tale of enchantment than the sober pagres of authentic history. 346. Conclusion. — At the end of any subject it is well to know what conclusions we mav draw from its study so that we may profit thereby. This work the author will leave to -the student with a single exception. The reader who has followed this little 314 TEACHERS AXD STUDENTS' LJBRART. work page by page must have discerned before this that the world is constantly growing Utter (croakers to the contrary notwith- standing). A comparison of Ancient and Modern history suffici- ently shows this. We often hear of "the good old days." Let us be thankful that the world has done with them. Our own times are besl in most things that subserve the happiness of the masses. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. INTRODUCTION. 1. A proper understanding of the history of the United States necessitates a brief outline, not only of the chief events in the discovery and colonization of the North American continent, hut also of the chief facts in the history of the native inhabitants of the continent and its prehistoric inhabitants. 2. The Indians. — At the time of its discovery, America was everywhere inhabited by tribes of dark-skinned people called by Columbus and his followers Indians. Columbus supposed he had discovered some part of India, hence the name Indian was applied t<- all the natives of the New World. 3. The Indians were divided into hundreds of petty tribes in- dependent of each other. Many of these tribes were almost con- stantly at war with their neighbors. Their warfare was very cruel. Prisoners were tortured to death with fiendish barbarity and whole tribes were sometimes exterminated. 4. Numbers.— The Indian population of North America was very sparse. The whole number at the discovery of America, within the present limits of the United States, has been estimated as low as 250,000. It probably was more, but did not perhaps ex- ceed 1,000,000. Mexico and Peru had at the same time a popula- tion of several millions each. 5. Mode of Life. — The Indians were more or less nomadic in their habits. They lived chiefly by hunting and fishing. Among most of the tribes the women cultivated little patches of corn, pumpkins and other vegetables. They had no towns, and villages Were rare. Their houses were wigwams made of bark and skins. Their arms were bows and arrows, stone hatchets, clubs and knives. 0. Language. -The languages of the Indians were ao-crl,<- tinative, like the Chinese, that is, long words of many syllables, describing a thing, were used instead of a single word. This may lie sufficiently illustrated by a word for goat — ( u tree-horn- hair-lip,") which was pronounced as one word. The native lan- guages wen- very numerous, the whole number in North and South America being not less than four hundred and fifty. HISTORY. 315 7. The origin ot the Indians is wrapped in profound obscurity. Many theories have been advanced to account for their presence on the American continent. Some of these theories arc absurd, all of them inadequate 8. Mexico and Peru at the time of their conquest (1519-21) had attained a very considerable degree of civilization. There were many flourishing cities containing large temples and other public buildings. 9. The Mound Builders were a people who inhabited the Mississippi Valley at an unknown period before the Indians. Noth- ing whatever is known of these people except that they were nu- merous and much more civilized than the Indians. Numerous mounds of great size, earthworks and other remains attest a former teeming population, which has passed away without leaving a single written record. DISCOVERIES. 10. The Northmen (see Gen. Hist. Sec. 19S) were the first Europeans to discover and explore the continent of North America. An account of their discoveries is given in the old chronicles of Ice- land. These discoveries began about the year 1001 and were con- tinued by various Norwegian navigators for many years. Some of these hardy explorers sailed as far south as Rhode Island. Settle- ments were made in Greenland, but a century later, the people per- ished during a terrible winter, and all knowledge of the American continent was for a time lost to the civilized world. 11. Columbus deserves the credit of discovering the New World. He was a poor map-maker, a native of Genoa, Italy. From his youth he had been conversant with maritime affairs. He early came to the conclusion that there must be large bodies of land somewhere in the west. The idea that the world was round had for some time been prevalent. Columbus did not think that a new continent would be found in the west. The land he sought was in his opinion the eastward extension of India. 12. Columbus met with many discouragements. He applied to several potentates for men and vessels, but his projects received little encouragement or open ridicule. 13. At length Queen Isabella of Spain became interested in the project of Columbus, and offered to sell her jewels to raise the necessary funds. Ferdinand, King of Spain, with his wife Isabella, jointly fitted out three small vessels which sailed from Palos on the 3d of August, 1492. Columbus was appointed viceroy of all the lands discovered. 14. The island of San Salvador, or Guanahani (Gzva-na-/ia' ni) was discovered Oct. 12. Other islands were discovered and Columbus returned to Spain, arriving March 15, 1493. Columbia made three other voyages and planted various other colonies. He 31(5 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY discovered the coast of South America, 1498. The haughty Span- ish nobility were envious of his fame and plotted against him. He was once sent to Spain in chains. The king promptly released him, but he never regained the confidence of the royal family. The grand old man died poor and broken-hearted, and was igno- rant of the real extent of his great discoveries. 15. John and Sebastian Cabot (Cab'ot), English explorers, discovered the continent of North America in the latitude of Nova Scotia 1496 (some say '94, others '97). In subsequent voyages Se- bastian Cabot explored the country as far south as Albemarle Sound and claimed the country for the English crown. 16. Americus Vespucius (Vcs-pu' s/ic-us), an Italian, made a voyage to South America in 1499. He gave the first written de- scription of the country. Hence the name America was first applied to the New World in honor of his discoveries. 17. In 1512, Ponce de Leon (Pone 1 ' tka day £xty-own'\ a Spaniard, discovered and named Florida. In 152S, Narvaez (Xar- vah' ctJi) attempted to conquer Florida, but was defeated by the Indians and afterward shipwrecked; only four men of the expedi- tion finally escaped. In 1520, Magellan completed the first cir- cumnavigation of the globe. 18. In 1524, Verazzani (Ver-rat-sah' nc), an Italian in the service of France, discovered the coast in the vicinity of Wilming- ton, N. C, and explored as far north as Nova Scotia, claiming the country for France. 19. James Cartier (Kar-tyca') in 1534 explored and named the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, claiming the country for France. 20. Ferdinand De Soto attempted the conquest of Florida, 1539-42. lie landed at Tampa Bay with a fine army of 600 men. He passed westward and northward through Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. He fought a terrible battle with the Indians at Mauville (Mobile}. He reached the Mississippi near the northern boundary of the State of the same name in 1542. Here he died and was buried in the great « Father of Waters." I lis army had dwindled to a handful. A few survivors finally reached Mexico after incredible hardships. 21. Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584 sent two ships to America, which explored Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds. The country was named Virginia, in honor of Elizabeth, the " Virgin Queen." A second expedition sent out by Raleigh planted a colony on Roanoke Island, 1 585. This colony perished to a man. 22. Henry Hudson, sailing under the auspices of the Dutch government, entered and explored the Hudson River 1609. He called the country New Netherlands, and claimed it for the Dutch. HISTORY. 317 SETTLEMENT. 23. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. James I granted to the London Company, an association of " nohlemen, gentlemen, and mer- chants" all the lands in America between thirty-four and thirty- eight degrees north latitude. To the Plymouth Company, an asso- ciation of " knights, gentlemen, and merchants," all the territory between forty-one and forty-five degrees north latitude. These ter- ritories were called respectively South and North Virginia. The London Company immediately set about colonizing their new ter- ritories. Their first colony was at Jamestown. 24. The colonists were a class of people ill fitted to endure the hardships of the wilderness. A great majority of them viqxq. gen- tlemen, that is scions of the noble and wealthy families of England. Thev had the aversion to work and the proneness to insubordina- tion incident to their class under such circumstances. The " coun- cil" appointed to govern the colony began by deposing John Smith, the ablest member of their body. Things went badly. One-half the people died the first year. Smith was restored to his seat in the council and soon became the leading spirit of the colony. 25. Smith reduced the colony to order and set about the task of exploring Virginia. In his various expeditions it is estimated that he sailed 2,000 miles. On an expedition up the Chickahominy he was captured by the Indians and condemned to death by Pow- hatan', the Indian Chief. Pocahontas, " the King's dearest daugh- ter," saved his life by rushing between the prisoner and the uplifted club of the executioner. Pocahontas afterward married an English- man by the name of Rolfe. Some of the oldest families of Vir- ginia are among her descendants. 26. The marriage of Pocahontas was the means of securing a treaty of peace with Powhatan which lasted several years. The colony grew slowly and prospered. Wives for the young men were imported from England and sold readily for from 120 to 150 pounds of tobacco. African Slaves were introduced by a Dutch trading vessel in 1620. In the year 1624 King James took away the charter of the London Company and Virginia became a royal -province. NEW ENGLAND. 27. Plymouth Colony. — The first settlement in New England was made by the Puritans in 1620 within the limits of the present State of Massachusetts. The Puritans were persons who believed in freeing the church of England from rites and practices which somewhat savored of popery. They were bitterly persecuted and many settled in Holland. They determined to found a colony in America and a number of the exiles were joined at Plymouth, :;i> TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. England, by some of their English brethren. Two ships were chartered, the Speedwell and the Mayflower. The former proved unseaworthy and the Mayflower sailed alone with 102 persons. After a stormy voyage of sixty-four days they landed on the New- England coast, Dec. 21, 1 620. 28. The colonists had no charter or sanction of any kind for settlement. They agreed on their own form of government. The men, forty-one in number, signed a contract and unanimously chose John Carver governor. 29. The first winter was one of terrible sufferings. The peo- ple sheltered themselves as best they could in log cabins. There was much sickness and about one-half their number died, among whom was Governor Carver who was succeeded by William Bradford. 30. Plymouth Colony grew slowly but surely. It was the asylum of the Puritans of England who desired to worship God in their own way. The colony maintained a separate existence till 1692 when it was incorporated with Massachusetts Bay colony. 31. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — The success of Plymouth Colony encouraged the founding of others. John Endicott and others obtained a grant of land extending from " three miles north of the Merrimac to three miles south of the Charles, and from ocean to ocean." This grant was obtained from the " Council of New England " which had succeeded the old " Plymouth Com- pany." Charles I granted the new " Massachusetts Bay Com- pany " a charter. The government of the colony was to be in the hands of the company in England. 32. John Endicott with fifty or sixty others came over in Sept., 1628, and settled at Salem ; others settled at Charlestown. 33. In 1630 a royal charter granted the colony the right of self- government. Hence a great many Puritans of influence determined to emigrate to the new colony. During the same year 1,000 to 1,500 settlers came over, including John Winthrop as governor of the colony. 34. All the colonists endured many hardships but the colonies ' grew rapidly. Fortunately the people of the first colonies of New England were saved the horrors of Indian hostilities for many years. A war occurred in 1637 between the settlers of Ply- mouth, Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut, and the Pequots. The whites were aided by the' Mohegans and the unfortunate Pequots were destroyed as a tribe. After this no Indian wars occurred until King Philip's in 1675. This last bloody contest utterly broke the power of the savages of New England. 35. Connecticut was settled by people from Massachusetts The "Connecticut " colony settled at Windsor 1635; the Saybrook colony at Saybrook in the same year; the New Haven colony at New Haven in 1638. HISTORT. 319 36. Rhode Island was settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams who with a few friends fled from Massachusetts Bay to escape persecution on account of their religious views. 37. New Hampshire. — In 1622 Mason and Gorges (Gor' jez), two Englishmen, obtained a grant of land between the Merri- mac and the Kennebec Rivers. The next year these proprietors made small settlements on the Piscataqua. The country continued under the government of various proprietors until 1641. This form of government resulted in numerous disputes and lawsuits until in that year the colony became a part of Massachusetts. In 16S0 New Hampshire became a royal province. 38. Maine also belonged to Gorges, he having obtained a grant in 1639 of a tract between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. Massachusetts claimed a part of Maine and finally bought the terri- tory from the heirs of Gorges. It constituted a part of that State from 1 69 1 to 1S20. MIDDLE STATES. 39. New York was originally settled by the Dutch under the name of New Amsterdam. The first settlement was at New Am- sterdam (New York) in 1623. The next year Fort Orange (Albany) was founded. 40. The Dutch had some trouble with the settlers of Connec- ticut, also with the Swedes who had settled in Delaware. The English claimed New Netherlands by virtue of the discoveries of the Cabots. In 1664 Charles II granted the country from the Connecticut to the Delaware to his brother the Duke of York. The Duke sent a force to take possession of the colony. Stuyvesant (Sti' ' ves-anf) the Dutch governor, was in favor of resisting. But the people were tired of Dutch rule and preferred to surrender. The whole colony contained only 10,000 people. In 1673 there was a Dutch Restoration which lasted one year. 41. New York continued to be governed by its Proprietor until 16S9. There was much dissatisfaction with this form of gov- ernment and Edmund Andros was especially tyrannical and ob- noxious. 42. When King William came to the English throne New- York became a royal pi'ovince ruled by governors appointed by the king. He also allowed the colony a legislature, but not a charter of liberties like the New England colonies. 43. New Jersey was a part of New Netherlands, and belonged to the Duke of York who granted it to Lord Berkley and Sir George Carteret. These proprietors gave the colony a liberal con- stitution and entire freedom of religious worship. The first settle- ment was at Elizabeth in 1665. 44. In 1674 the colonv was divided into Hast and West yer- sey. William Penn eventually became owner of both. 320 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 45. Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, a wealthy English Quaker. lie obtained a grant of the land in consideration of a large sum of money which the English government owed to his father, Admiral Penn. Penn also bought the land from the Indians and thus secured to the Quaker colonists the friendship of the Indians and a lasting peace. The first settlement was at Phila- delphia 16S1. 46. Penn obtained from the Duke of York a grant of the present State of Delaware which had previously been settled by Swedes. Delaware remained a part of Pennsylvania until 1703. Pennsylvania grew very rapidly in population. Popular discon- tent induced Penn to grant the people a charter in 1699. 47. The boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland long in dispute, was settled in 1767 by the the survey of Mason and Dixon. This boundary constitutes the celebrated Mason and Dixon's Line. Pennsylvania continued to belong to Penn's sons until the Revolution, when the Commonwealth bought their claims. SOUTHERN STATES. 48. Maryland was settled by Roman Catholics in 1663. Lord Baltimore (Calvert) had previously obtained a grant of the territory from Charles I. There was much trouble for a time between the Protestants and Catholics, which resulted twice in civil war. 49. North Carolina was first settled by emigrants from Vir- ginia who wished to escape the intolerant treatment which they re- ceived from the Episcopal church, which was the established church of Virginia. A proprietary colony was also established on Albe- marle Sound and a colony from Barbadoes near the mouth of Cape Fear River. 50. South Carolina was first settled bv English emigrants at Old Charleston, in 1670. A great many Huguenots (see Gen. Hist., Sec. -70) settled in North and South Carolina. There were also many Dutch from New York and Puritans from Scotland and England. These formed very valuable accessions to the colony. The South Carolinians had much trouble with their Spanish neighbors in Florida. In 1702 an expedition was planned against St. Augustine, but failed. 111*1706 the French and Spanish at- tempted to capture Charleston, but were repulsed. In 1715a gen- eral Indian war occurred with the Yamassees. In 1729 the Carolinas became separate royal provinces. 51. Georgia owes its settlement to James Oglethorpe, a mem- ber of the English Parliament. He originated the idea of founding a colony as an asylum for the poor and the unfortunate. To him and others George II granted in trust for the poor all the land be- tween the Savannah and the Altamaha Rivers. The first settle- HISTORY. 321 mcnt was made at Savannah, 1733. Florida was settled by the Spaniards, at St. Augustine, 1565. 52. Character of the Puritans. — As we have seen, the people of New England were chiefly Puritans. They were a frugal, in- dustrious, honest people, but very intolerant. They Med from Europe to escape religious persecution, and inaugurated persecution at home. In Massachusetts the Quakers were imprisoned, beaten, banished, and three, two men and a woman, were hanged. In the same colony the citizens were under legal obligations to attend church. The stocks and the pillory stood side hy side with the sanctuary, a triple terror to evil doers. In New Haven Colony only church members were allowed to vote. In most of the colonies the franchise was much restricted. 53. Education received early and careful attention in New England. Schools were everywhere established. Harvard Col- lege was founded in 1638, Yale College in 1702, at Saybrook. 54. The Salem Witchcraft. — In 1692 a strange delusion ap- peared among the people of Salem (now Danvers). Two young girls residing in the family of one Parris, a clergyman, complained of being pinched and* pricked with pins by unseen agencies; often they would be seized with convulsions, and cried out that witches were affecting them. They accused an Indian girl of being a witch. This led to great excitement and alarm. The delusion spread rapidly, and many were accused and imprisoned. Many, to escape torture, confessed themselves guilty. About twenty were executed. The delusion lasted about six months, until many of the most worthy citizens were accused. The people then saw how terribly they had been deceived, and this strange delusion ended. 55. The Southern colonies were settled by many different kinds of people. The colonists of Virginia were mostly worthless scions of nobility and ordinary laborers. The established church was the Episcopal. Puritans, Quakers, and in fact all Dissenters, were vigorously persecuted. A better class of people soon settled in Virginia, but the colony always felt proud of its Cavalier con- nections. 56. Life in the Colonies had many hardships. Blpody Indian wars occurred everywhere at uncertain intervals. The people were poor and knew little of the climate or the productions best suited to the country. At times for weeks, and even months, the game of the forest furnished their only subsistence. The people made their own clothing, tables, bedsteads, chairs, etc. Only such articles as firearms, cutlery and tools were bought, and these were very ex- pensive. Money was often practically unknown. But amid all these trials, hardships and dangers, a hardy, patient and industrious population was laying the corner-stone of liberty and the founda- tion of the greatest nation the world has ever produced. 838 TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. WARS WITH THE FRENCH COLONIES AND INDIANS. 57. New France, including substantially the present Dominion of Canada, was first settled (1604) at Port Royal, Acadia (now Annapolis, Nova Scotia.) The French settled Quebec four ycais later, and laid claim to all the vast lake region and the Mississippi Valley. The Jesuit fathers Marquette, La Salle, Joliet, Hennepin and others, carried the cross and the Catholic faith all over the western country as far as the Mississippi in Illinois and Wisconsin, and south to the gulf, early in the 17th century. 58. The English had always claimed the continent from ocean to ocean. The French were the leading Cathode power of Europe, the English the leading Protestant nation. It was evident that a great struggle must take place for the possession of the disputed territory. 59. The result of these wars is briefly as follows:— King William's War, 16S9-1697. — The French and their Indian allies ravaged the frontier settlements of New England and Xew York. An expedition against Canada, which failed. 60. Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713. — Indian outrages in New England. Two expeditions against Port Royal; first unsuccessful, second successful. Acadia became a British province 1710. Great Disaster to the British fleet by a storm in the St. Lawrence, 171 1 ; 1,000 men drowned. 61. King George's War, 1744-1748. — Capture of Louisburg by the English. 62. French and Indian War, 1754-1763. — (i) An English and colonial company, called the Ohio Company, had been formed with the design of establishing colonies on the east hank of the Ohio River. The French hastened to possess themselves of strat- egic points. The English made a settlement at Red Stone, on the Monongahela, which was captured by the French. George Wash- ington, then twenty-one years of age, was sent as an embassador hy the Governor of Virginia to demand an explanation of the out- rage. He was informed that the French intended to hold the ter- ritory. (2) On the return of Washington a party of men was sent out to build a fort at the head of the Ohio. This small party was driven off by the French,who completed the fort and called it Fort Du Quesne {iioo-katic' ). 63. In 1754 a force was sent out from Virginia to dislodge the French. Washington with an advance force hastened forward and defeated the French at Great Meadows. Was obliged to assume the defensive at Fort Necessity near the Monongahela River. Sur- rendered with the whole force, July 4, 1754. The colonists now made a treaty with the Six Nations, or rroquois. An attempt was made to form a Union of the Colonies, hut it failed. 64. 1755. — Campaigns were planned against Fort Du Quesne, HISTORV. yo- Niagara and Crown Point, on Lake Champlain. Braddock, who commanded the force operating against Fort Du Quesne, was totally unused to Indian methods of warfare. Against the advice of Washington and other colonial officers he care- lessly led the army into the vicinity of the enemy without adopting proper precautions. Seven miles from Fort Du Quesne, in a narrow defile covered with thickets, the army entered an am- buscade and were mercilessly cut down without the power of re- sistance. Braddoek's Defeat, as the action is known, was crush- ing. Over 1,000 men fell in action, and the shattered remnant re- treated under the skillful guidance of Washinfirton. 65. The expedition against Niagara was abandoned. Gen. Johnson advanced to Lake George, where an advanced detachment under Col. Williams was defeated by the French. Dieskau (De- es-ko'), the French general, pursued the fugitives to Johnson's camp, where the Battle of Lake George took place. The French were defeated and their general killed. Johnson built Fort Wil- liam Henrv and did nothing further. 66. 1756. — The Marquis de Montcalm, French commander. Capture of Oswego by the French with large quantities of stores. 67. 1757. — Montcalm besieged and took Fort William Henry, garrisoned by 2,000 men. Many of the prisoners were massacred by the Indians. 68. 1758. — The British forces numbered 50,000, 22,000 reo-u- lars and 2S,ooo colonials. Expeditions were planned against Louisburg, which had been retaken by the French, against Ticon- deroga,'and Du Quesne. Louisburg surrendered with 6,000 men and vast stores. A bloody assault on Ticonderoga was repulsed. Du Quesne was abandoned. The English changed the name to Tort Pitt (Pittsburgh). 69. 1759.— The Capture of Quebec by General Wolfe was the great event of the war. Wolfe landed his troops on the river bank at night, scaled the heights, and next morning offered battle to the astonished French. A bloody conflict of several hours en- sued, in which Wolfe was killed and Montcalm mortally wounded. Quebec surrendered. Crown Point, Ticonderoga and Niagara had previously been taken, and the war practically ended. The British had become masters of North A?ncrica. 70. Indian hostilities were kept up at intervals. In 1763 Pontiac's War broke out. This able chieftain, by means of strata- gem, obtained possession of many of the Western forts of tin- English. Hundreds of people along the border were massacred before the Indians were reduced to subjection. The Southern In- dians also made war on the colonies. 71. By the Treaty of Paris, 1763, France ceded all her terri- tories east of the Mississippi, except the city of New Orleans, to the English. The French and Indian wars had cost the colonies 30,000 334 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. men and $16,000,000, but they had taught the Americans their own power. Another important lesson was the- necessity of sclf-relianci and political union which turned the scale in favor of America in the struggle soon to follow The Amerk \\ Revolution. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 72. No sooner had peace been established between England and France than troubles began to rise between the colonies and the mother country. The causes of the Revolution may be divided into two classes, Remote and Immediate. 73. Remote Causes.— (1) The love of liberty was inherent and strong in the colonists. Many of them had fled from persecu- tion and were very jealous of their rights of self-government. (2) The exercise of local government in all the colonies had been de- veloping a latent feeling tending toward independence. (3) The royal governors had in most instances made arbitrary power odious. (4) George III was a stupid, non-progressive, non-English king, who had the most despotic notions of kingly prerogatives. 74. Immediate Causes. —(1) The English laws hampered colonial commerce and manufactures. The "importation act" levied onerous duties on rum, sugar and other commodities. The manufacture of iron and steel was forbidden; also the cutting of timber on a continent groaning with forests. (2) The claim of England to tax the colonies, while allowing them no representa- tion in Parliament. Subsidiary to this are the Stamp Act (1765), Tea Duty, etc. (3) The "Mutiny Act." (4) Boston Port Bill (June, 1774). (5) Riots in New York, Boston Massacre, In- surrection in North Carolina. 75. The Stamp Act was so especially odious as to deserve par- ticular mention. After Nov. 1, 176^, every bond, deed, note, lease, license, or legal paper of any kind must be executed on stamped paper furnished by the British government. Each sheet cost a sum varying from threepence to six pounds, according to the transac- tion. Pamphlets, almanacs and newspapers were required to be printed on stamped paper. Every advertisement was taxed two shillings. The stamp act caused universal alarm and indignation. In the Virginia assembly Patrick Henry introduced vigorous reso- lutions, denying the right of Great Britain to tax the colonists without their consent, and affirming the right of the colonies to local self-government. Henry was greeted with cries of "Treason, treason,'" but his resolutions passed by a good majority. Similar resolutions were passed by the assemblies of New York and Mas- sachusetts. The stamp act was never enforced. Most of the stamped paper was destroyed or shipped back to England. The repeal of the act caused general rejoicing, both in England and America. 76. The Boston Massacre CM arch 5, 1770) caused intense ex- HISTORr. 325 citcmetit. An altercation between the citizens and the soldiery led to the latter opening fire on the crowd. Three citizens were killed and several wounded. Thousands of excited men assembled, and it was only on the promise of Governor Hutchinson that justice should be done, that they were induced to disperse. 77. On the very day of the Boston massacre Parliament passed a bill repealing all duties on American imports, excepting- those on tea. The Americans were determined that they would not be taxed in any manner without their consent. They refused to buy tea at all. Finally, on Dec. 16, 1773, a party of men disguised as Indians boarded the three tea ships in Boston Harbor and threw the tea into the sea. At other ports the people would not allow it to land. At Charleston, S. C., it w;is stored in damp cellars and spoiled. 78. In March, 1774, The Boston Port Bill was passed. This act closed the port of Boston entirely, and caused great distress in business circles. Still the people of Massachusetts stood firm and had the sympathy of the people of the other colonies. On the 20th of May, 1774, the charter of Massachusetts was repealed and things were ripe for war. The total population of the colonies at the beginning of the struggle was, in round numbers, three millions. 79. The First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia Sept. 5, 1774. All the colonies were represented but Georgia. The congress agreed upon a declaration of rights, recommended a suspension of commercial intercourse with the people of England, and sent a petition to the king. Among the most prominent of the patriots who led and counseled their people in these trying times were John Hancock and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, Ben- jamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Patrick Henry and George Washington of Virginia. Space will not permit mention of all the leaders, though scores of others were equally patriotic and equally persevering in the cause of liberty. Events of the War. 80. 1775. — Hostilities began at Lexington, Mass., April 19. A Uritish detachment of Soo men was ordered to march to Concord and destroy some military stores collected there. At tin- little vil- lage of Lexington they encountered a party of sixty or seventy minute men, who had hastily assembled at the signals, the ringing of hells and firing of guns. At the first discharge one-fourth of the liltk' hand lay bleeding on the grass, killed or wounded. The British advanced to Concord and succeeded in destroying the stores, hut the country was thoroughly aroused. Volleys were tired upon the British from behind trees, rocks and fences. The British de- tachment finally escaped across Charlestown Neck with a loss of 273 killed, wounded and missing. The American loss was 49 326 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. killed, 34 wounded, 5 missing. The colonies made active prepara- tions for war. Soon 20,000 men had invested Boston. Fort Ticonderoga was captured in May by Ethan Allen with a small band, and Crown Point soon followed. 81. Bunker Hill. — The Americans suspected that General Gage intended to seize the peninsula of Charlestown, opposite Bos- ton, and determined to fortify the ground before the enemy had time to move. A detachment of 800 men was ordered to occupy and fortify Bunker Hill on the night of June 16th. By mistake the officers occupied Breed's Hill. Considerable earthworks greeted the astonished British in Boston on the morning of the 1 7th. General Howe, with 3,000 regulars, crossed to storm the earthworks, which were defended by 1,500 Americans, commanded by Gen. Prescott. Two assaults were repulsed with dreadful ^laughter, but the ammunition of the Americans failed, and the third assault was successful. The Americans were driven from the works. The patriot Gen. Warren was killed. British loss,. 1,000 men; American, 450. 82. The Second Continental Congress met in May, at Philadel- phia, and organized a general government. They voted to raise an army of 20,000 men and to issue 3,000,000 of paper money. George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of the army. 83. During the summer all of the royal governors were driven out. Dunmore, of Virginia, in revenge bombarded and burned Norfolk. The people of Mecklenburg county, X. C, de- clared themselves independent in May. 84. Invasion of Canada. — It was hoped that Canada might be induced to join with the colonies in the war. With this view an expedition was fitted out to take possession of the province. On the last day of the year an assault was made on Quebec which was re- pulsed. Gen. Montgomery, the American commander, was killed. Benedict Arnold succeeded in command. Next spring he was obliged to evacuate the country. 85. The Tories. — It must not be supposed that the Americans were unanimous in their opposition to England. In all the colonies there were a class of citizens who sided with Great Britain. These were called torics. In some of the colonies they were sufficiently numerous to add greatly to the difficulties and dangers which threatened to ruin the cause of liberty. 86. 1776. The Siege of Boston. — Washington closely invested the city and on the 17th of March Howe surrendered the city on condition that he he allowed to withdraw with his army. 87. The Siege of Charleston was begun by a large British fleet and 2,500 men in June. The harbor was defended by Fort Moultrie. On the 2.Sth a combined land and naval attack was made. The British lost severely and were compelled to withdraw. This victory greatly revived the patriots all over the country. HISTORT. 327 88. The Declaration of Independence was adopted by Con- gress, at Philadelphia, July 4. It caused universal rejoicing. The declaration was a masterly document from the pen of Thomas Jefferson, aided by others. 89. The Battle of Long Island decided the fate of New York city. Gen. Howe arrived at Staten Island from Halifax. lie was reinforced by Clinton who arrived from South Carolina and by his brother Admiral Howe with a fleet from England. Washington ordered Gen. Putnam with a force of 5,000 men to defend Long Island. A severe engagement took place Aug. 27, in which the Americans were defeated with a loss of 2,000 men. The remnant of the American army escaped almost miraculously in a fog to New York. Washington evacuated New York and retreated to White Plains, where another engagement resulted in favor of the British. 90. Howe now determined to enter New Jersey hut first cap- tured Fort Washington with its garrison of 3,000 men. Washing- ton left 5,000 men under Gen. Charles Lee for the defence of the upper part of New York State. With the remainder of his forces he began the memorable retreat through New Jersey. 91. Lord Cornwallis closely pressed the retreating army which dared not offer battle to his superior forces. Washington took refuge across the Delaware River, his dispirited army reduced to 3,000 men by expiration of service, and desertion. Washington re- peatedly ordered Lee to join him but the latter failed to move. He, it has since been discovered, meditated betraying his command to the enemy. 92. A bold stroke was necessary to revive the sinking cause. Washington crossed the Delaware with 1,500 men amid great dan- ger from floating ice. He surprised the Hessians (German troops hired by George III) at Trenton and captured 1,000 prisoners with a loss of only four men. The whole American army now crossed to Trenton. Cornwallis resolved to make an attack. Washington by another bold move fell upon the British rear and defeated it at Princeton. Washington now went into winter quarters at Morris- town. 93. The year (1776) closed in gloom for the Americans. Had it not been for the brilliant exploits at Trenton and Princeton their cause would have appeared utterly hopeless. 94. 1777. — There wem iivo campaigns this year, one conducted by Washington against Howe in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and the other by Gates against Burgoyne in Northern New York. Gov. Tryon also led a party <>f British into Connecticut. The raiders burned the town of Danbury with military stores. They did not escape without severe punishment. 95. By May, Washington had 10,000 men, while the British army numbered 30,000. The object of the latter was to capture Philadelphia. Howe embarked from Staten Island an army of TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. iS,ooo men which landed at Elkton, Md., marched north to the Brandywine River and encountered the Americans at Chad's Ford. A severe battle ensued, Sept. n. The Americans were defeated with a loss of 1,200 men. The British occupied Philadelphia, Sept. 26. 96. Washington determined to attack a British detachment at Germantown. The Americans were defeated Oct. 4, with a loss of 1,200. The British wintered in Philadelphia. The Americans re- tired to Valley Forge to endure the horrors of destitution and expos- ure to a rigorous winter. During the campaign, Lafayette, a young French nobleman, offered his services to Washington and received a command. 97. Burgoyne invaded New York by way or Lake Cham- plain early in the spring with 10,000 men. Clinton co-operated by a movement up the Hudson, the object being to cut New Eng- land off from the other colonies. Burgoyne advanced from Crown Point and captured Ticonderoga. The garrison retreated to Fort Edward. Here the American General Schuyler (Ski' ler) had 4,000 men. lie retreated to the mouth of the Mohawk and de- laved the British advance by felling trees across the road. 98. The British began to run short of supplies and a detach- ment was sent to capture a quantity of stores at Bennington, Ver- mont. Colonel Stark with a few hundred militia defeated the British, inflicting heavy loss. A British attack on Fort Schuyler (now Home) also failed. The savage Indian allies of the British, finding war no pastime, deserted rapidly. 99. After great delay Burgoyne advanced about the middle of August to Stillwater, where occurred the indecisive battle of Bemis Heights, Sept. 19. A second battle Oct. 7, resulted in favor of the Americans now under Gen. Gates. Burgoyne was surrounded at Saratoga. Clinton had failed to accomplish his object. The flower of the British army commanded by a proud representative of the British aristocracy, was obliged to surrender. The whole British army 6,000 strong, laid down their arms Oct. 17. 100. Burgoyne's surrender filled the land with joy. In Eng- land the news was received with profound consternation. Com- missioners were sent (177^)10 America offering the colonies all they asked if they would only become loyal subjects of the crown. These proposals were promptly rejected. In France the news was received with rejoicings. Benjamin Franklin was then a commis- sioner for the United States at the Court of France to urge an alli- ance between the two countries. Burgoyne's defeat paved the way for a complete understanding, and by the treaty entered into early next year, the king of France pledged himself to aid the Americans with troops and money. 101. L778.— Distinguished foreigners now began to oiler their 1 t > 1 •vices to the American cause. Among them were the I oles, H/STORT. 339 Thaddeus Kosciusko and Count Puiaski, and the Germans, Baron De Kalb and Baron Steuben. In April a French fleet sailed for America commanded by Count D'Estaing (Des-tang' .) 102. The British evacuated Philadelphia in June, and marched toward New York. Washington overtook them at Monmouth where a severe engagement occurred with indecisive results. Gen. Lee positively refused to obey orders. He was tried and relieved from service. 103. In July the settlement of Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, was attacked by Tories and Indians, and the whole people massacred. Cherry Valley in New York shared the same fate in November. Next summer Gen. Sullivan marched into the Indian country and severely punished the savages in retaliation. 104. 1779. The South. — Late in December, 1778, and early in January, the British overran Georgia. The English expected to receive great aid from the tories. But a party of the latter were totally defeated at Kettle Creek, South Carolina, by Col. Pickens. This tended to check further risings. 105. In March Gen. Lincoln, then in command of the army in the South, attempted to regain Georgia, but the force sent under Gen. Ashe was defeated by Gen. Prevost, at Brier Creek. In September the French fleet under D'Estaing appeared off Savannah with 6,000 troops, and Gen. Lincoln co-operated, with a view to capturing the place. The allies were repulsed with a loss of 1,000 men. Among the killed was the brave Pulaski. 106. In the North.— The British inaugurated a merciless predatory warfare. Two successive expeditions ravaged Connec- ticut. Another partially destroyed Norfolk and Portsmouth in Virginia. An expedition from New York captured Stony Point and Verplank's Point. 107. Stony Point was recaptured by Gen. Anthony Wayne. A night assault was made and the whole garrison, 1,500 strong, surrendered. This was one of the most brilliant victories of the war. Paulas Hook was also surprised by the Americans under Major Henry Lee. 108. A brilliant naval victory was achieved by Paul Jones off the coast of Yorkshire, England. He commanded the Bott Homme Richard. That vessel fell in with the Scrapis, a fine Eng- lish frigate, which, with a smaller vessel, was convoying a fleet of merchantmen. After a desperate and bloody struggle the enemy's ships surrendered. The Richard sunk soon after the engagement, allowing barelv time for the transfer of her crew. 109. The year 1779 was a gloomy one for the Americans. They iiad achieved no lasting success. The Continental money was so depressed in value that from thirty to sixtv dollars were re- quired to equal one dollar in ;pe< To purchase supplies with :;:;<) TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. such money was impossible. The Continental soldiers were desti- tute, and beginning to murmur. 110. 1780. The South. — In April Gen. Clinton began the siege of Charleston. Attempts to relieve the garrison failed and Gen. Lincoln, with 5,000 men, surrendered May 12. Clinton sailed for New York and left Lord Cornwallis in command. Gen. Gates was appointed commander of the American forces. 111. The two armies met near Camden and the Americans were defeated with heavy loss. After the battle the British treated the inhabitants with great barbarity. Ever since the surrender of Charleston, Marion, Sumter, and other leaders, had been carrying on an active and successful partisan warfare. Several of these chiefs united their forces and attacked a large body of British and Tories at King's Mountain. The enemy were completely routed with a loss of 1,100 killed, wounded and missing. The patriots lost only twenty men. In December Gates was superseded by Nathaniel Greene. 112. 1781. — In January Greene sent Gen. Morgan with 1,000 men to check the British in western South Carolina. Morgan completely defeated Col. Tarleton at Cowpens, Jan. 17. Corn- wallis at once started with his main force in pursuit of Morgan. 113. Greene joined Morgan and with great skill succeeded in escaping from Cornwallis across the Dan River into Virginia. Cornwallis withdrew into North Carolina. Greene followed. A severe but indecisive engagement took place at Guilford Court House March 15. Cornwallis withdrew toward Wilmington and soon marched into Virginia. The British forces left in South Car- olina were under command of Lord Bawdon. Greene determined to push the enemy in that quarter. Greene attacked the British at Hobkirk's Hill, and although the advantage was with the British, Rawdon retreated in the direction of Charleston. In May the Americans assaulted Ninety-Six, but were repulsed. On Sept. S a bloody but indecisive engagement occurred at Eutaw Springs. The British retreated to Charleston and at the close of the vear that city and .Savannah were the only points of importance held by them in the South. Gen. Greene, though never winning a de- cisive battle, had proved a successful general. 114. Arnold's treason was the event of greatest importance in the North. Arnold agreed to surrender Stony Point, with all its valuable stores, to the enemy for 10,000 pounds sterling and a commission in the British army. Major Andre (An-dray'\ was senl up the Hudson by Gen. Clinton to conduct the negotiations. Andre was arrested while passing the lines, by three militiamen. lie was tried and hung as a spy. Arnold escaped. 115. In the summer of" 1780 a French fleet with 6,000 soldiers arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, commanded by Count de Rochambeau {Rosh-atn-bo' ). This force did nothing that year. HISTORT. 331 116. 1781. Mutiny. — The privations of the American soldiers had been very great in their winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey. On New Year day, 1,300 of the Pennsylvania line quit camp with the intention of marching to Philadelphia and demand- ins relief of Congress. Promises of relief induced them to return to duty. A number of the New Jersey troops mutinied soon after. In this crisis Congress appointed Robert Morris, of Philadel- phia, as financial agent of the government. He was a wealthy merchant of Philadelphia and an able financier. lie and his friends pledged their private fortunes to the payment of debts to be con- tracted. Affairs were soon in much better condition. 117. The Final Campaign. — Benedict Arnold, with 1,600 men, invaded Virginia. He advanced from Norfolk as far as Richmond, committing great depredations. In the meantime, Cornwallis as- sumed command of all the British forces in Virginia. La Fayette was ordered to watch his movements. Clinton ordered Cornwallis to take up a position near the coast. He feared that Washington would attack New York, and wanted the forces under Cornwallis to be ready to take ships and come to the assistance of that place. Cornwallis chose Yorktown and fortified the place. 118. Washington kept up the pretense of preparing to attack New York, while really marching the main body of his army to- ward Virginia. Washington, with the combined American and French armies, appeared before Yorktown, Sept. 2S, and at once began the siege. A French fleet under Count de Grasse ( Grass) blockaded the Chesapeake. A naval battle occurred, in which the British were worsted. 119. The besieged numbered 8,000; the forces under Wash- ington amounted to 16,000. The bombardment, kept up by 100 guns, was terrible, and the British loss heavy. The besiegers grad- ually advanced. On the night of Oct. 14th the "outer works were carried by storm. One portion of the work had been assigned to the Americans, another to the French. So eager were the as- sailants that they entered the different redoubts almost simultan- eouslv. Seeing resistance hopeless, Cornwallis surrendered his en- tire force of over 7,000 men. Seventy-five brass and thirty-one iron cannons were among the war material. 120. A swift courier carried the news to Congress at Philadel- phia. That body went to church and turned the afternoon into a thanksgiving. The rejoicing was great everywhere, for the people realized that the war was over. In England the war party were beside themselves with mortification. But a great many were secretly glad. A new ministry was formed favorable to peace. 121. In 17S2 Parliament appointed Richard Oswald to confer with the American commissioners in Paris. Oswald on the part <>f Great Britain and Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Henry Laurens and John Jay on the part of the United States, signed a preliminary 882 TEACH E US AXD STUDENTS' LIBRART. treaty of peace, Nov. 30, 1782. The final Treaty of Paris conclud- ing peace between all the nations at war, the United States, Great Britain, France, Spain and Holland was signed, Nov. 3, 1783, £*V/// years after the beginning of the war. In December of the same year Washington delivered an address to Congress then sitting at Annapolis and resigned his commission as commander-in-chief. » 122. The Treaty granted fully the independence of the United States, with territory extending to the Mississippi excepting Florida, which Great Britain re-ceded to Spain. The citizens of the United States were guaranteed the free right of navigating the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. THE CONFEDERATION. 123. The imperfections in the form of government were very apparent. The confederated government might contract debts but had no power to levy taxes for their payment; Congress could only recommend that each colony pay its just indebtedness. Some of the colonies provided for their debts while others found themselves unable to do so through poverty and the ravages of war. The conflict had cost the colonies exclusive of private losses about $130,000,000. There was great popular discontent which threat- ened the very existence of the government. 124. In Massachusetts the people to the number of 2,000 assembled in arms to demand the suspension of the taxes. The malcontents were led by one Daniel Shay, hence the rising was called Shay's Rebellion. It was quelled without bloodshed. 125. Finally it was agreed to call a " Constitutional Conven- tion " for the purpose of remodeling the government. The Con- vention met at Philadelphia, in May, 1787. Geo. Washington was elected presiding officer. After four months' deliberation a " Con- stitution " was agreed on and signed to go into effect as soon as two- thirds of the States should ratify it. The States were slow to ratify it as they were jealous of signing away their powers. It was finally adopted by all and went into effect, March 4, 1789. (See Civil Gov't.) George Washington was elected first President. On the subject of the adoption of the Constitution there were two parties, Federalist and Anti-Federalist. The latter, a numerous party, were opposed to granting too great powers to the general government. » THE ( ON'STITUTIONAI. PERIOD, I 789 — 1SS2. Washington's Administration, 1789 — 1797- 126. Washington was inaugurated at New York, then the capital, April 30, 1789. yohn Adams had been elected Vice-Presi- dent. Congi ess decreed that four departments should pertain to the executive branch of the government, State, Treasury, War 1IISTORT. 383 and JLaxv. The heads of these were respectively TJws. yeffcrson, Alexander Hamilton, Henry Knox and Edmund Randolph. These four constituted the Cabinet. Hamilton at once adopted wise financial measures. By his advice the war debt of the general government and of the States was funded and afterward paid. The old Continental Money was never redeemed. With improved finances a period of great prosperity set in. 127. Important Events. — Northwestern Territory organized 1789, included all territory from the Ohio to the Mississippi and the lakes. Southwest territory organized, 1790. Population, first census, 3,929,214. Capital located in District of Columbia. St. Clair defeated by the Indians in Ohio, 1791. The French Minister, Genet, tries to embroil the country in war with England, 1793. Wayne totally defeats the Indians on the Maumec, i794« Whiskey insurrection in Western Pennsylvania, 1794. .States admitted — Vermont, 1791; Kentucky, 1792; Tennessee, 1J96. "John Adams's Adwi nist tuition, 1797 — 1801. 128. Federalist Victory. — The country continued prosper- ous. Difficulties with the French Republic almost resulted in war. France felt affgfrieved that the United States did not assist her in her war with England. The United States wisely determined to remain strictly neutral. The French adopted oppressive trade regulations which greatly injured American commerce. Their privateers captured many American vessels, Congress authorized reprisals, and war actually began on the ocean. The U. S. frigate Constellation after a desperate engagement captured the French frigate Insurgent, Feb., 1799. Napoleon who came into power the same year concluded a treaty of peace with this country. The death of Washington which occurred at Mount Vernon Dec. 14, 1799, caused universal grief among the American people. 129. Important Events. — The seat of government was per- manently removed to Washington, 1800. Population by the second census (1800) 5,308,483. " Alien and sedition laws" were stringent acts against unfriendly aliens. These laws were very unpopular. Thomas Jeffersorfs . Administration, id'oi — 1809. 130. Jefferson, a native of Virginia, was elected as an Anti- federalist or as the party then began to be called, a Republican. One of the great issues of the campaign was the expediency of continuing the "Alien and sedition" laws. The first law gave the President the right of expelling foreigners from the country; the second subjected any person saying or publishing anything false or malicious about the President or Congress, to fine or imprison- ment. The Republicans opposed these laws. They expired by limitation. 334 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 131. Important Events. — Jefferson introduced great simplicity into the etiquette of the capital. Economy in government expendi- tures. Purchase of Louisiana for $15,000,000 from France. It included a large part of the vast region west of the Mississippi. War with Tripoli 1S01-1S03. The frigate Philadelphia cap- tured by the Tripolitans. Recaptured and burned by the Ameri- cans. Commodore Preble bombards Tripoli. The bashaw com- pelled to sue for peace. Lewis and Clarke's exploring expedition across the Rocky Mountains and down the Columbia, 1804. Hamilton killed in a duel at Weehawken, N. Y. by Aaron Burr, July, 1804. Burr accused of designing to establish a Southwestern Empire with capital at New Orleans. Tried for treason and acquitted. Believed guilty. 132. Difficulties with England and France. — In Europe a great war was going on between France and England, the latter allied at various times with most of the other nations of Europe. The United States, being neutral, found it very profitable carrying the "-oods of those nations whose vessels had been swept from the seas. In the Berlin Decree Napoleon declared the British Islands in a state of blockade and all British property of any kind found within the dominion of France or her allies, subject to seizure. England declared, by " Orders in Council," a blockade of the coast of Europe from Brest to the Elbe, Jan. 7, 1S07. Napoleon in turn issued his Milan Decree, which subjected to seizure any vessel trading to or from any British port whatsoever. Between the two belliger- ents the commerce of the United States was swept from the seas. 133. The British government also claimed the right of search, that is of searching American vessels for the purpose of reclaiming deserters and impressing sailors born in Great Britain into the British navy. In June, 1S07, the British frigate Leopard demanded four men on board the American frigate Chesapeake. The American captain refused and the Leopard at once opened fire, kill- ing three men and wounding eighteen. The Chesapeake, unpre- pared for action, struck her colors. Three of the men taken proved to be American citizens. 134. Jefferson issued a proclamation forbidding all British ves- sels from entering American ports until reparation was made. An embargo was decreed in December by Congress. All American vessels were forbidden from taking cargoes from our ports. This measure caused much distress and did no good. Matters grew gradually worse between England and the United States and soon ended in war. The slave trade was abolished by law Jan. 1, 1 80S. James Afadisorfs Administration, 180Q-1817. 135. Madison was a Republican, but that party now began to be called Democrats. In March, 1S09, the Non-Intercourse • t HISTORT. 335 Act was passed, forbidding all commerce with England and France. This also failed to remedy the evils. An Indian war broke out in Indiana. Gen. Harrison, governor of the territory, defeated the Indians in the severe battle of Tippecanoe, near the present city of Lafayette (1811). WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 136. In November, 1S10, France revoked the " Milan decree," as far as the United States were concerned. The President then declared thixtjrce commerce existed with France. The non-inter- course act was rigidly enforced against Great Britain, and the latter continued seizing vessels as prizes and exercising the right of search. The country was largely in favor of war, and the motto, " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" resounded through the land. 137. In May, 1811, the American frigate President, when off the capes of Virginia, hailed the British sloop-of-war Little Belt. A shot was returned for an answer. A brisk action ensued, and the British vessel was soon disabled, with a loss of eleven killed and twenty-one wounded. This affair caused great satisfaction, for during the eight years preceding nine hundred American mer- chantmen had been captured by the British. The country was prosperous and well able to seek satisfaction. The population by the third census (18 10) was 7,239,881. 138. 1812. — War was declared June 19. Gen. Henry Dear- born was appointed commander-in-chief of the arm v. Events in the West. — Invasion of Canada determined on. Hull crosses at Sandwich, but retreats to Detroit. Surrenders Detroit without firing a shot. Great indignation at Hull's incompetency. Fort Dearborn (Chicago) captured and part of the garrison massacred by the Indians. In the East the Americans crossed the Niagara River from Lewiston and attacked Queenstown Heights. The attack failed chiefly because the American militia refused to cross the river to support the attacking column. 139. Naval Victories. — To compensate for want of success on land the United States navy won a series of brilliant victories which were desperately contested. The American frigate Essex, Capt. Porter, captured the sloop-of-war Alert. The Constitution, Captain Hull, captured the frigate Guerriere ( Gare-yarc' ) off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Wasp, Capt. Jones, captured the brig Frolic off Virginia; Wasp at once recaptured by the Poictiers. The frigate United States, Commodore Decatur, captured the frigate Macedonian south of the Azores. The frigate Constitution captured the frigate Java off Brazil. Privateers took about 300 British vessels. — Madison re-elected. 140. 1813. In the West. — The American General Winches- ter surrenders at Frenchtown ('Mich). "Massacre of the River Raisin." Many of the prisoners butchered by the Indian allies of 396 TEACHERS' A.VD STUDENTS' LI BR ART. the British. Gen. Harrison besieged at Fort Meigs, at the Maumee rapids. British compelled to retire. Brave defence of Fort Ste- phenson (Fremont, O.) by Col. Croghan. British repulsed with great slaughter. Com. Perry superintends the building of a fleet and captures the British squadron on Lake Erie. Harrison invades Canada and defeats the British and Indians in the battle of the Thames, Oct. 5. Tecumseh, the celebrated chieftain, slain. 141. The Army of the Center captures York (now Toronto ). Gen. Dearborn takes Fort George and the whole of the Canada side of the Niagara River. The British recapture Fort George and invade New York, plundering and burning. The Army of the North moves from Lake Champlain to capture Montreal, hut the expedition comes to naught. 142. Naval Battles. — The American sloop-of-war Hornet captures the brig Peacock. The British frigate Shannon captures the Chesapeake, Capt. Lawrence, off Boston. The Pelican captures the American brig Argus. The British vessel Boxer captured, off Maine, by the Enterprise. A British squadron ravages the shores of Chesapeake Bay and commits shocking brutalities at Hampton, Va. 143. 1814. Northern Campaign. —Gen. Brown invades Can- ada and takes Fort Erie, July 3. British defeated at Chippewa, Jul)- 5, and at Lundy's Lane, July 25. Loss in the latter battle 800 on each side. The British besiege Fort Erie 5,000 strong. Arc repulsed. Americans evacuate the fort ami return to New York. 144. Battle of Lake Champlain. — Sir George Prevost invade- New York with an army 14,000 strong. Advances to Plattsburg. Four days" heavy skirmishing. Com. McDonough, commanding the American squadron, captures the greater, part of the British fleet after a desperate battle lasting two hours and a half, Sept. II. Precipitate retreat of the British with a loss in all of 2,500. 145. In the South. — A large British squadron entered the Chesapeake, in August, with the intention of capturing Washing- ton. Gen. Winder with 4,000 men prepared to meet the enemy under Gen. Boss with 5,000 men. In the battle of Bladensburg the Americans were defeated. The British sacked Washington and burned the capitol, Aug. ^4. Ross sailed from Washington to Baltimore. He landed at North Point and was killed in a skirmish. Fort MeHenry was vigorously bombarded, hut no impression was made on it, and the British withdrew. 146. Naval Battles. — On the 28th of March the Essex, Com- modore Porter, was captured by two British vessels, the Phoebe and Cherub, after a desperate engagement, while in neutral waters off Valparaiso, Chili. The Frolic was captured by :i British ves- sel. The Peacock and Wasp each captured a British vessel. 147. Tohopeka.— On March jy Gen. Jackson defeated the hostile Creeks al Tohopeka, on the Tallapoosa River, in Alabama. HISTORY . 337 Nearly 1,000 Indians fell. The remainder of the tribe sent in their submission. 148. 1815.— The Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, was the last great battle of the war. Gen. Jackson hastily fortified the city. His army numbered about 6,ooo men; the British army numbered twice as many, under Sir Edward Pakenham. The British cap- tured the American fleet on Lake Borgne and advanced to assault the breastworks. They were repulsed with terrible slaughter, losing 2,000 men, including Pakenham killed, while the American loss was only eight killed and thirteen wounded. A Treaty of Peace had meantime been signed Dec. 14, 1814. 149. Naval Battles. — On Feb. 20 the Constitution captured two British vessels, the Cyane and the Levant. On March 2$ the Hornet captured the British Penguin off Brazil. This ended hostilities. 150. The treaty of Ghent really settled none of the questions involved. It was silent as to the " right of search" and the seizure of vessels. But the wholesome chastisement received by Great Britain taught her a lesson on these points which she never forgot. Our flag was now respected by all nations. Peace caused universal joy throughout the country, and gave no less satisfaction in Great Britain. Our commerce was ruined and our debt was $100,000,- 000, but jjrosperity at once set in. 151. A War with the Barbary States occurred in iS 1 5. Com. Decatur captured some Algerian vessels ami compelled the Dey to sign a treaty which put an end to piracy in the Mediterranean. Tunis and Tripoli were also punished. y antes Monroe's Administration, 1817-1823. 152. Important Events. — Gen. Jackson invaded Florida, which led to complications resulting in the purchase of the territory for $5,000,000, 1S19. The slavery question began to cause angry discussion. By the terms of the Missouri Com promise Missouri was admitted as a slave State, but slavery was prohibited for the future in all territory north of 36 30'. The Monroe Doctrine promulgated by the President. The principle of this doctrine is that foreign powers should not be allowed to exercise undue influ- ence upon the American continent. John §>uincy Adams's Administration, 1825-1829. 153. Important Events. Adams was elected by the /dons, of Representatives. lie was originally a Federalist, but became a Whig. The Whigs were a new party organized about this time. Their opponents continued to tie called Democrats. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died July 4, 1826. A protective tariff was enacted by Congress, 1828. The tariff question has often caused much discussion in American politics. 22 33b TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. Andrew Jackson's Administration, 1829— 1837. 154. Important Events. — Jackson was a radical Democrat and politics caused much excitement during his administration. In 1832 occurred the Black Hawk War in Illinois. The Indians were defeated and compelled to give up their lands. Nullification. — Resistance to the protective tariff was mosl pronounced in the ag- ricultural States, which profited nothing hy protection of" ///a//ufac- turcs. South Carolina was specially violent in her opposition, led by John C. Calhoun. The people of the State in convention de- clared that the law should he null and void there. Jackson issued a proclamation saving the law should he enforced. This effectually quelled Nullification. At the same time a gradual reduction of duties was provided for. The Seminole War in Florida lasted several years. The Indians finally consented to he removed west of the Mississippi. Marti// ] 'a// Suren's Administration, 1837-1841. 155. Important Events. — Elected by the Democrats. The great financial "panic of '37 " caused widespread distress Rebel- lion in Canada, which threatened to implicate Americans, 1837. William Henry Harrisorfs Administration (onemontfi),and yah/; Tyler's, 1841-1843. 156. During the campaign there was intense excitement. The Whigs had a large majority of the electoral vote. Harrison died in office, April 4, 1841, and was succeeded by John Tyler. 157. Important Events. — The Whigs wished to re-establish the United States Dank, the hill for which had been vetoed by Jackson. A new hill was passed, and was vetoed by Tyler. The Whigs were highly indignant at this and considered it as apostaey from their party hy the President. Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island over the adoption of a new constitution. Settled amicably. Agitation for the Annexation of Texas. The scheme favored by the slave States and opposed by the free States. James K. PoiPs Administration, 1 843-1849. 158. Polk was a Democrat. The great event of his adminis- tration was the Mexican War. Texas had become a part of the Union July 4, 1815. But her own independence had never been fully acknowledged hv Mexico. Texas claimed the territory to the Rio Grande, while Mexico claimed that her territory should extend only to the Neuces. The United States government also had large claims against the Mexican government for damages in- dicted hy citizens of Mexico upon citizens of the United Stales. Mexico showed no disposition either to pay these claims or to put a stop to border outrages. This year a dispute arose with Great HISTORY. 339 Britain over the Oregon boundary. Americans cried "54° 40' or •fight." The boundary was fixed at 49 . 159. 1846.— In 1S45 Gen. Taylor advanced to the Rio Grande and built Fort Brown (Brownsville). Open hostilities began April, 1S46. On May S, Taylor, with 2,300 men, defeated 6,000 Mexicans at Palo Alto, and the next day at Besaca de la Palma (Ray-sah' kah day la Paid' mah). The Mexican loss was 1,000; the American about one-tenth that number. On the 18th Taylor took possession of Matamoras. 160. In September, Taylor, with 6,000 men, advanced to Mon- terey. He besieged the place, which was defended by 9,000 Mexicans. After a four days' siege the city surrendered. The Amer- icans soon after took Saltillo {Sahl-teel' yo). 161. The Americans took possession of New Mexico and California. In the latter State the American settlers, who acted under the advice of Col. Fremont, proclaimed their independence, July 5, and defeated the Mexicans in a number of skirmishes. 162. 1847. — Santa Anna, the Mexican commander-in-chief, collected an army of 20,000 men and met the Americans under Taylor in the mountain pass of Buena Vista, Feb. 23. After a bloody struggle the Mexicans were completely defeated. 163. Scott's Campaign. — Gen. \Y infield Scott (now com- mander-in-chief) bombarded the castle of San Juan de Ulloa {Sahn ivahn' day Oo-lo' ah) which, with the city of Vera Cruz, surrendered March 29. The Americans now took up their march for the City of Mexico. The mountain pass of Cerro Gordo was stormed and the Mexicans routed. In August the Americans, 12,000 strong, reached the vicinity of the capital. The Mexicans numbered fully 30,000 men. They were defeated at Contreras (Con-tray' r as), Churubusco {Choo-roo-boos' ho), Molino del Rey (Mo-lee' no del ray), and at Chapultepec (Cka-pool-ta-pck'). On Sept. 14 the army entered the City of Mexico. 164. Peace was concluded, Feb. 2, 1S48, by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo (Gziad-a-loop' ay hee-dahl' go). New Mex- ico, California and Utah were ceded to the U. S. Mexico re- ceived $15,000,000. Zachary Taylor's Administration, March 4, 1849 — July 9, 1830, and Filhnore's July 9, 1849 — March 4, i8jj. 165. Important Events. — Taylor was elected by the Whigs. The agitation of the slavery question was renewed with bitterness. A compromise bill introduced by Henry Clay finally became a law, Sept., 1850. It provided: (1) for the admission of California a^ a free State; (2) the territory of Utah was organized with no mention of slavery; (3) the territory of New Mexico was organ- ized without mention of slavery; (4) Texas was paid $10,000,000 for lands taken from her; (5) the slave trade was abolished in the 340 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. District of Columbia, and a more rigorous law passed for the re- turn of fugitive slaves. The Omnibus bill, as it was called for a time, allayed the excitement on the subject of slavery. 166. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster both died during the year 1852. Franklin Pierce } s Administration, f^'SJ—^<^S7- 167. Important Events. — Pierce a Democrat. By a new treaty with Mexico the United States paid $20,000,000 for an ad- ditional portion of territory in Arizona, called the "Gadsden Pur- chase." The Kansas-Nebraska bill, introduced into Congress by Stephen A. Douglas, provided for the establishment of two new territories, Kansas and Nebraska. The question of slavery was left to the people of those territories. This bill was a violation of the Missouri Compromise (see Sec. 152), nevertheless it became a law. The struggle of the opposing pro-slavery and anti-slavery parties resulted in open war in Kansas. The old Whig party practically ceased to exist, and the new Republican party, opposed to slavery, sprang up. yames Buchanan's Administration, iSj;j-jS6i. 168. The canvass was very active, and the Republicans hoped to elect their candidate, John C. Fremont, but the Democrats elected Buchanan by a good majority. 169. A Mormon rebellion broke out in Utah, in 1857, which was quelled only by the presence of a U. S. army. These people had caused much trouble at Nauvoo, 111., where they had settled at an early day. They also had difficulties with the people of Mis- souri. The Mormon doctrines are unclean, un-American and dan- gerous. These people have spread rapidly, and the solution of the Mormon question is to-day one of difficulty and danger. — Emi- grant aid societies were formed in the North for the colonization of Kansas with "free soil" settlers. The South sent numerous col- onists, and scenes of violence and bloodshed between "Border Ruf- fians" and "Jay Hawkers" were of frequent occurrence. Among the anti-slavery men John Brown was conspicuous. The Terri- tory had at one time two constitutions and two capitals. Kansas was admitted as a free State Jan. 30, 1861. 170. On Oct. 16, 1859, John Brown with twenty-one fol- lowers, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, V a., with the intention of exciting a slave rising. He was overpowered by .State and Fed- eral troops, and several of his party killed. He and six associates were hanged by the authorities of Jefferson county, Ya. Abraham Lincoln's Administration, j6'6i-iS6^. 171. The campaign in the fall of '6o was one of the greatest excitement. Tin Democratic party was split on the subject of HISTORY. 341 Slavery. The Northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, as their candidate; the Southerners nominated John C Breckenridgc, of Kentucky; the remnant of the old Whig party nominated John Bell, of Tennessee; the Republicans, now confident of success, nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois. Lincoln re- ceived the electoral vote of every Northern State except New- Jersey, and had a large majority in the electoral college, although he received a minority of the popular vote. The South at once began to prepare for war. CAUSES OF THE WAR OF SECESSION. 172. Slavery was the chief cause of the war, but there were other very important causes: i. Among the founders of our government, both North and South, there was a decided opposition to the perpetuation of slavery, which then existed in all the colonies. The Northern colonists gradually freed their slaves. In the South slave labor paid, hence there was a tendency to ignore the moral aspects of the institution, and look only at the 'pecuniary. The invention of the cotton gin made the production of cotton on a large scale very profitable. This could be accomplished only by slave labor, hence slavery was considered a necessity. 2. The South was exclusively an agricultural community, and was not benefited by the tariff laws for the protection of Northern industries. 3. State Rights. — The Southern States have always held that this government really consisted of a confederation of repub- lics which had delegated to the general government certain pow- ers. These powers, it was held, might be resumed at any time by the States. The right of secession was an inevitable consecmence of this theory. 4. . Iggrcssivencss of Slavery. — The slaveholders wished to occupy new territories ami establish new slave States. This was contrary to the sentiment of a majority of the Northern people. 5. The rapid growth of the North in wealth and population and the rapidity with which Northern people settled the Great West, were a constant source of jealousy to the South. As inci- dents in this great struggle for supremacy were: (a) the Missouri Compromise of 1820; (b) the compromise' of 1S50; (c) the Kansas- Nebraska bill of [854; (d) the formation of the Republican party hostile to slavery; (e) the "Died Scott Decision" of the U. S. Supreme Court declaring the Missouri compromise unconstitutional and affirming the right of slaveholders to take their slaves into an\ part of the Union; (f) the "Personal Liberty bills" passed In- Northern States declaring all slaves who entered those States free 6. The want of intercourse between the two sections. The people did not understand each other. 342 TEACHERS" AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 7, The evil influence of demagogues and sectional publications. 8. Immediate Causes. — The John Brown raid, the struggle in Kansas, the election of Lincoln. i VENTS OF THE WAR, 1S61-1865. 173. On the election of Lincoln the extreme Southern States began to agitate the question of Secession. South Carolina led the way. A convention called to consider the question passed an ordinance of secession Dec. 20, i860. By the first of Feb., 1861, seven States, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis- sippi, Louisiana and Texas had seceded. Nearly all the govern- ment property in these States with the exception of Fort Pickens at Pensacola and Fort Sumter at Charleston, had been seized. A government was established called the confederate states of AMERICA with its capital at Montgomery, Alabama. Jefferson Davis was elected President. 174. 1861. — Lincoln was duly inaugurated March 4. The President determined to possess and hold the forts and government property in the South. An attempt was to be made to relieve Fort Sumter, but the Confederates determined on its immediate reduction. The fort was vigorously bombarded, April 12 and 13. Major Anderson the commandant, with a handful of men, surrendered. 175. The wildest excitement prevailed North and South. Lincoln called for 75,090 men to serve for three months. The call was eagerly responded to. Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee successively seceded. The Confederate capital was removed to Richmond, Va. April 19, Massachusetts troops mobbed in Baltimore. 176. In the East.— -Gen. McLellan occupied West Virginia after a few unimportant battles. That State adhered to the Union cause. Union troops under Gen. Butler repulsed at Big Bethel, Va., June 10. Battle of Bull Run. — The Union army 35,000 strong under Gen. McDowell, attempted to advance on Richmond. The Confederate army about equal in number, was commanded by Gen. Beauregard. At Bull Run a bloody battle occurred July 21. The advantage was with the Union troops till about 2 o'clock when the arrival of a fresh body of Confederates under Johnston turned the scale. The Union troops were defeated and the defeat became a rout. The Union army precipitately fell back on Washington. The Union loss was in round numbers 3,000 killed, wounded and prisoners; the rebel loss 2,000. This the first great battle of the war struck consternation into the North and correspondingly elated I he South. 177. Ball's Bluff. — Oct. 21, a body of 2,000 Union troops crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff. They were attacked by the HISTORY. 343 Confederates and driven back with great slaughter, losing 800 men, including (Jen. Baker, killed. 178. In the West. — Early in the summer a struggle began for the possession of Missouri. The secessionists were gradually driven into the southwestern part of the State. Here they were reinforced by troops from the South, all commanded by Sterling Price. A battle took place at Wilson's Creek near Springfield, Aug. 10. The Union troops were defeated and Gen. Lyon killed. Col. Mulligan was obliged to surrender to a superior rebel force at Lexington, Mo., Sept. 20. Nov. 7, Brigadier General U. S. Grant crossed to Belmont, Missouri, from Kentucky. A severe battle took place and Grant retreated. 179. Early in the year the President declared all the coast of the seceding States under blockade. The combined fleet and army captured the Forts at Hatteras Inlet, N. C, Aug. 29, and took Port Royal, S. C, Nov. 27. 180. May 19, Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as belligerents. France, Spain and Portugal soon after did the sinic. This gave the Confederates the right to be treated accord- ing to the laws of war instead of as mere rebels. In November Mason and Slidell, confederate commissioners to England and France, were taken from the British steamer Trent by the frigate San jfacinto. Great Britain at once began preparing for war. The prisoners were released. 181. A special session of Congress provided for the issue of legal tenders (Greenbacks) to carry on the war, and authorized the President to call for 500,000 volunteers. The people of the Border Slave States were much divided in regard to the war. A majority of the people however in Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, West Virginia and East Tennessee adhered to the Union cause. 182. 1862. In the West. — Operations began by the capture of Mill Spring, Ky., by the Union forces under Gen. Thomas. The Confederate Gen. Zollicoffer was killed. In February Gen. Grant with the co-operation of the gunboats invested and captured Forts Henry ami Donelson on the Tennessee line situated respec- tively on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. About 9,000 men surrendered at Fort Donelson, Feb. 20. Nashville was occupied soon after. Island No. 10, in the Mississippi, the defense of that river, was captured by Gen. Pope, April 7. The Confed- erates were defeated March 6, 7, 8, at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, after a severe battle. 183. The Confederates everywhere unsuccessful, attempted to surprise the Union army at Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River. A desperate and bloody conflict took place (Battle of Shiloh), April 6 and 7. But for the timely arrival of Buell's force Grant's army would doubtless have been almost ruined. The first day the Confederates under Beauregard carried everything before :'AA TEACHERS' AXD STUDENTS' LI UK ART. them. On the following day they were checked and eventually retreated to Corinth, Miss. The Confederate Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston was killed in the first day's fight. The Union loss was about 15,000, the rebel loss 11,000. 184. Gen. Halleck took command of the Union forces and confident of success, pressed on to the siege of Corinth. The .Southern army escaped uninjured. 185. Gen. Bragg succeeded Beauregard in command of the army of the Southwest. lie suddenly advanced in August from Chattanooga and invaded Kentucky where he was joined by Kirbv Smith. A severe but indecisive battle was fought at Perryville, Oct. 8. The Confederates retired from Kentucky with immense spoils. Rosecrans succeeded Buell in command of the army of the Cumberland. On the 31st of December, 1S62, the Confed- erates under Bragg attacked the army of the Cumberland com- manded by Gen. Rosecrans, near Murfreesboro. This bloody engagement, called the battle of Stone River, continued on New Year's day. It was a drawn battle. Union force 47,000, Confed- erate 35,000, Union loss 14,000, killed, wounded and missing; Confederate loss 10,000. 186. In the East, the Union forces were commanded by Gen. Geo. B. McLellan and the Confederates by Gen. Joseph E. John- ston and afterward by Gen. Robt. E. Lee. McLellan advanced up the "Peninsula" from Yorktown to capture Richmond. A severe battle took place May 31 and June 1, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks on the Chickahominy. In the meantime Banks who was to march up the Shenandoah Valley and co-operate with Mc- Lellan, was defeated at Strasburg by Stonewall Jackson and sent flying down the valley. Fremont advanced to intercept Jackson and the latter in turn retreated. Jackson struck Shield's division at Port Republic completely defeating it, and marched to join Lee. The contest near Richmond was renewed with terrible slaughter, Jackson returned and joined Lee. The Union troops were driven from their position at Gaines's Mill with heavy loss June 26 and 27. McLellan was obliged to change base to the James River and on his retreat occurred the bloody battle of Savage's Station June 29, Glendale, June 30, and Malvern Hill, July 1. In the last action Lee was checked; after seven days incessant fighting the rebels had lost about 20,000 men. The Union loss was smaller but Mc- Lellan with 1 50,000 splendid troops had failed to take Richmond. 187. Lee determined to invade the North and marched rapidly toward Washington. In the second battle of Bull Run the Union troops commanded by Pope were defeated with terrible loss A.Ug. 28-31. McLellan moved by transports rapidly up the Potomac. Stonewall Jackson had meanwhile captured I ! ,000 prisoners at Harper's Ferry. The two armies met at Antietam, Md., where one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought, Sept. 17. The HIS TORT. 345 contest was indecisive but Lee was compelled to recross the Poto- mac. McLellan was relieved by Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside. 188. Burnside advanced to Fredericksburg. In attempting to cross the Rappahannock he was repulsed with fearful carnage, Dec. ii and 12. The Union loss was nearly 11,000 men, the rebel loss a little over 5,000. 189. Naval Operations. — The Confederate ironclad Merrimac emerged from Norfolk harbor March S, and sunk the frigate Con- gress and sloop-of-war Cumberland. Next day, the Monitor hav- ing arrived in the night, a drawn battle took place and the Merri- mac returned to Norfolk. The invention of the Monitor by Capt. Ericsson was a turning point in the war. 190. Farragut, with a powerful fleet, passed Forts Jackson and St Philip and captured New Orleans in April. The priva- teers Florida and Alabama committed great depredations on Northern shipping. 191. 1863. — The President proclaimed the freedom of all slaves on New War's day. In the East, Gen. Hooker was in command. lie crossed the Rappahannock and was attacked at Chancellorsville May 2 and 3. The Union forces were badly de- feated with a loss of 17,000 men. The rebel loss was about 12,000, but their brilliant leader Stonewall Jackson* was shot through mis- take by his own men, and died three days later. The Union forces in this battle were 90,000 men, the Confederate, half as many. 192. Lee again determined to invade the North. His army arrived in Pennsylvania late in June and both sides collected every available man for the deadly struggle. The Union army under Gen. Meade took position at Gettysburg. The battle began July I and lasted three days. On the first day the Confederates were successful, on the second the Union troops maintained their ground, on the third the Confederates at midday opened a terrific cannonade from two hundred guns concentrated toward Cemetery Hill. The cannonade ceased and the Confederate line, three miles long, headed by Pickett's Virginians, advanced to storm the Union line. After an awful carnage Lee was obliged to fall back. His Loss was 30,000 men. The Union loss 23,000. Lee withdrew behind the Rappahannock. 193. In the West, Gen. Grant moved early in the season for the capture of Vieksburg and Port Hudson, which commanded the Mississippi. His plan was to attack from the rear and cut Pemberton off from assistance. In the battle of Raymond, Miss., the rebels were defeated May 12, at Jackson on the 14th, Champion Hills on the 1 6th, and :it Big Black River on the 17th. Pemberton was now shut up in Vieksburg and Johnston was outside unable to relieve him. After a siege of six weeks, during which the be- sieged suffered the direst extremities, the city, with about 30,000 * His real name • is Thorn is Jonathan Jackson. 340 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS LIBRARY. nun and great military munitions, surrendered July ^,thc same day that Lee retreated from Gettysburg. 194. Port Hudson (La.) had also been invested by Gen. Bank-. After the surrender of Vicksburg it was useless for that place to attempt to hold out, though a desperate assault was re- pulsed. The town surrendered July 9. The Confederacy was now completely cut into t~co parts. 195. In September Rosccrans occupied Chattanooga and ad- vanced into Georgia. Here the rebel army, reinforced by Long- street's corps, hurriedly sent from Virginia, attacked the Union army at Chickamauga. One of the bloodiest battles of the war took place Sept. 19 and 20. The Union troops were driven from the field. The losses were frightful, being about nineteen thousand on each side. 196. The Union army succeeded in retiring safely into Chatta- nooga. Bragg occupied Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, overlooking the city. Gen. Grant had been appointed to the command of all the forces in the West and took the direction of affairs. Lookout Mountain was stormed by Gen. Hooker Nov. 23. On the following day the entire available Union force stormed Missionary Ridge and Bragg was compelled to retreat. 197. Morgan's raid occurred in the summer of ''63. With 3,000 cavalry he started from Sparta, Tenn., crossed Kentucky, en- tered Indiana, thence passed entirely across Ohio, and endeavored •<> escape into West Virginia. He had frequent skirmishes on his march and his exhausted troops rapidly dwindled in numbers. The remnants of the force, with their leader, were captured near New Lisbon, O. 198. The siege of Charleston was begun early in the summer. An assault upon Fort Wagner, one of the defenses, was repulsed with terrible slaughter July 18. 199. A great draft riot occurred in New York City in July. Those opposed to the war anil conscription rose, and many scenes of bloodshed and violence occurred. The riot was promptly sup- pressed. A large number of people in the North considered the war a failure and desired "peace at any price." The Unionists called this party "Copperheads," "Butternuts," "Traitors," etc. There was great bitterness of feeling. 200. 1864. — Lieutenant General Grant was now in command of all the Union armies. He crossed the Rapidan with a splendid army of 140,000 men and attacked Lee, whose force was very much less. The bloody battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 6, 7, en- sued, with nothing gained. Grant tried to outflank Lee, and another desperate battle, lasting several days, was fought further south at Spottsylvania. This battle was indecisive. Grant again moved southeast and Lee again confronted him at Cold Harbor, twelve miles from Richmond. The Union troops charged and a HISTORY. 347 terrible carnage ensued, nearly 10,000 Federals falling in half an hour. When ordered to charge a second time the Union troops silently disobeyed. The total losses of the Union army in this short campaign had been nearly 60,000 men, the Confederate over half that number. 201. A column under vSigel had been ordered to co-operate with Grant in the Shenandoah Valley, while another under Butler threatened Richmond by advancing up the James. Sigel with S,ooo men was defeated at New Market by Breckenridge. Butler advanced up the James and moved toward Petersburg, but was checked and fell back on City Point. 202. Grant soon, after the battle of Cold Harbor transferred his entire force of 150,000 men south of the James. There was se- vere fighting in front of- Petersburg, but the Confederates held their ground. Gen. Early crossed the Potomac and threatened Washington in July. He retreated, carrying off vast plunder. A cavalry force under Stuart burned Chambersburg, Pa. Sheridan was sent against Early. He defeated the Confederates at Win- chester Sept. 19, and again at Fisher's Hill Sept. 22. Early, stung by defeat, fell upon Sheridan's army near Winchester, Oct. 19, and routed it. Sheridan, who was absent, returned in time to turn defeat into victory. Early's army was ruined. Sheridan had previously devastated the Shenandoah Valley. 203. Sherman's March to the Sea. — When Grant moved on the Rapidan he ordered Sherman to advance. The latter moved from Dalton May 6. He tried to outflank his opponent, Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. The latter retreated, and Sherman pursued the same tactics. Severe battles took place at Resaca May 14 and 15, Dallas May 25-28, at Kenesaw Mountain June 22 to July 3. In the latter the Federals were repulsed with terrible loss. John- ston continued to retreat in good order. He was superseded by Hood, who determined to fight at all hazards. Desperate battles were fought around Atlanta and the city surrendered Sept. 2. The losses had been fully 30,000 on each side. Hood now tried to compel Sherman to retreat by threatening his base of supplies. Hood advanced north and was roughly handled at Franklin, Tenn., Nov. 30, and routed, Dec. 15, at Nashville. He had sacrificed the only respectable Confederate army in the West. Sherman ad- vanced from Atlanta and marched to Savannah without opposition. That city surrendered Dec. 2 1 . 204. Other Operations. — An expedition under Gen. Banks up the Red River in March failed. Farragut destroyed the rebel Meet in Mobile Bay in July. Fort Fisher, N. C, was taken Jan. 15. A previous assault had been repulsed with great loss to the Federals. Fort Pillow (Tenn.) was captured by Gen. Forrest and its negro garrison massacred. 205. 1865. Final Campaign. — The beginning of the year •64H TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. found the weakness of the Confederacy every where apparent. The most rigid conscription failed to fill the depleted ranks. On the Other hand, tlie Northern armies were stronger than ever. The President had in July, [864, called for 500,000 volunteers and in December for 300,000 more. And he got them. 206. Sherman continued his march northward toward North Carolina, driving all the small Confederate forces before him. His object was to meet Grant and crush the Confederates between two splendid armies. Lee's condition was hopeless. He assaulted and captured Fort Steadman, March 25, but was compelled to retire within his lines again. Grant assumed the offensive and defeated the Confederates at Five Forks, April I. The line in front of Petersburg was carried at various points. Lee evacuated Rich- mond and Petersburg, April 3. Grant pushed the retreating force and after various partial engagements Lee surrendered at Appo- matox Court House, April 9. Johnston surrendered to Sherman near Raleigh, April 26. 207. Jefferson Davis, while seeking to reach the sea coast, was captured in Georgia. He was confined in Fortress Monroe and finally released on $100,000 bail. The last Confederate force was west of the Mississippi under Kirby Smith. It surrendered May 26. The long struggle was over and the people of the North were wild with joy. En the midst of their rejoicing President Lincoln was assassinated in Washington by John Wilkes Booth, an actor, on the evening of April 14. Joy ended in bitterest sorrow. 208. Important Facts. — The total number of men enrolled in the Union armies was in round numbers 2,700,000. The Con- federacy enrolled, according to the most reliable sources, 493,000 men. The Union losses were estimated at 300,000 killed or died of disease, and 400,000 wounded. Total losses on both sides 1,000,000 men. The expenses of the war on the part of the gov- ernment were, during [864-5, tnree and a half millions P er dav - The National debt at the close of the war was $2,749,000,000. 209. The prisoners of war on both sides, as a consequence, suffered much. The sufferings of I lie Union prisoners at Ander- sonville, Salisbury and Libby prisons were horrible. This was caused partly by the inability of the Confederacy to furnish sup- plies of clothing, food and medicine. But a large share of the suf- fering can be ascribed only to deliberate cruelty. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions, organized in the North, did much to al- leviate the sufferings of the sick and wounded soldiers. Noble women left their comfortable homes to wait upon the soldiers on the battle field and in the hospital. Andrew Johnson's Administration, 1865-186Q. 210. Important Facts. — Almost at the outset of his adminis- tration the President had difficulty with Congress in regard to re- HISTORY. :349 construction. Congress, contrary to the wishes of the President, imposed very rigid conditions on the revolted States as necessary to their admission to the Union. These conditions related chiefly to the security of the colored race in their freedom and civil rights as citizens. The 13th and 14th amendments to the Constitu- tion bore on this point. The difficulties with the President culmi- nated in his impeachment by the House, but the Senate accpiitted him. The French intervention in Mexico failed of its object. Maximilian, the new emperor, was captured and shot by the Mexi- cans, 1867. Alaska was purchased from Russia for $7,000,000, 1S6S. Amnesty proclamation, Dec. 25,1868. Ulysses S. Granfs Administration, i86g-/8j/. 211. Important Facts. — Remaining seceded States admitted. Fifteenth Amendment adopted. Civil rights bill, granting colored people all rights in hotels, cars, etc., granted to whites, under heavy penalties. Ku-Klux suppression act. Credit Mobilier scandal, in- volving members of Congress, 1S71. Chicago fire, Oct. 9, 1871. Geneva Tribunal (1872) awards $15,000,000 to be paid by Great Britain, for damages committed by the privateer Alabama. Great panic begins with the failure of Jay Cooke & Co., 1873. Long continued depression of business ending 1879. The Centennial Exposition, 1876. Rutherford B. Hayeses Admh/istratiou, 18JJ-1881. 212. Grave troubles arose as to whether Hayes or his competi- tor, Samuel J. Tilden, was elected. The difficulty was finally set- tled by an electoral commission of fifteen appointed by Congress. Hayes was declared elected, having received 1S5 electoral votes to 1 84 cast for Tilden, the Democratic candidate. 213. The great railroad strike of July, 1S77, caused the loss of millions of dollars worth of property at Pittsburgh and else- where before it was settled. "James A. Garfield's Administration, March 4, 1881 — Sept. iq, 1881. 214. Garfield was nominated by the National Republican Convention, at Chicago, in June, 1SS0. Gen. Grant, contrary to the wise precedent of all his predecessors, allowed himself to be put forward persistently as a candidate lor a third term. This ex- cited the greatest opposition in the party, Garfield was nominated after a long, bitter contest, as the most available candidate, lli^ Democratic opponent was Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock. Gar- field's inaugural was one of the most imposing which ever oc- curred. At the very outset the President had difficulties with Senator Conkling, of New York, over certain Federal appoint- ments. This difficulty ended in the resignation of both New York 350 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Senators. Garfield was assassinated in the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad depot in Washington, July 2, hy Chas. J. Guiteau. He died at Elberon, N. J., Sept. 19. His death caused universal sorrow. Expressions of profound sympathy came from foreign lands. GROWTH OF THE COUNTRY. 215. A history of the growth of the Union would in itself fill a volume. Only a few important facts can he given. All the great region known as the " Northwest Territory," extending from the Ohio River to the great lakes had been claimed by Virginia. The territory now comprising the State of Kentucky also belonged to the same State. All this extensive region was ceded hy Vir- ginia to the general government. A portion of Northern Ohio was claimed by Connecticut. She gave up all hut the part known as the « Western Reserve," in the northeast corner of the State, ami that, too, was admitted as a part of Ohio. Great States rap- idly grew out of this Northwest Territory. Alabama and Missis- sippi were formed from the "Southwest Territory." Tennessee was originally a part of North Carolina. The manner in which the other territory of the U. S. was acquired from France, Spain, Mexico and Russia has been fully explained elsewhere. The dis- covery of gold in California, in 184S, created a great excitement throughout the civilized world. A great State with a commercial metropolis (San Francisco) sprang up as if hy magic. The dis- covery of silver in Nevada, Colorado and elsewhere, in connection with the discovery of gold in California and Australia, marked an epoch in the production of precious metals, which now became more abundant than ever before, and consequently slightly cheap- ened in value. The commercial growth of the United States has been indeed marvelous. Her manufactured articles are found in every market on the globe, equaling in quality those of the nations of Europe, and successfully competing with them in price. American breadstuff's supply the markets of Western and Southern Europe at prices which are daily ruining the fanners iA~ England. In the great -rain tie bis of the Northwest, planted and harvested by labor-saving machinery, wheat is now produced on a scale of magnitude never before equaled. The corn crop of the United States produces pork for the civilized world. The great plains of the Rocky Mountain regions and Texas, have almost the capacity to furnish beef enough for civilized man. Cities have sprung up with a growth never equaled elsewhere in the world. The most notable examples are New York, the commercial and financial metropolis of the East, and Chicago, the new metropolis of the great West. The American people annually appropriate large sums of money for the benefit of public ScAools, sums which in most other countries art' spenl in military preparations for the enslavement of the people, or the conquest of neighboring nations. HISTORY 351 216. Table showing- the important facts in the history of the States : State Virginia New York Massachusetts.. . New Hampshire. Connecticut Maryland Rhode Island.. . . Delaware North Carolina.. New Jersey South Carolina. . Pennsylvania. . . . Georgia Vermont Kentucky. . . , Tennessee.. . . Ohio Louisiana. Indiana Mississippi. . . , Illinois Alabama Maine Missouri Arkansas. . .... Michigan Florida Texas , Iowa. ...%.. Wisconsin California Minnesota Oregon Kansas West Virginia. Nevada Nebraska Colorado Area Sq. Mis. When, where, and by whom settled. Dist. of Columbia. 4--45U 49,170 8.315 9.305 1>99° 1 2, 210 1.250 2 ,050 5-. 250 7> Sl 5 3°. 5 7" 45,2i5 59,475 9,565 40,400 42,050 41,060 48,720 36,350 46,810 56,-0° 52,250 33,040 69,415 53,850 58,9'5 58,680 265, 7S0 56,025 56,040 158,360 83,365 96,030 82,080 24,780 110,700 76,855 ^3,925 70 607 614 620 623 633 634 636 638 6=;o 664 670 6S2 733 724 774 76S 7S8 700 699 693 702 755 685 701 565 7»S 833 745 769 838 Sn Jamestown New York Plymouth Portsmouth Windsor St. Mary's. Providence Wilmington Albemarle Sound. Elizabeth Ashley River Philadelphia Savannah Brattleboro' Harrodsburg Watauga River.. . Marietta Vincennes. . Biloxi Ka-kaskia... Mobile Bay. St Genevieve. Arkansas Post. Detroit St. Augustine. Dubuque. . Green Bay. San Diego. St. Paul.... Astoria English, Dutch, English, English, English, English, English, Swedes, English, English, English, English, English, English, English, English, Americans, French, French, French, French, French, English, French, French, French, Spaniards, Spaniards, French, French, Spaniards, Americans, Americans. £ <_ in st of minor inventions oi great importance. The number of miles of railroad in the U.S. is about 95,000; of telegraph, miles of line, about 95,000; miles of wire, ,000. The day has long since passed when " nobody reads an American hook." The works of American authors have been translated into all the -real literary languages of the world. The number of periodical publications of all sort-., daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc., is considerably over 11,000. 218. Conclusion. — Americans should justly he proud of their country. Though the Fourth-of-July orator may at times make us appear ridiculous, the fact remains that we, as a people, enjoy more real freedom than any other on the globe. It is no egotism to say that Americans are by far the best-fed, best-clothed, best-housed, most intelligent, richest and happiest people in the world. *** Topical Reviews should occur often. Let the pupil prepare outline- for such reviews, after the model given at the heginning of Ancient History. Review the Presidents by means of the headings for their administrations. HINTS ON TEACHING HISTORY. 1. History is often taught very unsatisfactorily. In a veiy great number of cases, in our public schools, the study of history is unpopular. Pupils dislike the study, and often adopt almost any expedient to he relieved from the history class. From the nature of the subject it is difficult to lay down definite rules for the teaching of history. The methods which succeed with one teacher may partially fail with another, and the course adopted for one class of pupils might not be suitable for a class under different circumstances. 2. The chief difficulty is that teachers require pupils to mem- orize the text. This is the worst possible method. The following objections may be raised to it: (1) Many pupils find it utterly im- possible to commit to memory the text, with all its confusing de- tails and numerous dates. Hence they become discouraged and disgusted with history, and this prejudice usually extends to alter life. ( 1 , By this method the lessons are necessarily short, thus consuming more lime than the ordinary pupil can give to the suh- ject. The besl pupil- progress only as fast as die poorest, and de- spair of ultimately completing the study. (3) Confining the study to one hook, thus Studying a text-book instead of history. No one text-book can, without being too voluminous, furnish the variety of detail in biographical sketches, noted events, curious customs, re- ligions, etc., to arouse thoroughly the interest of the ordinary pupil, and cause him to like history. ( -\ ) Memorizing the text fails to develope the reasoning power. Little real mental culture results from such a course of" training. HIS TORI'. 353 Methods. The author used successfully for several years the following methods in his classes. 3. Assigning Lessons. — A certain amount of matter, say from four to twelve pages according to circumstances, was assigned to the class to be read through carefully once at least. This reading was not with the view of memorizing, but merely that the pupil might understand the text as far as possible. All difficult words or references were to be looked up in the dictionary and encyclo- pedias, so that each pupil was prepared to pronounce correctly every word. 4. At the next recitation this matter was again read as a read- ing lesson by the class with corrections, explanations and remarks by the teacher. 5. Note Books. — Each pupil was provided with a good sized, well bound note book. 6. After the second reading of the matter assigned, the teacher dictated and the pupils copied a brief synopsis covering the chief points of the entire lesson. In dates only the most important were given. 7. These notes were committed to memory and recited either the next day or at some future time. This plan reduces the memorizing to a minimum. 8. Reviews were frequent. These were not set for Fridays or an)' especial day. They came when a natural break in the subject made them proper. Let them occur often. 9. Focal Dates. — A definite space in the note books was reserved for such important dates as the teacher thought should be indelibly fixed in the minds of the pupils. These dates always indicated great events and usually marked the limits of different epochs. For example, such were the Concpjests of Alexander, the Fall of Carthage, the Fall of Rome, the Crowning of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West, the Discovery of America, etc. These dates with the accompanying events were thoroughly learned and often reviewed. They serve as a sort of historical milestones. It is objected to this plan that the pupil will often fail to know whether a given event occurred say ten years before or after a given date, or one hundred years. This may be true but it should be borne in mind that only the critical student ever masters the details of history, and that after years of hard study. 10. Extraneous Matter. — The teacher will find that usually the interest in history lies not in what is inside of the book but in what is outside of it. Many schools have no libraries hut there is hardly a family in which you may not find some kind of book on history. These may he all profitably utilized in greatly increasing the interest in the class. 23 354 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 11. Compositions. — The best way to utilize this additional matter is by means of written compositions. In this direction Biography is a fruitful field. The teacher should prepare from time to time and keep constantly on hand a list <>f good subjects. Assign to each pupil, several days in advance of the time set for reading the compositions, such a subject as will best suit that par- ticular pupil. Bv assigning fruitful subjects to the best pupils and easier ones to the dull, you can thus give all plenty to do and at the same time keep your class together. Do not require too much at the start and allow no one to shirk his duty even if you should sacrifice the whole time of the next recitation attending to delin- quents. Do not call these written exercises compositions, simply say, " Write what you can find out about Benjamin Franklin," etc. Never let the pupils copy sentences. Have them reconstruct the language of the book entirely. 12. Subjects. — The following will illustrate sufficiently the general tenor, taking the Revolutionary period of our own coun- try: — Patrick Henry, the Treason of Arnold, Battle of Cowpens, How the people lived at the time of the Revolution, etc. Pay especial attention to manners, customs, religions, etc. 13. Criticism. — All inaccuracies of statement should be cor- rected by the class and the teacher after each pupil has read. By exchange of papers and careful criticism of spelling, punctuation and syntax this exercise may well serve for the time instead of the regular composition exercises of the school. Insist on neatness 14. Outlines. — Teach the pupil to outline his subject in logical order before beginning to write. At first these outlines may con- sist of a few simple heads. The outlining of any subject is a very valuable and necessary part of its study. 15. Difficulties of the Teacher. — To teach history well the teacher must himself have a fair knowledge of history, lie should constantly read ahead of the class, so that he may have a definite knowledge of what he is assigning for a lesson. Otherwise he will probably assign too much or too little. He should read other books besides the text book. If he does not own them he can usually borrow, though there is little need of that in these days when a good outline history of the world may be had for a price not exceeding three dollars, and special works of history are repub- lished in the ten-cent libraries. The teacher who cannot afford such an outlay is indeed a poor teacher in more senses of the word than one. Without a little extra reading and study it is difficult to dictate notes as suggested in paragraph six, and it is impossible to give explanations extending beyond the text book. 16. Referenco Books. — Another difficulty is that most schools have insufficient reference books, or none. The teacher must in the latter case depend entirely upon the books in the libraries of the II IS TOR J' . 355 children's homes. He should ascertain what these are and by a little trouble may find out the extent of their availability. Remem- ber,there are many sources of historical information. Articles in newspapers and magazines often furnish the needed material. 17. Maps of the countries studied should be referred to con- stantly. This will serve to give the pupil a much clearer idea of what he studies, and serve to fix the facts more firmly. 18. Avoid routine as you would the small -pox. Routine begets dislike, and dislike is fatal to history. Pupils may dislike Arithmetic and yet study it diligently because they see that it is absolutely necessary to the commonest education. History on the other hand, though really one of the most valuable of all the branches of knowledge, is considered a luxury by the ignorant or the young, because its use is not so apparent. 19. These methods may be varied greatly, still following the same general plan. For example the author's class at times" con- tinued the first reading for several successive days. Then perhaps several days were occupied exclusively in taking notes and after- ward sufficient time employed in recitation. 20. Whatever methods you may adopt never emplov the memoriter which consists of vainly" attempting to commit to memory so many paragraphs of a "certain book. This method unrelieved by any change is hopeless and inevitable failure. 21. Reflections on the lessons of history. The pupil should be constantly incited to think about what he "studies. Causes should be studied carefully and their connection with the succeeding events properly traced. The position which nations occupy in the scale of civilization, their influence upon one another, the character of their people, etc., should all receive due attention. 22. The teacher should always remember that a thorough, intelligible knowledge of history cannot be obtained from any one- short book. This little work does not pretend to be anything but a?i outline of history. As a consequence it contains more dates than the pupil should try to remember, and gives only a suggestion of many topics which should be read up in full elsewhere. QUESTIONS ON HISTORY. ANCIENT HISTORY. 1—4. Define history. Political history. Philosophy of history <— 12 Name the kindred branches of study. Philology? Ethn8lo£y? ArchreoWv? Antiquity of man? s - 13. Races? 15. Languages? Turanian? 16. Arvan? 17. Semitic? 18 Name the divisions of history. 19. Name the most ancient nations. 20. Antiquity of E°-ypt ? ->i Hiero glyphics? 22. Rosetta Stone? 23. Race? 24. Government" 2=;. Laws' 26 —27. Political history. 28. Pyramids. 29. Exodus? 30. Great temples? 31 Power of Egypt? 32— 36. Art and science? 37— 38. Religion? 39. Embal mg? Learning? 40. Caste? 41. Resources? 42. Was the government a polity of Egypt based on the welfare of the people? (State reasons) m- and ;:,<; TEACHERS 1 -LVD STUDENTS' LIBRART. 43. What records have preserved to us the history of Assyria and Chaldea? 44. Race, language and character of the Assyrians and Babylonians? 46. De- scribe- Babylon? 47. When did the countries cease to be independent? 48. Arts and sciences? Social life? 49. Pursuits? 50 — 53. Give a brief sketch of Judea and Phoenicia. 57. What was the character of the Persians? 58. Religion? 59—61. Name their greatest monarchs, with something each did. <<2. Civilization? 63. State the language and religion of the Hindoos. The Vedas? 64. Trans- migration of souls? 65. Buddhism? 66. Name the castes. What is caster Effects of. 67. Give a synopsis of the striking features of Oriental history. GREECE. S. Race, name and language of the Greeks. 69. Geography of Greece. 70. Branches of the Hellenic race. 71. The heroic age? 72 — 74. Trojan war. 75. Striking features of heroic age. 77. Sparta? Spartan laws? 78. Govern- ment? 79. Character? 80. Athens? Lawgivers? Si. Government? 82. "Tyrants" ? 83. Athenian character? S4. Cause of the Persian war? 85. First invasion? S6. Second invasion? 85 — 90. Name the great battles of the war. Name the leaders on both sides. 91. Results? 92 — 93. What can you say of the " Age of Pericles " ? Leaders of the time? 94. Condition of the people? 95. Causes of the Peloponnesian war. 96—98. Synopsis of. Result? 99. "Retreat of the 10,000"? 100. Sparta and Thebes? 101. Philip of Macedon? Philippics? 102. Alexander the Great? 102 — 103. Conquest of Persia. 104. Effect of. 105. Alexander's successors? 106. " Leagues of Greece " ? 107. The civilization of Greece? 10S. Politics? 109. Religion? 110. Oracles? in. Temples? 112. Art? 113. Literature? 114. Festivals? 115. Food? Table manners? 116. Houses? 117. Dress? 11S. Education? 119. Influence of Greek civilization? ROME. 120. Race, language, geography? 121. Origin? 122. Early wars? 123. Earlv government? 124. Patricians and Plebeians? The Republic. — 125. Periods in the history of. 126. Form of government? 127. Earlv laws? 128. Tribunes of the people? 129. Laws of the twelve tables? 130. The consulate? 131. The public lands.- Licinian laws? 132. The nations of Italy conquered by the Romans? 133. Give a brief synopsis of Roman colonial polk- v. 134. Describe Carthage and her people. 135. Give a synopsis of the first Punic war. 136. The second Punic war? Hannibal? 137. What great de- feats sustained bv the Romans? 13S. Battle of Zamal 139. Third Punic war: 140. Conquests in the East? 141. How were the provinces governed? 142. Military strength of Rome? Causes of her superiority ? 143. Public improve- ments in the citv of Rome? 144. Luxury? 145. Public morals? 1 46. Society ? 147. Seditions of the Gracchi? 148. The " Social war"? 149—150. Wars ot Mar ius and Sulla? 150. Proscription? 151. The Triumvirate? Julius Cesar? 152. Battle of Pharsalia? 153. Caesar'6 policy? 154. His death? Second tri- umvirate- Battle of Phihppi? Antony's character? Actium? (For lives of celebrated men of ancient times see " Plutarch's Lives.") The Empire. — 159. Extent? Population? Armies? 160. Civilization? 161. Policvof Augustus? 162. The Golden Age? 163—165. Public works of Rome? [66. Walls? 167. Topography of Rome? Forum? Campus Mar tins? 168 169. Successors of Augustus? 170. 1 )i vision of the empire? 171. Growth Of Christianity? 172. Persecutions? 173. First Christian emperor? 174. Roman character? 175. Religion? 176. Houses? 177. Furniture? Decorations? 17S. Daily life? 179. Meals? 180. Dress? 181. Marriage? 182. Schools? 183. Public games? 1S4. Slaves? 185. Art? 186— 187. Downfall of Rome? The barbarians? 188. The Eastern empire? ^.Influ- ence of Rome on the modern world? HISTORT. 35T MODERN HISTORY. 190. Define Middle ages. Dark ages. Mediaeval. Character of the Ger- mans? Fusion of races? The Franks? 191 — 192. Charlemagne? 193. The Saracens? 194. Mohammedanism? 195. The caliph? 196. Civilization of the Saracens? 197. England in the middle ages? 19S. Settlers? First king? The Nor- mans? 199. Alfred the Great? 200. Canute? 201. The Norman Conquest? 202. Battle ot Hastings? 203. Condition of the Saxons under the Normans? 204. The Plan tagenets? 205. Richard Coeur de Lion? 206. Magna Charta (Kar'ta)} 207. Conquest of Wales? 207—208. Wars with Scotland? 208. Robert Bruce? 209. Give an outline of the principal events of the wars with France. Causes? Results? 210. Insurrection headed bv Wat Tyler. 211. Wars of the Roses? 212. France in the middle ages? 213. The Jacquerie? 214. Italy in the middle ages? 215. Italian republics? 216. Germany in the middle ages? In- dependence of Switzerland? 217. Hanseatic league? 21S. The Huns? 219 TheSeljuks? The Mongols? Jenghiz Khan? The Ottomans? The Great Mogul? 220. What was the feudal system? 221. Growth of? Define liege, suze- rain, vassal, fief, villain. 223. Influence of feudalism? Causes of its decline? 224. Origin of chivalry? 225—227. Its principal features? Vows? 228. Armor? 229. The tournament? 230 — 231. Influence? 232—233- Rise of Popery? 234. Titles of the Pope? 235. Origin of the temporal power. 236. Quarrel of the popes and German emperors. 237. Ex- communication of Henry IV. 238. Influence of the papacv. Truce of God? End of the temporal power. 239. What were the crusades? 240. Peter the Hermit? 241—242. Forces of the first crusade? 243. Battle of Nice, Dorvkeum ? 244. Siege of Antioch? 245. Storming of Jerusalem. 246. Kingdom of Jerusalem? Second crusade? 247. Third crusade? 24S. Siege of Acre? Saladin? Results? 249. Influ- ence of the crusades. 250. Civilization of the middle ages. 251. Who were the most learned classes? 252. Materials of books? 253. Trial of battle? Ordeal? 254. Con- dition of the people? The Jews? 255. Conveniences of life? 256. Cathedrals. 257. Causes of Revival? 258. The Universities. 259. The New Literature. Science? 260. Inventions. 262. Name the "Great Powers " of the 15th cen- tury. 263. Changes of the century. 264. Maritime enterprises? 265. Causes of the Reformation. 266. Martin Luther. Luther's course toward the Papacy. 267. Political influence of the Reformers. 268. Effort to crush the Reformation ? Charles V. 269. Diet of Worms? 270. Diet of Spires? Chief features of the reformed religion? 271. Treaty of Augsburg? 272. The Reformation in England? Henrv VIII. 273. The Dutch Republic. Character of the Dutch? 274. The Inquisition? 275. William, Prince of Orange. 276 — 279. The Huguenots? Plots at the French court. 280. Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 281. Edict of Nantes? 282. Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots. 283. Philip Hot" Spain. 2S4— 285. The Invincible Armada? "286. Fate of the Armada? 287. Condition of Eng- land during the reign of Elizabeth. 2SS— 289. The Stuarts. 290. Difficulties between Charles I and Parlia- ment. 291. Cavaliers. Roundheads. 292. Oliver Cromwell. Civil war? 293. The Commonwealth ? 294. The Restoration ? 295. Revolution of 16SS. 296—298. The Thirty Years War. 29';. Gustavus Adolphus. 300. Rav- ages of the war? 301. Reign of Louis XIV. 302. Cardinal Richelieu? 303. Foreign wars of Louis. Oppression of Protestants. 304. War of the Spanish succession. 305. Condition of the people in tin 17th century. 306. The Russians. 307. Peter the Great. Charles XII. 309. Rise of Prussia. 310. The Seven Years War. 311. Fall of Poland. 312. Name the chief events in the reign of the Georges of England. 313. Conquest of India. 314. William Pitt? 358 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 315. Causes of the French Revolution. 316 — 31S. Meeting of the States General. 319. First outbreak. 320. The "Joyous Entry ? " 321. Confiscation of property. $22. The Allies? 323. Leaders of the Revolution? 324. The Massacre <>l September? 325. Proclamation of the Republic. 326. Fall of the Girondists. 327. The Reign of Terror. Worship of Reason? 32S. Fall of Robespierre. 329. The Directory? Napoleon. Chief Events in the Career of Napoleon. — Lodi? Battle of the Nile? Mar- engo? Hohenlinden? Northern mercantile league? Codification of French law? First Consul? Emperor? Coalitions? Austerlitz? Trafalgar? Jena? Auerstadt? Eylau? Friedland? Kingdoms governed by Napoleon's brothers? Milan decree (U.S. Hist., Sec. 132)? Contest in Spain? Wagram and capture of Vienna? Strength of the Grand Army ? Borodino? Burning of Moscow? Losses of the Grand Army? Leipsic? Abdication? Waterloo? Death of Napoleon? 331. China and Japan? ^2 — 334. France after the Revolution. 335. Re- form in Great Britain. 336. Sepoy rebellion? 337. Revolution in Hungary? 33S. Crimean War? 339. Unification of Italy? Garibaldi? 340. Unification of Germany'? 341. Franco- Prussian War? 342. Russo-Turkish War? 343. Chili and Peru? 344. The Irish Land League? The Boers? The Zulus? 345. Inventions of nineteenth century? 346. State three conclusions which you draw from comparing ancient and modern history. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 2 — 3. The Indians? 4. Number of Indians? 5. Mode of Life? 6. Lan- guage? 7. Origin? 8. Civilization of the most advanced? 10. The Northmen? 11 — 13. Columbus. 14. His discoveries? 15. The Cabots? 16. Vespucius? 17. Ponce de Leon? Magellan? iS. Verrazzani? 19. Cartier? 20. De Soto? 21. Raleigh? 22. Hudson? Settlements. — 23-24. Jamestown? 25. John Smith? Pocahontas? 26. Sale of wives? African slaves? 23 and 26. Charter of Virginia? 27. Plymouth colony? The Puritans? Landing. 2S. Government? 29—30. Hardships and growth? 31 — 33. Massachusetts Bay Colony. 34. Growth of the colonies? Indian Wars? 35. Connecticut? 36. Rhode Island? 37. New Hampshire? 38. Maine? 39. First settlers of New York? 40. The English conquest? 41 — 42. Government of New York? 43 — 44. New Jersey? 45. Pennsylvania? Wil- liam Penn? 46. Charter? 47. The Commonwealth? 4S. Maryland? 49. North Carolina ? 50. South Carolina? 51. Georgia? Objects of the colony? Oglethorpe? Florida? 52. Character of the Puritans? 53. Education? 54. Salem wUchcraft? 55. Character of the Southern colonists? 56. Life in the colonies? Wars -with the French and Indians. — 57. Settlement of New France. The Jesuit Fathers? 5S. English claims upon the northern part of the continent? 59. King William's War? 60. Queen Anne's War ? 61. King George's War? 62. The "French and Indian War." 63. First operations? 64. Braddock's de- feat? 65. Battle of Lake George. 66. Capture of Oswego? 67. Massacre of Port William Henry? 68. English forces in 1758? Louisburg? Ticonderoga? 69. Capture of Quebec? Wolfe? Montcalm? 70. Pontiac's War? 71. The "Treaty of Paris" ? Results of the war? 72. The Revolution. — 73. Remote causes of? 74. Immediate causes of ? 75. The Stamp Act 76. The Boston Massacre ? 77. The tea riot. 7S. Boston Port Bill ? 79. First Continental Congress. Name some prominent patriots. So. Battle of Lexington. 81. Bunker Hill. 82. Second Continental Con- gress. 83. Royal governors? 84. Invasion of Canada. S5. The Tories? S6. Siege of Boston? 87. Siege of Charlestown. 88- Declaration of Indepen- dence? 89. Battle of Long Island. 90 — 91. What important events followed the battle of Long Island? 92. Trenton? Princeton? The Hessians? 93. Condition of American cause? HIS TORT. 359 94. What campaigns were planned for 5 '77? 95. Brandy wine? 96. Valley Forge? 97—99. Burgoyne's campaign ? 100. Effect of Burgoyne's surrender? 101. What foreigners in the American service? 102. Monmouth? 103. Wy- oming? 104—105. Operations in the South? 107. Stony Point? 108. Paul Jones? 109. Continental money ? no. Surrender of Charleston? 1 11. Marion and Sumter? Camden? 112. Battle of Cowpens? 113. Greene's retreat. Eutaw Springs? Ninety-six? Hobkirk's Hill. 114. Treason of Arnold? 116. Mutiny? Robert Morris ? 117 — 119. Siege of Yorktown and surren- der of Cornwallis? Effect? 121. Negotiations for peace? 122. The treaty? 123. Cost of the war? 124. Dorr's rebellion ? 125. The Constitutional Con- vention? Constitutional Period.^126. Departments of the government ? 127. Name some important events of Washington's administration. 128. Who was the second President? Difficulties with France. 129. Seat of government? 130. What were the political parties of the time called ? What were the " alien and sedition " laws ? 131. What was the character of Jefferson's admin- istration ? Purchase of Louisiana ? Lewis and Clarke? Hamilton and Burr ? 132. Difficulties with England and France. 133. " Affair of the Chesapeake"? 134. Embargo? 135. The non-intercourse act. Tippecanoe. 136. " Free Trade and Sailors' Rights " ? 137. The President and Little Belt? Population, 1S10? 135. Land operations for the year 1812. 139. Naval battles, 1812? 140. Military operations in the West in 1S13? 141. Operations in the East and North? 142. Naval battles? 143. The North, ern campaign of 18 14. 144. Battle of Lake Champlain. 145. Events in the South. 146. Naval battles. 147. Tohopeka? 14S. Battle of New Orleans? 150. The treaty? 151. Barbary powers? General Questions. — Give the causes of the war of 1S12. What was the " Milan Decree " ? Name five of the most important battles. Name three gen- erals on each side and state some important event in the career of each. Was the war of 1S12 a necessity on the part of the United States ? In what direction were our most brilliant Successes? 152. Nam£ three important events of Monroe's administration. 153. Three of John Quincy Adams's administration. 154. Andrew Jackson? John C. Calhoun? Nullification? Seminole War? 155. Panic of '37 ? Rebellion in Canada? 156. William Henry Harrison ? 157. Course of Tyler ? Dorr. 155. What was the chief question before the people at the beginning of Polk's administration ? 159 — 160. Give full particulars of the opening battles of the Mexican War. 161. What took place in California and New Mexico? 162. Battle of Buena Vista? 163. Scott's campaign? 164. Treaty of peace? Why were the Ameri- cans uniformly successful against overwhelming numbers? Was the war justi- fiable? Name the chief generals on either side. In an economic sense what were the results of the Mexican War toward the U. S.? 165. Zachary Taylor? Compromise bill of 1S50? 166. What great states- mendied in 1S52'? 167. The "Kansas-Nebraska Bill"? 16S. James Buchan- an's election? 169. The Mormon rebellion. Border troubles. 170. Raid on Harper's Ferry ? 171. Name and tell briefly what each of the great parties was from the founding of the government to the present. The campaign of '60. 172. Causes of the war of secession? 173. Secession of the States. 174. Fort Sumter ? 175. First call for volunteers? 176. Affairs in West Virginia. Bull Run. 177. Ball's Bluff? 178. Affairs in Missouri. Wilson's Creek? Lexington? Belmont? 179. The blockade? 180. Belligerents t Mason and Slidell? 181. Greenbacks? The Border States ? 182. Opening operations in the West? Fort Donelson ? Pea Ridge? Island No. 10? 1S3. Shiloh? 184. Siege of Corinth? 185. Perrvville? Stone River? 156. Beginning of the campaign of '62 in the East. Strasburg? Port Republic? The seven days battles ? 187. Second battle of Bull Run? Antie- 360 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LfBRART. lam? iSS. Fredericksburg? 189. Merrimac and Monitor? 190. Farragut? 191. Emancipation? Chancellors ville? [92. Gettysburg? 193 — 194. Opera- tions of '63 in the West? 195. Chickamauga? 196. Lookout Mountain? Missionary Ridge? 197. Morgan's raid ? 10S. Siege of Charleston. [99. Draft riots? Were the events of 1863 decisive V 200 — 202. Campaign of the "Army of the Potomac" in '04. 201 — 202. Opera- tions in the Shenandoah Valley. 203. Sherman's march to the sea. 204. Mobile Bay? Fort Pillow? 205. Strength of the armies? 206. Final cam- paign? 207. Capture of Jeft". Davis? Assassination of Lincoln ? 208. Forces enrolled? Losses? Expenses? 209. The prisoners of war ? General Questions. — Name five Union generals and state some important eno-a^ement in which each participated. Five Confederate generals. Was the war justifiable on the part of the South? Name some important results of the war. What, in your opinion, contributed chiefly to the success of t'.ie North? How were the sympathies of foreign nations enlisted ? 210. What difficulties did Andrew Johnson have with Congress? What amendments were made to the Constitution in the interest of the colored race? Impeachment? The French in Mexico? 211. Fifteenth amendment? Civil Rights bill? Ku-Klux? Credit Mobilier? Geneva Tribunal? Great panic? 212! Election difficulties of '77 and '78? 213. Great strike of '77? 214. Nom- ination of Garfield. The Federal appointments? Assassination of Garfield? 21=;. Give a synopsis of the territorial growth of the U. S. Of their industrial interests. Silver and gold? Schools? 216. Where, when, and by whom was Virginia settled? Massachusetts? North Carolina? Georgia? Kentucky? Wisconsin? Illinois? Arkansas? California? 217. What rank dies the United States occupy in the scale of civ- ilization? Name some inventions produced by Americans. QUESTIONS ON TEACHING HISTORY. 1 — 2. What difficulties have you noticed in teaching History? Can you mention any besides those enumerated here? What is the result of attempting to memorize history? 3 — 7. How do you assign lessons ? Do you make any use of note-books in teaching history ? Should pupils be required to learn manv dates? 8. What is your custom in regard to reviews? 9. Would you at- tempt to give a definite idea of historical time by memorizing the dates of par- ticular great events ? 10. Do you confine your class to the text-book? 11 — 13. Do you have any sort of written work in teaching history? 14. Do you re- quire your pupils to outline subjects? 15. What are some of the difficulties every teacher must surmount? 16. Do you attempt to use reference books? 17. Maps? iS. Have you one unvarying method? 21. What methods do you employ to have your pupils think about what they are studying? BOOK-KEEPING. 1. Book-keeping is briefly defined as the Science of Ac- counts. 2. The books necessary to show the desired results of a series of business transactions are termed a Set. 3. A set of books, properly kept, will show: (i) the Re- sources or capital on hand, whether it be actual property, as cash, merchandise, or evidence of value due the Business as notes, per- sonal accounts, etc.; (2) Liabilities, value of any kind owed by the business; (3] the changes which occur from day to day; (4) the results of such changes. 4. The fund of written information necessary to conuuet dif- ferent branches of business, or even different grades of the same branch, varies greatly with the nature and extent of the enter- prise. Hence we have an endless variety of books varying in effi- ciency from the simplest forms of Single Entry to the most com- plicated of Double Entry. 5. Single Entry is defective as a system, and can never be employed in a business of any magnitude, for the reason that it is only designed to keep a record of personal accts ; (16) or accounts with individuals or companies. It has many advantages, however, which commend it to those whose business is limited and who are not especially' anxious to know just Jioxv or where their gains or losses accrue, but are satisfied with general results. These are: ( 1 ) the number and simplicity of its principles, and the ease with which they are learned and applied; (2) the sav- ing of labor, as the work is much less than in Double Entry; (3) the number of books used. 6. The simplest form, and the one most used in country stores, consists of a -ingle book, ruled with two columns on the right for debits and credits, and one on the left for dates. The first pages are used for an index, and upon them are written, in alphabetical order, the names of time customers, and the page upon which the account is recorded. Turning to the page indicated, we find at the heading the name of the party, and just to the right, over the first column, Dr. (debtor), and over the second, Cr. (creditor). To the left is the column for dates, and between this and the Dr. a blank space for entering the transactions. These are (or should be) clear and concise statements of the transactions, as they occur from day to dav. The amount is entered in the Dr. column when the party 362 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY whose name is at the heading owes the business, and in the Cr. when the business owes t he party. When accounts are kept in this way there should he an explana- tory entry, at the heading of the first page, stating the purposes and conditions of the business, and, if there are two or more proprietors, the amount and nature of the investments of each, also the debts assumed by the firm. 7. Another form of Single Entry hooks in common use con- sists of a Day-Book, a Ledger, and sometimes a Cash-Book, Bill- Book and others. The Day- Book is the same in form as the one described in sec. 6, but the manner of recording the entries is very different as will be seen in the example given below. This form may be used in any retail business of moderate dimensions. Such is the one from which the following transactions are taken: — DAY— BOOK. 1880. July- J. C. Campbell. By Investment, as follows: — Mdse per Inventory, Cash in F. N. Bank, - Note @ 30 ds. on J. II. Lynn, Dr.— To Jas. A. Bowen, on Ok ' Note (a; 10 ds. fav. O. J. Nichols, R. M. Harter. By Investment, as follows: — Mdse. per Inventory, Cash, James A. Bowen. By amt. due him from J. C. C. T. A. Adams. To 15 yds. American Prints uv 8^, " " " English " @ 9^, " 25 " Ingrain Carpet, @$i, " 4 " Best Black Cloth, @ $6, Cr. By Cash on acct. Cr. $1375 1000 500 Cr. Cr. 375 51 287S 55 2500 75 30 BOOK-KEEPING* DAY-BOOK. 363 1880. July. Aug. 10 12 John W. Miller, To 20 yds. Bleached Muslin, mi 12^, James A. Bowen, To 18 yds. Best Black Silk, @ $2, " 12 " Irish Linen, @ 75^, "14 " Gingham, @ 20^, Cr. 16 By order on T. A. Adams, T. A. Adams, To order from Jas. A. Bowen, Thomas Powell, To 10 yds. French Cassimere, @ $2, " 3 " Blue Broad Cloth, @ $5, 11 2 Boys' Hats, @ $i, " 6 yds. Extra Red Flannel, @ 50^, Cr. By his note @ 30 ds. in full of ), doz. Linen 1 Idkf-. -Cr. By Load of 20-inch Wood, " 2 tbs. Choice Family Butter, (3 J5, @ 10^, "' -50. Dr $3.00 1.50 $ $1.50 ■5" A. L. Douglas, By Cash in full of «Jfc, 20th ult., Cr. Samuel B. Henkle, Bv 1 pr. Blk. Kid Gloves, returned, Cr. A. L. Douglas, By Cash borrowed on °/c., Cr. $ 10 100 90 8. At the close of each day's business the names entered should be transferred: (1 ) to the Dr. of the account to which they belong in the Ledger, if found upon the Dr. side of the Day Book; (2) to the Cr. if found upon the Cr. side. This is called posting. The preceding Day-Book entries will appear in the Ledger as below: Entries in Italics are to be written in red ink. In closing an account rule up with red ink. Also rule red lines under names of accounts in ledger and between dates in Journal and Day Book. Dr. LEDGER. y. C. Campbell. C> iSSo. July Aug. To Sundries, To Balance, $ 375 2P™ TO l88o. July Aug. 10 By Investment, " y 2 net gain, $ 2875 135 joio 10 10 D r. R. M. liar tet • Cr. 1880. Aug. 1.5 To Balance, $*6jS 10 10 1 8& >. J«iv Aug. 1 15 By Investment, " 'i net gain $ 2500 135 10 i 2635 2635 HI Dr. yames . I. Bowen. Cr. 1 SS. », July Aug To Mdse. '• Balance, $ 47 47 95 iSSo. So J ul v Bj J. CC'sf '■order on T.A.A. 75 20 95 Dr. BOOK-KEEPING. T, A. Adams. 365 Cr. iSS<.. To Mdse. " order of J.A.B $ 7i 55 55 iS8u. J«iy Aug. By Cash " Balance $ 30 4* \55 55 D, John IV. Miller. a 1880. July 10 To Mdse CI 16 il U 1 1 1880. July 16 By Cash in full $ 11 1 1 70 70 Dr. Thomas Powell. C? 1880. July [2 To Mdse. $ 40 40 1 88c. July 12 By note @ 30 ds. $ 40 40 Dr. Samuel B. Henklc. Cr. 1880. Tulv 16 To Mdse Aug. 1 it 11 4 9 13 1880. Aug 81 By Gloves, ret. 15 " Balance $ 2 ji 13 *5" 25 Dr. A. Z. Doug- las. Cr. 1880, July Aug 20 To Mdse. 15 " Balance, $ 10 1 00 no 90 '/' 1SS1. Aug. By Cash $ 10 100 no 90 90 Dr. 1880. Aug. yosiah Mar key. C> To Mdse % 1880 Aug. Aug. By Sundries " Balance $ 2 3 5 00 366 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. Statement of Results, August ij, 1880. Assets or Resources^) at Closing Merchandise on hand as per Inventory, - T. A. Adams owes on °/c, - Samuel B. Henkle, do., - Josiah Markey, do. J.H. Lynn, on note @ 30 ds., - Interest on same for 15 ds., - Thomas Powell, on note @ 30 ds., - Cash in Bank, $1000; in Safe, $820.90 - Total - Liabilities ( 2 ) at Closing. Amount due Jas. A. Bowen on o/c. " " A. L. Douglas - Total, Net Capital at Closing, - " " " Beginning - Net Gain, - *j. C. Campbell's one-half, $135.10 R. M. Harter's " " 135.10 Total - - 270.20 $ 3000 4 1 11 3 500 1 40 1820 47 100 55 25 5 90 20 $5417 H7 5270 5000 270 95 20 20 * Credit each of the proprietors with his share of the net gains in the Ledger. 9. We now proceed to consider a system which has, no doubt, reached the acme of perfection. Its principles have long been in use, and its forms are the most convenient that the ingenuity of man can devise. This system is known as Double Entry, from the fact that every transaction affects at least two accounts, one of which is debited and the other credited. The number and kind of books used varies with the nature and extent of the business. In an or- dinary mercantile establishment the following books may be kept : — 10. An Historical Day-Book (26) in which is recorded: (1) a comprehensive statement of the nature and conditions of the bus- iness; (2) the amount and kind of value invested by each of the proprietors, and the debts of each assumed by the firm; (3) a com- plete memorandum of each transaction, the date, and such expla- nations as may be necessary to insure a perfect understanding of whatever may be of special interest; (4) the manner of disposing of the losses or gains at the close of the term of business. This is called a book of original entry, because it contains the first record of the transactions. Hence, it is the only book allowed in court as evidence in case of trial. 11. A Journal which is simply mediatory and serves: (1) to reduce the Day-Book entries to a more condensed form; (2) to classify the debits and credits preparatory to entering them in the Ledger. This is a difficult book to keep, and an extensive knowledge BOOK-KEEPING. 367 of the relations of the various accounts to the btcsiness is necessary to insure success. 12. Two classes of accounts are clearly defined, viz: — I. Representative (19) Those kept for the purpose of showing the financial status of the business. They simply repre- sent value and have no immediate connection with the losses and gains. Thev invariably close into Balance, whenever the two sides of the account are unequal, thus showing a resource or a liability. 13. Those of most frequent occurrence are: (i) Cash, the Dr. side of which shows: (i) the amount on hand at beginning, as per investment; (2) the amount received during the term of business; and the Cr. side shows the amount of cash paid out. The difference between the two sides will always be the the amount on hand. Hence, in entering this account in the Jour- nal or Cash-Book, Debit all cash on hand at beginning, or received during the term of business, and credit all cash paid out. 14. (2) Bills Payable, the Dr. of which shows the amount of notes redeemed or paid, by the business, and the Cr. the amount of notes issued. The difference between the two sides will always be a liability, inasmuch as a note must be issued before it can be redeemed. 15. (3) Bills Receivable, the Dr. of which shows the amount of notes received by, and payable to the business and the Cr. the amount of notes disposed of. The difference between the two sides of the account in the Ledger will always show a resource. 16. (4) Personal Accounts, the Dr. of which shows the amount due the business from individuals or companies, and the Cr. the amount owed by the business to individuals or companies. Hence, all persons should be debited in the foztrnal when they be- come indebted to the business, and credited when the business becomes indebted to them. The difference between the two sides of the account will show a resource if the Dr. be the larger and a liability if the opposite be true. 17. (5) Bank Acct. — This is but another name for a per- sonal account, and whatever is true of one is applicable to the other. The following rule should be observed : — Debit the bank when a deposit is made, and credit it when a draft is drawn. Note. — The Bank acct. is frequently kept in a small hook designed expressly for that pur- pose, in which case it is not necessary to enter it in the Journal. It is convenient, however, to nave it entered in both books. 18. (6) Stock Account, the Dr. of which shows capital with- drawn and the Cr. the amount of capital invested. This account represents the proprietor's interest and is used in the same way as his name would be used were it preferred as the heading of the 368 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS LIBRARY. account. When two or more persons are engaged in a partnership business it is, in fact, customary to enter the amount invested by each to the credit of his own name. Hence the rule, Debit stock with capital withdrawn and credit it with capital /'//vested. 19. II. Speculative (12), those designed to show the progress of the business — the losses and the gains. In all such accounts the Dr. side shows expenditure for, or cost of the article or things specified, and the (Jr. side the amount realized tor the same. Merchandise, Real Estate, Interest, Ex- pense, Services, etc., are familiar examples. The general rule for all accounts of this class is, Debit the account when it costs value and credit when it returns value. They close into Loss and Gain. 20. A Cash Book in which are entered all cash transactions, the law of debits and credits being the same as those given under the cash acco/t/it in the Journal. Its province is sometimes so en- larged that accounts other than cash are recorded in it. This oc- curs when Purchase and Sale Books or others limited to a special class of accounts is substituted for the Journal, in which case it will sometimes happen that the transaction cannot properly he entered in anyone of the books kept. The proper debits and credits may be shown in the Cash- Book, however, in the following manner: Suppose it becomes necessary to debit Interest and credit Bills Receivable, it can be accomplished by entering Bills Rec. on the Dr. and Interest on the Cr. side of the cash account. For in every Double-Entry Cash-Book the amounts entered upon the Dr., debit cash and credit the thing for which cash is re- ceived, while upon the Dr., they credit cash and debit that for which cash is paid. Since the amounts will always be the same, in such entries the cash Balance will not be changed. 21. A Ledger which contains a complete summary of all the accounts found in the other books, thus enabling the pro- prietor to know at a glance the condition of his business. This hook is generally ruled with a heavy medial line drawn through the page from top to bottom. The debits are written upon the left and the credits upon the right of this line. It is convenient to have the Stock acct. entered upon the first page where it can be readily found. The other accounts may then be entered in the order that they occur in the Journal. At the close of every day's husiness the entries which have been made in the Day Book should be transferred to the Journal, and thence to the Ledger. 22. Posting is a purely mechanical operation, as will be seen from the following instructions: (l) Record the name of the ac- count and tin' page on which it is found in the index of the Ledger; (2 ) turn to the page indicated and write in a full bold hand at the BOOK-KEEPINi,. 369 top the Ledger title; (3) Transfer to the Dr. side all the accounts on the Dr. of Journal having the same name as the heading of the account, with dates, what Dr. to, the page of- the Journal from which the account is taken, and the amount. This done, transfer those found on the Cr. of the Journal to the Cr. of the Ledger. 23. Immediately following each account in the Journal enter the page of the Ledger to which it is taken. When all the ac- counts in the Journal have been thus severally carried to the Ledger the hook-keeper prepares from them a Trial Balance which contains: (1) the total amount to the debit of each account; (2) the total amount to the credit of each account ; (3 ) the difference between the two sides of the unbalanced accounts. The ( 1 ) and (2) are called footings, and are arranged in two columns, Dr. and Cr. The differ- ences are also arranged in two columns, Dr. if the Dr. side of the acct. be the larger and Cr. if the opposite be true. The sums of the Dr. and Cr. columns must be equal in the footings, and the same must be true of the differences, else the work is not correct. This is true because, in every jfournal entry the sum of the debits must equal the sum of the credits. 24. If the Trial Balance is satisfactory he proceeds to close his books, in the following manner: (1) the goods remaining unsold are overhauled, priced and listed; such list is called an Inventory / (2) the inventories are entered on the Cr. side of their accts., in red ink, if they represent resources, and on the Dr. side if they represent liabilities ; (3) the speculative accounts are closed by en- tering the difference between the two sides on the smaller, calling it Loss and Gain; (4) the Representative accounts are closed by en- tering the difference on the smaller side, calling it Balance. (The inventories are also entered under the name of Balance;) (5) a red line is drawn under each of the accts., the footings recorded, and below two lines are carefully drawn to indicate that the account is closed; (6) an account is opened with Jioss and Gain, under which are recorded all the accounts of the same name found in the Ledger, — if they represent loss, on the Dr., and if gain, on the Cr. This separates the losses from the gains, and shows, by taking the differ- ence of the two sides, the net loss or net gain. This difference is entered on the smaller side under the title stock if there be but one proprietor, and each man's share of the gain or loss under his own name, if there be more than one. Thence it will be taken to the credit of Stock, if it be a gain, and to the debit if it be a loss. The Stock account is now closed into Balance and a Financial .State- ment made out, in which the balances shown in the various accounts of the Ledger are collected and entered, on the Dr. side if they represent a resource, and on the Cr. if a liability. The two sides of this account must always be equal. 25. In a more extensive business a Purchase Book may 1>' kept, in which is recorded : (1) the date ^2j, from whom bought (3!, 370 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. whether time or cash ^4), kind and price of merchandise; a Sales Book in which is recorded: (i) date of sale (2), to whom sold (3), time or cash (4), kind and price of merchandise, and a Bill-Book, in which is kept a complete and orderly account: (1) of all notes received bv the business, and (2) of all notes issued by the husincss. Tins book is kept for convenience only, as nothing is carried from it to the Ledger. (When these two books .ir used, the Day -Book and Journal may both be dispensed with.) SET I.— BUSINESS OF A GRAIN DEALER. 26. Day-Book. (10) Indianapolis, IiuL, Sept. /, /SSo. — Commenced business this day with Cash Cap- ital $10,000. (/j) (/) 500 bu. Red Wheat (S 85c. Sept. 2. Paid per check (17), for one month's rent of store, $80; for blank books and stationery, $20. .. .Sold C. N. Iladley & Co. 2000 bu. Wheat @ $1, ree'd in payment order on J. A. Lambert (/o) $1000, draft on F. N . Bank for balance. Sept. 3. Bo't of G. Williamson, 800 bu. Barley (/g) @ 80c; 500 bu. Oats (/ 9SC. ; 50 bu. Buckwheat @ 75c Sept. 8. Rec'd of J. A. Lambert, per order C. N. Hadley, cash $1000, which we deposit with bank. Sept. 10. Bo't of Jas. H.Lynn, 500 bu. Corn @ 42c; 200 bu. White Wheat (3 $1.05; 850 bu. Norway Oats @ 40c; gave him our note @ 30 ds. in full of 50c. ; 400 bu. Oats (S 38c.; 200 bu. Wheat @ $1.10 Bo't of D. Myers, on'^c, 650 bu. Extra Red Wheat (a) $1 ; 200 bu. 2d grade (it 90c. Sept. 16. Bo't of Isaac N. Miller, Soobu. Yellow Corn @ 43c; 250 bu. Best White (3) 45c. Pd. him per dft. on C. N. Hadley in full of «/c Pd. cash for G. Williamson's note due this day. Sept. 20. Sold Wright iS; Morton, N. Y„ (* 30 ds., 700 bu. Wheat @ $1.08; 450 bu. Oats @ 37^c. Sept. 25. Bo't of G. Williamson, on a/c, 500 bu. Barley @ 92c; 300 bu. Rye @ 85c; 300 bu. Wheat @ $1.10. Sept. 29. Bo't of O. M. Eddingfield, per check, 1000 bu. Corn @ 40 c; 750 bu. White Wheat (3 $1. Oct. 4. Drew from hank, for private use, $200. . . .Paid O. P. Lee for services, $100; store rent $So, cash... .Sold B. F. Walkup 2000 bu. Corn @ 44c; rec'd in payment note (/j) @ 60 ds. from Aug. 15, on I. N. Miller, in full. Oct. 9. Paiii (i. Williamson's st draft on us for $500, per check. Oct. 12. Exchanged 500 bu. Wheat (>6 $1.06 for 1 £78 bu. Corn @ 45c Sold S. T. Walker, on his note (/j) @ 30 ds., 1000 bu. Corn @ 48c. Oct. 13. Bo't for cash 400 bu. Oats @ 39c. BOOK-KEEPING. 371 OURNAL (//). SET I. Indianapolis, Sept. i, 18S0. JL.F. 2 I Cash, (ij). To Capital Stock, (/&). 9 io 4 2 6 i 12 H 15 4 2 9 io F. N. Bank, (77). To Cash, Wheat, (ig). To I. N. Miller, (16). " Bills Payable, (74). " Cash, Expense, (79). To F. N. Bank. J. A. Lambert, (16). F.N. Bank, To Wheat, Bailey, (79). Oats, (79). Wheat, To Cash, " Bills Payable, Corn, (79). Rye, (79). Buckwheat, (79). To O. M. Eddingfield, (16). F. M.Jackson, (16). To Wheat, Cash, To Barley, " Oats, F. N. Bank, To Cash, Dr. $ Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. « Dr. it Dr. Dr. Dr. IOOOO 8000 1895 IOO IOOO IOOO 640 200 450 450 75 30 525 945 IOOO $ K«K» 8000 900 570 425 IOO 2000 500 790 555 525 720 225 IOOO 872 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. JOURNAL. SET 1. Indianapolis, Sept. 6, 18S0. L.F 4 S 2 3 2 4 '3 ii 4 io 6 Wheat, I. N. Miller, To Cash, " F. N. Bank, Cash, To Wheat, " Buckwheat, F. N. Bank, To J. A. Lambert, io. Corn, Wheat, Oats, To Bills Payable, Cash, To F. N. Bank, 16 1 1 io 4 4 17 1 1 16 13- C. N. Hadley, (16). To Corn, " Oats, " Wheat, Wheat, To D. Myers, (/o). .i6 Corn, ToC N. Hadley, Bills Payable, To Cash, Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. > Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. 450 900 576 1000 210 210 340 5" 500 972 830 45C 790 S° ^00 850 539 37 1000 760 50 500 600 220 830 45 6 r9° 5< BOOK-KEEPING. 373 JOURNAL. SET I. Indianapolis, Sept. 20, 1880. L.F. 18 4 10 9 12 4 19 Wright & Morton, (/6). To Wheat, " Oats, 25- 11 4 3 Barley, Rye, Wheat, To G. Williamson, (/6). ,29. Corn, Wheat, To F. N. Bank. 20 XI *9 3 11 4 20 11 10 2 -Oct. 4. Capital Stock , (/> Ca-y/i. (/j) O. 1880. Sept. To Capital Slock " Sundries " Sundries " P. N. Bank $10000 1880. a I 945 576 5o (( 1 3 500 u U 4 6 16 a ft Oct. 29 13 5° 11 15 $12021 By F. N. Bank " Wheat " Sundries " F. N. Bank " Sundries " Bills Pay., " Expense " Oats " Balance {12) $ Sooo 425 500 • 1000 500 790 180 156 470 1 202 1 50 50 Dr. F. N. Bank. (17) Cr. 1880. 1880. Sept. I To Deposit, $Sooo Sept. 2 By Expense, $ 100 11 2 " Wheat, 1000 U 6 " Sundries, 850 u 4 " Deposit, 1000 (< 10 " Cash, 500 hi 8 " J. A. Lambert, 1 000 Oct. 11 ^9 4 9 u 11 " Capital Stock, " G. Williamson, 1225 200 1500 11 !5 " Balance, (12) 20 7**5 1 1000 1 1 000 Dr. T880. Sept Oct. To Sundries, " Bills Payable " D. Myers, " G. Williamson " F. N. Bank, " Loss ii Gain(24) Wheat, {jg) Cr. rg $ 1S95 45° 45° 210 830 300 825 3'° 5270 1SS0. Sept. Oct. By Sundries, " F. M. Jackson, " Cash, " C. N. Hadley, " Wright & M., " Corn, " Balance (24X2S) 20 $ 2000 5 2 5 539 220 756 53° •joo 5270 BOOK-K1 l.I'ING. LEDGER. SET I. 375 D> I. N. Miller. {16) Cr. 18S0. Sept. To Sundries. $ 900 INN.. Sept- By Wheat, $ 900 D> Bills Payable. (14) Cr. 1880. Sept. Oct. To Cash, ' ' Balance (24) {iq) i 1 $ 790 wo 1880. Sept. it 1 3 10 mo % By Wheat, " Sundries, 11 it 790 760 2120 D> Expense. (19) Cr. 1880. Sept. 29 To F. N. Bank, 1 Cash, $ 100 180 I 280 1880. Oct. By Bal., (28) rent, " Loss & Gain{24) 20 '9 $ 40 240 280 Dr. "J. A. Lambert. [16) Cr. 1880.I Sept.| S iSSoT Sept. To Wheat. $ 1000 By F. N. Bank, $ 1000 D, 1880. Sept. Oct. Barley. {19) To Sundries, " G. Williamson, " Loss and Gain, 1880. $ 640 Sept. 4 460 Oct. i.S '9 So — 11S0 By Cash. " Balance, {28) JO $ 720 460 1 180 Dr. 10. Oats. (19) Cr. 1880. 1 1880. Sept. ■\ To Sundries, $ 2001 Sept .j By Cash, $ 225 H 10 " Cash, I5 6 II 13 " C. N. Hadley, 15* ti n " Bills Payable, 340 it 20 " Wright & M., 168 75 Oct. 15 " Loss and Gain, '9 9 75 75 Oct. '•5 " Balance, (28) jt> 160 705 70S 75 376 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. Dr. LEDGER. SET I. ii. Corn, (ig) Cr. TBS5. Sept Oct To O.M.Eddingf'd " Bills Payable, " C. N. 1 ladle v, " F. N . Bank," " Wheat, " Loss artel Gain, 1880. $ 45o Sept. 13 210 Oct. 4 456 5° U 12 4.00 It *5 53° *9 *S* 10 60 2197 By C. N. Hadley, " Bills RecVble a it « " Balance, (28) _-<> $ 600 880 480 237 2197 60 60 1 2. *3- Dr. Iinck-whcat. (/p) 1880. Sept. Oct. ToO.M.Eddin^'d " Loss and Gain rg $30 37 5o| 1880. Sept By Cash, D r. Ry c. (*P) Cr. 1880. Sept. u 4 2 5 To O.M.Eddingf'd 41 G.Williamson, $75 255 1SS0. Oct. . t 15 u By Balance ' l Loss and Gain 2o\ $J20 JO 330 330 Cr. $37 37 50 50 14. D r. . .1/. Eddingfield (id) Cr. 1880. Oct. 15 To Bala ii' 20 1SX0. Sept. I By Sundries, $555 ^m Dr. '5- F. M. Jackson, (id) Cr. To Wheat, I $525 1880. Oct. 15 By Balance, 20\ Sj2^ Dr. 1880. Sept. 13 To Sundries, ir,. C. N. J I ad Icy. (16.) $972 9721 1SN0. Sept. Oct. 16; By Corn, 15 " Balance, Cr. $45 6 5° 772 BOOK-KEEPING LEDGER. SET I. m D, 17- D. Myers. ( 16) 1880. Oct. To Balance, 20 $830 1S80. Sept. 13 By Wheat, I $8 3 o| D, 18. Wright ct- Morton. {16) 1880. Sept. To Sundries, $924 II 1 880. 75 Oct. 15 By Balance, Cr. 20\ $924 75 Dr. 19- G. Williamson. (16) 1880. Sept Oct. To F. N. Bank, " Balance, $500 *°l 5*5 1015 1880 Sept 25 By Sundries, 20. Cr. $1015 1015 Dr. Bills Receivable. (75) 1880. Oct. « 4 12 To Corn, 11 11 $8So 480 1360 tsso: Oct. IS By Balance, 2o\ SlJOO 1 360 Dr. 19. At>.y.y «W Gain. (24) Cr. 1880. [S«o. Oct. '5 To Expense, 7 $240 Oct. 15 By Wheat, 4 $310 << u 41 Rye, 1 j to " a " Barley, 9 80 it II " StocJL; JO,? JLv " II " Oats, 10 9 75 " '1 " Corn, 11 151 10 (i " Buckwheat, '3 7 50 55S 3S | 558 378 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. LEDGER. SET I. D r. Financial Statement. ( 24) Cr. iSNn Oct. 15 To Cash, F. N. Bank, Wheat, Rent, Barley, 1 Oats, ' Corn, ' Rye, F. M. Jackson, C. N. Hadley, 1 Wright & M., 1 Bills Rec, $470 7625 700 40 460 160 ^37 3^o 525 Si5 924 1360 5° [SSo. Oct. 60 13338 35 >5 By Bills Pay., O.M. Eddi'gfi'd D. Myers, G. Williamson Stock, $1330 55S 830 10108 13338 35 35 TRIAL BALANCE. {23) SET 1. 1 Oct. 15, 1880. Footings. Differences. Stock, (J2) Dr. Cr. Dr. Cr. $200 10000 9800 Cash, {12) - 12021 5° 11551 470 50 3 First National Bank, (12) 1 1000 3375 7625 4 Wheat, (/(?) .960 457° 39° 5 fl. N. Miller, (12) ■ 900 900 6 Bills Payahle, (12) 790 2120 '33° 7 Expense, (19) 2S0 2S0 8 fj. A. Lambert, (12) - 1000 1000 9 Barley, (19) 1 100 720 380 10 Oats, (/ 9 ) 696 545 75 IS° 25 11 Corn, (19) .... 2046 50 i960 86 5° 12 Rye,(/o) 33o 33° '3 Buckwheat, (79) 30 37 ;<> 7 50 H 0. M. Eddingneld, {12) 555 555 15 F. M.Jackson, (12) 5-5 5 3 5 16 C. N. Hadlev. (12) "7- 456 5" 5*5 50 17 I). Myers, {12) 830 830 18 Wrighl & Morton, (72) 9M 75 924 75 iq (J. Williamson, (12) 500 1015 515 2CJ Bills Receivable. (12) 1 360 w 1360 3o 39635 75 13037 5" I3037 50 t Accounts which have the une amount on both Or. anil Cr. may be omitted from the trial balance. BOOK- KEEPING. 379 o » •a § ■a o a" S o 9.S- a C-3 m re T3 1 2 o -ft JO "Si? Whe Issue ^j « re_3 «S? as = 3 IP i re 7) t o c 00 3-3 'a 3 = 1 .o jre "0 p o p V) 3* 5' re re i re O — o p < o re < ? 3* ' T3 p ■-< p O B fD 3 it ■ o p re CO re Ul M o o Q.O. Ul (A H 3 re re 3 O.P r. 3 re n. Is C- o a r i a o o $ a > > a r 1 w 2 1 M «- p .Oh. SM r* CO 3- P"3 M (- ♦ cnu H? .r^ 3 < 2 " — p Ul 1 re x" C •^ •o ar x'4 22 -i> £.< ff' 5 p — 3 m • 1 ■o OT- 3 1? (A c 3 • re P •jj < O O • PJa a re 3 re "i re 3- Cup ^ 3 21 re ;M p • a p *■ p M -co 8 s 9> c ? n — M K> ;/\ 3 8" rf ' d-o- 3 VI V) re ^ s l 3 3" re 3 ?? < • C ■O^J «» > + CO 3 &ff ■"" g 3* re 3 ■a 2 O 2 v» — re 1 — 1 CLhh _ O -5 — < t/1 a »-( r f a c 5 M O M > M r » 01- s/\ co ;-j --f- - a ~'~ :;030 p p a a^S-ffflfa aPS-^S re *• P 3 S in O SP M 11 - re - e cr „ Jw ?' c X 3 p ■1 0. 5 re - ° r a- - iff: 9% „re^» . • -. 3 ?*'" re " 0. ? O Of" p re ^^ re pf M ■ a. • a 1 SB «0 M ■^ 3 OM^OjiC z •^J O " ,n 'J\ ° «r - * " • : - ii » 1 "2. -^ f 1 1 « ic^-> r-. j. r^— ^» ; - 1 aoww^r^a^^ i. f. P 3 — 3 p Q =. r 7) — ^ ^ — -•j'o 5 1 - re — - - - ^rr 3 3 «? - re = re §S P 5" 5: 3 . gS^ - as • a- 3 n 3 3. ; s: . c ~ S (n . « • 3 . re a 2= ~' : » B. »%': < S hea e. .. tore «»: ■ ff: : : : ' 1 w CO lo & - *-^j sut o'-^-^ Q ru * S5f88S38^8 1° 1 8 b ^ r> > CO hr* HH * a tre to 7> O M ■-J Si ire > S a o o co W H 380 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS 1 LIBRART. MEMORANDA TO BK WRITTBN UP \\\ illl. STUDENT.* New York, J. in. i, 188.2. — We, J. C. Smith and F. A. Brown have this day opened a Grocer) ami Provision Store with the following resources and liabili- ties, viz: Cash (/.s) in sale, $500; Deposited with Bast River Hank, $3,000 . Notes pay able to us, $1,500 (/j - ); Groceries and Provisions in store, as per Invoice, $2,541.68; Furniture and Fixtures, $100 (/S,/g); Fuel oh hand, -$50 (iS 1 -j ■ Jan 1. — We owe Chas. Baker on our note (3 30 ds. $500, (/^); W. B. Huron on , /o). Sold Jas. II. Lynn (16, ig) ■ 1 30 ds., 2 Bags Rio Coffee, 210 His. c -'5'..; 1 llhd l 'C" Sugar, 950 II, s. i, /y) i« 30 ds., 10 Bbls. N. O. Molasses, 400 Gal. @ 60^.; I Hhd. Granulated Sugar, 936 II. s. @ y/. ; 2 Hhd. Coffee Sugar, tSoolbs. @ 7 >£'/.; 2 Hhd. "A" Sugar, 1840 lbs. (g 8£. Jan. to. — Sold Geo. A. .Miller, (■< 30 ds., Invoice of Canned Fruits, amounting to $287.50. Sold B. D. Mitchell on «/c, 2 Bbls. Powdered Sugar, 335 lbs. (fij ii( l . ; 5 Bbls. Family Flour @ $8 per Bbl.; I Doz. Dressed Turkeys (5 $4; Condiments per Invoice, $25; 2 Bbl . Prime Mess l'ork, (a, $17; 5 Bbls. Tea Crackers @ $2.75jan. 15 . . . .Sold Henry How- ell for cash (12), Invoice of Teas, $75; Raisins, $50; Dried Beef, $25. Jan. 20. — Paid freight per Bill, $So; Drayage, $12, cash. Jan. 25. — Bought of Barnum, Hyde & Co. 20 Bbls. Star Mills" Flour «i $7.50, 10 Bb'ls. Ohio Flour @ $8. Gave in pavment Dft. on E. R. Bank (/y) in full of a /c. Jan. 2y. — Gave W . B. Huron (/6)"Dft. on E. R. Bank in full of «/<■. Jan. 31.— Sold J. C. Smith, Gro- ceries per Invoice, $500; Rec'd in payment order on Baker & Hughes (/o) in full ofQ/c. Sold W. C. Edwards for Cash, 1 Bbl. Turkish Prunes, @ $18; 100 Bbls Salt, i" $1.10; 1 Bbl. Cider Vinegar @ $10; 2 Bbls. Pickles (S $16.50; 5 % off for cash. Feb. 2. — Received cash of J. H. Lynn {16) in full of his «r. which we deposit with E. R. Bank (/j). Paid A. C. Hopkins in full of "• . per check. Sold Klisha Hall 5 Bbls. Dried Apples, 1824 lbs. @ 8>^.; 6 Boxes Oat Meal, "i ^4; 50 Sacks " White Rose" Flour, 24 lbs. ea. (5 75^ per sack; 1 Box Smoked Sides, 1,000 lbs. m c//-. ; Received in payment order on J. C. Smith (/6) for$i25. Cash (/.?) for balance. Feb. 8. — Paid Baker iV Hughes (16) cash in full of eje, per check on Bank (/y). . . .Paid clerks cash, $125. Feb. 10. — Received of Geo. A. Miller, cash for Inv. of Fruit, 10th ult, $287.50. Feb. 15.— Sold B. D. Wil- son on his note (/j) @ 60 ds., 10 Bbls. Ohio Flour, (5 $8.50; iu Bbls. Star Mills, @ $8; 3 Bags Rio Coffee, 310 lbs. ('■.; 10 Hlf. Barrels Lard, kxx) II, >., m 13c; 100 tbs. French Jumbles m 15c. J 50 lbs. Dried Beef, 9 Mar. 10. — Purchased of A. C. Hopkins, on account; 20 Bbls Maple Molasses, 600 Gal., @ So^.; 1000 1t>s. Maple Sugar, «i ii'/. Mar. 11. — Sold W. B. Huron, on "fc, 3 Doz. Sugar Cured Hams, 456 lbs. (3 14^.: 2 Tubs Butter, So ll». (3 ji'\ Mar. 15. — Bought *This set is designed to give the student an opportunity to lest his knowledge of the prin- ciples set forth in the preceding pages. The nature of the transactions is such that it may be written up (1) in Single Entry Day-Book form as shown in Sec. 6; (a) Day-Book and Ledger, Sec. 7;(j) bauble Entry Journal, Cash Book, Bill-Book and Ledger. The 1 ri il It dance appended vv i 1 1 serve to guide the learner in Ilahmcintr the set, giving, as it dots, the footings of all the accounts found ■" the Ledger. BOOK-KEEPING. 381 of Smith & Wilson, Invoice of Groceries and Provisions amounting to $S6o. Gave them inpayment Peterson's Note (/j) dated Jan. i, @ 3 mos, Face $800. Disc, (ig) off tor 20 ds. $2.67. Proceeds $797.33; Balance in Cash, $62.67. Mar. 20.— Sold W. T Lucas, Bill of Groceries, Cash $1,200. Mar. 21.— Sold Geo. A. Miller, on ) Range of Affinity. (2) Intensity of Affinity. (3) (Catalysis). (4) Atomicity or Equivalence. (5) Atomic Weight. (6) (Molecular Weight). 11. As to Life. 1. B. .•neficial. 2. Neutral. 3. Poisonous. III. As to Structure. 898 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. i. Crystalline. 4. Texture. System. E. USES. (2) (Dimorphous). I. In Nature. (3) Isomorphous). II. In the Arts. 2. Amorphous. III. In Medicine. 3. (Allotropic Forms). IV. In Laboratory. IV. As to the Senses. F- PREPARATION. 1. Color. G. TESTS. j . Odor. H. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS -j. Taste. QUESTIONS ON CHEMISTRY. i. Define Chemistry- 2. Define element; compound; proximate and ulti- mate elements. 3. Chemical affinity? Chemism? What is the difference between a mixture and a compound? 4. How many simple elements? What element is the most abundant? What is meant by "found native"? What metal is usually found native? Why? ;. Chemical combination? Decomposition? What is combustion? 6. Chemical action? What favors it? 7. Give examples of chemical action favored by different forces. 8. Explain the symbols? 9. How are the elements classified? 10. How named? 11. What is a binary compound? 12. Ternary compound? 13 — 14 — 16. Define acids, bases and salts. 15. What do the terminations ic and ous indicate? ate and ite} 17. What is the atomic theory? 18. Atomic weight? 19. How calculated? 20. Ato- micity? Equivalence? Quantivalence? 21. Molecular weight? 22. Catalysis? 23. Allotropisms? 24. Crystalline and amorphous bodies? Dimorphous and isomorphous? 25. Anhydride? Give all the appropriate names for CO,. 26. Give the symbols atomic weights, atomicity, specific gravities of the following: oxygen, livdrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, phosphorus, gold, iron, chlorine, and sodium. "■ii^iin. ZOOLOGY. GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. This is merely suggestive. A very extensive outline may be made by the pupil using this as a model. Observe that under each sub-kingdom, class, order, family, g-enus and species the two subordinates, " General Characteristics " and " Divisions " may be made and amplified. ANIMAL KINGDOM. i 1 General Characteristics (5). I s Power of locomotion. 2-' Sensation. 3'-* Fore-and-aft structure. 4- Food organic. c,2 Inhale oxygen, exhale car- bonic oxide. 2 1 Divisions, l> Sub-kingdom I, vertebrata. i 3 Gen. Char. (6). 2 3 Divisions. I 4 Class 1, Mammalia i 5 Gen. Char. 2 5 Divisions. 2 4 Class 2, Aves. 2 2 Sub-kingdom II, Articulata. 3 s Sub-kingdom III, Mollusca. Etc., etc., etc., ete. ZOOLOG)'. 399 1. Zoology is the science which treats of animal life in general, including the classification, general characteristics and modes of life of all the species and varieties of the animal kingdom. It is an immense subject, and special divisions of the animal kingdom form the matter for large treatises, and thus we have various sciences subordinate to Zoology, as Ornithology, Icthyology, Herpetology, Entomology, etc. 2. One of the first steps to an understanding of so vast a sub- ject is a classification of the animals into groups having certain points of resemblance. The entire animal kingdom is divided into sri'.-KlNGDOMS based upon a general common plan of structure. Each sub-kingdom is again divided into classes, based upon general physiological characters. Each class is divided into gexera {sing, genus}, based upon still more particular structure. (A genus has been defined to be a group of species having more points of resemblance than of difference.) Each genus is divided into species, embracing all animals which have descended from a com- mon ancestor. Species are sometimes divided into varieties based upon certain points of resemblance. 3. Animals which have been domesticated are inclined to vary, and these variations have been strengthened by selecting the more marked varieties and breeding from them exclusively, and also by crossing varieties until well marked and permanent varieties are produced. Among the lower domestic animals the term breed is in common use as synonymous with variety. The varieties of men are called races. A cross between two varieties is called a ?nonf the surrounding media. (2) Covered with horny scales or bony plates. (3) Skeleton is never cartilaginous and the skull has hut one occipital condyle; the vertebra' usually concave in front. ( 1 1 Teeth in all except turtles and not fastened in sockets except in crocodiles. (5) The heart has three chambers except in croco- diles which have the ventricle partitioned; the venous and arterial blood are mixed. (6j Nearly all are carnivorous; they swallow their food whole. (7) Reproduced from eggs which are generally hatched without the body. They are most abundant in tropical climates, hibernating in winter in cold climates. 22. The orders of Reptiles are as follows: ( 1) Tcstudinata, or turtles, are an apparent contradiction to the vertebrate type, having the skeleton on the outside of the body. The upper cover- ing, carapax, is formed by the spinal column and ribs united to the external covering of horny plates. The under covering, plastron, is analogous to the sternum. (2) Loricata includes the alligator and crocodile. Covered with a leather)- skin set with bony plates. The lower jaw is articulated to the back part of the skull so that when the mouth opens the upper jaw seems to move on the lower. (3) Laccrtilia, or lizards, includes the chameleon, the horned frog or toad of Texas and Western U.S., the glass snake, or joint snake, etc. The latter "when frightened contracts its muscles so violently that its tail will break off as if it were brittle." All of this order are harmless. (4) Ophidia, or snakes. They have a very dilata- ble mouth enabling them to swallow prey larger than their bodies. 1 lave no limbs nor sternum and move by means of the ribs and scales on the under side of body. Many are harmless, some very poisonous. 23. Class IV. — Amphibia. — Distinguished by: (1) Having a double life, tnat is in the immature or tadpole state, breathing by means of gills as fish, and in the mature state by lungs. The gills and tails are lost by absorption; in some cases, however, they are retained. (2) The heart has three chambers, two auricles and one ventricle; cold blooded. (3) They are covered with a naked skin. This class includes frogs, toads, salamanders, etc.; the division into orders as in all cases hereafter will not be given. 24. Class V. — Pisces. — "Fishes are the lowest of the vertebrates. They fall far behind the rest in strength, intelligence and sensibility. The eyes, though huge, are almost immovable, bathed by no tears, and protected by no lids. Dwelling in the realm of silence, ears are little needed, and such as they have are without external parts, the sound being obliged to pass through the cranium. Taste and smell arc blunted and touch is nearly confined to the lips. Desti- tute of th( means of social intercourse (being almost mute), their chief enjoyment is to eat, and to be eaten is the end of their exis- ZOOLOGY. 405 tence. But the class yields to no other in the number and variety of its forms. It includes nearly one-half of all the vertebrated species." — Ortorfs Comparative Zoology. 25. All animals not belonging to the sub-kingdom vertebrata are sometimes called invertebrates. We can have space to notice only the classes of the remaining sub-kingdoms. More time should be devoted to the study of the articulates than to any of the other sub-kingdoms yet to be mentioned, as specimens can so easily be obtained. 26. Sub-Kingdom II. — Articulata. — Largest of all the sub- kingdoms, comprising four-fifths of the animal world. They are characterized as follows: (i) Body composed of rings, or ring- like plates more or less indurated and enclosing the vital parts. (2) The nervous system, mainly a double chain of ganglia on the ventral side of the body. (3) Alimentary canal, a nearly straight tube lying lengthwise in the center of the body. (4) The circulatory organs, nearly straight tubes running along the back. (4) The respiratory organs, a system of tubes throughout the body com- municating externally with the air in various places. (5) Blood white, except in some of the worms. (6) A transverse section of the body shows but one cavity. (7) The mouth opens vertically with the axis of the body and the number of limbs varies from none at all to fifty or more pairs. "Every ring so nearly represents a distinct individual with complete nervous respiratorv and circulat- ing apparatus, that some naturalists have declared articulates to be compound animals." 27. Class I. — Insecta. — (i) Body divided into three distinct sections, head, thorax and abdomen. (2) Three pairs of jointed legs, one pair of antenna), or feelers, and usually two pairs of wings, the legs and wings borne on the thorax. (3) The eyes are usually compound being made up of hexagonal cones sometimes many thousand in number, but each a distinct eve. (4) Man)' undergo a metamorphosis, that is they exist in different forms at different stages of their existence. When first hatched from the ego- the insect is called a larva which, if it be without legs, is called a grub or maggot, if with legs, a caterpillar, and when its full size is reached it sheds its coat and remains for a time dormant, then called the pupa, which is sometimes surrounded by a cocom spun and woven of silk by the larva. After remaining a certain time in the pupa state it bursts its coveting and emerges an imago or perfect insect. In the larva state the insect is occupied principally in eating and growing. Many live but a few hours after reaching theima^o state, only long enough to secure a reproduction of their kind by laying eggs. 28. Class II. — Myriapoda. — Includes centipedes, earwigs, etc., and characterized by having the thorax and abdomen merged in one, but the head distinct. They have usually many legs, as the name 40C TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. indicates, and their bodies are worm-like in appearance. The common "thousand-leg worm" is a representative. It has about 120 legs. The well-known centipede {Scolopendra gigantca) of the Southern and Western States is poisonous to a certain degree. 29. Class III. — Arachnida. — Have the head and thorax merged into one, and the abdomen distinct, and four pairs of legs, with from two to eight simple eyes. The spiders, scorpions, and the itch mite belong to this class. There are nearly 5,000 species. Spiders manifest a high degree of intelligence. 30. Class IV. — Crustacea. — Includes the largest and strongest of the sub-kingdom. All are acpiatic and breathe by gills. Their bodies are covered with a hard crust, whence the name. This shell or crust consists of 21 pieces, seven for the head, seven for the thorax, and seven for the abdomen. In the higher forms the head and thorax are united into one piece called the cephalo-thorax. The shell is frequently cast as the animal grows too large for it. When a limb is lost by accident another grows in its place. The crawfish, crabs, and the lobster belong to this class, also the trilobite, extinct. (See Geology). 31. Class V. — Annelida. — Includes all animals known as worms, such as the common earth-worm, leeches,the tape-worm, etc. They have no hollow articulated limbs, as in other articulates, and "no one part of the body honored above the rest." The common earth-worm, or angle-worm, is no insignificant creature, as Charles Darwin has recently written a book upon its structure and habits. He has shown that this apparently insignificant animal is an im- portant agent in pulverizing the soil and burying rocks and other objects upon the surface, and in bringing up material from below to the surface simply by swallowing the soil for the organic matter contained in it, and having passed it through its body, casting it upon the surface. 32. Sub-Kingdom III. — Mollusca. — (1) Soft bodies without joints «>r internal skeleton, covered with a contractile skin, or man- tle. (2) Sometimes the skin is naked, but usually covered with a shell of calcareous material. (3) The nervous system consists of three pairs of ganglia around the neck, or entrance to the alimentary canal, with other ganglia scattered throughout the body. (4) The majority are water breathers and exist in the ocean. There are probably more than 20,000 species. Snails, oysters and mussels are common types of this sub-kingdom. 33. The mollusca are divided into classes as follows: (1) CEPHALOPODA. " The head is set off from the body with a slight constriction, and furnished with a pair of large staring eyes, a mouth armed with a rasping tongue and a parrot-like beak, and eight or more tentacles or arms." To this class belong the cuttle-fish, which has the power of ejecting a black fluid, which darkens the water ZOO LOG T. 407 and screens it from pursuit. It has a spongy, calcareous mass within its body, known as cuttle-fish bone, and used for canary birds. The beautiful nautilus and the famous devil-fish also belong tothis class. (2) Gasteropoda. Move by a fleshy disc called the foot, and usually covered with a spiral univalve shell. The com- mon snail is typical. (3) Lamelli-branchiata. Havebivalve shells, the oyster and mussel being typical. (4) Brachiopoda. Have arms coiled up within the shell, which is a bivalve, being symmetrical, /. e. equal on each side of die hinge. (5) T« \kata. Appear as a gelatinous mass covered with two tunics or coats, forming a tube through which the water passes. (6) Poi.yzoa. Compound animals, the individuals inhabiting separate cells, but attached to each other and resembling a plant. 34. Sub-Kingdom IV.- -Echinodermata. -Have all the parts arranged around a central axis in fives or multiples of five. It in- cludes classes named and represented as follows: (1) Holotiiuri- dae, sea slugs ; (2) Echinoidea, sea urchins; (3) Asteroidea, star-fish; (4) Crinoidea, crinoids, or sea lilies. 35. Sub-Kingdom V. — Ccelenterata. — Animals radiated in structure, but having a distinct cavity in the body with walls of two layers of cellular tissue. They generally live in clusters or colo- nies, and are propagated by eggs and by budding. They are rep- resented by the corals and jelly fishes. 36. Sub-Kingdom VI.— Protozoa.— Includes all the lowest forms of animals that have not been classed with the other sub- kingdoms. They are all small, living mostly in the water, and many are microscopic. They have no distinct organs of cir- culation, digestion, etc., that have been yet discovered, although they take food, grow and multiply, and many are exceedingly active. 37. The sub-kingdoms Echinodermata and Ccelenterata were formerly included in the sub-kingdom Radiata. A special study should be made of corals, crinoids, gasteropods, brachiopods and lam elti-branchiates, as they form the greater part of the fossil re- mains, and their study is a good preparation for the study of Pale- ontology, which is necessary to an understanding of Geology. HINTS TO THE TEACHER. 38. The study of Zoology is a very interesting one, and pupils will not need to be stimulated to a love for it if the teacher do not require them to commit to memory the details of the subject, nor frighten them with the technical names. Let a pretty thorough study of the general characteristics of sub-kingdoms and classes be made, mingled with some of the interesting details of the habits of the more peculiar individuals of each. A collection of insects may be made, also of fresh-water and land shells. (See article on Outlining). 4us TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. QUESTIONS ON ZOOLOGY. I. Define Zoologv. 2. Classification is based upon what? 3. How are varieties produced! Hybrid? Mongrel? Races? 5. Name the points dis- tinguishing animals from plants. 6. What is a vertebrate animal? 7. Define mammalia. S. To what order does man belong? How distinguished? How are the family names formed? 9. What order next to man in development? 10. Describe the order to which the dog belongs. 11. The horse. (2. The elephant. 13. The whale. What is ambergris ? Whalebone? 14. Of what order is the bat a representa- tive: 15. What is the smallest mammal? 16. How could you tell a rodent animal? 17. Describe the Edentata. 18. What is the character of the lower orders of mammalia? 19. Give the characteristics of bird-. 20. Give a representa- tive of each order of birds. 21. Describe reptiles. 22. Give a representative of each order of reptiles. Is the turtle a vertebrate or an articulate ! 23. What is a tadpole? Put some tadpoles, which have reached nearly their full size, in a vessel of water, and watch the gradual diminution of their "tails and the devel- opment of legs. 24. What is a fish? Is the whale a fish? Why? 25. What are inverte- brates? 26. Describe the articulates. Why does a fly or bee not die instantly when the head is cut off or the body cut in" two? Ans. — Because the nervous system is so constructed that each segment represents a nearly complete animal. 27. Describe insects? Metamorphosis? 28. Centipedes? 29. Is the spider an insect? 30. Of what class is the crawfish a representative? 31. What is the importance of the angle worm? 32. What is an oyster ? 33. Give a represent- ative of each class of mollusks. What is the devil-fish? How tell abrachiopod from a lamelli-branchiate by the shell ? 34. To what sub-kingdom and class does the star-fish belong? What are crinoids? 35. Describe the ccelenterata? 36. Protozoa? 37. What are radiates ? « — • •••.■ii|<>|iii...-- COMMON SCHOOL LAW. *** It should he remembered by the teacher that, though decisions and rulings in one State are not law in another, they serve as precedents, and in the absence of statute regulations go far toward "governing a case. Hence the her should not make the mistake of supposing that the customs of another State necessarily do not affect his own ease. Where the abbreviation <>l"a State occurs in brackets it signifies that the point in law ex- ed in the preceding sentence i- taken from the statutes of thai State, or from decisions made In- its < nun- <t' his legal duties and responsibilities should he among the first requirements of the teacher of a public school. It frequently happens that lie gets int.. serious difficulty, either through ln^ own blunders or the ignorance and cupidity of others. A knowledge of certain general points of law would in * We are indebted to the excellent manual of "Common School Law," published by C. u Bardeen, S V v.. inr many of the |>oints and references in this article. COMMON SCHOOL LAW. 409 most case- prevent blunders on his own part, and help remedy them where made by others. 2. Law is a rule of action. Common law is "that which de- rives its force and authority from the universal consent and imme- morial practice of the people." Statute law is that made by a Legislative body. Common law in regard to schools consists mainly of decisions of courts and state superintendents or commis- sioners of public instruction. 3. Statute law in regard to schools is concerned principally with the details relating to organization, support and supervision, and refers in a general way only to the work of the teacher. The relations of the teacher to pupil and parent are not definitely de- fined by statute law, and are left to the decisions of common law. It would he impracticable to enact laws covering every possible case which may come up in the varied relations the teacher sustains to pupil and parent. 4. The States differ greatly in their statures respecting- the or- ganization, supervision and support of schools, but as to the special rights and duties of teachers, pupils and parents, they are more uni- form, these matters being regulated by universal custom based upon legal opinions given by courts and school officers in the different States, or in other words, by common laze. 5. The Teacher's Qualifications. — The law presumes in all cases that the teacher should be qualified for the work which he is employed to do, and to assure such a result, nearly all Slates re- quire the teacher to hold a certificate of qualification granted by a proper authority established by statute. This, of course, does not applv to teachers of private schools. The following "points in re- gard to certificates, or licenses, are of general interest: — - 1. A teacher holding school without a certificate cannot draw pay. [Me., X. II., Vt., Ind., Cal., X. Y., (3., et ah] 2. It is illegal to employ teachers who have no license. [Pa., Ind.] 3. He gets his authority from his certificate, and if he presume to teach without it is liable tor assault and battery if he uses the slightest corporal punishment. Neither can any other person, as a superintending officer, take his place. [X. II.] This is true also even if his certificate be illegally annulled; [X. Y.] or if the proper authorities refuse or neglect to examine him. [Mci] If the certifi- cate be annulled and the teacher appeals to the State Department he may continue school with the consent of the board. I Wis.] 4. Certificates, or licenses, are granted by various authorized means. The following are some of the kinds ..f certificates: Di- plomas from State Normal Schools; State certificates issued by the State Superintendent, or a State hoard of education; certificates by countv boards of examiners or county superintendents, or in cities by a superintendent or a Board of Education. 410 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. ^. Standards of examination arc not fixed by statute, and custom varies greatly, [n general, a good moral character, learn- ing, and teaching power are required, but what constitutes these, or the degree of each necessary, are matters which are not commonly regulated by fixed standards. The use of intoxicating drinks, profanity [N. V.], the refusal to pay debts [Wis.], are con- sidered as grounds for refusal on the basis of moral character. A fair knowledge of each branch which is required by law to be taught, is required before a license can be granted. Of late years more atten- tion is being paid to ascertaining the teaching power, or managing ability of the teacher. If an applicant is familiar with the best works on methods and management, and is a subscriber to some school journal, these facts help to determine the grade of certificate. Successful experience also goes a great way in this direction. 6. The law never permits a licensing authority to refuse a certificate on the ground of ill-will or malice toward the applicant. In such cases the applicant may recover damages. He is not com- pelled even to prove personal malice on the part of the authority, hut if it can he shown that the officer acted rashly or wickedly, the jury may find malice. [Ilk] 7. " A teacher's certificate must hear the same date as the examination, and cannot legally hear any other.''' [Ilk] S. Certificates mav he revoked by County .Superintendents on the ground of immorality and for want of professional knowl- edge, hut at least ten days' notice in writing must he given to the teacher and to the directors and controllers of the district in which he is employed. [Pa.] " Normal School diplomas and State cer- tificates as certificates of teaching ability cannot he annulled, nor can the holder he suhjectcd to further examination, except as a con- dition of contract." [N. Y.] Incompetency, immorality, cruelty, or general neglect of husiness of the school are grounds for revoca- tion. [Ind.] 9. The teacher, in case his certificate be annulled, may apply to the State Superintendent, whose decision is final. [X. Y.] 6. Making Contracts. — The law varies greatly as to con- tracts between teachers and employers in different States. Note the following points: — 1. Written contracts are required by law. [Kan., Iowa, Pa., Wis.. Va.l 2. Not customary to make written contracts. | Mass., O.] Generally the custom. [ 1 11. j The teacher shall contract with the Trustees in writing that he shall attend the Township Institutes. [I;id.| Customary for country teachers; city teachers being elected by the board, '.\<> contracl written. [Ga.] ^. The <|iicstion sometimes arises whether a minor can con- tract. " Such a contracl is binding upon the district, hut not upon the teacher, as ;. minor, who may decline to fulfill the contract, or COMMON SCHOOL LAW. 411 having taught for a time, may decline to teach longer." [Wis.] " The teacher's wages are paid to him, and not to his parent or guardian, even though he is a minor." [Ky. ] 7. Dismissal of Teachers. — The statutes of some of the States define grounds for dismissal, others do not. " Incompetency, cru- elty, negligence, or immorality." [Pa., 111., Kan.] " Inefficiency, neglect of dutv, immorality, or improper conduct." [O.] "Incom- petency, immorality, cruelty, or general neglect of the business of the school." [Ind.] "Incompetency, partiality, or dereliction in the discharge of his duties." [Iowa.] " Want of sufficient learn- ing, ability to teach, capacity to govern and arrange the school, or of good moral character." [Wis.] Committee may dismiss a teacher " who is found incapable or unfit to teach, or whose ser- vices they deem unprofitable to the school." [Ale.] May dismiss a teacher "whenever they think proper." [Mass.] Mere dissatis- faction of scholars and parents no cause for dismissal. [Vt.] "In- competency, neglect of duty, immoral conduct, unacceptability, or other disqualifications," a preference of a majority of patrons not being taken as unacceptability, but specific grounds must be stated. 8. Legal Holidays. — Teachers may set aside without forfeiture of pay, New Year's, 4th of July, Christmas and Thanksgiving days. [O., 111., Ind.] Also 30th of May and 22d of February. [Wis.] Also Good Friday, making seven holidays, unless a part of contract to teach on those days. [Pa.] 9. Corporal Punishment — So far as We know, only one State has a statute relating to this matter. " No teacher shall be per- mitted to inflict corporal punishment upon any child in any school in this State." [N.J.] In the great majority of schools, the teacher has the right by usage, confirmed by legal decisions, to resort to corporal punishment when necessary to maintain order. When- ever a teacher is arraigned for inflicting corporal punishment, the question is entirely upon whether the punishment was cruel, un- necessary, or inordinately severe, and in the courts if so proven, would be treated as a case of "assault and battery." Some cities forbid corporal punishment in their schools, others permit it, but discourage it. Proper management on the part of teachers will in nearly all cases prevent tine necessity of resorting to that which in itself is but little more than barbarous. 10. .Special laws in regard to defacing school property are on the statute books of many of the States. It is punishable by tine, or fine and imprisonment. [Kan., Mass., O., Wis., Ind.]. 11. Suspension and Expulsion of Pupils. — The teacher as a rule has the right to suspend, and the school hoards the right to expel, pupils. The teacher may suspend a pupil until he can inform the board, who may expel if they see fit. [Ind., Wis., Pa., Mass., Iowa.] Teachers may send a pupil home for the day instead of 4V2 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI HEART. inflicting corporal punishment. [O.]. Pupils cannot be expelled for trivial causes, [fa scholar persists in disobeying the teacher the trustees are justified in expelling him. [Ky.]. " Incorrigibly bad conduct <>r violation of the school regulations"*' are grounds for ex- pulsion. \R. I.]. " Habitual profanity or vulgarity good cause for suspension." [Cal.]. Misconduct which injures the discipline of the school is |us1 ground foi expulsion. [Me., Mass., Wis.]. " In- corrigibly bad conduct." [Pa.]. Pupils who g<) to school without proper attention to cleanliness and neatness shall be sent home to be properly prepared for school. [Cal.]. It may be a question what to do in case a pupil refuse to quit school when suspended or expelled. It then becomes a case of wilful disturbance of the school and is punishable by fine. [Wis., Me., Ind., Cal., N.J.]. 12. Detaining Pupils at Recess or After School. — This seems to be a universally permitted custom. " Teachers may, at their discretion, detain scholars a reasonable time after the regular school hours, for reasons connected with the discipline, order, or instruction of the school." [Mich.]. " My opinion is that no more harmless, feasible, or efficient, and, therefore, no more reasonable way can be devised to meet many cases of negligence and disobedience on the part of pupils." [HI.]- " We have held that scholars may not be de- tained after school hours against the protest of parents or guardians." [Iowa.]. "No pupil shall be detained in school during the inter- mission at noon, and a pupil detained at any recess shall be per- mitted to go out immediately thereafter." [Cal.]. 13. Control of Studies.— The following from State Superin- tendents will exhibit the tendency of custom and law on this point. "Our common school courses are prescribed bylaw. The com- mittee have the authority to require their courses to be pursued." [Mass.]. "Boards can require pupils to follow the prescribed course.*' [O.]. " Boards may establish a course of instruction and the right to enforce it is evidently carried with it." [Ind.]. "A decision of our supreme courts says teachers or directors cannot compel pupils to take a prescribed course of study." [Wis.]. School boards by the law are to prescribe courses of study and teachers are to determine what each pupil shall pursue." [Pa.]. " The school board has a right to enforce observance of a course of study." [Kan.]. 14. Parents Interfering. — May a parent take his child from the schoolroom without the consent ol the teacher, pending punishment of the child ? " A parent would not be sustained in interfering with the regulations of the school. The remedy is in application to the boank 7, | Iowa. |. - As a rule I should say not." [HI.]. " Would he regarded as interrupting the school, and could he fined for dis- orderly-conduct." [Wis.].' "In such case the teacher and board would undoubtedly have the right to name the conditions as to the child's re-entrance into school." [O.]. Also. [Ind.]. COMMON SCHOOL LAW. 413 15. Hours of School. — The general custom seems to be six hours a day, three in the forenoon and three in the afternoon, with an hour's intermission at noon and 10 or 15 minutes' recess in the middle of each session. The custom of dismissing primary classes earlier than the others is becoming- quite customary. "No pupil un- der eight years of age must be kept in school more than four hours a day." [Cal.]. " The youngest pupils cannot be confined more than three hours." [Ky.]. The law does not define a school day, but custom has fixed its limit at six hours, exclusive of the noon recess. " This is perhaps long enough for pupils of any age, and too long for the youngest, unless they are relieved by frequent recesses." [Ind.]. 16. Insult to Teacher. — ; ' If any parent, guardian or other per- son, from any cause fancied or real, visit a school with avowed in- tention of upbraiding or insulting the teacher and shall so upbraid or insult a teacher, such person, for such conduct, shall be liable to a fine of not more than 25 dollars." find."]. Similar provision also. [Wis., Me., Cal., N.J.]. 17. Teacher's Authority Outside of Schoolhouse. — In the schoolhouse and on the playground during the school session, the teacher has absolute control of pupils, modified only by regulations which may be made by boards and subject to arraignment only when he by excessive or cruel measures transcends what may be considered reasonable conduct. (9). This seems to be general custom, but the teacher's authority out- side of these limits is not so well determined. " It is expected that teachers will exercise a general inspection over the conduct of schol- ars going to and returning from school." [Cal.]. " The pupils are under the authority of their teacher while in school and while firoine to and from school, but it is not to be inferred by this that the teacher is to be held responsible for such misconduct, or must punish it." [Ky.]. " Though a schoolmaster has in general no right to punish a pupil for misconduct committed after the dismissal of school for the day, and the return of the pupil to his home, yet he may, on the pupil's return to school punish him for any misbehavior, though committed out of school, which has a direct and immediate tendency to injure the school, and to subvert the master's authority." [Sup. Court, Vt.]. 18. Absence and Tardiness. — Rules in this regard made by boards have been decided as absolute and final. 19. Compulsory Education. — This is the term used, hut it is certainly evident that education is not a matter of compulsion. The question, however, of' compelling the attendance of children for a certain number of days in the year to attend the public schools has been much discussed of late years, and many States have enacted laws to this effect. It is still an open question in our mind, and we shall not discuss it here. 414 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS LIB RAM 2' . 20. Is a school district liable for a teacher's wages incase the school is closed by the board? The .Sup. Court of Mich, decided in a case where the school had been closed by the board on account of an epidemic disease, that the teacher should receive his pay for the time lost. \m order unpaid lor want of funds draws interest at 8 percent. [111.]. Tiie teacher forteits his wages for neglect to keep a school regis- ter. [Wis.]. 21. The Reading of the Bible and Religious Exercises. — "The decisions of the State Department have uniformly denied the right to insist upon religious exercises of any kind." [N. Y.]. "The law directs the committee to require the daily reading of the Bible, but they shall require no scholar to read from any particular version, whose parent or guardian shall declare that he has conscientious scruples against allowing him to read therefrom.' 1 [Mass.], The school committee may require the reading of the Protestant Bible in public schools. [Me.]. " The directors have a right to dictate what books shall be studied and used, and can, therefore, order the Bible to be read as a text-book in connection with other studies." [111.]. No statutes prescribing nor prohibiting. [Ind., Ky.] " Neither the electors, the board of directors, nor the sub-directors can exclude the Bible from any school in the State. 1 " [Iowa.]. " The directors may compel the reading of the Bible." [Mo.]. The Cin- cinnati Board forbade the reading of the Bible in 1869; it went into the court and was decided against the Board, but in 1S73 tne Sup. Court of Ohio reversed the decision. The school boards of Chicago and New Haven have since followed the example of Cincinnati. • ■•iiOi""" METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 1. In these few pages an exhaustive treatise on Arithmetic is not expected. It is hoped, however, that such suggestions and forms are given as will enable students to investigate more fully the sulijicts treated, and give them a means of working out for themselves the topics not mentioned here. It is the aim to show, if possible, how much more satisfactory results may he secured in studying this important branch, if more attention is given to principles than to the solution of so ma )iv different problems, or to the learning by rote of so many definitions and rules. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 415 The result to be secured by the study of this branch is the ac- quirement of such knowledge as may be brought into use in every- day life, and be independent of books. This can be secured by treating each subject not as though it stood alone, but by showing its relation to other subjects, and then showing just how much t lie re is in any one subject. To develop these Jew points is the leading idea of the following pages. 2. Arithmetic treats of quantity as expressed by a number. 3. A Number is a unit or collection of units, either fractional or integral. 4. A Problem is a question proposed for solution. 5. An Example is a problem solved. 6. A Unit is anything considered as one. 7. An Abstract number is one that represents no particular value; as 2, 3, 5. 8. A Concrete number is one that does represent a particular value; as, $2, 3 bushels, 5 pounds. These few definitions are given to answer questions that arise in the dif- ferent discussions, and to explain the terms used. FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES. 9. In presenting these subjects, it is not necessary that the pupil should know anything about numbers, as Counting, Writing Num- bers, Addition, and Subtraction, may be taught at one time. In many cases, Multiplication and Division are included. It is preferable, however, to make these two a separ.-ite topic. It was not the intention to give any lessons in Primary Arithme- tic, but it will better serve the purpose of the present discussion to give at least one. This will illustrate the method of introducing any subject. LESSOX IN PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. 10. It is the supposition that the child knows nothing about arithmetic. In teaching it, objects should be used. The teacher can easily provide himself with the necessary apparatus: A number of pebbles, pennies, sticks, or straws, and some cord or small rubber bands. In this illustration the objects are straws. If the children have never seen any straws, then take something else. It is absolutely necessary that the objects used be something with which the chil- dren are familiar. Teacher. — (Holding up a straw.) What have I in my hand? Pupils. — A straw. Teacher. — How many straws have I? Perhaps no one will answer. Usually, however, some one is able to give a definite answer, and will say " One straw." It is bet- 41fi TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. ter to have the pupils give the concrete name straw, until they arc able to comprehend fully the idea of a unit. If they do not give this name, the tendency is toward abstract or mechanical work. Teacher. — Who can make a mark on the hoard that will repre- sent the number of straws? yohnny. — I can. Teacher. — Johnny, you may place it on the board. The boy steps forward and places a straight mark on the board. It may be, however, that no one will volunteer to do this. Should this be the case, then the teacher should place it on the board. Then, whether the teacher or child places this mark on the board, there will be no trouble in getting volunteers for the next. Teacher. — (Holding up a straw in one hand.) What have I in this hand ? Pupils. — A straw. Teacher. — Who can make a character on the board representing it: | All hands rise.] Teacher.— Mary, you may place the character or figure on the board. Mary steps to the board and properly indicates it. By this time each pupil is anxious to go to the board. Teacher.— { Holding up a straw inthe other hand.) Whathave I here? Pupils. — A straw. Teacher.- Who can go to the board and make the figure for it? [All hands rise.] Teacher. — Harry may do so. Teacher.— (Holding up the one straw.) What have I? Pupils. — A straw. Teacher.— { Holding up the other. ) What have I ? Pupils. — -A straw. Teacher. — How many straws? Pupils. — One straw. Teacher. (Holding both straws in one hand.) How many straws have I now? Pupils. — Two straws. Teacher.— Who can place the figure on the board? [All hands rise. | 'Teacher. — Annie, you may write it. Annie goes to the board and places two straight marks. This is natural, and the teacher should not correct it at once. If someone of the pupils should suggest another way, let him place it on the board, otherwise the drill should be continued. Teacher, — ( Holding up one straw in one hand.) How many straws have I ? Pupils. — One straw. METHODS TN ARITHMETIC. 417 Teacher. — (Holding up two straws in the other hand.) How many straws have I ? Pupils. — Two straws. Teacher. — (Placing all the straws in one hand.) How many straws have I ? Pupils. — Three straws. Teacher. — One straw and two straws are how many straws? Ptipils. — Three straws. Teacher. — (Taking one straw out of the number.) How many straws have I left? Pupils. — Two straws. Teacher. — Three straws less one straw are how many straws? Pupils. — Two straws. Teacher. — (Taking out another straw.) How many straws have I left? Pupils. — One straw. Teacher. — Then how many straws have I taken away? Pupils. — Two straws. Teacher. — Three straws less two straws are how many straws? Pupils. — One straw. Teacher. — (Taking away the other straw.) How many straws have I left now? Pupils. — No straw. Teacher. — Then three straws less three straws are how many straws? Pupils. — No straws. The teacher may now put these together again, asking how many one straw and one straw are, how many two and oneare? etc. Teacher.- — Who can make the figure on the board representing these three straws? [All hands rise.] Teacher. — Susie, you may place it on the board. Susie steps to the board and makes three marks. So this may be continued with four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine, the children making an additional straight mark for each additional straw. Con- tinue the addition and subtraction the same with each additional object. Teacher. — (With nine straws in one hand and one straw in the other, holding up the one straw.) How many straws have I in this hand? Pupils. — One straw. Teacher. — (Holding up the nine straws.) How many straws have I in this hand? Pupils. — Nine straws. Teacher. — (Putting all together.) How many straws? Pupils. — Ten straws. Then the teacher may proceed to show how addition and sub- traction may be performed with this number. 27 418 7 Jr/ZAAW AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Teacher. Who can place figures on the board to represent these? [ All hands rise.] Teacher. -Henry, you may place them on the hoard. (Ten marks are made.) If by this time the pupils have not learned the characters, the teacher may begin to explain them. Usually, how- ever, the pupils will find out from either their parents or older brothers and sisters, how to make them. .Some one, if not all, will learn this, and will be seen privately teaching the Others. This is far better than for them to have to be told by the teacher. Chil- dren as well as grown persons love to work out points for them- selves; to find out something they can tell to the teacher. By giv- ing them this opportunity, the arduous task of teaching the figures will be accomplished. Now, in the course of instruction, tens have been reached. The children are supposed, at this stage, to be able to make the nine digits and the cipher. The teacher can now group the ten straws and place a rubber band around them, saying to the children that this is a group often, or one ten, and that it is represented by placing a figure one at the left of the order where the figures representing the separate straws have been placed. Teacher. — (Holding up one ten.) How many tens have 1? Pupils. — One ten. Teacher. — (Holding up the empty hand.) How many separate straws have I ? Pupils. — None. The teacher may now state that since the i representing the one ten is placed at the left of the order where the figures representing the separate straws are placed, and since there are no separate- straws, then a cipher is placed there instead. Now we have one ten and no separate straws. Then take the one ten and one sepa- rate straw, and show where these are placed; then one ten and two separate straws, one ten and three, and so on, until another ten is reached. Continue in this manner until nine tens and ten straw- are used, then group the ten tens, naming the group one hundred. By the time this number is reached, all will be able to write the numbers, add, and subtract with great accuracy. By this means the children get an idea of numbers. When, for example, the num- ber .^JS is placed on the board, they see in it more than the abstract figures. They see three la roc groups, two small groups, and Jive separate objects. 11. Iii addition to the use of the straws, give the pupils a num- ber of practical problems; such as, — If a man's coat costs $30, his hat $5, his boots $10, and his over- coat $40, how much doall cost? If a slate costs 30 cts., a pencil 5 cts., copy-book 20 cts., and a book 50 cts., how much do all cost? METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 419 The children are now prepared to see the steps in the solution of a problem. These are: i. Statement. 2. Analysis. 3. Synthesis. 4. Conclusion. 12. Problem. — I have three cents in one hand and four cents in the other, how many cents have I? 1. Statement. — I have three cents in one hand and four cents in the other, how many have 1? 2. Analysis. — As many cents as the sum of three cents and four cent^. 3. Synthesis. — Which is seven cents. 4. Conclusion. — Therefore, since I have three cents in one hand and four cents in the other, I have seven cents. The above is what is called the Concrete Method and is much better than the Abstract. It gives the pupil an idea of what he is doing. It systematizes the work. These same principles may be carried out in multiplication and division. In fact, the object method may be used in presenting every subject. MULTIPLICATION. 13. We will not take up the objects farther, but from the les- son already given will leave the teacher to his own good sense and ingenuity in its application. Multiplication is the process of finding the product of two or more numbers. After using the objects to illustrate the subject and to teach the childrc/i to 7tiakc a multiplication table for themselves; and also after giving numerous practical problems, then give them the two fundamental principles :' 1 . Reasoning from one to many. 2. Reasoning from many to one. These are observed in all of the work following. 14. PRINCIPLES ILLUSTRATED. I. PROBLEM. If i hat costs $3, what will 5 hats cost? SOLUTION. 1. The cost of 1 hat — $3. 2. The cost of 5 hats = 5 X $3 = $15- .-. If 1 hat costs $3, 5 hats will cost $15. It will be observed that in this we reason from one to many. Note. — In all solutions, number the equations, but not the statement or the conclusion. II. PROBLEM. If 3 hats cost $15, what will 1 hat cost? i20 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. SOLUTION. i. The cost of 3 hats = $15. 8. The cost of 1 hat = ^ of $15 = $5. .-. If 3 hats cost $15, 1 hat will cost $5. Tn this we reason from many to one. III. PROBLEM. — THE TWO PRINCIPLES COMBINED. If 6 yards of cloth cost $18, what will 3 yards cost? SOLUTION. 1. The cost of 6 yards = $18. 2. The cost of 1 yard = \ of $18 — $3. 3. The cost of 3 yards = 3 X $3 = $9- .-. If six yards of cloth cost $18, 3 yards will cost $9. DIVISION. 15. Division is the process of rinding the quotient of two numbers. But little attention outside of the object lessons should be given to short division. This will be learned by the pupil in his various computations. In teaching long division, the teacher should know the process thoroughly, and then lead the mind of the learners up to his ideal. The pupil must be brought to do just as the teacher does. The most difficult thing, perhaps, in division, is rinding how often the divisor is contained in the dividend. In our own computations, we " multiply back." For example, — Divide 2862 1 by 986. In this we see that 9 is contained in 28 three times. We then " multiply back," saying, three times 6 are 18; three times 8 are 24, and 1 are 25; three times 9 are 27, and 2 are 29. In this way we determine the fact that the first figure of. the quotient is not 3, hence 2 is tried, and so on. In giving this process, use large numbers. At first such that the first figure of the divisor is contained exactly in the first figure of the dividend; thus, — 16. Divide 365000 by 1000. 1000)365000(365 3000 6500 6000 5000 5000 The steps in the process are: — 1st, Divide. 2d, Multiply. 3d, Subtract. 4th, Place the next figure of the dividend at the right of the remainder. Again, Divide, Multiply, Subtract, place another figure, and so repeat. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 421 After the children arc familiar with the process, take a problem i the following : Divide 2664000 by 12000. 12000)2664000(222 24000 26400 24000 24000 24000 Show them that not only is the first figure of the divisor con- tained in the first figure of the dividend, but the first two figures of the divisor are contained in the first two figures of the dividend. Again, Divide 160000 by 250. 250)160000(640 1500 1000 1000 00 In this the idea of " multiplying back " is seen. Continue this process until the children are thoroughly familiar with it. After they are thoroughly acquainted with addition, sub- traction, multiplication, and division, they are then ready for more difficult subjects. Usually these subjects are passed over too rapidly. It is almost impossible to keep pupils on these too long. The skill- ful teacher will make new problems and vary the exercises so that the work will not become monotonous. Upon these depends every- thing else. Understanding these thoroughly, the child can take tip any other subject alone, and master it. Thus far no mention has been made of the rules. If such a thing as a rule is necessary, the pupil may be taught to deduce it from the processes given. 17. Before leaving these fundamental processes some short methods should be given. 1. For example: — To square a number ending in 5, as 25. Multiply the units together and place the result in the product. Increase the tens of the multiplicand by 1, and multiply it by the tens of the multiplier, and place the result in the product. Operation. Square 35. 35 X 35.— Five times 5 =' 25. Three times 4 = 12. Result, 1225 Square 55. Five times 5 = 25. Five times 6 =: 30 Result, 3025 422 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. ii. Multiply 65 by 45. 1. If the sum of the tens is even, multiply the units together and place the result in the product. Then multiply the tens together and to their product add half the sum of the tens. j. If the sum of the tens is not even, to the product of the units add 50 and place the result in the product. To the product of the tens add half of their sum diminished by 1, and place the result in the product. 65 X 45- The sum of the tens is even. Five times 5 = 25. Four times 6 -|- 5 = 29 Result, = 2925. 65 X S5. The sum of the tens is even. Five times 5 — 25. Eight times 6 + 7 = 55 Result, = 5525. 65 X 35- The sum of the tens is odd. Five times 5 -f- 50 = 75. Five times 4 -f- 4 = 24 Result, = 2475 in. To multiply any number by any other number. 23i2X34 3 =79°7°4- Explanation: — 1. 2 times 2=4. Place this in the result. 2 " 1 = 2. 2. -U " 2=8. 8 -f- 2 = 10. Place the cipher in the result. 2 times 3=6. 6-(-i from previous step=7- 4 " I= 4- 3 " 2=6. 7-1-44-6=17. Place 7 in the result. 2 times 2=4. -4— |— 1 from previous step=5> ,4 " 3=i2. 4^3 « i =3 . (^ ^-|- 1 2-1-3= 20. Place cipher in the result. !4 times 2=8. 8-(-2 from previous steps=io. 3 " 3=9- 104-9=19. Place 9 in the result. 6. 3 times 2 = 6. 6+1 from previous step=7. Result=7oo704. In this the following process will be observed: 1. Multiply the units by the units. 2. Multiply the tens of the multiplicand by the units of the multi- plier, to this add the product of the units of the multiplicand by the tens of the multiplier. 3. Multiply the hundreds of the multiplicand by the units of the multiplier; to this add the product of the tens of the multiplicand by the tens of the multiplier, and to this add the product of the units of the multiplicand by the hundreds of the multiplier. This process of following one after another, and the rapidity of the additions, is what makes this a short method. These are presented, not because they are much used, but because they furnish a means of varying the exercises, thus avoid- ing monotony. The same idea may be carried into division. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 423 In the main, the work thus far will be the same in both Mental and Written Arithmetic. For a time the subject of Mental Arithmetic will be taken up. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 18. One great difficulty in this subject is in the fact that too many problems are solved and too few principles learned. It shall be the object to show how all of the different cases cluster about a few principles. Referring to the two principles already given, namely, reasoning from many to one, anil from one to many; and to the illustrations given, we have, for example: — i. If i coat costs $15, what will 3 coats cost? 1. The cost of 1 coat=$i5- 2. The cost of 3 coats=3X$i5=$45. .-. If i coat costs $15, 3 coats will cost $45. 11. If 3 hats cost $18, what will 1 hat cost? 1. The cost of 3 hats = $iS. 2. The cost of 1 hat=«4 of $iS=$6. .•. If 3 hats cost $iS, one hat will cost $6. These same principles are seen in the two following problems:— I. 3^ of $12 is my money, how much have I ? 1. | = $12. 2. % = \{ Of $12 = $ 3 . 3- 3/= 3 x$3 = $9- .-. If =X ot $ 12 * s m J money, I have $9. II. $12 is 3^" of my money, how much have I ? |=mv money. 1. #=$12. 2- M-=Vi Of $I2 = $ 4 . 3. f= 4 X$4 = $i6. .-. If $12 is }{ of my money, I have $16. Remembering that the unit of a fraction is the thing divided, and that the fractional it //it is one of the parts, then we reason from many fractional units to one, and from one fractional unit to many. Let the children understand these principles thoroughly, and they will be able to master any problem as far as Algebraic questions. 19. Call the first two exercises given the 1st and 2d princi- ples, because all others are based upon these; and the 3d and 4th problems the 1st and 2d illustrations. The teacher can give exer- cises and require the pupils to give the principles or illustrations by which each step is solved. Problems for illustration: 1. y^ of 18 are s{ of how many? Teacher. — Class, by which principle or illustration is the first part of this problem solved? Class. — First illustration. Teacher.— Charlie, vou may give this part. Charlie.— \. f=i8. 2. '/i='/ } of iS=6. 3. .-. . ^=2x6=12 424 TEAi HERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Teacher.— 'According to which principle or illustration is the second part solved? Class. — Second illustration. Teacher. — Mary, you may solve it. Marx.— \z i- u\ of what? a. |= the number. I. tf = I2. -• , X = '/i of I2 =4- 4- -J=4X4 = ' 6 - .-. 12 is 3 4 ' ot 1 6. 2. }{ of 20 is I of what? Teacher.— Class, according to which principle or illustration is the first part of this problem solved? Class. — First illustration. Teacher. — Hattie, you may give it. 1 1 at tic— \. 4=20. 2. %=% of 20=5. 3. ^=3X5=15. Teacher. — Class, according to which principle or illustration is the second part solved? Class. — The second illustration. Teacher. — Willie, you may solve it. Willie. — a. £= the number. 1. 1=15. -• *=Kofi5=5. 3: 1=5X5=25- r .-. % of 20 is § of 25. 3. -| of 30 are S of how many times | of 9 ? Teacher. Clas6, according to which problem or illustration is the first part of this solved? Class. — First illustration. Teacher. — Mary, you may solve it. Mary rises and gives the solution as in the previous examples. Teacher. Class, according to which principle or illustration is the second part solved P Class. — The second illustration. Teacher. — Annie, you may give it. Annie rises and gives the solution. Teacher*— The last part? Class. — The first illustration. Teacher. — Jennie, you may give it. Jennie rises and gives it. Teacher. — Class, what is the next step? Class. — As many times 7 as seven is contained in 35, or 5 times. .-. \ of v arL " ~ °f 5 times I of 9. Letthi teacher continue to give problems illustrating these principles and illustrations until each child fully comprehends them, and it will have moreoj mmt.it arithmetic -that it can KM in prm ti< al Itftiai more than it it had solved thousands of problems without detecting these priiu i/ 1 . ALGEBRAIC PROBLEMS. 20. In addition to the principles already learned, when this Bubjed w reached, one more must be learned, and that is, all quan- tities must be found in terms of one quantity. We shall now pro- METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 42C ceed to give the solution of one problem in each of the different cases found in mental arithmetic. i. If ^ of the time past noon equals f of the time from noon to mid- night, what is the hour? If I4 of the time past noon=^ of the time from now to midnight. 11 1/ (I ll II it tl —1/ i< (I it II u it it It 4 (I U It 14 11 4 11 U 11 11 U U 11 4" — ¥ We now have the time past noon in terms of the time from now to mid- night. The time from now to midnight=§ of itself. % of the time from now to midnight-f-f of the time from now to mid- night, or the time past noon = 1 8 ^ of the time from now to midnight, or the whole time from noon to midnight, or 12 hours. ^ of the time from now to midnight=i2 hours. y % " " " " " " " =1 ^of 12 hours = i hour. * " « " " " " " or the time past noon=4 xi hour =4 hours. .-. If ^ of the time past noon equals y% of the time from now to mid- night, the hour is 4 P. M. 2. % of the time past 10 A. M., equals - 4 - of the time from now to mid- night, what is the time of day? If I of the time past io=| of the time from now to midnight. \ of the time past io=£ of the time from now to midnight. I of the time past io=§ of the time from now to midnight. We now have the time past 10 o'clock in terms of the time from now to midnight. The time from now to midnight = | of itself. I of the time from now to midnight-)-| of the time from now to mid- night, or the time past 10 o'clock^ 1 ^ of the time from now to midnight, or the whole time from 10 to midnight, or 14 hours. ^ = 14 hours. ^=^3- of i4hours=i hour. | = 5 X'i hour=5 hours past 10 o'clock, or 3 P. M. .-. If I of the time past 10 A. M. equals % of the time from now to mid- night the time is 3 P. M. It will be observed that these Time Problems are divided into two classes. One is illustrated by the problems above. The other may be illustrated by the following:— 1. i£ of the time past noon equals T 3 ff of the time past midnight, what is the hour? If i + ' of the time past noon= T \ of the time past midnight. % of the time past noon = I 1 ff of the time past midnight. \ of the time past noon= T \ of the time past midnight. We now have the time past noon in terms of the time past midnight. The time past midnight=U of itself. I I of time past midnight — T 4 ff of the time past midnight, or the time past noon= If of the time past midnight, or the whole time from midnight to noon or 12 hours. \\ of the time past midnight=i2 hours. j 1 ,! of the time past midnight — ^ of 12 hours=i hour. T 4 ff of the time past midnight=4Xi hour=4 hours time past noon. .-. If i{ of the time past noon equals T 4 5 of the time past midnight, the hour is 4 P. M. It will be unnecessary to give further illustrations of these questions. Closely allied to these are what are called the " Clock Questions." First we will make a table by which all such ques- tions may be solved. 426 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART Table. \ Call each minute a space. While the hour hand passes over 5 spaces, the minute hand passes over 60 spaces. While the hour hand passes over 1 space, the minute hand passes over \ of 60 spaces or 12 spaces. 12 spaces — 1 space =11 spaces gained by minute hand while the hour hand is passing over 1 space. 11 spaces of minute hand gained requires 1 space of hour hand; 1 space of minute hand gained requires fa space of hour hand. We arc now prepared to solve any problem of this kind. following is an example: — The 1. At what time between 4 and 5 o'clock are the hour and minute hands together ? It will be seen that when the hour hand is at 4 the minute hand will be at 12; hence the minute hand must gain 20 spaces on the hour hand. From the table: — 1 space gained by min. hand requires fa space of hour hand. 20 spaces gained by min. hand requires 20Xxx s P ace °f hour hand=i^ spaces of hour hand. 20 spaces-)- 1 T 9 T spaces— 21 , 9 r spaces, or 2i T 9 T min. past 4. .-. The hour and minute hands are together at 21 X min. past 4. 2. At what time between 5 and 6 o'clock are the hour and minute hands together? In this the minute hand must gain 25 spaces. From the table : — 1 space gained by minute hand requires fa space of hour hand. 25 spaces gained by minute hand requires 2$ = j\ space of hour hands 2j 8 T spaces of hour hand. 25 spaces-|-2 j 3 r spaces=27/ T spaces, or 27^ minutes past 5 o'clock. .-. The hour and minute hands are togetlu r at 27A minutes past 5. 3. At what time between 2 and 3 o'clock will the hour hand and minute hand be at right angles? To be at right angles the minute hand must be 15 spaces from the hour hand, hence it must gain 25 spaces. From the table; — 1 space gained by the minute hand requires -^ space of hour hand. 25 spaces gained by the minute hand requires 25XXT s P ace ot hour hand, or 2-j a f spaces. 25 Bpaces-f-2A spaces = 2 7 /Y spaces, or 27,^- minutes past 2 o'clock. .•. Tin- hour and minute hands will be at right angles at 27-^ minutes past 2 o'clock. |. At what time between 2 and 3 o'clock are the hour and minute hands opposite? To be opposite, the hour and minute hands must he 30 spaces apart. To be 30 spaces apart after 2 o'clock, the minute hand must gain 40 spaces on the hour hand. From the table: — 1 space gained by minute hand requires ^ space of hour hand. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 427 40 spaces gained by minute hand requires 40X7X space of hour hand=r 3-jSj spaces of hour hand. 40 spaces-(-3 T 7 T spaces=43 1 7 T spaces, or 43 1 7 T minutes past 2 o'clock. .•. The hour and minute hands are opposite at 43 T 7 T minutes past 2 o'clock. From these it will be seen that after the table is prepared, the solution of the problem is a very easy task. This further illustrates the statement made at first, that a principle by which a number of problems may be solved is of far greater value than many prob- lems. Many other, and different kinds of problems should be given under each one of these heads. , AGE PROBLEMS. 21. The following represents another class of problems. When A was married, he was 23^ times as old as his wife. After they had been married 20 years, he was 1 y 2 times as old as she was. What were their ages when they were married? 1. Let 1 time the wife's age=her age at marriage. 2. Then 2 y z times the wife's age= A's age at marriage. 3. 1 time the wife's age-)-20 years=her age after 20 years. 4. 2 >£ times the wife's age-)-2o years= A's age after 20 years. 5. 2*2 or \ times the wife's age-f-20 years=i ^ or |X(i time the wife's age -)-20 years.) 6. § times the wife's age-j-20 years=| times the wife's age-{-30 years. 7. \ times the wife's age=f times the wife's age=3o years — 20 years.-. 8. 1 time the wife's age— 10 years. Her age at marriage. 9. zy 2 times the wife's age=25 years. A's age at marriage. Running through these problems is seen the principle, "Find all in terms of one quantity." FISH QUESTIONS. 22. The head of a fish is 20 inches. The tail is as long as the head and y 2 the length of the body ; and the body is as long as the head and tail ; required length of the fish. 1. 20 in.=length of the head. 2. 20 m.-\-Y 2 the length of body = length of tail. 3. 20 in.-4-20 in.-|-^ length of body=length of body. 4. If to y 2 the length of body 20 in.-j-2o in., or 40 in., must be added to equal the length of the body, then 5. y z the length of body=40 in. 6. f or the length of bo'dy=2 X40 in.=8o in. 7. 2oin.-(-40 in.=6o in. length of tail. 8. 20 in.-(-8o in.-f6o in.=i6o in. length of fish. 2. The head of a fish weighs 30 lbs.; the tail weighs as much as the head and 3/3 of the weight of the body; and the body weighs as much as the head and tail. What is the weight of the fish? 428 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. i. 30 lbs. = weight of the head. 2. 30 lbs.-f- 2 ^ of weight of body = weight of tail. j. 30 lbs.4-30 lbs.-|-% of weight of body = weight of body. 4. If to J$ of weight of body 30 lbs.-]~3o lbs. must be added to equal weight of body, then '. ol weight of body =60 lbs. I or weight of body = 3X60 lbs. = 180 lbs. 7. 30 lbs.-f-ino lbs.= i5o lbs. weight of tail. 8. 30 lbs.-j-iSo lbs .-(-150 lbs.=36o lbs. weight of fish. FOX QUESTIONS. 23. A fox is 90 leaps in advance of a hound. The fox takes 8 leaps to the hound's 6, but 2 of the hound's leaps equal 5 of the fox's. How many leaps must the hound take to catch the fox? 1. The hound takes 6 leaps to the fox's S leaps. 2. The hound takes 1 leap to the fox's ^ leap. 3. 2 of the hound's leaps— 5 of the fox's leaps. 3. 1 of the hound's leaps=2>£ of the fox's leaps. 4. 2% or 4 of the fox's leaps — £ of the fox's leaps=£ of the fox's leaps. 6. It is evident that for every leap the hound takes he gains J of a fox's leap. 7. I of the fox's leaps gained requires 1 leap of the hound. 8. ,V of the foxes leaps gained requires i leap of the hound. 9. J or 1 of the fox's leaps gained requires 5 leap of the hound. 10. 90 of the fox's leaps gained requires 90X ? leap of the hound=78$ leaps of the hound. 24. We shall not continue this subject farther. The principles are illustrated. It will now be the duty of the teacher to furnish numerous practical problems, which will have a tendency to fix these principles indelibly in the mind. Let the pupil know these and be able to use them, and the entire subject of Mental Arithmetic is mastered. It may be well to say that the subject of Mental Arithmetic is too much neglected in many of our schools. It should form an important factor in the study of Arithmetic. Of course what is given here is a mere outline of the work. The teacher must be full of illustrations, problems, and solutions. None nl these should be worked out by himself, but he should so use his ingenuity as to bring them all out of the pupils. This is the great secret of the successful teacher. After the children are well versed in good methods of solution, then let them solve the problems in the shortest -possible time. The teacher need nol require anything but the answer. But, until the subjects and principles are mastered, he should insist that the full demonstrations he given. PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 25. The subject of Practical Arithmetic will now be resumed, beginning with Factoring. Before this subject is reached, it is supposed that the teacher has given, in addition to the fundamental METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 42i> principles, a thorough drill in Cancellation ; has shown the pupils the different results occasioned by the different operations on the dividend and divisor, etc. DEFINITIONS. 26. I. A Factor is a divisor. 2. Any number may be factored. 3. A prime factor is one that cannot be divided by any other integral number excepting itself and unity and give an integral quotient. 4. A divisor of two or more numbers is a divisor of their sum. 5. A divisor of two or more numbers is a divisor of their difference. 6. A divisor of a number is a divisor of any multiple of that number. 7. A divisor of two numbers is a divisor of their remain- der after division. 8. The Greatest Common Divisor of any set of numbers is the greatest number that will divide each of the numbers and give an integral quotient. FACTORING. 27. Teacher. — Class, in division, what did we call the number by which we divided? Class. — The divisor. Teacher. — What did we call the result? Class. — The quotient. Teacher. — To what did we compare the divisor and quotient? Class. — To the multiplicand and multiplier in multiplication. Teacher.— In multiplication, what did we call the multiplicand and multiplier? Class. — The factors. Teacher. — Then what are the divisor and quotient? Class. — The factors of the dividend. Teacher. — If the divisor and quotient are factors, what is a factor ? Class. — The divisor or the quotient. Teacher. — Then a factor of a number is what? Class. — Any number that will divide it. Teacher. — In division, sometimes the divisor was not exactly contained in the dividend; then, what did we have? Class. — A remainder. Teacher. — Can any number be factored? Class. — It can. Teacher. — What are the factors of 6? Class. — 2 and 3. Teacher. — What are the factors of 7? 430 TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY Class. — 2 and y/ 2 . Teacher. — Is $% a factor? Class. — Yes. Teacher.— Why? Class. — Because it is a divisor of 7. Teacher. — Can you factor 7 so that each factor will be an in- : C'Ar.v.v. — We cannot. Teacher. Can von think of any other number that cannot be factored so that the factors will be integers? Class. — 5, 11, 13. Teacher. — What shall we call such numbers? Perhaps no one may be able to answer this question. If it is not answered, it may be leftover untifthe next day. If then it is not answered, the teacher can sav, " We will call such numbers prime numbers." In the large majority of cases, the question will be answered by the children. Teacher. — Then what do we call such numbers as cannot be> separated into integral factors? Class. — Prime numbers. Teacher. — What, then, is a prime number? Class. — A prime number is one that cannot be divided by any other integral number excepting itself and unity and give an in- tegral quotient; or, a prime number is one that cannot be separated into integral factors. Of course.it is not expected that the few questions given here will be suf- ficient to bring out all of these answers so promptly. Yet enough are given to show how a subject may be developed. Teacher. — Suppose we should divide by one of these prime numbers, what would we call it? Class. — A prime factor. Teacher. — Then what is a prime factor? Class. — A prime factor is the same as a prime number. The teacher may now explain that in Factoring, as well in the Least Com- mon Multiple and the Greatest Common Divisor, and in fact wherever we u factors for any other purpose than as they are used in simple division, we refer to prime factors. This one lesson will be sufficient to illustrate the man- ner In which each new subject should be developed. Let the children see its relation with something they have passed over, and they will soon begin to rea- son and think tor themselves. GRK \ II ST COMMON DIVISOR. 28. 1. Find the (J. C. D. of 12,18, 24. The prime factors of 12 are 2, 2, and 3. The prime factors of 1 8 are 2, 3, and 3. The prime factors of 24 are 2, 2, 2, and 3. The prime factors that are common to all are 2 and 3. Their product, which is 6, is the G. C. D. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 431 2. Find the G. C. D. of 15, 20, 25, and 30. The prime factors of 15 are 3 and 5. The prime factors of 20 arc 2, 2, and 5. The prime factors of 25 are 5, and 5. The prime factors of 30 are 2, 3, and 5. The prime factor which is common to all is 5, hence 5 is the G. CD. With small numbers this method is preferable. With large numbers, it is easier to use the method of dividing the greater num- ber by the less, and that divisor by the last remainder, etc. This method may be understood by observing the following: 1. The numbers of which we are to find the G. C. D. are dif- ferent; that is, we do not wish to find the G. C. D. of 12, 12, 12, but of different numbers. 2. The G. C. D. cannot be greater than the lesser number. 3. If the lesser number contains the G. C. D. once and no more, the greater number must contain it at least twice; it may contain it any number of times, but must contain it twice; hence the G. C. D. of two numbers is always a divisor of their differences, or their remainder after division, and can never be greater than either. Find the G. C. D. of 12 and 20. i2^2of 1 If 12 were the G. C. D., it would be necessary 1 2 for it to be contained in 20 at least twice, also in their difference once. Since this is 8)12(1 no t the case, and since the G. C. D. cannot S be greater than the difference of the num- To/ bers, then the G. C. D. cannot be greater o than S. We then take 8 and 12, and so con- tinue until we find that 4 contains itself and is contained integrally in S more than once, and that it is integrally contained in the difference of the numbers S and 4; hence it is the G. C. D. 29. This may be further illustrated by means of the following problems : — A man has a piece of land, the sides of which are 12,20, and 2S feet respectively. He wishes to fence it with boards of equal length; what is the greatest possible length of the boards? The first supposition is that the grea test length the boards can be is 12 ft. But when this measurement is applied to the side that is 20 ft., there is a remainder of 8 ft. .Since this remainder must be fenced with the same length of boards as any other part, the boards cannot be longer than 8 ft. The second supposition is that the greatest length the boards can have is 8 ft.; but when this measure- ment isappiicd to the side that is 12 ft. in length, there is a remainder of 4 ft. Since this remainder must be fenced with the same length of boards as any other part, the boards cannot be longer than 4 ft. The third supposition is that the greatest length the boards can TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. have is \ ft. When this measurement is applied to the first re- mainder, S ft., the measurement is exact, and since this measures I ft. and S ft., it will measure their sum, according to the principle. And since it measures 8 ft. and 12 ft. it will measure their sum, 20 ft. Hence 4 ft. is the greatest possible length of boards that will W\\^~i-y •< ». 3. Write three thousand six hundred, and seventy-five hundred-thousandths. 5600.00075. METHODS IX ARITHMETIC. , 4:$7 _i. Write three thousand six hundred, and seventy-five hundred thousandths. 3607.500. 5. Write three and one-half tenths. .3^. (). Write three, and one-half tenths. 3.01^. In the first, the word "and " is not used, and the hyphen occurs between hundred and thousandths; hence the name of the decimal is hundred-thousandths. In the second, the word " and " is not used, and the hyphen does not occur between hundred and thousandths; hence the name of the decimal is thousandths, and is so written that the right hand figure stands in thousandth's place. In the third, the word "and" occurs, and the hyphen is used between hundred and thousandths, and the fraction is written as above. The pupil will remember that all which precedes the word " and " is a whole number, and that which follows is considered with the decimal, though not always all a decimal, as is seen in the fourth problem, in which the word "and " is used, but the hyphen omitted. In the fourth, the word " and " is used, but the hyphen is omitted, hence the name of the decimal is thousandths. In the fifth, the word "and" is used; but the word "and" is always proper between a whole number and a fraction, and the quantity should be written together unless separated by a comma, when it is written as in the sixth problem. These exercises are not given because they are the most practi- cal, hut because they serve best as a means of calling the attention of the learner to the principles used in writing decimal fractions. 37. The pupil should observe the following hints in decimals. 1. Determine the name of the decimal. 2. Determine the use of the hyphen. 3. Determine the use of the word "and." 4. Fix the separatrix. 5. Think of the number of places given. 6. Think of the number of decimal places required. 7. Write so that as many places may he at the right of the separatrix as the decimal requires. t 1. Pure. 8. Kinds of Decimals. < 2. Mixed. ( 3. Complex. 9. The number of decimal places is always one less than the number of places in a whole number hearing a corresponding name. 38. In addition and subtraction of decimals, the pupil will have no trouble. In multiplication, the only difficulty is in giving a reason for pointing off in the product as many places for decimals as there are in both multiplicand and multiplier. This, however, is very simple, because at the beginning of this subject 438 TEACHERS} AND STUDENTS 1 LIBRART. the places that the decimals occupy are determined. Then, by re- membering that whenever we multiply by a fraction we are in reality dividing, the whole reason is given. Suppose we wi^h to multiply .1 by .1. By taking an object, it is plain that . I of.l is one-hundredth of the whole. But we have established the fact that hundredths occupy the second place at the right of units, and we have learned in whole numbers that vacant orders are filled with ciphers; hence we have .ix-i=- 01 - Again, multiply .01 by .1. By the object, we see that one- tenth of one-hundredth is one-thousandth of the whole; and it has been shown that thousandths occupy the third place at the right of the separatrix, and that the vacant orders are filled with ciphers; hence .oix.i =.001. And so it may be shown of any number. In the first, .IX. i=.oi, we see that there is one place in the multiplicand, one place in the multiplier, and two places in the product. In the second, .01 X.i=.ooi, we see that there arc two places in the multiplicand, one in the multiplier, and three in the product. So in any case, the number of places in the product must equal the number of decimal places in both multiplicand and multiplier. Hence the Rule: — Rule. — Point oft' in the product as many places for decimals as there are in both multiplicand and multiplier. There arc other and simpler ways of showing this, but they must be omitted. In order to give an explanation of division, it is only necessary that the pupil remember that the dividend corresponds to the pro- duct in multiplication, the divisor to the multiplier, and the quotient to the multiplicand. Then the divisor and quotient together must have as many dec- imal places as the dividend. If the dividend has three decimal places, and the divisor one, then the quotient must have two. If the dividend has five decimal places, and the divisor two, the quo- tient must have three. The same is true for any number. Change i/ x to a decimal fraction by analysis. 1. 4=i.oo. 2. \~\ of I.OO=.25. 3- ^=3X.25=-75- .-. ^ changed to a decimal fraction is .75. Change .65 to a common fraction by analysis. 1. 1.00=1. 2. .01 = T i ff of I = 3. .65=65 x T h=rWF=lf , . .-. .65 changed to a common fraction is ft. Find the L. C. M. of .25, .035, .0055. Find the G. C. D. of .35 and .0065. METHODS IX ARITHMETIC. 439 And a host of similar questions should he given, until every principle in the subject is thoroughly developed. COMPOUND NUMBERS. 39. In this, a few examples will suffice to illustrate the prin- ciples. i. Object Lesson. (Here omitted.) Problem. Reduce 5 bu. 3 pk. and 2 qt. 1 pt. to pints. 1. 1 bu.=4 pks. 2. 5 bu. = 5X4 pks. = 20 pks. 3. 20 pks.+3 pks.=23 pks. 4. 1 pk.=S qts. 5. 23 pks. = 23X8 qts.= i84 qts. 6. 184 qts.-|-2 qts. = 186 qts. 7. I qt. = 2 pt. 8. 1S6 qts.= iS6X2 pts.=372 pts. 9- 37 2 PM" 1 Pt-=373 Pt- ' .-. In 5 bu. 3 pk. 2 qt. 1 pt. there are 373 pints. The sign (X) is read times and not ?nultiplicd by. The objec- tion urged against this is that it is too long. It must be remem- bered, however, that when the pupil understands one problem thus solved, he understands the whole of Redtiction Descending. After the subject is thoroughly understood, then the problems may be solved in the shortest possible way. What is desired is that the child be able to give a reason for every step as it advances; then it will not be obliged to go over the same thing term after term. Reduce 585 pints to bu. 1. 2 pts. = i qt. 2. I pt. = J^ qt. 3. 585 pts. = 585X>^ qt.=^-|£ qts. = 292^ qts. or 292 qt. 1 pt. 4. 8 qt.= i pk. 5. 1 qt.= >^ pk. 6. 292 qt. = 292X>^ pk.=^p pk. = 36| pk. = 36 pk. 4 qt. 7. 4 pk.= t bu. 8. 1 pk.= »4; bu. 9. 36 pk. = 36x x 4 bu.=r- 3 ^ bu.=9 bu. .-. In 585 pts. there are 9 bu. 4 qt. 1 pt. This problem illustrates Reduction Ascending. In changing from one table to another the principles of Reduction Ascending and Reduction Descending are combined. In 30 lbs. Troy, how many lbs. Avoirdupois? 1. 1 lb. Troy = 5760 gr. 2. 30 lb. Trov=3oX576o gr.= 172800 gr. 3. 7ooogr.= i lb. Avoir. 4. I gr.^y^jnr lb - Avoir. 5. 172800 gr.= i728ooX 7TJ Vc lb - Avoir.->-ft$f». lb. Avoir . = 2 4 f| lb. Avoir In 30 lbs. Troy there arc 24^ lb. Avoir. 440 TEACHERS' AMD STUDENTS' LIBRARY* It would be impossible to give a model problem under each tabic, and in fact, it would be wholly unnecessary. Multiplying problems would make the subject no clearer. One problem in Square Measure and one in Cubic Measure will be given, because they will be aids in illustrating Square and Cube Root 40. How main- sq. ft. in a board 15 ft. long and 3 ft. wide? From the principles in multiplication, 1st. That the product must always be of the same kind as the multiplicand, and 2d. That the multiplier must be an abstract number, it will not do to multiply 15 ft. by 3ft. and call the result sq. ft. In order to understand a problem of this kind, the learner must know that a table cannot be formed without having a unit of measure. In Troy weight, the grain is the unit of measure; in Time measure the second is the unit of measure. In short, a ta cannot be made without a unit of measure; consequently there must be some unit in Square measure. Let us, then, assume that a surface 1 ft. long and 1 I't. wide, which equals one square foot, be the unit of measure in Square measure. Any basis might be taken, but some unit must be taken, aad for our problem, the above is the most convenient. Then, 1. A surface 1 ft. long and 1 ft. wide=i sq. ft. 2. " 15 " " 1 " =15x1 sq. ft. = 15 sq. ft. 3. " 15 " " 3 " -3x15 s q- ft =45 sq- ft - .-. In a board 15 ft. long and 3 ft. wide there are 45 sq. ft. It will be said by some that in the first equation feet are multi- plied by feet. Let such persons suggest some unit of measure, and by means of it, we can build up a table that can solve the problem. The same is true of Cubic Measure. In a solid S ft. long, 6 ft. wide, and 5 ft. thick, how many cu. ft. 1. A solid 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, 1 ft. thick = 1 cu. ft. 2. " 8 " 1 " 1 " =8X1 cu. ft.=8 cu. ft. 3. « 8 " 6 " 1 " =6x8 cu. ft.=48 cu. ft. 4. " 8 " 6 " S " =5X48 cu. ft.=240 cu. ft. .-. In a solid 8 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, 5 ft. thick, there are 240 cu. ft. 41. LONGITUDE AND TIME. i. Object lesson with use of globe. ( I [ere omitted.) f In 24 hours the earth passes through 360^ »o j « , hour « » f 3 6o°=ir. I M 1 sec. " " of 15' = 15'. In this subject there are two cases, illustrated by means of the following problems. 1. The difference of time between two places is ^ hr. 25 min, »0 -«e. Required their difference in longitude. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 441 i. In 1 sec. of time the earth passes through 15". 2. In 30 " • 3oXi5'=45°'- 3. 6o'=i\ 4. l" = v V 5. 450" =450 x ,'„ ' = W ' =lVz ' or 7 ' 30" ■ 6. In 1 min. of time the earth passes through 15'. 7. In 25 " " " " ' 25Xi5'=375'- 8. 60 =1 . 9- i'=A • 10. 375'=375X, ; , „ =^r=(>X "='' i5 ■ 11. In 1 hr. of time the earth passes through 1 s . 12. In S '• " " " SXIS =7S°- 13- 7S°-f6° *5'+7' 3o'=8i°22'3o». .-. If the difference of time between two places is 5 hr. 25 mm. 30 sec, the difference in longitude Is Si ■ 22 ' 30". Instead of adding the different remainders as in the problem solved, it is more simple to omit them until the last equation, then add all at one time. 2. The difference in longitude between two places is 35°4o' 50". Required the difference in time. 1. 15 corresponds to 1 hr. 2. i° corresponds to -jV hr. 3. 35 correspond to 35XyV hr.=:2^ hr. = 2 hr. 20 min. 4. 15' correspond to 1 min. 15. 1 ' corresponds to ^ min. 6. 40' correspond to 40X1V min. = 2 2 ,£ min. = 2 min. 40 sec. 7. 15" correspond to 1 sec. 8. 1" corresponds to T * F sec. 9. 50" correspond to 50X^*5 sec. = 3j^ see. 10. 2 hr. 20 min. -[-2 min. 40 sec.-)-3^ sec. = 2 hr. 22 min. 43J/3 sec. .-. If the difference in longitude between two places is 35 40' 50", the difference in time is 2 hr. 22 min. 43^ sec. 3. The longitude of Pekin is 1 1S East, and the longitude of San Francisco is 122° West. When it is noon, Tuesday, at Pekin, what is the time at San Francisco? 1. I22"-f-]l8 =24O c . 2. 15 correspond to 1 hr. 3. i° corresponds to T V hr. 4. 240 correspond to 240 X^V hr.=l6 hr. 5. 12 hr., or noon, Tuesday — 16 hr. = S P. M. Monday. .-. When it is noon at Pekin, longitude 118 E., it is 8 P. M.the pre- vious day at San Francisco, longitude 122 W. 42. In the above problem, the longest distance around the earth is counted. The reason for this is that the International Date Line passes between the two points named, to the west of San Francisco, cutting the shortest distance into two parts which must be reckoned as belonging to different day-. This date line extends from pole to pole on nearly the iSoth meridian. It passes through Behring's Straits on the 180th meridian, then deflects westward to i6o p East, passing through the Celebes Islands; it then recurves to the eastward, passing south 44'J TEAi HERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LJBRAR1'. through Chatham Islands, northeast of Australia, and then, again coinciding with the l8oth meridian, it passes to the South Pole. It is the line agreed upon by the navigators of the civilized nations a^ the point where one day ends and another begins. For instance, if it is noon Tuesday <>n tbe side of the line toward Pekin, it is said to be noon of the previous day on the side toward San Francisco. PROPORTION. 43. 1. Object lesson. (Omitted.) The difficulty in this subject is not so much the abstract work of solving the problem, as in not having any definite process for the solution. If the pupil will observe the following steps, there will be no difficulty in the statement of any question in proportion. Statement. — Every problem in proportion consists of two parts, a known and an unknown. i. First determine the known part. 2. Second, determine the 3d or base term. 3. In reasoning always begin with the known part, and reason from the known to the unknown. 4. Always reason to the 3d or base term. " Third term " is used when a statement is made by pro- portion. " Base term " is used when the statement is made by analysis. A problem in Simple Proportion is given, which, if understood, will form a key to the whole. If 3 hats cost $15, what will 5 hats cost? Known part, 3 hats, $15. « Unknown part, 5 hats, $x. Write $15 for the 3d term, because it is of the same kind as is required in the result. If 3 hats required $15, 5 hats will require more, therefore write the greater number for the 2d term and the lesser for the 1st. Multiplying the 3d term by the 2d and divid- ing by the 1st, the result is $25. 44. Compound Proportion is made up of a number of simple proportions, and is but a repetition of the above. If 20 men, in 30 days of 10 hr. each, build a wall 500 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, S ft. high, in how many days of o' hr. each, tan 30 men build a wall 900 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, 5 ft. high? Known part, 20 men, 30 da., 10 hr., 500 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, S ft. high. Unknown part, 30 men. X days, 8 hr., 900 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, 5 ft. high. The known and the unknown parts having been determined, the next is to determine the 3d term. This is 30 days. In the reasoning, it must hi' borne in mind that we begin with the k?wwn part and reason to the unknown. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 443 Statement by proportion: 30: 20 8: 10 500:900: =30 days: 33^ days. 5 = 6 8:5- Write 30 days for the 3d term because it is of the same kind as is required in the result. 1. If 20 men require 30 da., 30 men will require fewer days, therefore, write the lesser number for the 2d term and the greater for 1st. 2. If 10 hr. a day require 30 da., S hr. a day will require more days, therefore, write the greater number for the 2d term and the lesser for the 1st. 3. If a wall 500 ft. long require 30 da., a wall 900 ft. Long will require more days, therefore, write the greater number for the 2d term and the lesser for the 1st. 4. If a wall five ft. wide require 30 da., a wall 6 ft. wide will require more days, therefore, write the greater number for the 2d term and the lesser for the 1st. 5. If a wall 8 ft. high require 30 da., a wall 5 ft. high will require fewer days, therefore, write the lesser number for the 2d term and the greater for the 1 st. Employing cancellation, — multiplying the 3d by the continued product of the 2d, and dividing by the continued product of the 1st, the result is 333/ days. * . In*the solution of this question, it is seen that the process is a continuous repetition of the work in Simple Proportion. 45. A problem will now be given by the method called Shorter Analysis. In how many days of 8 hr. each, can 40 men build a wall 300 ft. long. 8 ft. wide, and 15 ft. high, if 30 men, in 25 da. of 10 hr. each, build a wall 500 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 8 ft. high? Known part— 30 men, 25 da., 10 hr., a wall 500 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, S ft. Unknown part— 40 men, x da., 8 hr., a wall 300 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, 15 ft. 25 da.X3QXioX30oXSXi5 ^ 2 g,, da 40x8X500X3X8 1. Write 25 da. for the base term, because it is of the same kind as is required in the result. 2. If 30 men require 25 da., 1 man will require more da., therefore multiply by 30; and 40 men will require fewer da., there- fore divide by 40. high, high. ill TEACHERS' AND STUDENT* LIBRART. 3. [f io hr. per da. require 25 da., 1 hr. per da. will require more da., therefore multiply by 10; and 8 hr. per da. will require fewer da., therefore divide by 8. |. If a wall 500 ft. long require 25 da., a wall 1 ft. long will require fewer da., therefore divide by 500; and a wall 300 ft. long will require more da., therefore multiply by 300. 5. It" a wall 3 ft. wide require 25 da., a wall 1 ft. wide will require fewer da., therefore divide by 3; and a wall S ft. wide will require more da., therefore multiply by 8. 6. If a wall S ft. high require 25 da., a wall 1 ft. high will require fewer da., therefore divide by 8; and a wall 15 ft. high will require more da., therefore multiply by 15. 7. Employing cancellation, the result is 28^ da. * In this solution, when we say, for example, " if thirty men require 2 =; da., therefore, multiply by 30," we simply abbreviate the long analysis. When we say "40 men will require fewer days, therefore divide by 40," we mean fewer days, or - 4 \r as many days as 1 man; and so on with each point. This process shows why a statement in proportion is true. Now, the teacher should give numerous problems, until the learner has fully mastered the principles, and then he can use them for himself. PERCENTAGE. 46. 1. Object lesson. (Omitted.) In this subject the learner should have a thorough drill on the four cases; viz: 1. To find any per cent, of a number. 2. To find what per cent, one number is of another. 3. To find the number when a certain part of it and the rate per cent, are given. 4. To find a number, when one which is a certain per cent. greater or less than the one required, is given. It is not so much the number of problems, as the principles that must be given. These cases will now be illustrated. I. Case I. bind 6 per cent, of 800. 1. 100^=800. 2. i£= T Jta of 800=8. 3. 6^=0x8=48. .-. (••. of 800 is 48. bind 3/( per cent, of 600. 1. ioo£=6oo. 2 - l % — tHo of 6oo=0. 3- X%=HX6-4X. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 445 II. Case II. $15 is how many per cent, of $600? In every problem there is some quantity that is represented by 100 per cent. It must be remembered that whatever is desired in the result, must come at the right of the sign of equality. In this case, per cent, is required in the result, hence — 1. $6oo=ioo0. 2- $I=s£z5 ot ' I°°0 = |0. .-. $15 is 2 l /i% ot $600. i/ x is what per cent, off? 1. £=JOO0. 2. $ — 1 Ot' IOO0=2O0. 3. £ or i=6X2o0=i2O0. 4- ^ = #Xi2O0=9O0. .-. 3/ is 905? Off. III. Case III. 300 is 6 per cent, of what number. 1. ioo0=the number. 2. 60=300. 3. i0=£ of 300=50. 4. 100^=100X50=5000. 300 is 60 of 5000. 1 lb. Troy is what per cent, of a lb. Avoirdupois? 1. 1 lb. Troy = 5760 gr. 2. 1 lb. Av. = 7ooo gr. 3. 7000 gr.= ioo0. 4 . 1 gr . = yTJ \j?T ° f ' °°% = -fat- 5. 5760 gr.=576oX^= 82 l^ .\ 1 lb. Troy is 82f0 of 1 lb. Avoirdupois. IV. Case IV. 160 is 20 per cent, less than what number? 1. ioo0=the number. 2. ioo0— 2O0=8o0. 3. 8o0=i6o. 4. 10=^ of 160=2. 5. 100^=100X2 = 200. .-. 160 is 2O0 less than 200. 420 is 40 per cent, more than what number? 1. ioo0=the number. 2. 1000+400= 140^. 3. 1400=420, 4. i0= T J o of 4 2o=3. 5. ioo0=iooX3=3°°- .-. 420 is 400 more than 300. 4i,; TEACHERS' AND STL/DENTS' LIBRART. Now Let the teacher give numerous practical problems, until the pupils thoroughly understand these four cases, and the principles will enable him to solve any problem in any of the applications of percentage. a Miscellaneous Applications. 47. i. A man purchases cloth at 20 per cent, above par and sells at 30 per cent, less; what is the selling price? 1. ioo£ = par. 2. ioc#-|-2o#= 120& cost. By Case I we find, 3. IOO£=I20#. 4 . ijg = T J T of 12<#=1.2%. 5- 3°$=3°'X 1 - 2 %=3 6 %- 6. 120^—36^=84^, selling price. .-. If a man purchases cloth at 2C# above par and sells it at 30% less, the selling price is 84$. The pupil will observe that in this problem the 100 per cent., which occurs twice, is not the same in each. 2. A man buys cloth at 30 per cent, below par and sells at 40 per cent, more; what is the selling price? 1. ioo#=par. 2. 100^—30^=70^, cost. 3. 100^=70^. 4- '£ = 105 of 7°#=f5#- 5. 4 o£=40X T 7 ,j£=28£. 6. 70^+28^=98^, selling price. .-. If a man buys cloth at 30$ below par and sells for 40^ more, the sell- ing price is 98$. 3. A man buys cloth at $4.50 per yard. How must he mark it so that he may deduct 30 per cent, of the marked price and yet gain 20 per cent.? 1. ioo^=$4-so. 2- I^= 1 J T yOf$ 4 .50=$.O45. 3. 2c#=2oX$-045 = $.oa 4. $4.5o+$.qo=$5.40, cost price. 5. 100$= marked price. 6. 100^—30^=70^. 7. 70^ of marked price = $5. 40. • 8. i*= T Vof$ 5 . 4 o=$HV- 9. ioo#=iooX$V took them, paying $300. What was the selling price of each? 1. ioo^=asking price of cow. 2. 400^= " " " horse. 3. ioo<£ — 20#=So£, selling price of cow. By Case I, 4. ioo#=40o£. 5- i£=tJu of 4 oo£= 4 <;. 6. 30^=30X4%'= I2C#. 7. 400^—1 20#=2Sc#, selling price of horse. 8. 2So#-|-So#=36c#, selling price of both. 9. 360^ = $300. 10. 12=:^ of $300=$;:. 11. So#=SoX$f=$66%, selling price of cow. 12. 2So#=28oX$!i = $233j4, selling price of horse. 6. A man sold two horses tor the same price, gained 25 per cent.; on the other he lost 50 per cent, loss was $25. What was the selling price of each? On one he His whole M 11. ioo#=value of 1st horse. ioo#-|-25#=: 1 2$%, selling price of 1st horse. 1 25$ = ioo#. ioo%=iooXi%=So%, the actual value of 1st horse in terms of selling price. roo#= value of 2d horse, ioojg — 50^=50^, selling price of 2d horse. 50^=100^. ot 1 = 2%. III. ioo#r= 100X2^=200^, the actual value of 2d horse in terms of the selling price. 1. ioo# — 8o#=20# gain. 2. 200# — IOO#=: IOO<& 10SS. 3. ioo# — 2o#=8o# whole loss. 4. 8o£=$2 5 . 6. ioo^=ioox$-3i25 = $3i.25, selling price of each horse. These examples are given to show how the four cases are ap- plied to the different questions that may arise. COMMISSION. 48. In this there are but three cases to be considered, and they are illustrated by the following problems: — 1. A man received $30 commission for selling $1,500 w r orth of wheat. What is the rate? 1. $1500=100^. 2. $i= T J ST! of ioo£= T l 5 *. 3. $3o=3ox T 1 5 #=2*. 448 TEACHERS* AND STUDENTS 1 LIBRART. 2. A man received $3,000 with which to buy wheat; com'. 3 per cent.; how much does he invest? It is a principle among business men that when money is re- ceived to be invested, as in this problem, the amount received in- cludes the commission; hence — 1. ioo#=the investment. - j. ioo£-j-3£=ic>3#=in vestment and com. 3. io3£=$3ooo. 4. ij<= T § ¥ of$3C=$VoV- 5. ioc^=iooX$Yo°/=* 2 9i2 T Vs- 3. A collected $3,000 for B, com. 3 per cent. How much should he remit ? I. ioo$=$3ooo. -• i#= T J Ti of$30oo=$30. 3*=3X$3°=$9°. ). $3000 — $90=^2910, amount to be remitted. Sometimes the following is given as an exception to the general rule. But when it is remembered that it is also a business principle, that when the whole amount is not invested, and there is enough left to pay all charges, then the whole amount ordered to be in- vested is invested, then the seeming difficulty is overcome. 4. A man sells wheat, com. 5 per cent, and invests "h/ x of the sale in cotton, com. 2 per cent., and remits $300. What is the sale of the wheat and the value of the cotton? 1. ioo£ = sale of wheat. 2. ^ of ioo#=75#, amount invested in cotton 3. ioo=$§H- , , ,_ 10. ioo#=iooX$£2 k=$i4 3tt< sale of wheat. II. }{ of $1463}] =$1097.1*, value of cotton. 5. A man sold wheat, com. 3 per cent., and invested the net proceeds in corn, com. 2 per cent.; his whole commission $250. For how much did the wheat sell, and what was the value of the corn? ioo#=sale of wheat. ioc#— 3#=97#- ioo#=am't invested in corn. lOO%-\-2f')7V- ,". 3Jf-f' I H£ = 4£f£'i w ' 10 '«-' commissions. METHODS IX ARITHMETIC. 449 ii. £}#or i#=5iX$i=$5i- 12. ioo^=iooX$5i=$5ioo, sale of wheat 13. $5100 — $J50=$4S5u, value of corn. In this problem it is seen that there is a combination of two of the principles, the 2d and 3d; the first two equations referring to the 2d principle; the others to the 8th equation inclusive, to the 3d principle. The remaining equations come under the 3d case in Percentage. 6. A man sold 5,000 bu. of wheat at $1.20 per bu. and in- vested the net proceeds in cotton. After reserving 3 per cent, for selling and 2 per cent, for buying, and $52 for charges, how much did he invest in cotton? 1. The sale of 1 bu.=$i.2o. 2. The sale of 5000 bu.=50ooX$i-20=$6ooo. 3. ioc#=$6ooo. 4. I^= T ^j of 6oOO=r$6o. 5- 3*=3X$6o=$i8o. 6. $lSo-|-$52 = $232. 7. $6000— $232 = $5768. 8. 100$= the investment. 9. 100^+2^=102^. . 10. I02g=$s768. 11. i^= T ^of$5768=$-V5 6 /. 12. ioo^=iooX$- 5 iw : =$5 6 54Bf' am ' t invested. It must be remembered that no commission is computed on charges of any kind unless by special contract. The student must bear in mind that commission is computed on the work done, and on nothing else. The first three problems given illustrate all of the cases, and the others are but combinations. SIMPLE INTEREST. 49. In finding Simple interest, there are three classes of prob- lems, the solutions of which are given by tbe formulas; also by analysis. Find the simple interest on $300 for 2 yrs. at 6 per cent Formula:— PXRXT=I. $300X^X2 100 ,$36. By analysis. 1. ioc#=$3oo. 2- i*=ik of $3o°=$3- 3. 6g=6x$3=$i8- 4. The interest for 1 yr. = $i8. 5. The interest for 2yrs.=2X$i8=$36. 26 450 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS LIBRARY. In this, the time is years only. Find the interest on $540 for 2 yrs. 3 mo. at 7 per cent. 2 yr. 3 mo.=27 mo.=f$ yr. By analysis. 1. ioo£--$540. 2. i^=!,U of $54°=$5-4°- 3- 7^=7X$5-40=$37-So. 4. The int. for 1 yr. = $37.80. 5. The int. for || yr. = f£X$37-8o=$85.05. This example will serve as a model for all problems where the time is years and months, or months only. Find the simple interest on $800 for 2 yr. 3 mo. 20 da., at 9 per cent. 2 yr. 3 mo. 20 da.=83o da. or |f J yr. $800X9X830 =$l66 100 360 By analysis. 1. ioo#=$Soo. 2. i*= T ^of$8oo=$8. 3. 9 £= 9 x$S=$72. 4. The int. for 1 yr.=$72. 5. The int. for «f§ yr. = |»$X$72 = $i66 This example will serve as a model for all problems in which the time is years, months, and days, or months and days, or days only. The amount in each case, is to be found by adding the prin- cipal to the interest. It is unnecessary to continue the discussion of this case further. The processes are so simple that the pupil will learn them readily. 50. The following are the formulae for the different cases included in the subject of interest. They are all based upon and derived from the one given above: 1. To find the Principal. P.= R.XT To find the Rate. R.: P.XT 3. To find the Time. T.= = — '-=- J P-XR- 4. To find the Principal, or present worth, having the amount, time, and rate given. P.= 1 + (R.XT.) METHODS IX ARITHMETIC. 451 Applications of the Formula. 51. i. What principal will produce $75 int. in 2 yr. 3 mo., at 6% ? p.= L = 6 $75 8 R-XT. xoffXff When we divide by a fraction, we invert the divisor, then this becomes: $75X100X12 5 6X27 ^ $ 555r In analyzing any of these problems, the student must remember that the value for one year must be found. Then the difficulty is mastered. Analysis of the problem given : 1. The interest for §4 yr.= $7 5. 2. " " " 1 yr.=if of $75=$14fi, 3. 6#of Prin. = $Mp." 4. i*« " =£of$l$a=$^. 5. ioo£of Prin. = iooX j V°-=$555f- 2. At what rate per cent, will $600 produce $60 int. in 1 yr. 8 mo.? R - = PO- 6. $120 " u 120X5*1 y r=l /4 y-i or * y- 3 m °- 452 TEACHERS AND STUDENTS LI BR ART. 4. What principal in 3 yrs. 4. mo. will amount to $1260 at 6'. ■ ,, _ _Al_ _» l36 ° = $^ = li^ =$I26o x|^$iQ5o. By analysis : Assume $1.00 as a principal. I. lOO#=$I. -■ ^ = T0(7 of $ 1= $lk- 3. 6j«=6x$tU=$bV 4. The int. for 1 yr.= $ r , :i ll . 5. " " " j« vr. = f 2 X $&=$*<» $.20. 6. $i+$.2o=$i.20, am'I of $1 at 6% for 3 yr., 4 mo. 7. $1.20 amount requires $1 Prin. 8. *i " requires $ I'nn. 1 ' I .2D q. &1260 ,l requires 1260X* P. = $1050 Prin. 7 * 1 . 20 This, with the exception of Simple Interest, is by far the most important of the several cases. By means of this, Present Worth is found ; also True Discount. True Discount is found by subtracting the Present Worth from the debt, 5. Find the Present Worth and True Discount of $940, due in 2 yr. 3 mo., at S% ? Assume $1 as a Prin. ,. ^ lX8X27 = $.i8. 100 12 2. $i.oo4-$.iS=$i.i8, am'tof $1. 3. $1.18 Am'tr$i Pres. W. $1 « =$ _ L-Pres. W. 1 .ib A 1 5. $944 " =94^X$ gPres. W. =800, Pres. W. 6. $944— $Soo=$i44, True Dis. $800 put on int. at 8 f * for 2 yr. 3 mo., would amount to $944. Hence the definition of Pies. W. Partial Payments. 52. In this, teach the pupils how to solve the problems by the following rule, and it will he sufficient. Rule. — Find the amount of the principal from the time that note was given until the time of settlement. Find the amount of each payment from the time it was made until the time of settlement. From the amount of the principal subtract the amount of t lie payments; the result will be the sum due. \- this is hut a repetition of finding the simple interest, the problems will be omitted. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC 453 Hank Discount. 53. The following- statements observed, the student will be able to solve all questions coming under the subject Bank Discount. i. Banks deal with the faee of the note. 2. The face of the note is the amount due at maturity; hence, if a note is drawing interest, the face will he the principal. 3. The note is nominally due at the expiration of the time indicated in it. It is legally due three days afterward. In all computations the three day> should be added. » 4. Bank discount is the simple interest on the face of the note. The examples following will illustrate the several questions that arise in actual business. 1. Find the bank discount and proceeds of a note of $540 due in 60 da., at 6%- $540x6x60 „ , , , .. ^ — , = $5.67 bank dis. ico 360 - ' $540— $5. 67 =$534.33 proceeds. This may be analyzed the same as in Case I, Simple Interest. 2. What is the face of a note on which I can borrow $900 for 90 da., money worth 8% ? Assume $1 as the face of a note due in 90 da. and find how much it is worth now. $iX 8 x 00 1. ^-^ ^^= $»i=$.o2 T V bank dis. 100 360 * TS ^ T ® 2. $1 — $.o2 T 1 j=$.97}|, proceeds of $1. 3. $-97^1 or received require $1 face of note. 4. $1 received requires $ — ^- face of note. 14.69 5. $900 " require 900X$ — ^- face of note=$9i9 face of note. These two examples illustrate the two cases by means of which all of the problems may be solved, the student all the time re- membering the statements made at the beginning. To explain further, a few examples will be given. 1. A note of $1260, due in S mo., is given March 15. 3 mo. afterward it is discounted at a bank at io£- What are the proceeds? 1. Mar. [ 5-4-8 mo. = Nov. 15. 2. Mar. 15-J-3 mo.=June 15. 3. From June 15 to Nov. 15 = 153 da. 4. 153 da.-f-3 da.= iq6 da. $i26ox 10x156 ... ... 5. ^=$=u.6o, bank dis. 100 360 6. $1260 — $54.60= $1205.40, proceeds. 454 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 2. A note of $720 due in 1 20 da., drawing interest at io#, is given Jan. 15. 30 da. afterward it is discounted at a bank, at 6%- What are the proceeds? 2. 3- 4- 5- : $24.60. $720X10X123 IOO 360 $72o-(-$24.6o= $744.60, face of note. 120 da. — 30 da. =90 da. $744-60X6x93 100 360 J ^ ' $744.60 — $1 1. 54 = $733.06 proceeds. 3. A man purchased $3000 worth of goods on 3 mo. time, or 5# off for cash. If he borrows the money at bank, at 7^, will he gain or lose, and how much ? The 5# off is commercial discount and has no reference to time. I. 1. 2. 3- 4- :$3000. JOC#: 7#=7 X $30= $2 10. $3000 — $2io=$2790 ain't to be borrowed. -rh> of $3000= $30. Assume $1 as face of a note due in three mo. II. $iX 7 X93 :$f^ = $.OI^. 100 360 $1— $.oi}§=$.98££ proceeds of $1. $.9S|i or $^lil ree'd require $1 face of note 40 $1 ree'd requires $— - face of note. 39-41 Q [no te. 5. $2790 ree'd require 279oX$— — face of note=$283i-77 face of 39-4 1 6. $3000 — $2831.77 = $169.23 gain by borrowing the money and paying cash. 4. A note of $450, drawing interest at 8%, due in 90 da., is discounted at bank at 6%, for 60 da. What are the proceeds? 1. 2. 3- 4- $450 X 8 X93 = $9.30. 100 360 $450- r -$932o's at 105, or logo's at 102, gold worth 1 10? For convenience, assume the L. C. M. of 105 and 102, which is 3570, as the number indicating the amount of money to be invested. l.v; l( 7/AA's \\/> STUDENTS' LIBRARY IlJ III. Let $3570= the amount invested. 105* =$3570. «*=Toir of $357o=$34- 100^= iooX^34=$340o, face of bond. 6#=6x$34 = $-04, gold interest. $1 gold=$i. 10 currency. $204 gold =$20.1 X $1.10 currency =$224.40 currency interest. io2#=$357o. i^= r >,of$35 7 o = $35. ioo^=iooX$35 = $350o, face ot bond. 5*=5X$35 = $i75» g° ld interest. $1 gold.— $ 1. 10, currency. $175 gold = i75X$i-io currency=$i92.5o, currency interest. $224.40— $192. 50= $31. 90, gain in favor of 5-20S. $31.90 are how many % of $3570? $3570= ioog. $3i-9°=3«-9°X-, r y¥ , o*=H?* >" favor of 5-20S. 2. How much must I invest in 5-2o's at 105, that my annual income may be $600 in currency, gold worth 120? i. $120 currency=:$ioo gold. 2. $1 currency = T ^ ff of $100 gold — $£ gold. 3. $600 currency=6ooX$«- gold = $500 gold. 4. 100;; -face of bonds. 5. 6g=$5oo. 6. i*=£of $5oo = $S3.33M- 7. 100^= 100X $83.33^ = $8333^ face of bonds. 8. $1 bond=:$i.o5 currency. 9- $8333/4 bonds=8333)£X$i-05 currency =$8750 investment. 3. What per cent, shall 1 make on my investment, if I pur- chase 5-20's at 105, gold worth 108? Let $105= the investment. $105 currency = $100 bond. IOO# = $IOO. l %=lhs ot $ioo=$i. 0jg=6x$i=$^ gold interest. II. $1 gold = $1.08 currency. $6 gold = 6x$i.oS currency =6.48 currency. $6.48 are how many % of $105? $105 = 100^. $6. 4 8=6.4SXK^=6^. EXCHANGE. 58. There are two rases in this subject: — I. A person has a debt in a distant city, and wishes to know how much he must pay here for a draft that will liquidate the debt. METHODS IX ARITHMETIC. 15 ■ u II. A poison has a certain amount of money, say in Chicago, and he wishes to know how much it will he worth in a distant city. The following prohlems will illustrate these cases: — I. A merchant in Natchez wishes to pay $10000 in Boston. He transmits through New Orleans and New York. From Natchez to New Orleans, exchange is %% premium; from New Orleans to New York, $/%% discount; and from New York to Boston, J /£% discount. By this exchange, what amount at Natchez will pay the debt? Natchez, $9062.22 Boston, $10,000 99%% 100% I- \ II. III. New Orleans, $9912.65 y % % Dis. New York, $9975. 1. ioo$=amount due in Boston. 2. «j£#=dis. from N. Y. to Boston. 3. 100$ — ]^%=^i^% what he must pay in N. Y 4. ioo#=$ioooo. 5. i#= T J ff of $IOOOO=$IOO. .6. 99 ^=99^x$ioo=$9975. 1. 100$ = what he must pay in N. Y. 2. ^<£=dis. from N. O. to N. Y. 3. ioo#— ^#=993^ ain't at N. 0. 4. ioo#=$9975 value in N. Y. 5- i£=Tffff° r $9975 = $99-75- 6- 99^=99^X9>75=$99i2.654 value in N. O. 1. ioo<£=what he must pay in N. O. 2. ^<£=prem. from Natchez to N. O. 3. io-\- I A%=i(X)l4% what he must pay in Natchez. 4. ioo^=r$99i2.6q4 value in N. O. 5- ^=Tffff of $99 i::r, 54=$99 I26 M- 6. ioo^^=ioo>^X$99i2+=$9962.i7 cost of draft in Natchez. 2. A merchant of St. Louis wishes to remit $7165.80 to Baltimore. Exchange on Baltimore is ^% premium; but on New Orleans y^% premium, from New Orleans to Havana it is % % discount, from Havana to Baltimore it is \£% discount. What will be the value in Baltimore by each method, and how much better is the circular? 458 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. St. I,., %-j\fi^Sa — Bait., 87147.0,; ootf % 100 % N. O., 09% X Hav., 100 % $7156.85 I. By Direct Exchange. $7'65-Si ra. \oq%% St. L.=ioo# Bait. 1. iooj^ St. L.=$7i65-8o am't to be remitted. h \ 2. 1% St. L.^-^of $7 1 65.80= $7 1. 4793. 3. ioo# St. L.= iooX$7i-4793=$7 I 47-93 value by direct ex 57. CIRCULAR EXCHANGE. a. iooYi% St. L.= ioo# N. O. 1. \ooy%% St. L.=$7i65.So am't to be remitted. 2. 1% St. L.= — ^ of $7i65.8o=$7i.568$. ioo"/§ 3. ioo# St. L. = 1 00 X $7 1 -5685 = $7156.85 value in N. O. «■ 99#s# N. 0.=ioo£ Hav. i- 99J&Z N. O. = $7156.85 val. in N. O. II. \ III. 2. 1% N. O. "99% of 7 i56.S5 = $ 7 i.65Si. 3. ioo# N. 0. = iooX$"i-65Si=$7i65.Si val. in Hav. a. 99^$ Hav.=ioo# Bait. 1. 99^ Hav. = $7165.81 val. in Hav. IV. 58. 2. 1% Hav. WV of $ 7 i65.Si = $7i.S377. 3. ioo£ IIav. = iooX$7i-S377=$7iS3.77 val. in Bait. 4. $7183.77— $7i47.93=$35-84 gain by cir. ex. Practical Problem. 3. A Cincinnati manufacturer receives, April 18th, an account of sales from New Orleans; net proceeds, $5284.67 due June 4-7. He advised his agent to discount the debt at 6%, and invest the proceeds in a seven-day bill on New York, interest off at 6%, at y 2 % discount and remit it to Cincinnati. The agent does tin's, April 27. The bill reaches Cincinnati, May 3, and is sold at ^% premium. What are the proceeds, and how much greater than if a bill had been drawn May 3, <>n New Oilcans, due Jan. 7, sold at %% pre- mium, and interest off* at 6 .- METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 45» Fiom April 26 to June 7, is 47 days, time for which the debt was discounted. $5284.67X6X47 100 $1X6 X 10 \(x; = $36.99 discount. = $ 'thv z \% discount. II. III. IV. 3- a. b. 1. 13- a. 1. 2. 3- a. 1. 100 360 y 2 % discount-f^ discount=^£ wliole dis. Let ioo#=val. in N. Y. ioog— ^#=99>£& val. in N. O. 99^= $5247.68, val. in N. O. ij«=— y of $5247.68= $52,829. x ioo^=iooX$52.829=$5282.90, face of 10-day bill. ioo^-(-»4'^=iooXjg, what was rec'd for bill. Let ioo^=$52S200, face of bill. i*= T k of $VS2.90=$52.S2 9 . 100^=100 J * n width = 20 in. in width. This is true to one place. 1. 100X20X2=4000, area of the two oblong additions. 2. 20X20 = 400, " " " small square. 3. 4000-I-400 =4400, total area of additions. 14- 5 6 -5— 44°°=i225. *s 120 S 400 sq.in. 20 to O 2,000 sq. inches. u IOO N c/i u c 8 10,000 square inches. 8 s 30 100 We now repeat, beginning with the 4th step: — IV. 3- 4- IS- i. 3- 4- Th 2 times 120 in. = 240 in., length to which we add. An addition 1 in. wide to 240 in. long=240 sq. in. " " of 240 sq. in. requires 1 in. wide. " " of 1 sq. in. requires ^|- ff in. wide. " of 1225 sq. in. requires 1225X^-5 in- wide=5 * n - wide. 120X5X^ = 1200, area of two oblong additions. 5X5 = 25, area of small square. 1200-4-25 =1225, total area of additions. 1225 — 1225=0. e square root of 15625 is 125. After this is thoroughly understood, numerous practical problems should be <^iven. CUBE HOOT. 60. Required the cube root of 2460375 cubic feet. I. Steps: — 1. Beginning at the rijjht, point into periods of three places each; be- cause the cube of no one of the digits exceeds three places. 2. Find the greatest cube in the left period, and find its root. 3. Subtract. 4. Find surface to which we add. 5. Divide. 6. Find the solidity of the three large additions. 7. Find the solidity of the three obiong additions. 8. Find the soliditv of the small cube. 9. Find the total solidity of additions. 10. Subtract . 11. Repeat, beginning with 4th step. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 461 II. Solution: — Suppose the numbers to represent cubic feet. 100 3° 5 2 ' 4 6o' 375' *35 1. Place a point over units, thousands, and millions figure. The greatest cube in left period is ioooooo;the root is 100: — "1. A solid 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, 1 ft. thick =1 cubic foot. 2. A solid 100 ft. long, 1 ft. wide, 1 ft. thick = ic©Xi cubic ft.= ioo> cubic feet. I 3. A solid 100 feet long, 100 feet wide, 1 foot thick=iooXioo cubic feet =10000 cubic feet. 4. A solid 100 feet long, 100 feet wide, 100 feet thick = 1 00 X 1 0000 cubic feet=ioooooo cubic feet. 2460375 cu. ft. — 1000000 cu. ft. = 1460375 cu. ft. ' 1. A surface 1 foot long, 1 foot wide = i square foot. 2. A surface 100 feet long, 1 foot wide=iooXi &q. ft.= ioo sq. ft 3. A surface 100 ft. long, 100 ft. vide=iooX 100 sq. ft.= ioooo sq. ft. 4. The surface of 1 face=ioooo sq. ft. 5. The surface of 3 faces=3X 10000 sq. ft.=30000 sq. ft., surface, to which we add, ' 1. An addition 1 ft. thick to 30000 sq. ft. requires 30000 cu. ft. 2. An addition of 30000 cu. ft. requires 1 foot in thickness. HI J 3. « " " " I " " refonf ft. in thickness. I 4. '• " " 1460376" " 1460375 X^iffrr ft - '" lhick - ness=30 ft. in thickness, true to ten's place. By remembering that when the solid content of any solid are to be found, the analysis of the first is always given, the rest may be solved mechanically. II. IV. 100X100X30X3=900000, solidity of 3 large additions. iooX3oX3oX3=-70°o o > solidity of the 3 oblong additions. 30X30X30=270000, soliditv of small cube. 9000004-270000-1-27000= 11 97000, total soliditv of additions. 1460375— 1 197000=26337;. Repeat, beginning with 4th step:- VI. VII. A surface 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide=i sq. ft. «• » 1^0" " 1" " =130X1 sq. ft. = 130 sq. ft. " » 130" '• 130" " =i3oX 130 sq. ft =16900 sq. ft. The surface of 1 side =16900 sq. ft. " " ■• 3 sides=3X 16900 sq. ft.=507oo sq. ft. An addition of 1 ft. thick to 50700 sq. ft.= 507on cu. ft. « " of ^0700 cu. ft. requires 1 ft. thick. " " " I " " " 5uJ0(J ,u tnick - 263375 ^'3375X 5C 7Cn cu - ft - = 5 t ' t - th - i30Xi30X5X3 = -535o°- solidity of 3 large addition-. 130X5X5X3 = 5850, soliditv 3 oblong additions. cX5X5=i 2 5i solidity of small cube. 253500+5850+1 25 = 263375. 263375—263375=o- The cube root of 2460375 cu. it. i> 100+30+5, or 135 ft. 4f»2 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBKART. I.XIIIAi I ION OF ANY ROOT. 61. The fourth root may be found by extracting the square root of the square root. The sixth root, by extracting the square root of the cube root. The eighth root, by extracting the square root <>f the square root of the square root. The ninth root, by ex. ti acting the cube root of the cube root, and so on. Whenever the index of the root can he resolved into factors, these factors indicate the root to be extracted. Since 5, 7, 11, etc., are prime numbers, the index of the root is not the product of factors; hence it is necessary to have a general rule. For example, we will extract the fifth root of 36936242722357. 1. Point the number into periods of 5 figures each. 2. Find the greatest 5th root in the left period. 3. Subtract the 5th power of this root from the left period. 4. To the remainder bring down the first figure in the next period for a dividend. 5. Raise the root thus found to a power one less than the index of the root, and multiply it by the number denoting the given power, for a divisor. 6. Divide. 7. Raise the whole root to the power indicated by the index of the root. 8. Subtract this amount from the two left periods. 9. To the remainder bring down the first figure of the next period for a new dividend. 10. Repeat, beginning with the 5th step. 3693 '62427 '22357' I 517 1- 5X5X5X5X5=3125. 2 - 3 6 93— 3 J -5 = 5 6 8. 3. After subtracting, bring down first figure of next period. 3- 5 4 X5 = 3 12 5, filst divisor. 4. 5680-^3125 = 1, second figure of the root. 5. 515=345125251. This amount is to be subtracted from the first two periods, as follows : 6. 369362427—345125251 = 24337176. 7. To this remainder bring down the first figure of the next period, and we have 243371762. S. We now repeat, beginning with the 5th step. 9. 5i*X5 = 3!8j6oo5, second divisor. 10. 243371762-^-33826005 = 7, third figure of root. 11. 517^3693'u .( 2722357. This is to be subtracted from the entire three periods. 12. 36936242722357—36936242722357=0. This same process may he used for the extraction of any root The only difference in the steps would be in the pointing. If the 7th root is to be extracted, then point into periods of seven figures; if the 1 ith root, then into periods of 11 figures; and so on. 62. Wiih this brief outline of the parts of Arithmetic as a guide, the teacher will be able to analyze all the other parts; and to teach it to the pupils so that they may make practical use of it. Alter the child thoroughly understands the "why," then let the METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 463 problems be solved in the shortest ways. The teacher cannot over-estimate the importance of numerous practical problems suited to the needs of all kinds of business. QUESTIONS ON ARITHMETIC. i. What is the chief thing to he considered in studying Arithmetic? 2 — 8 Define Arithmetic. A number. Problem. Example. Unit. Abstract number. Concrete number. io. How would you conduct your first lessons in Primary Arithmetic? n. Give the steps in the solution of a problem. 12. What is the concrete method? What other method? 13. Define multiplication. What is the basis of reasoning in analysis? 14. Give a model solution in multiplication. 15. Define division. Give a model solution. What is the chief difficulty in long division? 17. How do you square a number of two places ending in 5? State several " short methods of squaring." 18. State the two processes (principles) of reasoning in mental arithmetic. What is the unit of a fraction? What is a fractional unit? 19. Construct and solve a problem under each of the two principles. 20. What general principle is involved in the solution of algebraic prob- lems. If ? of the time past noon equals )/$ of the time to midnight, what is the hour? Make and solve a " clock problem " in \\ hich the hands are together. One in which the hands are opposite. One in which the hands are at right an- gles. 21. What general principle runs through " age " problems? Make and solve an age problem. 22. Make and solve a " fish " question. 23. Make and solve a " fox" question. 24. Would you insist on your pupils' giving the full formula laid down for the solution of each class of questions? 26. What is a factor? A prime factor? A divisor? The greatest com- mon divisor? 2S. Give the two methods of finding the G. C. D. On what is the second method based? Construct a problem which is an application of the G. C. D. 30. What is the L. C. M.? Give a method of finding it. 32. How would you begin to teach common fractions? 33. State four general principles applicable to fractions with the reason for each. 34. Explain the process of reducing fractions to their least common denominator. Explain the process of inverting the divisor in division of fractions. 35. What is a decimal fi action? Explain the use of the separatrix. 36. Explain the use of the hyphen and '•and'''' in writing decimals. 37. What points are to be remembered specially in writing decimals? Kinds of decimals? 38. Give the rules for pointing in multiplication of decimals. Rule for pointing in division of decimals. Reason of rule? 39. What is a compound number? Explain and illustrate the difference between reduction descending and reduction ascending. 40. What is a unit of measure? 41. What two cases in longitude and time? Illustrate both. 42. What is the date, line? 43. What two parts exist in every problem in proportion? Give the steps in the solution of a problem in simple proportion. 44. What is compound pro- portion? In the statement of a problem what does x represent? 45. Explain the " Shorter Analysis." 46. Name the different cases in percentage. Illustrate each by an example and state what is involved in each. 47. In problem one of this section, explain how 100 # equals 120$. 48. What are the three cases in commission. Problem. John Ford & Co. receive $2,700 with which to buy mess pork. Commission is I of one per cent. How much will they invest? 49. How many cases in interest? 50. Give a formula for each. Which is preferable, the solution of problems in interest by the formula or by analysis? 51. What is present worth? 52. What is the best method in partial payments? 55. What is the face of a "note? What is bank discount? Define proceeds. 54. What principle 464 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. arises where tonal payments, consisting of principal and interest are to be ap- plied to the payment of a debt? 55. What cases arise under Bonds} 57. What is circular exchange? 58. What cases arise under exchange? 59. Give the steps In finding the square root. 60. How point in finding the cube root? Give the steps in finding the cube root. 61. How may roots higher than the cube root be found? •■••■tll|^||ll>ii» SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. See Hints on Teaching after each of the branches. the teacher's qualifications. 1. The teacher should be morally, mentally and physically well qualified for his work. He should be a model man if he would be a true teacher, for he teaches every moment of his life by. bis example. Children unconsciously imbibe the moral and men- tal atmosphere which the teacher carries about him. He cannot he a successful hypocrite. His good or bad qualities will shine through any mask he may attempt to wear. Children are natural mind readers, and while we may think we are deceiving- them their conduct will bear out the assertion that what good or bad qualities they may exhibit are in a great measure but a reflection of the real character of those who act as their teachers. 2. Man is in great measure a creature of education. Natural endowments go a great way; but the power of education is often much more important in its effects on the human mind. Let the teacher cultivate especially the qualities named below: — 1. A Cheerful and Hopeful Disposition. — The man or woman who is placed in charge of the buoyant and cheerful natures of children should have the same disposition. 2. A Frank and Unsuspicious Nature. — While a certain de- gree of supervision should be exercised over children and youth, il should be remembered that we must appeal to a certain sense of honor which all possess in some degree if we would gain control over them. Do not make a show of watching, but be ever on guard. 5. Kindness. — This word needs no comment. There are many occasions where the teacher may show a kind disposition and gain a power over children which force would never gain. 4. Conscientiousness. — This quality controls in reality all Others. Mut especially does the teacher need to be conscientious in ard to his particular work. He should leave nothing undone SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. which his conscience tells him to do and which is in his power to do for the advancement of those under his care. 5. Firmness and Self-reliance. — Avoid extremes here. The golden mean is to he firm without being despotic; to be self-reliant without being either conceited or obstinate. 6. Agreeableness. — The teacher above all others needs this quality. He cannot instruct unless he is agreeable to his pupils. He should guard his expressions and conceal his feelings many times, lest he make himself unnecessarily disagreeable. This im- plies the power of adapting himself to the different classes of persons 'with whom he may be thrown. 7. A Love of Order. — This is sadly deficient in many teachers. It can be cultivated. S. A Love of the Work. — It' von have not a natural love for the work and cannot cultivate a taste for it, for the good of yourself and your pupils, leave the profession. 9. Xeatncss. — Not only neatness in person and dress, hut in all things. The teacher who is careless and slovenly in appear- ance cannot have much influence with his pupils, and he who can- not place work on the blackboard or elsewhere neatly and accu- rately, cannot expect his pupils to do so. to. Politeness. — The teacher should be the true gentleman. It is easy to say " Thank you" in the proper place, and we should remember that all these little civilities are not thrown away upon children or inferiors. 11. Punctuality. — The teacher who is not punctual to his own appointments ought not to expect it from his pupils. A com- mon error is to hold a class over its time or hold school a few minutes after the proper time. This latter the pupils justly resent as robbing them of their time. Its effect is very bad. 12. Health. — The teacher should have good health. Many make a great mistake in supposing that because they have delicate constitutions they can teach more successfully than they can engage in more active pursuits. The delicate nervous person is the last one who should enter the school-room. Teaching is, at the best, wearing on the nerves, and such a person will sooner or later break down. Be careful of your habits; do not eat too much; avoid fats and rich dishes. When very tired and nervous at night, a very light supper and a good night's sleep is infinitely better than a heavy supper and a restless night. Take all the out-door exercise possible. Remember, all the above enumerated points will depend largely on the state of your health. 3. Attainments. — The entire tenor of this volume is that the teacher should be well prepared a-- to scientific and literary qualifi- cations for his work. He should bear in mind that knowledge of branches outside of his special work will aid him greatly. A teacher can teach geography much better for having studied geology, *> \ TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS LIBRART. zoolog} and botany. He can teach arithmetic better for having studied algebra, and so on. If he has not had the opportunity of studying these collateral branches in school, he should procure books and read up these subjects. It is hoped the texts and out- lines, etc., in this volume will stimulate the teacher of the common branches to a study of the Sciences, History and Literature. The teacher should read much and read a great variety of hooks, lie should read with some definite system. He should make notes of hi-, readings and think as he goes, otherwise much reading only results in mental dyspepsia. He should select his books as carefully as his friends, for hooks are really the most intimate friends. 4. Teachers should attend their county and township institute-, and not only attend them faithfully, hut take part in them. Do not let some "big :41m " do all the talking. Make yourself free to ask questions and discuss points that may come. up. The teachers of country schools and the primary teachers in our cities may learn much from each other, by an exchange of ideas and methods, and if the opportunity is not given in regular institutes for such exchange of thought, organize institutes of your own and discuss matters pertaining to your own special work. THE SCHOOL GENERAL HINTS. 5. The teacher should endeavor to please hi- patrons, not by a fawning servility, but by showing them that he is really interested in his work, anil by doing good work. He should become ac- quainted with the parents as far as it is within his power. It fre- quently happens that trouble arises because of a pupil's misrepre- senting matters to his parents, who believe implicitly in the declarations of the child. Such difficulties would occur less fre- quently were the parents better acquainted with the purposes and plans of the teacher. If a child brings instructions to the teacher from the parent, the teacher ought to visit that parent a- soon as possible and talk the matter over with him. The best condition of affairs is where the teacher and parents work together, and it lies with the teacher in a great measure to secure this co-operation. 6. It is not proper for the teacher to be a strong partisan. It' he have radical views on any subject, whether in religion or pol- ities for his own sake it is best that he keep his views to himself. As much to be avoided on the other hand is the attempt to stand on both sides of every question in order to be popular. It is the surest way for any man to become unpopular. Let him be straight- forward and outspoken in the expression of those views which are held by the majority, but reserved upon questions in which he stands 'nearly alone." He will gain nothing by forcing his views upon people, and necessarily make many enemies. His motto should be, the greatest good to the greatest number. I SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 167 7. There are manv reasons why a teacher, if he he a strangen should spend a week at least among the patrons and in the neigh- borhood of his school before it opens, lie should learn as much as possible about the nature of the work he is about to undertake. He can obtain much information that will assist him in making out his programme of daily work. This information he can get from the directors, from the parents, from the former teacher per- haps, and from the pupils whom he may meet. If repairs or ap- paratus are needed, the board should be consulted, for in many cases if the teacher does not see after such matters, no one will. I Ie should have the general outline of a programme made out before the school opens. This programme will need to he modified ami completed, of course, afterward. 8. For an ungraded school map out a programme somewhat as follows: Draw vertical lines so as to make six columns, heading them respectively, Begins, Ends, Continues, A grade, B grade, C grade. In the first column place the hours at which each exercise begins; in the second the hours at which each exercise ends; in the third the number of minutes each exercise lasts; in the fourth column place the name of the recitation or exercise which comes in that grade; in the fifth and sixth, the B and C grades arranged similarly. Follow the programme strictly, giving definite time to each exercise and intermissions. 9. A country school may be graded on the basis of reading, all including the 3d reader and below being in the A grade, the 4th and 5th reader the B grade, and the 6th reader the C grade. This grading is only for convenience in arranging a programme. Some pupils may belong to two grades as to certain other branches. A programme should be so arranged as to provide a proper time for study as well as recitation, and as nearly as possible the time for the study of any branch should be immediately after the recitation. Grade your school so as to reduce the number of classes to a minimum. If you attempt to hear twenty- five or thirty classes per day you cannot do justice to any of them. 10. It is best to have between each intermission a few minutes set apart for rest or some kind of general exercise. Say five minutes be allowed upon programme in the middle of each quarter day's session. This time may be occupied in various ways. Some- time it may be a mere relaxation from all duties, allowing the pupils to rise and move about the room and engage in conversation and laughter, hut not to leaye the room. Many times an intermission of tin's kind will act as a safety valve to let off the surplus nervous activity, and it will be much easier to maintain quiet during the re- mainder of the session. The teacher may make use of these five minutes' intervals in talking on subjects which will interest the whole school, or the pupils may be taken through a course of gvm- TEACHERS' AND A /7 YV..V7V LIBRARY. nastic exercise, or be given a blackboard or map drill on some points of general interes 11. The matter of ventilation should not be neglected. .V room is properly ventilated when there is free access of fresh air and a free egress for foul air ami the room is so arranged that no occupant is subject to drafts. As most schooihoiisc-- are constructed it is difficult to secure a free access of fresh air without exposing some one to a cold draft. Cold air is heavier than warm air. Air made impure by breathing, that is, by being impregnated with carbonic oxide from the lungs, is heavier than pure air of the same temperature. The exhalation from the lungs first rises because it is warmed by the animal, heat of the" body to a degree above that of the surrounding atmosphere, but if not allowed to escape at the top of the room it becomes cooler after a while and sinks to the level of the occupants, and may be again inhaled. 12. If;; room be made perfectly tight and a number of persons be shut up in it without fire, the temperature will soon rise because of the warm exhalations from their lungs and skin. They would consume the oxygen gradually and return in its place carbonic ox- ide, a poisonous gas, and in a comparatively short time all would sink down exhausted, both from the lack of the life-sustaining oxy- gen and from the depressing poisonous effects of the carbonic oxide. Hut if a window be opened at the top and bottom a cool current of fresh air will pour in at the bottom and a warm current of foul air will rush out at the top. If this cool current strikes any person who is inactive he will be very apt to "take cold," because under the depression of the impure air and the higher temperature, his pores will be relaxed and the cold current will suddenly close them so that excretion through the skin cannot take place. So the d.inger of improper ventilation arises from two entirely different causes. 13. If a window be opened at one place only, either at top or bottom, there will be two currents established side by side, one of pure cold air rushing in and the other of warm foul air rushing out, and a cold draft will occur as before. What (hen is to be done to se- cure immunity from drafts and an abundant supply o! fresh air at the same time? There are various devices. One is to have the cold air warmed before it circulates through the room. This may be done in a common room by having a tube communicating with the outside of the house and opening under the stove. Another plan is to shield the opening so that the draft be not direct. This may be done with a curtain. Or a window may be opened in a part of the room which is not occupied. There is an objection to having the air warmed before it circulates through the room, as wanning the air also dries it, and a certain amount of moisture in the air is necessary to health} breathing. This may be obviated in part by keeping a vessel of water on the stove. SCHOOL MAXAOEMEVT 4 STUDENTS' LIBRARY. school, is one that vexes every teacher. 1l is next to impossible to prevent it entirely. The larger the school the greater will he the necessity for a prohibition of whispering. Pupils may usually be cured of a habit ofwhispering by frequently reminding them of the fact that they are disturbing the school. This reduces the school to a matter of business. Let the pupils feel that to waste then" own time is had, to waste the time of others is criminal. When a pupil once realizes that to steal his fellow pupil's time is just as bad as to steal hi^ money, a sense of justice will usually correct the evil. This placing the pupils constantly on their honor and sense of justice will have infinitely greater effect than any arbitrary attempts to suppress whispering by punishment. But this course requires time. You must keep at it. If it proves a failure try severer methods. j, 1 /i ih e properly. Have frequent teachers' meetings. Discuss all points of interest in methods of teaching and government. Keep a memo- randum book and note such points from day to day. You must be i; TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. prepared to help your teachers. Never promise without perform- ing. Indeed, this applies to all school work. With regard t<> managing a community all that has been said with reference to sociability, mingling in society, etc., applies with special force. '■'■HO' 1 """" PROSODY. FIGURES. 1. A definition of prosody has been given. (See Grammar, sec. i.) Only figures of speech and the principles of versification will be treated here. A figure is an allowable departure from the ordinary established forms of language. We may have figures of (i) Orthography, (2) of Etymology, (3) of Syntax, (4) of Rhet- oric. 2. A figure of orthography is an intentional deviation from the proper spelling of a word. The kinds are: 1. Mimesis, the spelling of a word in imitation of an improper pronunciation; as, Kent in, ef you will, Ttutr, — quit ! Take a cheer. Not that; you can't fill Them then- cushings this year. — Bret Harte. 2. Archaism, the spelling of words in imitation of ancient usage; as, " Righte learned is ye Pedagogue Fulle apt to reade and spelle; And eke to teache ye parts of speeche, And strap ye urchins welle."— Saxe. 3. A figure of etymology is a departure from the ordinary form of the word. The kinds are: 1. Apheresis, the elision of a letter or letters from the beginning of a word; as, 'Neath the green tree's leafy shade. 'Midst shot and shell. 2. SYNCOPE, the omission of a letter or letters in the middle of a word ; as, o'er, e'en. 3. APOCOPE, the elision of the final letter or letters of a word; as, Thro' forests wild. \. Prosi 11 i. sis, the prefixing of a letter or letters to a word; as, Adown the glen rode armed men. 5. PARAGOGE, the annexing of a letter or letters to a word; as, The vasty deep. PROSODY. 177 6. Syneresis, the condensing of two syllables into one; as, Thou stalk' 'st alone. 7. Tmesis, the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound word; as To us ward. S. Crasis, the condensing of two words into one; as, We'll go; He'll do it; Thoul't not deceive. 4. A figure of syntax is a departure from the ordinary con- struction of a word. The kinds are: 1. Ellipsis, the omission of one or more words necessary to complete the construction but not necessary to complete the mean- ing; as, Who steals my purse, steals trash — He who steals, etc. a. Asyndeton, the ellipsis of connectives; as, We walked slowly, noiselessly, with bated breath. 2. Pleonasm, the use of more words than necessary; as, I saw it with tli esc eyes. a. Polysyndeton, the repetition of a conjunction; as, He is noble and brave and true. b. Anadiplosis, the use of the same word at the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next; as, Has he a gust for blood? Blood shall fill his cup. c. Epizeuxis, the repetition of a word, or words; as, / am black, I am black ; And yet God made me, they say. — Mrs. Browning. d. Anaphora, the repetition of the same word at the be- ginning of several successive lines or sentences; as, Strike for your altars and your fires Strike for the green graves of your sires. 3. Enallage, the use of one part of speech for another; as, Solomon than zvhom there never was a wiser; What is writ is writ. 4. Syllepsis, the agreement of one word with another used in a figurative sense; as, I saw the moon in her beauty and the sun in his strength. 5. Hyperbaton, the transposition of words from their or- dinary grammatical order; a-. Much have I traveled in the realms of gold. — Keats. Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, Bowed with her fourscore years and ten. — W Ait tier. 6. Parenthesis, the insertion of a word or sentence be- tween the parts of another sentence; as, Let us (since life can little more supply Than just to look about us and to die) Expatiate free o'er all this scene of man ; A mighty maze, but not without a plan. — Pope. 478 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. 7. Zeugma, " a figure by which an adjective or verb, which agrees with a nearer word, is referred to one more remote; as, Lust overcame shame; boldness, fear; and madness reason." 5. A figure of rhetoric is a departure from the common ap- plication or significance of words. The kinds are: 1. Simile, a direct or simple comparison; as, Like a dog, he hunts in dreams. — Tennyson. 2. Metaphor, an indirect or implied comparison, or the use of a word in a sense different from its original meaning; as, Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, The bridal of the earth and sky. — Herbert. Remark. — The difference between a simile and a metaphor will be seen in the following: Simile. — He is like a lamb. Metaphor. — He is a lamb. 3. Allegory, a series of metaphors, or a metaphorical dis- course. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is a good example. a. Fable, a short allegory in which usually animals or in- animate objects are represented as speaking and representing cer- tain qualities; as the fox, cunning; the lion, strength, etc. b. Parable, " a relation of something real in nature from which a moral is drawn." The parables of Christ are examples. 4. Metonymy, a change of names, or the putting of one word for another, as the cause for the effect, a place for its inhabi- tants, etc.; as, He read Homer; ' They smote the city / He has re- turned to his czips again. 5. Synechdoche, putting the whole for a part or apart for the wbole; as, I invite you to tea this evening; The world trembled at the deeds of Napoleon. 6. Antithesis, the opposition of words and sentences; as, It is sown in corruption; it is raised in incorruption. 7. HYPERBOLE, an exaggeration of the truth; as, L have hunted all over creation for my hat. 8. Apostrophe, an abrupt turning from the narrative to a direct form of address; as, Death is swallowed up in victory. C) Death! where is thy sting? 9. Personification, the attributing of life and intelligence to inanimate objects or brutes; as, The meek -eyed Morn appears, mother of dews. — Thomson. 10. Irony, the use of words which convey a meaning exactly contrary to what is intended; as, No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you. 11. Vision', the speaking of objects of the imagination as though present to the senses, or the representation of past or future time as present ; as, I see him on the battle field; Soldiers! from yonder pyramids forty centuries look down upon you! — Napoleon. PROSODY. 479 12. Climax, a series of particulars each more important than the one preceding; as, "He aspired to be the highest; above the people, above the authorities, above the laws, above his country." 13. Anti-Climax, a series of particulars each of less im- portance than the preceding; as, That all-softening, overpowering knell The tocsin of the soul — the dinner-bell. — Byron. 14. Antonomasia, "the use of a proper name, or the name of an office, rank, profession, etc., instead of a common name;" as, He is a Buckeye; Milwaukee is the Cream City; Some mute, in- glorious Milton here may rest. — Gray. 15. Paronomasia, punning, or playing upon words, the same word being used in different senses, or words of similar sound being used in antithetic relations; ;is, 1 1 is death which happened in his berth At forty odd befell, They went and told the sexton And the sexton tolled the bell. — Hood. 16. Paralipsis, a figure by which the speaker pretends to pass by a truth which he really mentions; as, I will not mention the fact that he once cheated me out of five dollars. 17. Euphemism, the use of a delicate and softened expres- sion for one that would be harsh and disagreeable; as, He was slightly inebriated ; He has shuffled off this mortal coil. 18. Interrogation, the putting what is meant for a strong affirmative in the form of a question; as, Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? 19. Exclamation, the expression of strong emotion; as, O that this too, too solid flesh would melt! 20. Cataciiresis, " the using of a word to express some- thing at variance with its true meaning; as, Brass coppers; Or taste the smcM of a dairy. — Thompson. 21. Litotes, the asserting the truth of a proposition by de- nying the contrary ; as, Nor are thy lips ungrateful, sire of men, • Nor tongue inadequate; for God on thee Abundantly his gifts hath also poured. — Milton. "22. Inn U e \do, " a covert suggestion of an author';* meaning, instead of an open expression of it; as, He did his party all the harm in his power: he spoke for it and voted against it." 23. Alliteration, the repetition of the same letter at the beginning of two or more words which succeed each other; as, In broad, sonormb, silver swells The air was billowed like the sky. — Dr. Holland. ■Smi TEACHERS' AXD STUDENTS 1 LIBRARY. 24. Onomatopoeia, "such an imitation in the sound of the words as may correspond with the sense, or suggest it;" as, Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild buffalo, wild horse, wild huntsman, with thing and clatter and whoop and' halloo, that made the forests ring. — Irving. Rkmark. — The figures here given are all that are of any importance. As many as 250 have been defined by authors. Goold Brown says, " To find a learned name for every particu- lar mode of expression, is not necessarily conducive to the right use of language." \ BRSIFICATION. 6. " A verse is a line consisting of a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables, disposed according to metrical rules." Versification is the art of making verse, or of metrical composi- tion. Prose is a discourse in language as commonly used, the aim being mainly to give a clear and distinct statement of the author's meaning. Poetry is a metrical discourse, or a discourse written in verge and designed to please by appealing to the imagination ami intellect. 7. Poetry is of two kinds, rhyme and blank verse. Rhyme is a correspondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines, either succeeding each other or at proper distances. Blank verse is simple verse without rhyme. A couplet is two lines rhyming together. A triplet is three lines rhyming together. A stanza is a group of verses, or lines forming a division of a poem. 8. A poetic foot is a part of a line consisting of two or three svllables, one or two of which must be accented, accent being the stress of voice laid on a certain syllable. " In Greek and Latin, verse is made according to the quantity of syllables; /. e. the rela- tive time employed in pronouncing them. A loig syllable requires twice the time in uttering it that a short one requires. In English, verse is composed wholly according to accent. An accented sylla- ble is considered long; an unaccented syllabic, shorty It must be remembered that in poetry monosyllables receive accent. 9. The principal kinds of poetic feet are: 1. The iambus, consisting of an unaccented and an accented syllable; as, Let o£-ser-7*7-tion -with ex-tew-sive view, Sswr-vey man-to/rf from CAi'-na to Pe ru. 2. The' trochee, consisting of an accented and an unac- cented syllable; as, /'iot in mourn-fu] ti/tm-bcrs. 3. The spondee, consisting of two accented syllables; as, Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death. 4. The dactyl, consisting of one accented and two unaccented svllables; as, This i-. tin- /i);--est pri-wc-va! the «;///*- mur-ing pines and the hem-locks. The last foot here is a spondee. PROSODY. 481 5. The anapest, consisting <>f two unaccented and one ac- cented syllable; ;is, / knew by the smoke ihal so grace-lw\-\y curled A-bove the green elms that a col-lagc was near. The first foot in each line of this example is a spondee. 6. The amphibrach, consisting of one unaccented, one ac- cented, and one unaccented syllable; as, A /rc/-ti-er din-net I nev-er set eyes on. 7. The pyrrhic, consisting of two unaccented syllables and sometimes used in iambic verse to avoid accenting an unimportant word; as in the following line: What could be less than to sS-ford him preust . 10. Verse is classified according to the predominating kind and to the number of feet which compose a line. A verse containing one foot is monometer; two feet, dimeter; three feet, trimeter; four feet, tetrameter; five feet, pentameter; six feet, hexameter; seven feet, heptameter; eight feet, octomctcr. We may then have iam- bic monometer, iambic dimeter, etc.; trochaic monometer, tro- chaic pentameter, etc.; dactylic monometer, etc. A verse or foot which lacks a syllable at the end is called catalectic. One which is not lacking is called acatalectic. One which lacks a syllable at the beginning is called acephalous. One which has a redundant sylla- ble at the end is called hypercatalectic. Two kinds of feet are often used in the same lime. 11. Iambic pentameter is called heroic measure, because epic, or heroic poetry is written in it. It is the verse of Milton's Para- dise Lost. Iambic hexameter is called Alexandrine because a poem written in this verse was composed in French on the life of Alex- ander. Iambic tetrameter arranged in stanzas of four lines, rhym- ing in couplets or alternately is called long meter. Common meter is a stanza the first and third lines of which are iambic tetra- meter, the second and fourth, iambic trimeter. Short meter is a stanza the first, second and fourth lines of which are iambic tri- meter, the third iambic tetrameter. 12. The elegiac stanza consists of four iambic pentameter lines rhyming alternately. Gray's Elegy is an example. The Spense- rian stanza consists of eight iambic pentameter lines and one (the last) iambic hexameter line. Spenser's Fairie Queen is an exam- ple. A sonnet is a poem complete in fourteen iambic pentameter lines. Scanning is the dividing of a verse into its feet. 13. Poetic Pauses. — There are two pauses which should be made in reading verse, the final and csesural. The final pause is made at the end of a line and should always be made even when the grammatical construction does not require a pause. The caesu- ra! pause occurs generally near the middle of the line and used only 31 482 I'll. 1 < 'HERS " . 1 ND S II DENTS' LI UK. I R 1 . in long lines. The sense often requires it to hi' nearer the end of the line. The caesura! pauses are marked by bars in the following lines: " The splendor 1 a 11 >i || on castle walls And snowv summits | old in storv." " From my books surcease of sorrow | sorrow for the lost Lenowe — Ynr the rare and radiant maiden | whom the angels call Lenore — Nameless here || forevermore." Remark. — A demi-caesural is also recognized. These i-Tsural pauses are nothing but natural breaks in the rvthni which the cultivated ear can always readily detect. 14. Poetic license is an indulgence allowed to poets in the use of words, forms and expressions which are a deviation from ordi- nary correct prose, also an allowable departure from the regular laws of versification. Poetic license permits: in spelling the elision of letters or whole syllables, as e'er for ever, etc.; in pronunciation the changing of the accent in a word or the use of some old pro- nunciation to make a rhyme; the use of antiquated words and phrases as ken, trow, yore, eke, etc.; in syntax, inversion of the common order of arrangement, use of adjectives for nouns, adjec- tives for verbs, past tense for perfect participle, etc. Poetic style abounds in figures. 15. Some of the kinds of poetry as to style of composition are: Epic, which deals with heroic subjects. Examples, Milton's Para- dise Lost, Homer's Iliad, Dante's Divina Commedia, etc.; Lyric, that which may be set to music, as the "Last Rose of Summer;" Didactic, that which is written mainly for the purpose of inculcating some moral lesson; Elegiac that which treats in solemn style of the sadder phases of human affairs, as funeral odes, etc. ; Vers de Societc (society verses) light, trivial verses, such as love songs, burlesques on the absurdities of life, etc. Moore's and Saxe's poems furnish examples. Satire, that which ridicules usually in a severe strain some weakness of society or of a particular individual. Horace and Byron furnish excellent examples. ill VIS TO THE TEACHER. 16. It is common to treat the subject of figures and versifica- tion in text-books on grammar, yet few teachers require a study of these subjects. A slight knowledge at least of what is presented in the foregoing pages should be had by every teacher that lie may be able to explain fully many points that may come up in reading (lasses. These subjects should he taught to pupils incidentally. In reading classes, and in composition and letter writing exercises op- portunities frequently occur where the teacher may, by asking proper questions and making explanations, impart much useful in- formation in this line and in such a way that it will be of perma- nent value to the pupils. 17. The kinds of poetic feet most in use arc the iambus, the trochee, and the dactyl. These will easily be comprehended by PARLIAMENTA R V I T SA t i ES. 483 pupils and they will readily learn to scan a stanza of poetry. It will aid the memory perhaps if we observe that the first two sylla- bles of the word iambus form an iambus, that is, the first syllable is unaccented and the second accented; and that the word trochee in a similar manner is a trochee, the accent being on the first syllable; also that the word dactyl is from a Latin word meaning finger, and that as the finger consists of two joints, one long and two short ones, so the dactyl foot consists of one accented (or long) and two unaccented (or short) syllables. ■..*\&i,... PARLIAMENTARY USAGES. 1. In any collection of men assembled for the purpose of dis- cussing certain questions and deciding upon certain measures, some regular system of procedure is necessary, or confusion results. A deliberative assembly, or body, is one governed in its actions mainly by certain general usages, or customs, commonly known as parlia- mentary law. It takes its name from the Parliament of England where the fundamental principles which govern such bodies in this country had their origin. 2. Many organized bodies adopt special rules to govern their proceedings. Besides these special rules of order which might be called their written or statute laws, they are governed by what may be considered the established usage of the country, or the common parliamentary law. Temporary assemblies and others which have no special rules are governed entirely by general parliamentary usage. 3. The first step toward converting a collection of individuals into a deliberative body is to effect a temporary organization. This is done in the following manner: Some one rises and addresses the assembled persons, suggesting the propriety of coming to order, and moves that a certain person, mentioning his name, act as chair- man of the meeting. Some one in the assembly then seconds the motion and it is the duty of the person who called the meeting to order to put the question to vote. The person elected chairman then presides over the assembly, and as a first duty calls for nomina- tions for secretary. A secretary being elected the assembly is or- ganized and ready to transact the business which called them together. 4. If a permanent organization is desired a motion to that ef- fect should be offered, and if carried the assembly may proceed at 484 TEACHERS- AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. once to organize by the adoption of a constitution and by-laws and the election of suitable officers, or these matters may be referred to committees elected tor that purpose, these committees to report at such a time as the assembly may instruct. 5. The usual officers in a permanently organized body arc: ( [) a presiding officer styled president, chairman, or moderator; (2) a recording officer, styled secretary, or clerk; (3) a treasurer. Be- sides these there are frequently one or more vice-presidents, a cor- responding secretary and sometimes other officers, according to the character of the organization. Officers should be elected by a ma- jority vote. 6. The principal duties of officers are shown briefly in the following outline: — 1. PRESIDENT. 1. To call the assembly to order and sustain order throughout the ses- sion. 2. To explain and decide all points of order. 3. To announce all business, state all motions, put all questions to vote, and give the result. 4. To receive all communications and give his signature when necessary. 5. To vote only in case of tie. 6. Sometimes "to appoint committees. 7. In general, he is the representative of the assembly, declaring its will and obeying its commands. 2. SECRETARY. i. To keep a record of the proceedings of the assembly. 2. To write all orders, communications, etc., which the assembly may direct. , 3. To read the minutes, or journal of previous meetings, and to read all papers and documents. 4. To call the roll and mark the absentees and to call the roll and register the votes of members when yeas and nays are taken. 5. To notify committees of their appointment and business and to nerform such other duties as the assembly may direct. 3. TREASURER. 1. To receive and hold all moneys of the organization, disbursing them only upon order of the organization given by the secretary and signed by the president. 2. To report in full all moneys received and disbursed as often as the so- ciety may direct. ). VICE-PRESIDENT. To perform all the duties of the president in his absence. Remark.— Ihr above are the duties usually devolving upon the officers named and in the •il.s. -nee of any special rules they hold good, but any society may adopt rules specifying the duties of their respective officers. It must he rememhered that any society or organized body c-m adopt any rnles of procedure they may see lit so lon^ : ,s they do n.'t conflict with the laws ol ,1,, i.,„,i in other wor.ls, a society is its own master an, 1 is not bound by any code of parlia- mentary laws although it is customary to follow the general practice of parliamentary hodies. 7. The duties of members may be summarized as follows: — /*. \RLL IMEN /'. \RT ( r SAGBS. 485 i. To obtain the floor before speaking. This he does by rising in his place ami a Idressing the presiding officer by his proper title, Air. President, or Mr. Chairman, and on being recognized by the chair he is at liberty to speak, which he should do standing, unless physically unable. 2. To avoid speaking upon any question until it is properly brought be- fore the assembly by a motion. A member may, however, make a suggestion or a statement, but it cannot be discussed by others unless put in the form of a motion and properly presented from the chair. 3. To speak upon the question pending. 4. To abstain from all personalities. 5. To yield the floor to calls for order. 6. To avoid disturbing the assemblv or any speaker. 8. The rights of members are briefly: — 1. To offer any motion or resolution to the assembly and to explain or dis cuss the same. 2. To call another member to order when necessary and to appeal from the decision of the chair to that of the assembly. 3. To hold the floor when properly obtained until through speaking or until called to order for any breach of propriety. 9. " When any member wishes to obtain the sense of the meet- ing;, or the will of the assembly on any matter, he moves its adop- tion, hence, is said to make a motion.'''' All business is transacted through motions. When a motion is adopted it becomes a resolu- tion, law or order of the assemblv. A motion cannot be entertained unless it is secotided, that is, it must obtain the favor of another member who rises and says, " I second the motion." It is then stated to the assemblv by the presiding officer and may be discussed. 10. After discussion of the motion or, if after the president has called for remarks and none are offered, he should rise and "put the question," which is done somewhat in this form: "All who are in favor of the motion will say aye (members in favor respond.) All opposed, say «o," (members opposed respond.) The chair then de- cides which side has the majority and says the " motion is carried," or " the motion is lost;" or " the ayes have it," or " the noes have it," as the case may be. The motion is then said to be adopted. 11. The steps in a motion may be summarized as follows: — 1. Obtaining the floor by addressing the chair and being recognized. 2. Making the motion, verbally or in writing. 3. The presidenl stating the motion, verbally or by reading. 4. Discussion and remarks by member-. 5. Putting the motion by the president restating it if necessary, that all may vote intelligibly. 6. Voting by acclamation, by ballots, or by yeas and nays. 7. Announcing result by the president. 12. Voting. — The most common manner of voting is by ac- clamation, that is, by the members saying aye and no. Frequently it is dene b\- members rising to their feet or raising their hands. If the chair is unable to decide from the voices which side has a ma- 486 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. jority he can call for a " rising vote w and require the members to stand until counted. This is frequently necessary. En questions of great importance the voting is usually by ballots. This consists in writing yes or no t or when it is an election of officers the name of the candidate which the voter i^refcrs, on a slip of paper. These papers are collected and counted, the president usually reading the ballots and the secretary keeping tally. Another manner is by call- ing for the yeas and nays. This is done by the secretary calling the roll and each member responding with yes or «t" privilege from which decision an appeal can be taken, if it is one requiring immediate action a member may be interrupted in his speech. Final action need not be taken on it at once, but it PARLIAMENTARY USAGES. 187 may be referred to a committee, <>r laid on the table or have any other subsidiary motion applied to it, without affecting the question pending at the time the question of privilege was raised.* 18. A Motion for Orders of the Day.— "When a certain busi- ness has been assigned for a certain day it may take precedence of any other business when the time comes, and may he brought up by :i " motion for orders of the day." It yields to the three preced- ing, is not debatable, and cannot be amended and is in order when another member has the floor. The effect of an affirmative vote on this motion is to remove the question pending from before the as- sembly the same as a motion to adjourn. The effect of a negative vote is to dispense with the orders of the day merely so far as they interfere with the consideration of the question before the assembly. INCIDENTAL MOTIONS. 19. Questions of order take precedence of the question which srives rise to them and must he decided by the chair without debate. If any member objects to his decision he should say. " T appeal from the decision of the chair." The appeal must be seconded and then ihe chair states the question: "Shall the decision of the chair be sustained? " In case of tie the decision of the chair is sustained. An appeal yields to Privileged Questions, and cannot be amended. It is debatable except " when it relates to indecorum, or to trans- gressions of the rules of speaking, or to the priority of business, or if it is made while the Previous Question (25) is pending."' The presid- ing officer can state the reasons for his decision. When an appeal is debatable the motions to Lie on the Table (24) and the previous question (25) can be applied to it, and they effect nothing but the appeal. A new appeal cannot be made while one is already pending. When any member perceives a breach of a rule he has L iie privilege of rising from his seat at the time and saying, " Mr. President, 1 rise to a point of order." The person speaking should immediately take his seat, and the president request the member to state his point of or- der, which he does. The chair should then decide, and if no appeal be taken the person speaking may resume his speech. 20. When any question has been introduced before it is debated a member or the chair may object to the consideration of the ques- tion. It is similar to a question of order (19) and can be made while a member has the door and does not require a second. It is not de- batable, cannot be amended or have any other subsidiary motion applied to it. The chair asks, " Shall the question be considered ?" A two-thirds vote shall decide. 21. Any member has the ri<^ht to call for the reading of any paper before he votes upon it. If no one objects, the chair grants *A " question of privilege " most not be confounded with ;i " privileged question.' Si i sec. 13. 1- TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRAR1 the privilege. The question of permission to have papers read is not debatable and cannot be amended. 22. The mover of a question can withdraw or modify or sub- stitute another in its place if no one objects, but if objection be made a motion for leave to withdraw, etc., must be made, which motion cannot be debated or amended. 23. A motion to suspend the rules cannot be amended, recon- sidered, or debated, and no subsidiary motions can be applied to it, and should be decided by a two-thirds vote. SUBSIDIARY MOTIONS. 24. A motion to lie on the table yields to any Privileged or In- cidental Question, and takes precedence of all other Subsidiary Questions. It is not debatable, cannot be amended, or have any » other subsidiary motion applied to it. When decided in the affirma- tive it cannot be reconsidered. Its object is to postpone the main question in such a way that it may be taken up at any time. Its effect is frequently to suppress a question entirely, ii an amend- ment be laid on the table the subject which it is proposed to amend goes with it. An appeal laid on the table has the effect of sustain- ing the decision of the chair for the time but does not carry the original subject with it. If a motion to reconsider is laid on the table, the original question is left where it was before the reconsid- eration was moved. 25. The term previoics question is a misnomer and has nothing to do with the subject under previous consideration. To move the previous question is equivalent to demanding that the debate now cease, and the house immediately proceed to vote on the pending question. It takes precedence of every debatable question and yields to Privileged and Incidental Questions and to the motion to lie on the table. It cannot be amended and is not debatable, nor can it have any other subsidiary motion applied to it. It requires a two-thirds vote. The chair puts the question thus: " Shall the main question be now put?" Its effect is immediately to close de- bate and bring the house to a vote on the question pending, except when to amend or commit is pending, when it his the effect of forc- ing a vote not only upon these questions but upon the question to be amended or committed. 26. A motion to post pone to a certain day yields to any Privi- leged or Incidental Question, and to the motion to lie on the table, or for the previous question, and takes precedence of a motion to commit or amend, or indefinitely postpone. It allows limited de- bate confined to the propriety of the postponement, and can be amended bv altering the time. When the time comes to which it is postponed it is entitled to be taken up in preference to everything except Privileged Questions. 27. A motion to commit, or refer to a committee, yields to any PARLIAMENTARY USAGES. W9 Privileged or Incidental Question and to all the Subsidiary motions mentioned previous t'> this, and takes precedence of the motions to amend or indefinitely postpone. It can he amended by altering the committee or givingit instructions. It is debatable. 28. A motion to amend takes precedence of no other question hut that which it is proposed to amend, and yields to all questions except the motion to postpone indefinitely. It can be amended, hut this amendment cannot he amended. An amendment may alter en- tirely the nature of the original motion hut it cannot pertain to another subject. Amendments may be of the following kinds: (i) to" insert " certain words or sentences; (2) to "strike out " certain words or sentences; (3) to strike out some words and insert others; (j.) to "substitute" another motion on the same subject; (5 ) to di- vide the question into distinct questions so as to vote on them sepa- rately. The amendment to the amendment should be put first and then the amendment to the motion and then the motion as amended. 29. A motion to postpone indefinitely yields to all except a motion to amend, and takes precedence to no other except the Prin- cipal Question. It opens the question which it is proposed to post- pone to debate and it cannot he amended; when carried it removes the question from before the assembly for that session. 30. " It is in order at any time, even when another member has the floor, or while the assembly is voting on the motion to ad- journ, during the day on which a motion has been acted upon, to move to reconsider the vote and have such motion entered on the record, hut it cannot be considered while another question is be- fore the assembly. It must be made excepting when the vote is by ballot, by a member who voted with the prevailing side. A motion to reconsider the vote on a Subsidiary Motion takes precedence of the main question. It yields to Privileged Question^ (except for orders of the day) and Incidental Questions. " This motion can be applied to the vote on every other ques- tion, except to adjourn and to suspend the rules, and an affirmative vote to lie on the table or to take from the table. No question can be twice reconsidered. This motion cannot he amended; it is de- batable or not, just as the question to be reconsidered is debatable or undebatable; when debatable, it opens up for discussion the entire subject to be reconsidered, and the previous ones/ion, if ordered while it is pending, affects only the motion to reconsider. It can he laid on the table and in such cases the last motion cannot be re- considered. 1 ' — Roberts' 1 Rides of Order. When a motion to recon- sider is carried the main question is again before the assembly just as it stood before the vote was taken concerning it. GENERAL i:\lM.A NATIONS. 31. In every organized body a certain number of members must he present before business can he transacted. Such number 4 TEACHERS? AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. is called a quorum. Mosl organizations fix by special rule what this number shall be. When there is no rule a majority should he considered a quorum. 32. Though not essential it is very convenient, and often facili- tates business to have ;i settled order of business. It would he im- possible to give an order of husincss which would suit any particu- lar case, hut as a model we give below a partial list of points and the order in which they should come: i. Call to Order. 2. Calling Roll. 3. Minutes of previous meeting. 4. Unfinished Business. 5. Miscellaneous Business. 6. Reports of Committees. 7. Election of Officers. 8. Adjournment. In the case of a literary society or something of the kind where miscellaneous exercises are given, a place for them should appear on the order of business. 33. The following form for minutes will he suggestive: [So- cietv, or whatever the name of the organization] met pursuant to adjournment [or call of president, etc.,] Mr. in the chair. The roll was called, etc. Minutes of previous meeting read and approved [or amended as the ease may he]. On motion of Mr. one dollar was appropriated, etc., [here state motion in full]. A committee consisting of [here mention names] was appointed, etc., etc. Society adjourned to meet . , Pies. , Sec. 34. It is not necessary- in an ordinary literary or debating society to have a lengthy constitution and by-laws specifying exactly what the officers and members shall do, as these general matters are un- derstood, hut each organization must make for itself certain regula- tions, such as time and place of meeting, numbers to constitute a quorum, amount of initiation fee, if any, number and kind of officers and time of service, nature of the exercises, etc., and such points should be specified in a constitution and by-laws. If members generally have not access to some work on parliamentary practice, it might he well to adopt a few special rules of order based upon the general parliamentary law, as laid down by authors. The prin- cipal points of parliamentary law we have endeavored to give in the preceding pages. 35. Committees arc either: (1) select^ appointed on particular occasion^ to attend to some special matter assigned to them ; (2) Standing, appointed for a term to take charge of all business of a certain nature. It sometimes happens that the whole assembly wishes to act as a committee, and this is done by some one moving PARLIAMENTARY USAGES. \>>\ that the house resolve itself into a committee of the -..hole, which motion, if carried, converts the assembly into a committee, which may then act with more freedom than in ordinary session. When they have finished the particular business which called them into the committee, a motion that "the committee rise" is in order, and if carried, the assembly resumes its former condition. 36. It is the duty of a committee to attend to the business for which it was appointed, and report the result to the assembly. When a committee holds a meeting it is governed by the same laws that govern the assembly. Reports are generally to be made in writing and should be read by the chairman of the committee or some one appointed for the purpose. Unless objection be made a motion is not necessary to receive the report of a committee. When the report is received the committee is discharged, although the re- port may be again committed to them. The question next occurs as to the adoption of the report, which is done by a motion. 37. The presiding officer of an assembly should be well posted on parliamentary law and should always be prompt to decide all points of order which may be sprung. If he is not positive as to what course to pursue when a decision is to be made, he may ask for advice or information from any member. It is gencrallv best to decide quickly one way or the other and let any member of the assembly take an appeal, which is always his privilege if he thinks the chair is unjust. The majority then decides the point, and the chair cannot be held responsible. It frequently happens that no one in the meeting is very well versed in parliamentary' law and yet it is necessary the meeting should have a presiding officer. Let some one be willing to show his ignorance in this case rather than the assembly should dissolve for want of a presiding officer. It sometimes happens that even one who is well posted will be at a loss what to do, as very perplexing questions may occur, but usually matters will proceed harmoniously if the chair is prompt to decide according to the best of his knowledge. A blunder on his part should stimulate him to a study of the subject before he is again called upon to fill such a position. MYTHOLOGY. 1. Mythology treats of myths, or the popular ideas concerning supernatural beings. The idea of superior beings originated among primitive men, doubtless in the attempt to understand and explain the various phenomena of nature. The savage man sees the effects of a storm or hears the thunder and he imagines it to be produced by some superior being or beings. As he can measure the unknown only by the known, he naturally conceives those beings to be some- what like himself or like some animal with which he is acquainted. Sometimes the picture in his imagination takes a form made up of a combination of natural forms or objects, and so arise beings half man, half horse, etc. 2. It appears that the youth of nations as of individuals is a peri.nl of great activity of the imagination, and this imagination is greatest in proportion as their knowledge is least. Every people have had their age of fable and their stories of gods and heroes. These mythological beings have become the material of poets, ora- tors, essayists and novelists, and our literature is full of allusions, a knowledge of which is necessary to a thorough understanding and appreciation of the works of the great authors. In the following pages is given a brief account of the most important names in the mythology of the ancient nations: GRECIAN AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 3. The mythologies of Greece and Rome are the most interest- ing and the names of their gods and heroes are the most frequently alluded to in literature. Grecian and Roman mythologies are al- ways associated because the Romans received their religious ideas from the Greeks, and the deities of the latter were accej)ted by the former. In many instances the same god has two names, one being Grecian, the other Latin. In the following sections where there are two names the Greek name will be given followed by the corres- ponding Latin name in brackets. 4. According to the Greek poet, Hesiod, the world was first a shapeless mass, chaos, out of which first came the spirit of love, Eros [Cupid | and the earth Gaea; then Erebos, [Erebus] darkness and Nyx, [><<•>:] night, and from the union of the two latter sprang JEther, the clear sky, and Hemera, day. The earth produced Uranos, the firmament, and Pontos the sea. Eros then began to agitate the earth and make pairs of things. The most important pair was Uranos and Gaea, or heaven and earth, and from them MYTHOLOGY. 193 sprang a multitude of beings superior to the people who afterward inhabited them. 5. Greek writers also ascribe the origin of the world to Oceanos, the ocean. They thought the earth to be circular and flat surrounded by the ocean which flowed as a river around it, and that here were the " islands of the blest," " the gardens of the gods " and the sources of the " nectar " and " ambrosia," the food of the gods. The region above the air and clouds was occupied by pure ether in which the sun, moon and stars moved. The sun was guided by a god who drove a chariot of four horses through the arch of the heavens and at night sank into the ocean, and it was supposed sailed around in a vessel to the starting point to be ready to commence a new day. The higher order of gods dwelt above the clouds and when they wished to hold council or intercom-, met upon the top of some mountain. Mount Olympus was the chief place of these meetings of the gods. It is a mountain in Greece about i )/ 2 miles in height. 6. Uranos, a personification of the sky, was the first of the race of gods. He married his mother Gasa, the earth, as we have already seen. The Titans, among whom were Chronos, Time, and Rhea, were results of this union. The Titans rebelled against their father who then threw them into Tartarus and kept them bound. Gaea, his wife, grieving for her offspring gave Chronos a sickle made of adamant and instructed him how to wound his father. This he did and set free the Titans who married their sisters and from thence sprang a numerous family of gods. Chronos succeeded his father Uranos on the throne of the gods and married his sister Rhea. The result of this union were Pluto, Poseidon [Neptune], Zeus T Jupiter or Jove], Hestia [Vesta], Demeter [Ceres] and Hera [Juno!] 7. The parents of Chronos had prophesied that he was to be dethroned like his father by his youngest son. To prevent this he swallowed his children a^ fast as they were born until he had thus disposed of five of them. But when the sixth, which was Zeus was born, Rhea his wife determined that he should be saved and gave her husband a stone which he swallowed thinking it was the child. Zeus was then conveyed to the island of Crete and con- cealed in a cave on Mount Ida where he was nursed by nymphs, furnished with milk by a goat and fed with honey. When he grew up, with the aid of his mother he persuaded Chronos to yield up the sons and the stone he had swallowed. These sons joined their brethren and drove their lather from the throne, and placed Zeus in his stead. 8. The Titans, however, did not agree to this arrangement and made war upon Zeus. The struggle was long and fierce but ended in the triumph of Zeus who became from that time the supreme ruler and " father of gods and men." He is styled Jupiter or Jove 4'j4 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. by the Romans, and is represented as being "possessed of every form of power, endowed with wisdom, and in his dominion over the human race partial to justice, and with no limit to his goodness and love." 9. Hera, or Juno, was the wife of Zeus. She is a personifica- tion of the female power of the heavens, "that is the atmosphere with its fickle and yet fertilizing properties." All the blessings be- stowed on mankind are to be traced to their marriage. An annual festival was held in spring in honor of the marriage. She is, how- ever, described as being at times jealous and quarrelsome and her character as proud and disdainful. In peace she was attended by the Charities [Graces] and the Mora; [Seasons]. Iris, the goddess of the rainbow, was her constant attendant. 10. Poseidon [Neptune] was the god of the sea, fountains and rivers. He is represented as bearing a trident and driving a chariot with horses over the water. The horse is taken as a symbol of his power because of its movements, resembling the mounting waves of the sea. Amphitrite was his wife and the goddess of the sea. She was the daughter of Okeanos [Oceanus]. 11. Pluto was the god of the lower regions (Hades) the en- trance to which was guarded by a dog Cerberus, " with three heads and a serpent's tail fawning upon those who entered, but showing his horrible teeth to those who tried to pass out." Those who en- tered the domains of Pluto had to cross the river Styx, and only those whose bodies had been properly buried were ferried across by C/iaron^the ferryman. He charged a small fee for this .service ami a piece of money was always put in the mouth of the dead man to assure his passage across this river. The river Lethe was also said to exist here, whose waters if tasted \>y any one would cause utter forgetfulness of the past. 12. Tartaros [Tartarus] was a place as far below Hades as the heavens were above the earth, and where those who had sinned against the gods were doomed to remain. A few of the punish- ments here inflicted are important to note from the fact of the fre- quent references to them in our literature. Tantalos [Tantalus], king of Phrygia, had offended the gods by his overbearing and treacherous conduct and the cruelty he practiced on his own son and was doomed in Tartarus to stand in water up to his throat while he could not stoop to quench his burning thirst, and to have luscious fruits hang over his head which he could not reach though suffering with constant hunger. The real significance and force of the word tantalize thus appears. fxion,si ruler of Tliessaly, was condemned for a similar crime, to be lashed along with serpents to a wheel which was continually turning. Sisyphos [Sisyphus'], King of Corinth, was condemned to roll a heavy stone up a hill which as soon as it reached the top rolled MTTHOLOGr. 495 -again to the bottom and he was obliged to repeat the labor continually. 13. Demeter [Ceres'] was the goddess of fruits, grains and vegetables, and is said to have first introduced the art of agriculture. Hestia [ Vesta] was her sister and was worshiped as the goddess of the home and fireside. In Rome there was a temple erected to Vesta which contained a fire that was never allowed to go out. This temple was kept open by day hut closed at night. It contained a small wooden image of Pallas \Minerva\ (17) called the Palla- dium which originally fell from heaven upon the citadel of Troy. Upon the capture of that city it was carried to Greece and from thence to Rome. The safety and existence of the Roman Empire, they thought, depended upon the preservation of this figure. Hence the saying " the right of trial by jury is the palladium of civil liberty." 14. Ares [ Mars'] was the god of war and son of Zeus and Hera. [Jupiter and Juno]. He is more noted as a Roman deity than a Greek, hence the Latin name Mars is more frequently seen than the Greek Ares. From the latter name however, came the word Areopagus meaning "Mars Hill'''' on which was erected a court of justice for the decision of capital offences in Athens. It was here where Paul stood and delivered his celebrated speech to the "men of Athens." (Acts XVII, 22-31). The word " Martial" comes from " Mars." 15. Hcphacstos [Vulcan] was the personification of fire. He was the son of Zeus and Hera and was the cause of a quarrel between his parents. Once, having taken his mother's part, Zeus seized him by the heels and threw him out of Olympus. He was one whole day falling through the air and in the evening reached the Island of Lemnos, near where the volcano of Moschylos stood. The word « volcano" is from " Vulcan," also the term " vulcanized rubber," India rubber hardened by heat. 'He is often represented as a black- smith working at his forge. 16. Aphrodite [Venus] was the goddess of female beauty and love. She was said to have been the daughter of Zeus and Dione and by others to have sprung from the foam of the sea. It is said also that her father gave her to Vulcan out of gratitude for the ser- vice the latter had rendered in forging thunderbolts, and thus the most beautiful of the goddesses became the wife of one of the mosl ill-favored of the gods. Eros [Cupid] was said to be her son and constant companion, who, armed with a bow and arrows shot darts of desire into the hearts of gods and men. 17. Pallas [Minerva] the goddess of wisdom, sprang forth ready armed from the head of Zeus. Her favorite bird was the owl. Apollo or Phoebus, was the god of archery, prophecy, music, and medicine. He was also the god of the sun under the name Helios [Sol] as was his sister Diana goddess of the moon under the name 486 TEACHERS 1 l.Y/> STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Selene [Luna]. A temple was erected at Ephesus, in Asia Minor, to the worship of Diana. (Acts XIX, 34, 35). 18. Dionysos Bacchus~\ was the god of wine and debauchery. Hermes [ Mercury" was the messenger and interpreter of the gods and presided over commerce and eloquence. The name Mercury is thought to lie derived from n/crccs, wares. Our word mercenary is from tile same root. 19. The deities previously described are among the principal, or Olympian gods. A few of the inferior deities who were less uni- versally worshiped, yet whose names have peculiar significance, we shall now mention. 20. The Horac (Seasons) and charities (Graces) have already been mentioned. Flora was the goddess of flowers, and Pomona of fruits. Boreas (the north wind) and Zephyrus (the west wind) were rival lovers of Flora. Janus was a Roman deity and is repre- sented as having two faces, one looking forward and the other backward and is holding a key in his hand. He opened and closed all things, sat between earth and heaven and held the air, sea and land in the hollow of his hands, and the world moved on its hinges at his command. The naming of the month January after him is of peculiar significance, looking forward to a new year and backward to the old. (p. 280). 21. Pan was the god who watched over pastures and shep- herds, hunting and fishing. He is represented with the body of a man and the legs and feet of a goat and playing upon a shepherd's pipe. The cause of sudden fright was ascribed to him, hence our word "panic," fear without cause. Fawns and Satyrs differed but little from each other. They inhabited woods and fields. 22. Proteus was the son of Oceanos and Tethyshis wife. He had the faculty of changing himself into a great variety of forms, personifying the changeableness of the ocean. " The restless and fertile imagination of the ancients' peopled with beings of a higher order than themselves every mountain, valley, plain and forest. every thicket, hush, and tree, every fountain, stream and lake. These beings in whom both Greeks and Romans firmly believed were called Nymphs, and resembled in many respects the mermaids and fairies of modern superstition." Dryads were nymphs of wood and trees, Oreads, mountain nvmphs, Naiads, water nymphs, etc. 23. Echo was a mountain nymph and a servant of Hera (9 ) but was not allowed on account of her talkativeness to come near the goddess. A beautiful story goes that Echo fell in love with Narcissus, a river god, which passion Narcissus did not return, and the nymph pined away until nothing was left of her but her voice and she then occupied herself in mocking everything she heard. Narcissus from seeing his image reflected in a brook fell in love with himself and was punished by being changed into the tlower which bears his name. MTTHOLOGT. -i!)7 24. The Muses were nymphs who presided over literature, art, poetry and science. They were nine in number and to each was assigned a special department. In all great poems of ancient, and even of more modern times it was the custom " to invoke the muses" as a part of the lirst few lines. See Mi Moris Paradise Lost, Homer's Iliad and VirgiPs ^Eueid. The mother of the Muses was Mnemosyne (Memory). 25. " Eoliis was the son of a king named Hippotes, and lived on one of the abrupt rocky Lipari islands close to .Sicily, along with his offspring, six sons and six daughters, who were married in pair-, and made life merry with their music. In the caves of the island were imprisoned the winds, Eolus letting them out in gales, or in a soft favoring breeze, at the will of the higher gods." 26. The story of Psyche and Cupid (16 ) is a beautiful and touch- ing one. Psyche was the daughter of a king and very beautiful. Her beauty aroused the jealousy of Venus who sent her son Cupid charged with the mission of inciting her to love some common man. Cupid made the visit but was himself so smitten with the beauty of Psyche that he fell in love with her and carried her to a fairy palace in the vale of Paradise where they lived happily together for some time. But Psyche was not allowed to behold Cupid with her eyes. She would have endured this but her sisters tempted her to satisfy her curiosity. One night when Cupid was asleep she took a lamp and stole to his bedside, but a drop of hot oil falling from the lamp wakened the god, who charged her with disobedience to his com- mands and deserted her. Having searched for him long she at last found her way to the palace of Venus, who after exacting from her various kinds of menial service ordered her to go to the lower world and bring a box of beauty's ointment from Persephone. On returning and opening the box she sank overpowered by the odor. Cupid unable to resist longer came to her help and brought her back to life. The wrath of Venus was appeased and Cupid and Psyche were married, Psyche obtaining immortality. Psyche signified originally "the soul" but came afterward to mean "a butterfly" the likeness of the two being not difficult to see. The object of the story seems to be to illustrate the three stages of the soul's existence, its pre-existence in a happy state, its abode on earth with trials and sorrow, and the future state of happy immortality. 27. The Erinys, or Furies, were daughters of night, and lived at the entrance to the lower world. Their duty was to punish those who had been guilty of some crime on earth and had come down to the lower world without receiving pardon from the gods. They sometimes pursued criminals on earth at the command of the higher gods. The Harpies were also creatures employed by the gods to carry out the punishment of crime. The Gorgons were three sisters, two of whom were immortal but the youngest, Medusa 32 19S TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY. was mortal, and the most beautiful of the three. She loved Posei- don I Neptune J, and havfng met him once in the temple of Athene, to the desecration of that building, was punished by having her beautiful hair turned into snakes, thus making her appearance more ghastly than that of her sisters. All who beheld her were turned immediately into stone. 28. Demons, or Genii were a class of invisible beings who were assigned by Zeus one to each man to attend and protect him. They were nameless and innumerable. Manes were the souls of the departed in the realm of shadows. Lares and Penates were household gods peculiar to the Romans. Each household was sup- posed to he under the special protection of one Lar and several Pen- ates. These gods were represented by images in the form of a youth holding a horn of plenty in one hand and a dish in the other. 29. TJianatos \Mors~\ was the god of d^ath. He was the son of Night and the twin-brother of Sleep [Somnus]. Morpheus was the god of dreams. Hygieia was the goddess of health. 30. Heroes, or demigods, were represented as men of god-like forms, strength, and courage, who lived on the earth in remote ages and having performed meritorious deeds were removed and placed among the gods and entitled to be worshiped. We have space for only a few names, (p. 262). 31. The Greeks had a tradition, or story of a great Hood which swept away the whole human race except one pair, Deukalion and Pyrrha who were preserved and landed on Mt. Parnassus when the flood abated. The earth was again peopled by these persons picking up stones and casting them behind them; the stones which the man threw springing up to men and those thrown by the woman turning to women. 32. Prometheus is said to have been the first to secure the use of tire for mankind, which he succeeded in doing by stealing it from heaven. As a punishment for the theft he was condemned to be chained alive to a rock in the Caucausus Mts. while every day a vulture came and ate of his liver, which grew again as fast as eaten. Hercules (34) was finally permitted to shoot the vulture and Pro- met hens was released. 33. Prometheus had a brother, Epimetheus and he warned him to accept no present from Zeus, but Epimetheus yielded to temptation when Hermes conducted to him a beautiful woman as a present from Zeus. Her name was Pandora, and she brought with her a vase which was to lie kept closed. The curiosity of the hus- band prevailed, and the vase was opened, when out there flew all manner of evils. Hope, however, remained in the vase. Thus was mankind punished for having stolen fire from heaven. 34. Herakles [Hercules] was one of the most noted heroes of the Greeks. He was said to have been the son of Zeus and the MYTHOLOGY. 490 wife of Amphyctryon, a resident of Thebes. He was a being with wonderful development of physical powers. Many wonderful stories are told of him. While yet an infant he strangled the ser- pent sent by Hera to kill him. NORSE MYTHOLOGY. 35. The people who anciently inhabited Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, were of one common race. Unlike the f j reeks they were not a literary people. Their mythology has not therefore been preserved in books but handed down in the form of tradition. A Christian priest, Sigmund Sigfusson, about the middle of the eleventh century compiled a collection of poems describing the mythology of these people. This collection was called the elder Edda. The younger Edda is a prose rendering of portions of the work and was produced in the succeeding century. 36. The account of creation as given by the prose Edda was substantially as follows: In the beginning there was no earth but only an empty space, Ginnunga-gap, north of which lay a region of mist, ice and snow, Niflheim, and on the south a region of warmth and sunlight, Muspelheim. The warm breath of the south caused the ice to melt and fall over into Ginnunga-gap and from this sprang Ymir, who fed on the milk of the cow Audhumbla. The cow lived by licking the ice blocks. As she licked the ice away a being appeared from whom came Odin, Vili, and Ve who slew the giant Ymir, and from his flesh formed the earth, from his bones the mountains, from his blood the sea, from his hair the trees, from his teeth the cliffs and crags, from his skull the heavens, and from his brains the clouds. This new world they called Midgard, and to preserve it from the giants who dwelt in Jotunheim, Odin and his brother surrounded it with a fence made from the eyebrows of Ymir. The inhabitants were made from two pieces of wood found floating on the sea, one being changed into a man, Ash, the other into a woman, Embla. 37. From this Midgard arose Asgard, or the place of the gods. The gods met in daily council beneath the tree Yggdrasil, which had three roots, one in Asgard, one in Xiflhcim, and the third in the realm of Hela, or Death. The way thither lay over the bridge Bifrost, or the Rainbow. There were including Odin, the "all- father," twelve principal gods, of whom we will mention Thor and Balder. 38. Odin, or Wodin, is to the Norse mythology what Zeus, or Jupiter is to the mythology of Greece and Rome. It is from this name we get our word Wednesday Woden's day. Frigga was the wife of Odin, and from this name is derived our word Friday. 39. Thor, or Donar, "the Thunderer," 1 the eldesl -on of \ )din, is represented as driving through the clouds in a car drawn by two goats and holding a hammer in his hand. The hammer of 500 TEACHERS" AND STUDENTS 1 LIBRARY. Thor was regarded among the Norsemen with as much reverence as the Cross of Christ was among Christians. From his name we get our word Thursday. 40. Balder was called the shining god. " The joy of the world in the presence of Balder means only the gladness inspired by sun- light." All living beings swore a solemn oath not to harm Haider, and were speechless in dismay when he died. This simply means the gloom of the severe winter months when they said Balder, or the sun, was dead. Loki was the spirit of evil. He hy stratagem slew Balder. The gods made war on him. lie took the form of a salmon and was caught hy Thor. They bound him where poison would continually drip in his face. His faithful wife Sigyn catches the poison in a cup. All the gods are eventually to be destroyed, and a new and more beautiful world is to spring into existence. 41. Valhalla was the place where Odin feasted with his chosen heroes and all who died in battle went thither. When the heroes are not feasting they fight for amusement. Their wounds, how- ever, heal when the time for feasting comes. Their table is fur- nished with meat from the great boar, Saerimnir, which being cooked every morning, becomes whole again at night. Their drink is furnished by the she-goat, Heidrun. 42. The Elves were beings who came at night to dance in the grass in troops, and left, according to the popular notion, their traces in the form of " fairy-rings." These so-called fairy-rings were cir- cles of grass higher than the surrounding herbage, a frequent phenomenon in Great Britain. The Dwarfs {Ziverge) were be- ings like little men who dwelt in the hills and mountains and were guardians of the hidden mineral wealth. The Giants were beings who stole the light every evening and the summer every fall. EASTERN AND EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 43. A certain resemblance in the mythologies of Greece and Rome, the Norsemen and old Germans, the Persians and Hindoos, may be observed. This is to be accounted for not from the fact that one is derived from another, but that all these nations had a com- mon origin, being but branches of the great Aryan family (p. 254). 44. " In India there have been two dynasties, as it were, of gods, the Vedic and Brahminic." The former belonged to the very earliest times, the latter being a development of the former. (p. 260). Of the Vedic gods was Dyaus, god of the bright sk\ , who evidently corresponded to Zeus [Jupiter) of the Greeks and Romans. The resemblance in names is indeed striking. Dyaus from div or dyn meaning " to shine." Zeus originally meant "the glistening ether." The Greek theos and the Latin dens meaning god, are from the same root. Varuna was also a sky-god and probably corresponded with the Greek Uranos. A similar re- semblance in name and character may be traced' between many m rr//i>i. <»;>'. 501 of the gods of the Hindoo, Norse and Greek Mythologies. 45. Of the latter, or Brahminic deities were Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, composing the Hindoo Trinity. These were not really independent gods but three separate manifestations of the spirit, or energy of the supreme incomprehensible being, Brahm. 46. There seems to be a greater difference between the Egyp- tian Mythology and that of other nations, than between those already mentioned. The Egyptians belonged to another great family, the Semitic, and the people differed materially from the na- tions of the Aryan family. For a notice of a few of the gods ot the Egyptians, see General History, p. 257. MISCELLANEOUS. 47. A few points not previously mentioned under History or Mythology in this work deserye mention as being frequently re- ferred to in literature. They are of a miscellaneous' character and may for convenience be grouped here. 48. The Phcenix so often referred to, is described by the poet Ovid as follows: "Most beings spring from other individuals; but there is a certain kind which reproduces itself. The Assyrians call it the Phcenix. It does not live on fruits or dowers, but on frankin- cense and odoriferous gums. When it has lived 500 years, it builds itself a nest in the branches of an oak, or on the top of a palm tree. In this it collects cinnamon, and spikenard, and myrrh, and of these materials builds a pile on which it deposits itself, and dying, breathes out its last breath amidst odors. From the body of the parent bird, a young Phoenix issues forth, destined to live as long a life as its pre- decessor. When this has grown up and gained sufficient strength, it lifts its nest from the tree (its own cradle and its parent's sepulcher) and carries it to the city of Heliopolis, in Egypt, and deposits it in the temple of the Sun." 49. The Unicornis described by Pliny, a Roman naturalist, as follows: "A very ferocious beast, similar in the rest of its body to a horse, with the head of a deer, the feet of an elephant, the tail of a boar, a deep, bellowing voice, and a single black born two cubits in length, standing out in the middle of its forehead. It cannot be taken alive." 50. The Salamander was a fabled animal which could not only live in the hie but could extinguish it. It is described by Pliny and Aristotle. The mineral asbestos (p. 22X) which ran be woven into a fireproof cloth has been called M Salamander's wool." The idea of this animal arose doubtless from the fact that a species of tailed amphibian (p. 404) resembling a lizard, exudes a sticky secretion which protects it momentarily from the Inc. Such ani- mals are often disturbed by setting fire to rubbish and escape by running swiftly over the embers; the notion would arise very natu- rally that they could endure fire. 502 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS LIBRARY. 51. Basilisk, or cockatrice, was called the king of serpents. It was supposed to be produced from the egg of a cock hatched by toads or serpents. Pliny thus describes it: " He does not impel his body like other serpents, but advances lofty and upright. He kills the shrubs, not only in contact but by breathing on them, and splits the rocks, such power of evil is there in him." It was even thought that if struck with a spear by a man on horseback a poison was communicated through the weapon, killing both the horse and the rider. 52. The Druids were the priests of religion among the ancient Keltic nations in Gaul, Britain and Germany. They were not only priests but magistrates, scholars and physicians. They taught the existence of one God and used no images or temples in their wor- ship, but assembled in places enclosed by circles of large stones. The remains of these stone rings still exist, the most celebrated be- ing vStonehenge, England. 53. Runic letters, or characters, were a kind of alphabet used by the ancient Norsemen. In Denmark, Norway and Sweden stones were quite frequently found bearing these Runic inscriptions. The Skalds were bards, or poets of the Norsemen who rehearsed the exploits of the heroes living and dead at the feasts for the amusement and entertainment of the warriors. They have left compositions called Sagas (sayings) which have been handed down by tradition and contain valuable materials of history. — ..- ■!inf^iii>»- ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. [Including- the chief countries mentioned in the Bible.] 1. The Geography of ancient nations and more especially of those countries which are not to be found marked out upon maps of modern Geography are here briefly outlined in the hope that it will aid the student of history to make plainer some of the allusions in our literature. 2. Egypt as having the oldest authentic history, deserves first mention. The country on either side of the Nile R. is the most fertile of anv in the world, and it is not strange that with its natural resources and facilities for commerce that it should early develop in civilization. Alexandria was once a great city, famed not only lor its commerce but as the seat of literature and science. The famous Alexandrian Libraries contained 700,000 volumes. These books were mostl\ destroyed by Theodosius, a Roman emperor. The city was founded by Alexander the Great 13. C. 332. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY *>03 3. Assyria was a very fruitful country lying between the R. Tigris and the Zagros Mts., a part of which at present is in- cluded in Turkey in Asia and part in Persia. Its name is supposed to be derived from Ashur, son of Shem. Nineveh was the capital. 4. Chaldea, or Babylonia <. mbraced a strip of country lying on both sides of the Euphrates R. and at present included in Turkey in Asia. The capital was Babylon that famous city. (p. 25S). 5. Phoenicia was a narrow tract lying on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and is now included in Turkey. It was a pro- vince of Syria and bounded on the east and south by Palestine. Tyre and Sidon were great commercial cities, (p. 259). 6. Palestine in the time of Christ included the country lying between the R. Jordan and the Mediterranean. It was then sub- ject to the Roman Empire and was divided into three parts, Galilee in the northern, Samaria in the central, and Judca in the southern part. Caesarea, on the Mediterranean, was the Roman capital and a leading seaport. Jerusalem, still retaining some of its former greatness, was the principal city in Judaea. The R. Jordan is 200 miles in length but not navigable. It forms the inlet and outlet of the Sea of Galilee and empties into the Dead Sea. (p. 149). The latter occupies the site of the ancient cities, Sodom and Gomorrah. The waters of this sea are so intensely impregnated with saline matter that no living thing inhabits it and the water is so dense that a man can float easily on its surface. Jo-cphus the Jewish historian, says that Vespasian, a Roman emperor, had men thrown into it with their hands tied behind them and they did not drown. 7. Canaan was the former name of the country called Pales- tine in the time of Christ. It was the famous ''promised land" of the Hebrews, where they settled after the 40 years 1 wandering in the wilderness. It was divided among the \2 tribes descendants of the 12 sons of Jacob. 8. Elam was a name given by the Hebrews to Persia. The Elamites do not receive the scathing denunciations visited in the Scriptures upon other contemporary nations. Persiain its ancient state extended from the Hellespont (now the Strait of Dardanelles) to the Indus R. over 2,Soo miles. Persepolis was the capital. It was destroyed by Alexander the Great. India was the name anciently given to about the same tract of territory which is now known as Ilindostan. It was once the wealthiest of all the nations of Asia. 9. Carthage was an ancient city, situated on the north coast 01 Africa not far from the island of Sicily. It figures prominently in Roman history, (p. 273). 1 111. ROMAN EMPIRE. 10. Gaul Was the ancient name of the country now included in France, Belgium, part- of Holland. Germany and Switzerland, 501 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY or all that country west of the Rhine R. to the Pyrenees Mts. The ancient Roman name of Spain was Hispania, of England Brittania {Britain), of Ireland Hibernia, of Scotland Caledonia. England was also called Albion, it is supposed from the white chalk cliffs seen from the sea. Scotland issometines referred to as Albin, the word supposed to he a corruption of Albion. The Romans did not apply the word * ifrica to the entire continent of that name, but only to the single province Africa including what is now Tunis and Tripoli. Morocco and a part of Algiers were called Mauritania. Numidia is now a part of Algiers. Cyrenaica was west <>f Egypt. In like manner Asia meant only the province . Isia, including 1 ut a small part of what is now Asia Minor. Italia was the ancient (as the modern) name for Italy. Thrace included substantially what is now Turkey in Europe. Syria was a large province extending along the entire eastern shore of the Mediterranean and south on the Red Sea. It included what had been various nations, among others the Jews. Pontus, Cappadocia, Bythinia, Phrygia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, and Armenia were provinces in what isnow Turke) in Asia. 11. Byzantium, a city founded 65S B. C, became A. D. 328 the capital of the eastern Roman Empire and was called Constanti- nople, after Constantino the Great, who endowed it with all the privileges of Rome, whence it was afterward called for awhile Nova Roma, " New Rome." The city fell into the hands of the Turks under Mahomet, A. D. 1453. 12. Mesopotamia (Greek between the rivers) was a country King between the Euphrates and Tigris. Its inhabitants never were of historical importance. They were successively conquered by the Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, and afterward by the Romans under Pompcv. It is, however, important in a Scriptural sense as being the country to which Abraham sent his servant to fetch a wife " of his own kindred " for Isaac. A century later Jacob went there on a similar errand. 13. The ancient city of Troy was situated on the western coast of Asia Minor on the shores of the yEgean Sea (now the Grecian Archipelago), (p. 262). Macedonia was the country lying north of G recce and now included in Turkey, (p. 267). 14. Ethiopia was the name applied to a large tract of country southwest of Egypt. Its boundaries were indefinite. Scythia was a large tract of country of indefinite extent, lying north of the Black and Caspian Seas and extending castwardlv toward the boundaries of China. It is supposed that this latter country was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name Serice. It was known to Marco Polo and other travelers 500 yearsago as Cathay. Sarmatia included a large tract in Central Europe covering Poland and some adjacent territory. There is an ancient tradition that a continent or large island in the Western Atlantic disappeared through some HOW TO STUDT AND USE BOOKS. 505 great convulsion of nature. It was called Atlantis. Southern and Western Africa, the great islands of the Indian Ocean, Japan, Aus- tralia and the entire Western Hemisphere were unknown to the ancients, /. c. to the civilized world of the Greeks and Romans. *** For additional facts in the history of Bible lands sec pp. 255-259; for Greece, see p. 262 ; for Rome, see p. 270. ...ut^Hi.1 HOW TO STUDY AND USE BOOKS. 1. There is an art in studying, as in everything else. Few persons, comparatively, know how to use a book, so as to obtain from it the salient points without reading it word for word. Indeed, there are many who get but little from a hook even by reading it word for word. It is also true that many books contain so little of value that reading them is like winnowing ten bushels of chaff to obtain a handful of wheat. Experience is the great teacher of this art, and he who has read the most, as a rule, can read the fastest, that is, can glean facts the most readily. A few hints, however, may be given which will, if followed, aid the young reader. 2. No book should be published without an index, except a dictionary or encyclopedia. Even the primary text-books used in schools down to the First Reader should have an index,' not for reference particularly, but that children may learn at an early age how to use an index. Teachers then might show pupils how to use the index and require practice in using it. Few of our scientific and literary works are sufficiently indexed, and in many works a glossary would he a valuable addition. 3. The reader will please note the extensive index and glossary at the end of this book, and he is requested to make frequent use of it. In studying any part of this volume, when the reader comes to a technical word, or a proper name, even if it occur in an example for illustration, he will be repaid for his trouble if he will turn to the index, for there he will find the etymology and definition of the technical term and some very valuable and interesting information concerning the proper name--. 4. Always make use of the index of a book when you wish to find information on any point, and remember that, unless it be a very extensive one, it may be necessary to look for several different words before you find the right one indicating the subject. For 606 TEACHERS 1 AND & Tl 'DENTS' L1BRAR 1 '. example, suppose you wish i<> find something about the '-composi- tion of the blood," you may find it under the heading, kk composition of blood," or under the heading, " blood;" neither word may be in the index, and you may find your subject under the heading, " cir- culation," or " vascular system." It may be necessary even when a book is tolerably well indexed to run your eye along each page for some distance to find the point you wish, and here a peculiar train- ing of the eye is needed. 5. The experienced and thinking reader can run his eye along page after page and pick out the points he wishes without reading a sentence. This power requires practice, but the great majority of persons never think to practice it. One should be able to read and look ahead at the same time so that he can take in a whole- sentence at a glance. This should be taught in schools. The teacher may ask a pupil to find just where on a certain page a certain fact is stated. Children in the First Reader, even, might be drilled in such work. They will thus gradually accustom themselves to looking for points, and if it be continued all the way through the school grades, will not the High School graduate be better fitted for acquiring information when he goes out into the great school of the world where he really gets the greater part of his education? School is the place to learn how to learn. In the world we put that knowledge into practice and really learn. 6. When you take up a new book for the fust time, turn to the title page and note first the title of the book, next the author's name, next the name of the publishers and place of publication. It is well to become familiar with the principal publishers' names, as it may often help you in buying books, [f you wish to know the real date of the volume, do not look at the date at the bottom of the title page as that will only show when that particular edition, which may not be a revised one, was printed, but look at the date of the last copyright. Read next the preface, or introduction. You owe it to the author to do this, and it may determine the question as to whether the book is worth reading at all. Next look over the table of contents and see if any part of it is suited to your wants. By giving attention to the foregoing directions you will know by this time pretty nearly whether you want to read the book or not. 7. We would say to every young man starting out in life, begin to accumulate a library. St ail with one book it" you are not able to purchase more. Take good care of your books. When you buy a book, be sure it is a good one. Examine it carefully as directed in last section. It would be well, in many cases, to ask the advice of some older or more experienced person before purchasing. You cannot go amiss, however, in buying the poetical or prose works of our -real American writers, Longfellow, Lowell, Bryant, Whitticr, Holmes, Bayard Taylor and Emerson; or the prose of Washington Irving, Hawthorne, Whipple, and many others we might mention, HOW TO HTUDT AND USE BOOKS. .",07 but these are authors everybody should be acquainted with. Most of the British poets as Tennyson, Byron, Pope, Burns, Moore, Words- woith, Mrs. Browning and above all, Shakespeare, — you certainly ought not to have a library without a volume of Shakespeare. 8. If your inclinations are toward history, the works of Ban- croft, Motley and Prescott of our own country, and Macaulay of England will furnish you first class material. If toward science and philosophy, the works of Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Proctor, Darwin, Agassiz and a host of others. In your choice of fiction be careful what authors you read. We have already mentioned Haw- thorne. You will not go far amiss by reading Dickens, Thackeray, Walter Scott, Geo. Eliot, Mrs. Stowe and many others we might mention. 9. In all your reading it is well to keep a dictionary by your side and look up the meaning of every new word you find. An unabridged dictionary is a very important part of a library, although the smaller dictionaries will be of great value. Read also with a pencil and note book. Form a habit of making notes of what you read. Make notes also of lectures and sermons you may hear. Your practice in outlining subjects will help you greatly in taking notes. The more you write the greater readiness you will acquire with a pen or pencil, and it will soon become as easv to take notes as to listen. 10. In studying a lesson, if but one book is used, and the points of the lesson are all treated within a few pages, read the lesson over first so as to get the connection and some general ideas, then go over it again carefully and make notes of the important points and then by studying these points and noting their relation to each other, try and classify them, or arrange them in an outline. Studv your outline and try to reproduce it from memory, or as much of it as you can. If the lesson is to be studied from several books, or the points are to be found scattered through different parts of a book, do not attempt to read several volumes through and then say the lesson was too long and you could not get it, but by use of an index, or the headings and sections in the book try to pick out the points and make notes of them. Practice running your eye along the lines. Notice the nouns and verbs, or the subjects and predicates of sentences, and by a little practice you will be able to select the parts you wish. 11. In using questions as in studying many of the subjects in this book, first try to answer as many questions as von can in one paragraph without looking at the text for answers, then consult the text and correct and confirm your answers and read the answers to those questions you could not answer. Studying by using questions as given in this book, is only one way of studving, and is more valuable for review than for original study. We would not recommend this manner of studv as a genera] habit. It would TEACHERS AND STUDENTS' L1BRART. be well to write out the answers to as many questions as you can before consulting the text. 12. It is not best to confine your attention too Long to one sub- ject. If you have two hours a day to devote to one study, it is best to give it one hour and then change to something else for a while, and then put in the other hour. Do not sit too long at the desk in one position if you would avoid fatigue in stud} - . If studying in school, or pursuing a regular course in private study, do everything by a programme. Mark offthe twenty-four hours, giving first so many to sleep, next the proper time for meals and other necessary daily duties, and then divide your time among the different studies, allow- ing also time for recreation and miscellaneous reading, and adhere to your programme strictly; you will gain time by thus working systematically. 13. Readers might be arranged in three classes: ^ij Those who read merely to kill time or for the momentary pleasure. Such per- sons will generally be pleased with the lightest kind of fiction which requires no effort of the mind to follow. (2) Those who read that they may be able to show off their knowledge, to converse well, that they may be able, to say they have read certain books. Such persons are usually able to quote brilliant passages, and can tell you a little about a great many books and authors, but they have very little real knowledge or judgment. (3) Those who read that they may gain the highest object of reading, to strengthen the judgment, to embellish the mind with a store of information and to improve their taste, or in other words, who read for culture. Such persons enjoy reading more than either of the first two classes. They read fiction of the highest order; they read not merely for the story, but to enjoy the style of the writer, the descriptions of character anil to l^e profited by whatever of information it may contain. They read works of science, literature, poetry, history, and study them, criticise them and re-read them. iilllQlli"" SYSTEMS OF OUTLINING. 1. Pupils should be taught outlining, and every student should practice, that method of study. Outlining a subject may be considered as merely taking notes of the principal points of the lesson and arranging them in logical order. The lawyer in pre- paring his plea, the minister in writing his sermon, the physician in reporting a case, the lecturer in presenting his thoughts, the archi- SrSTEMS or nil LINING. ">0<> tect in planning a house, all make use of a system of classifying and arranging their subjects. An outline of a subject is what the skeleton is to the body, what the framework of a building is to the finished structure. In one sense, all that we get in school is hut an outline, or framework to which we may build in after life. 2. Children should be taught to practice this outlining at the earliest possible date. As soon as a child is able to write, lie diould be taught to make simple classifications of points in his lesson. The work must be approached gradually, of course, advancing from the simplest enumeration of points to the more logical arrange- ment of co-ordination and subordination of parts. 3. It is not claimed that the outlines given in this book are the best that may be prepared. The teacher is expected to take them as mere suggestions. There are many ways of outlining the same subject. In some cases we have carried out the outline into con- siderable detail, that the beginner may see what is possible to be done in this line. In most cases, however, we have made only general outlines presuming that the teacher and pupils will further amplify them. 4. This matter of outlining may be carried to extremes and the work degenerate into mere copying points of the text-book. An outline should be a means to an end, and not the end itself. It is a system very liable to abuse, but in the hands of a careful teacher is the most potent aid to study that has ever been devised. Outlines should be used in many cases as topic lists, each pupil when called upon taking a part of the outline and telling all he can about it, the others criticising and enlarging upon the same. In such cases the teacher should give the main points of the outline as a preliminary drill for the next lesson. He should draw these points from the class if possible by proper questions. 5. A proper use of the outline system will prevent the ten- dency to commit the text to memory. It will in many cases be to the advantage of the class if they have not all the same kind of text-book. Pupils will thus learn much from each other's recitations, for what one book may omit another may have and thus much broader views be obtained than if the class were confined to the narrow limits of some little text-book. Pupils will also learn that it is not the object to study the book but the subject. 6. There are many systems or plans of outlining, and it is our purpose to present a few of the most important, giving examples to illustrate each. Observe that the examples given are such as are in themselves of value and may he used as skeletons of essays, or i >r topic lists and some of them impart information also. 7. The brace system is one of the most common in use; for short outlines it is very convenient. The objection to it, however, is that it takes up too much space and it might be objected also that few persons can draw the brace so that it will look well. The fol- 510 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY lowing outline will illustrate the system and give some hints in regard to performing experiments in Philosophy and Chemistry: — ance. Preparation. 1 i For perform;! ( For explanation. Experiments. « f Steps. Performance. < Hints. State the subject. Explain apparatus and material. Perform the experiment. Be deliberate but not slow. Be cautious. 8. The position system is also very convenient for short out- lines and is much more compact than the brace system. It will be observed that it co-ordinates and subordinates by position alone, the co-ordinates being placed in the same vertical column and the sub- ordinates a little to the right. The following outline on the repro- duction of cells, or cell growth, will illustrate this system: — Reproduction. Exogenous, the cell wall bursting and liberating germs which grow to new cells. Endogenous, the nucleus enlarging and dividing into two, each of which again divides and so on. Pissiparous, the cells dividing into two or more by a splitting of the entire cell. Gemmiparous, by buds thrown out from the cell which grow to new cells. 9. The numeral system co-ordinates and subordinates both by position and numbers as will readily be seen in the following out- line of a man's life which may be made the basis of a biographical essay with any name for a subject: — (The name to be written here). life. 3. Boyhood. 1. Education. 2. Companions. 3. Proclivities. 3. Manhood. 1. School or College education. 2. Profession or occupation. 3. Achievements. 1. Books written, or inven- tions, discoveries, etc. 4. Death. 1. Time. 2. Place. 3. Circumstances attending. 5. Character. 10. The tabular system can best be shown by an example. It is very useful where statistical information is to be given (See Ancestry. 1. Parents. 1. Birth. 1. Time. 2. Place. 2. Occupation, or station in 2. Grandparents. Earlv Life. 1. Birth. 1. Time. 2. Place. 2. Early childhood. 1. Surroundings and influ- ences. SrSTEMS OF OUTLINING. .-,11 table on p. 351). The following is a model for a table of the most familiar animals showing their respective places in the classification of the animal kingdom. It will be found useful to the teacher of Zoology : — Nanus of Ani- mals. Sub-king-. Class. Order. Family. * icnus. Spe< ii -.-. Variety. Vertebrate. CI Mammalia. 11 Aves. Carnivora. ii Raptores. Canidae. Felidae. Falconidac. Canis. Fclis. Haliaetus familiaris. domcslica. leucoce- phalus. Poodle. Maltese. Cat Eagle Etc Etc 11. The composite system uses position to show subordina- tion and co-ordination and indicates the points by Roman numerals, Roman or Greek letters, figures, etc. As an example see Outli?ie of General History, p. 252. Sometimes a variety of type is used also, as in the following outline:— FORMS OF CELLS. I. CELL SHORT. i. Outline smooth. a. Spheroidal. b. Polyhedral. c. Cuboidal. d. Tabular. 2. With frenninences. 2l. Ramose, b. Stellate. II. CELL ELONGATED. 1 . Cylindrical. 2. Prismatic. 3. Fusiform. 12. The mode of representing co-ordination and subordination in the following outline though not in common use is very simple and convenient: — The Eye. Parts. Tunics. 1st, Sclerotic coat and Cornea. 2d, Choroid coat, ciliary processes and Iris. 3d, Retina. External, or columnar layer. Middle, or granular layer. Internal, or nervous layer. Humors. Aqueous. Vitreous. Crystalline Lens and Capsule. Appendages. Eyelids. Eyebrows. Conjunctiva. Lachrymal apparatus. Lachrymal gland. Excretory ducts. Lachrymal canals. Lachrymal sac. Nasal duct. 512 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY An outline similar in form to the above, except that instead of straight lines, braces are used and the points are numbered, is given in Blackstone^S Commentaries on the Lazes of England. 13. In this volume we have used several systems, but have given prominence to the exponential numeral system as being, in our judgment, the best for long outlines. At first glance it seems complicated, but on closer examination it will appear very simple. The i A.RGE figures indicate the number of the subjects under a given head and nothing more. The small superior FIGURES by being the same before all terms in the same vertical column indicate co-ordination\ by increasing from left to right they indicate the degree of subordination. In the following outline of languages notice that Keltic, Italic, etc., are numbered i, 2, etc., because they are the 1st, 2d, etc., terms under the general heading European Groups. They receive the exponent, or small figure 1, because they are co-ordinate and the first degree of subordination from the general head. In like manner, Italian, French, etc., receive the index number 1, 2, etc., because they are the 1st, 2d, etc., terms under Dialects. They have the exponent 4, because they are co-ordinate and are the fourth degree of subordination from the general head, Italic. It must be held in mind however, that the small figures under one general head have nothing to do with the same small figures under another general head, as the 4's undei Dialects have no relation to the 4's under First, Second, etc., further down : — j 1 Keltic. 1- 5 J Welsh. Irish. Gaelic. Manx. Armorican. j 1 Italic. I s Latin European Groups of Languages. 4 1 Slavonic. 1- Russian. 2 2 Polish. 3 2 Bohemian. 5 1 Teutonic. i 2 Groups. 1 3 First. i 3 Dialects. 1 4 Italian. 2* French. 3* Spanish. I* Portuguese, etc. Grecian. 1 2 Ancient. 2 a Modern. 1* English. 2< Dutch. 3* Flemish. 2 3 Second. 1* Icelandic. 2* Swedish. 3* Danish. 3 3 Third. 1* Modern German. GENERAL LITERATURE. 1. It is the purpose of this short sketch simply to give a very brief notice of the literature of the world, both past and present, and a mere mention of the great works of literature, along with a few of the prominent names in the history of literature. (For complete definitions of the word Literature, see Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.) 2. Law, politics, medicine, arts, sciences, and in fact all that per- tains to learning, or what constitutes literature in its broadest sense, were in the most ancient times associated with religion, and in this sense, the priests were the first literary men. The most ancient of historic nations, Egypt, had her literature in the form of hiero- glyphics, the meaning of the word being priestly writings. These hieroglyphics, or picture writings, were the germ of an alphabet. The characters used were in part phonetic, as also were the cunei- form characters of the Assyrians and Babylonians. To the Phoeni- cians we are indebted for the first perfect alphabet, or one consisting of characters representing elementary sounds. 3. The Greeks received their alphabet from the Phoenicians, it is thought. The Roman alphabet is derived from the Greek, and is essentially the same as that used by the English, French, Italians, Spanish and other nations. The German alphabet differs but little from the Roman. 4. The Hindoos had a voluminous literature, consisting of the Vedas (p. 260) and other writings. The Persians had a consid- erable literature, among which was the Zend A vesta (p. 260), com- piled by Zoroaster. About the 10th century arose a Persian poet, Firdousi, who wrote an epic called the Shah Nemah. 5. The literature of the Hebrews needs no mention here. We have examples of it in the Old Testament. The most valuable, it we except the Hebrew Scriptures, and by far the most original of all the literature of the ancients, is that of the Greeks. " With the Greeks, for the first time, came noble intellectual conceptions em- bodied in forms of literary art." 6. Poetry preceded prose in the Greek literature. The oldest and the greatest poems are the immortal epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer. An epic poem is a narrative or history in verse. The Iliad is a history of the Trojan war, and particularly of the anger of Achilles, the hero of the Greeks (p. 262). This poem has been translated into English by distinguished poets. The translation by Alexander Pope is one of the most celebrated, but 33 514 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRART. not the most accurate. The Odyssey describes the adventures of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Very little is known of Homer, and it lias even been douhted whether such a person ever lived, yet all agree that these works were the product of a Grecian mind ahoutSoo years before Christ. 7. About a century after Homer's lime arose Hesiod, who wrote " Works and Days" and " Theogony," poems which depicted home life ami described the origin of the world. The works of Homer and Hesiod constituted the "Bible of the Greeks," for they put in writing the beliefs concerning <^ods. 8. The Elegy (in its widest meaning, emotional poetry) was of later origin. Tyrtaus, a lame schoolmaster at Athens, wrote ele- gies which stirred up the people in war times. Lyric poetry, the chief feature of which was its connection with music, was made prominent by such names as Sappho, Anacreon and Pindar. The Drama arose during the age of Pericles. Eschylus, Sophocles and Euripides were writers of tragedy, and Aristophanes t he- master of comedy. 9. Prose literature followed, and among the great names were Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon and Plutarch, all great histo- rians (the latter a writer of biography). The great philosophers of Greece, among whom were Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, can merely be mentioned here (p. 262). Demos- thenes was perhaps the greatest orator of ancient time-. 10. The literature of Rome was at its highest during the Au- gustan age. Virgil was the author of the udSneid, an epic poem which relates the story of yEneas, a Trojan hero, who flees from burning Troy, and after years of wandering, lands in Italy and founds a city. The ./Eneid is a school text-book to-day. Horace wrote short poems, odes and satires. He was a witty and vivacious writer. Sallust was a noted historian. Lucretius and Catullus were poets. Later came Livy, the historian, Ovid, the poet, and Pliny, a writer on natural history, Juvenal, the satirist, and Tacitus, "the philosophic historian of the declining glories of Rome." 11. The Dark Ages (p. 296) following the decline of Rome, were of course unproductive of real literature. The few books written were chiefly on religious subjects, and in Latin. With the "Revival of Learning" (pp. 297, 298,) a new literature sprang up. The first language to develop a new literature was the Romance of Southern France. The first productions were chiefly extravagant fictions. Hence our word romances. Literature began to spring up in the Italian, French and Spanish about the time of the cru- sades, and a little later in English and German. 12. Of the great names in literature diuing the 14th, 15th and [6th centuries, there stand out prominently Dante, J ''et ra rc/i , Boccaccio and Tasso, poets of Italy. Dante was author of the " Divina Com- media," visions of Heaven, Hell and Purgatory. These poems GENERAL LITERATURE. 515 display a boundless wealth of imagination, and should be read by every one. Longfellow's translation is perhaps the best for English readers. Rabelais and Montaigne were philosophical writers of France; Geoflrey Chaucer, the first great English poet, author of "Canterbury Tales." More than a century later, in England, came Edmund Spenser, author of the Fairie Queene, the second great poet of England. Thirty-five years before Spenser's death was horn the "myriad-minded" Shakespeare, the greatest poet the world has ever produced. His plays are familiar to every school boy. 13. Cervantes was a celebrated Spanish writer of the latter part of the 16th century. He wrote Don Quixote, a burlesque on chivalry, and a work which will ever remain a monument in litera- ture. Coming down later, the great name of the 17th century is John Milton. His immortal poem, Paradise Lost, will never lose its high place among the great epic poems. The names and works of the 18th century are so numerous and important that it is difficult to select. We can only mention a few representative names. Dr. Samuel Johnson, a poet, prose writer and author of an English dictionary which was long the standard ; Joseph Addison, famous for his prose papers in the Spectator ; Jonathan Swift, a political writer and satirist, author of the famous Gulliver's Travels, Field- ing, the great novelist; Hume and Gibbon, great historians. The former wrote a history of England, the latter the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," a standard and exhaustive work. Pope, Burns and Goldsmith were the chief poets. These are the names of English writers. Of the French we have Voltaire, the greatest of wits and satirists, a historian, and Rousseau, a brilliant writer and educational reformer. The first great literary name among the Germans is Schiller, poet and dramatist. He is to the Germans what Shakespeare is to the English. His most noted dramas (poet- ical) are " William Tell " and « Mary Stuart." 14. Of the great names of the 19th century we scarcely know what ones to omit. In Germany we have Goethe, the poet, au- thor of Faust, Wilhelm Meister and Werthcr; Richter, a prose writer, humorist and educator. In France we have Guizot, the historian; Victor Hugo, the poet, dramatist, novelist and politician. I Ii-- greatest work is " Les Miserables." Alexander Dumas, Senior, is the greatest novelist of his day. Beranger has been called " the Burns of France." Among the British writers we have Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Campbell, Shelley, Keats and Tennyson, poets; Walter Scott, Charles Dickens and Wm. Thackeray, novel- ists/ Macaulav and Carlvle, essayists and historians. In America we have Hawthorne, Washington Irving, E. P. Whipple, Ralph Waldo Emerson, prose writers; Lowell, Longfellow, Bryant, Whittier and Holmes, poets. Bancroft, author of the most exten- sive and best history of the United States; Prescott, author of the 51G TEACHERS 1 AND STUDENTS' LI BR ART. Conquest of Mexico and Peru; and Motley, author of the Rise of the Dutch Republic. America has as yet produced no great dramatist, novelist, or epic poet, though many famous American books, as " Uncle Tom's Cabin," Cooper's novels, and some of our poets, have been read all over the civilized world. 15. Course of Reading. — A brief list of such works as every one may read with profit may properly he given here. Xo work is mentioned which is not of the highest order o( merit. In these days w hen a large volume is reprinted for ten cents, no one can plead inability to purchase hooks. Great Poems. — The Iliad, Homer (7th to 8th cent. B. C), several ;j,ood translations. The yEneid, Virgil ( 1st cent. 15. C), several good translations. The "Divine Comedy," Dante (13th cent. A. D.), Carey's and Long- fellow's translations. Paradise Lost, John Milton (17th cent.), .nily great English Epic. The Drama. — Hamlet, Merchant of Venice, Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare, 1564-1616. All his plays richly merit study. Athalie, a tragedy, Racine (17th cent.); The Misanthrope, a comedy, Moliere (17th cent.) Lady of Lyons, Bulwer (19th cent.). Miscellaneous Poems. — Hudibras, Butler, humorous satire (17th cent.) Essay on Man, Pope (iSth cent.) The Deserted Village, Goldsmith (iSth cent.) Lady of the Lake, Scott (19th cent.) Pleasures of Hope, Campbell (19th cent.) Childe Harold, Byron (19th cent.) All of Burns' poems (iSth cent.) Shelley's poems (19th cent.), (exquisite, hut the author atheistic.) Haunted House, Miss Kilmansegg and her Golden Leg, Hood (19th cent.) The following American poems (19th cent.): Evangeline, Hiawatha, Longfellow; Bigelow Papers, Lowell; The Closing Scene, T. B. Read; The One Hoss Shay, Holmes; Thanatopsis, Bryant; All of Whittier's poems. Works of Fiction. — Arabian Nights (Scene at Bagdad, 8th cent.) Don Quixote, Cervantes ( 17th cent.) {The following all igth cent.)'. Ivanhoe, Guy Mannering, Anne of Geierstein, Scott; Last Days of Pompeii, Eugene Aram, Bulwer; Vanity Fair, Thackeray; David Copperfield, Domhey and Son, Old Curiosity Shop, Little Dorrit, Dickens (begin with the first); Middlemarch, Felix Holt, George Eliot; Last of the Mohicans, The Spy, Cooper; Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne; Pes Miscrahlcs, Victor Hugo; Count of Monte Cristo, Dumas; Lothair, Disraeli. History. — Hume's and Macaulay's histories of England (are to- gether' complete); Greene's short History of the English People (best, short); Momsen's Rome and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, are together complete and monuments ol re- search (very best); Grote's Greece (very full.) The Student's Series are short and good. Macaulay's Historical Essays; Con- quest of Mexico and Peru, Prescott (full); History of France, Guizot ( full). INDEX AND GLOSSARY. EXPLANATIONS. The dates following- names of persons indicate the years of birth and death. An interro- gation point indicates doubt as to date or derivation. A number following the name of a city indicates the population according to the latest cen- sus reports. Numbers following names of mountains indicate their height in feet; following the names of rivers, their length in miles. Numbers following a. indicate area in square miles; following p., population. The last numbers in the line always refer to the pages of the text, where the subject is discussed or mentioned, and when occurring next to another number are separated by a semicolon. Exception, in the case of elementary substances the last number usually refers to atomic weight. Where no statistical or other information is given in regard to a term it is because already given in the text, or because not known or of little importance. The following abbreviations are used: Gr., Greek; Lat., Latin; Fr., French; Ger., Ger- man; Ind., Indian; Sans., Sanskrit; Sp., Spanish; It., Italian; Por., Portuguese; I.., Lake; R., River; C.,Cape; Pen., Peninsula; Dim., Diminutive; Vol., Volcano. Prosody, Mythology, and a few other subjects are not minutely indexed, but the points will be readily found by turning to the general heads. A. Ab-do'-men, Lat. abdere, to hide, and omen- tum, entrails; in the higher animals all that part of the cavity of the trunk below the dia- Chragm, in insects the third segment of the ody, 19S. Abercrombie, John. 17S1 — 1S44. Scottish phy- sician, 1S5. Aberdeen', 90,000. "The Granite City," 59. Absorption, Lat. ab, from, and sorbere, to draw, 24!$. Abyssin'ia, Arab, a mixed race; a. 158,000, p. 4,000,000; 69. Accent, Lat. ad, to, and canerc, to sing, 11; 17. Accrescent, Lat. accrescere, to increase, 239 Acetabulum, Lat a vinegar vessel, i(io. Achenium, Gr. achen, poor, defective, 241. Achlamvdeous, Gr. a, without, and chlamys, garment, 237. Acid, Latacidus, sour, 394. Acoustics, Gr. akouein, to hear, 216. Aconcagua, vol., 22,(22; 55. Adams, Samuel, 1722 — 1803; 3-5. Addison, Joseph, English pOet and essayist. 1672 17 Adhesion. Lat ad, to, and hxrere, to stick, 213. Adipose, Lat adeps, fit, 108. Adjective, Lat. ad, to, and i icere, to throw . Adolphu . ' is. i;i.) -imi; 304. • Adriatic Sea, (S( 1 of Adrian, or Hadrian, a Roman emperor , 62. .{Estivation, Lat. xstas, summer, 213. .1 thi ;-, I Afghanistan, (country of the Afghans), .1. »78,- 700, p. 4,000,000; <<■. Africa, a. 10,941,000, n. 205,000,001 ; &]\ 504 c), Ixiuisjohn Rudolph, S \ Brassiz(Ag'-a-see) naturalist and teacher, in America. ' s 7*: 5°7- Agate, 227. Air-pump, 215. Swiss 1 - 7- Alabama, p. 1,262,344, Ind. Here tue Rest. "The Lizard State," 38; 351. Alaska, 49. Alabaster, 228. Albert L., [after Prince Albert, of England], a. 26,000, alt. 2,700 ft., 6S. Albemarle Sound, 46. Albany, [Albyn,the Celtic name of Scotland^)], Albumen, Lat. albus, white, 170; 241. Albite, Lat. albus, white, jjs. Albino, Lat. albus, white, 19}. Alburnum, Lat. albus, white, 247. Alchemy, (See Chemistry), 29S. Alexandria, [from Alexander the Great, found- er], 212,034: 69. Alexander. P>. C. 350— 523; y ,7; 502. Alfred. 892(F)— 901; JOB, Algebraic Problems, Arab, gabara, to be strong, Algeria, a. IS3,9I4, p. 8,8( AJIotropy, Gr. alios, other, and tropos, direction, jaS- Allegheny R., [Ind. River of the Alligewi], 17. Alphabet, [from alpha and beta, the first two letters ol the Greek alphabet], Altai Mts., Alumina, 22^. Aluminium, A ..;.;, Sp. gr. . on R., [Ind. "boat destroyer,"] 3,750; 51. Anient, Lat amentum, a strap, Amethyst i>r. amethystos, without drunken- Amnesty, Gr. amneStOS, forgotten. Amorphous, 1 Jr. a, without, and morphos, form, Amoor, R., 2/15 : • Amsterdam, jo*, Amygdaloid, Gr. amygdalon, an almond, and eidi s, )■ »rm, j-' 1. Amylaceous, Gr. amylon, starch, imy, < hr. in 1, apart, an 1 temnein, to<.ut, 15^. 518 TEACHERS' AX J) SJ EDEX J S' J. 1 BRAKE. Anastomoses, Gr. anastomoun, to furnish with B mouth, 173. aphy, 502. Andes Mts., Peruvian, anti, copper or any metal, [mam pu, the highest peak, 34,812 ft] 51. Andorra, Androscoggin R., chanced from Intl. amasko Ir.;. in. '• nsh-spearing, ' m honor of Gov. An- ■ 1-- Androecium, Gr. tuidros, man, and oikos, house, - i''- Anhydride, Gr. ana, without, ami hudor, water, 39* Antimony, (.Stibium > I-'r. anti. against, and moinc, a monk, because monks were poisoned by it, . At. Wt., 122. Antelope, order Ungulata, 68. Antepenult, Lat. ante, before, paene, almost, and ultimus, last, 17. Anther, Gr. anthos, llower, 236. Anthropology, Gr. anthropos, man, and logos, a discourse, 254. Antietam, 3 | (., Antwerp, '• added," because built upon succes- sive d epositS ot the waters of the Scheldt, 62. Aorta, (ir. aeirein, to lift, 171. 1 tines Mts., [Mt. c orno, the highest peak, .9.546 ft], CT. Apctalous, Gr. a, without, and petalon, petal, -37. A]>o!lo, ." : Apostrophe, Gr. apo, from, and strephein, to turn, 1 ii. Apophysis, (Jr. apo ; from and phein, to grow, Application for school, 1 id. Apteryx, (Jr. a, without, and pteron, wing, order Brevipennes, 70. Aqueous humor, Lat aqua, water, 193. Aqueduct, Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead, -'?'■ Arabia, a. o6S,ioo, p. 3,700,000; 65. Arabi n .Nights, 256, 516. Aral Sea, a. 20,400, alt. 36 ft., depth 200 ft., 64. Archime'-des, Greek philosopher. Archaeology, Gr. archa, beginning, and logos, discourse, 254. Arch. can, Gr. archa, beginning, 231. Ar-e'-o-lar, Lat. areola, dim. Of area, 19S. Argentine Republic, a. 803,316, p. 2,500,000; 55. Arithmetic, Gr. arilhmos, number, 414. Aristotle, Greek philosopher. 3S4B.C. — 322 B.C. Aril, I^at. arilla, dry grapes, 241. Arizona, 49. Arkansas, (Arkansaw), p. 802,564, Kansas, <). v. with the French prefix, arc, a bow. ''The BearState." Motto, Regnant populi, "The people rule," 3^; 351. Armada, 302, Arnold, Benedict. 174 1 — 1S01 ; 330. Arsenic, As 5 , At. Wt., 75. Artesian Well, 2 1 4. Arthrodia. (', . arthron, joint, 161. Articulation, S; 17. Artery, l.at. arleria, wind-pipe, 173. A'rvan, 2s|. Arytenoid, Gr. arytainai, a ladle, 180. Asbestos. < rr. a, without, and sbennunai, to c.\- tinguisn, i2s. Ascidia, Gr. askos, a bottle. 215. Asia, a. 16,521,400, p. 707,000,000; 64,504. V 1. ' . 1 it. ail, to. and s pi rare, to breathe, iS. tii, -'5 s ; : Astrology, Gr., astron, star, and logos, a die- - 50. \ incii m, 20,000; 56. Athens, 50,000. " The Citv of the Violet Crown," -" I- . [The god who was supposed to support the world], 100; mts., 67. Atlanta, "The Queen City of the South," 34,- S"-; 7!G °°- Austin, lOwpjOOj t v - Axillary, Lat. axilla, the armpit, 239. Azoic, Gr. a. without, and zoe, life, 231. B. Babl l-.Mandcb, 65. Babylonia, j.^; 503. Bacchus, |/'. Balearic Isles, 61. 15a lu more, after Lord Baltimore, cp v., 322,190, "I he Monumental City," $6. Baltimore, Lord, (George Calvert) 1SS2 (?)— 1632; 320. Balize, a corruption of Waliz, Sp. for Wallace an Eng. pirate, a. 13,5°°> P- 2 4>7'°; S3- Baltic Sea, 57. Mall's Bluft", 342. Bancroft, George, American historian, 1S00 , 5°7- B mnockburn, 2SS. Bangor, 16.S57; 42. Barbary States, 357; 58. Barcelona, 215,965. Barometer, Gr. baros, weight and metros, mea- sure, 215. Barbarians, 32. Bartholine, Thomas, Danish medical writer, 1616 — 1680; 1 68. Barium, Gr. barns, heavy, Ba^, At. Wt. 137. Basilisk, 502. Basalt, 229. Bastile (bas-teel > 1*>. fortress, 309. Basement membrane, 19S. Beauregard, Peter Gustavus, (bo'-re-gard) > s i7 — , 34-'- Bedouins, Arab, rural, 65. Behring (beer'-ing) Sea and Strait, from Behring the discoverer, a Danish navigator, i68o(?)— 1741; 3S- Belgium, lrom \ Olga Or Bolga On whose banks the people originally dwelt, a. 11 ,373, p. 5i476»" 66S. Bcloochistan, country of the Beloochees, a. 106,- Soo, p. 350,000: Bell, John, 1707 - 1869; 341. Bennington, 3- s . Berne, tier. B bear, ('12. Merlin, Slavonic, uncultivated land, l,Ol\ 60. Berlin Decree. 334, Beryllium, Me-, At. Wt. 9.5 (SeeGlucinum). Biceps. I-at. two-headed, 164. Bicuspid. l.at. bis, twice, and CUSpiS, point, 107. Mills of Credit, 132. Bile, 170. Binary compounds, 393. Mimana, l.at. bis, twice, and m.inus, hand, 400. Bipennitbrm, Lat. bis, twice and penna, feather, 163. Birmingham, 388,884; 5S. Biscay, Bay of, bascoa, a forest, 59. INDEX AND GLOSSART 519 Bismuth, Ger. Wismuth, "a beautiful meadow from its appearance, Bi 8 . At. Wt 210. Blackstone, William, Eng. jurist, 17*3—17* . Black Hawk War, 33S. Blaine, James G., American Statesman. i\?o— . Blenheim, 305. Blood, 177. Blue Ridge, 46. . Blumenbachjohann briedrich, German natural- ist and physiologist, 1752— 1S40; 31. Boers, 69. Bogota, 50,000; 56. .... Bolivia (from Gen. Simon Bolivar, its liberator, 1783— 1830.) a 500,900,11. 2,325,000- s.v Boleyn, Anne, 1507— 1 S3 6 ; 302. . Bonds, 455. „ „ Bonaparte, Napoleon, 1767-1S21, 310. Bones, 158. „, o Booth, John Wilkes, 1S39— 'S65; 34 s . Book-keeping, 361. Books, how to read, 505. Boron, Arab, borax, B=>, At. Wt., 1 1. Borneo, Sans, land, 70. Boston, "The Hub," " City of Notions, 362,- Botam/Gr. botane, an herb, 235. Bothrenchym, Gr. pitted tissue, from bothros, a Bowe^'bn-d, (so called from its habit of building bowers and ornamenting them with shells, feathers, etc.), 70. Brain, 1S5. Brahminism, 33; 260. Brachipoda, Gr. brachion, arm, and podos, foot, 407. Brahmapootra R. 2,300; 64. Brazil [from the Sp. name of the dye wood , a. 3,210,130, p. 11,108,291; 55- Braddock's Defeat, (B., Edward, 1715 (?)— '755) ! 3 2 3- Bragg, Braxton, 1S15— 1S76; 344. Breckenridgejohn C, 1S21— 1S75; 34'- Breslau, 239,050; 60. Breccia, (bref-cha) Lat. breach, something broken, 229. Brcvipennes, Lat. brtvis, short, penna, wing, 4°^. £Y British Burmah, a. 190,500, p. 4,000,000, ofi British Columbia, a. 356,000, p. 33,5 s6 ! 5'- British Guiana, a. 70,000, p. 193,49' '- 5°- Britannia, 5(14. . . Bronchitis, (bron-ki-tis) Gr. bronchos, wind- pipe, and itis, inflammation, applied to the bron- chi, or subdivisions of the windpipe, 184. Brooklyn. ' Hie City of Churches, 46. Brown, John, 1800- 1S59; 340. Bromine, Gr. bromos. a stink, Brl, At. \\ t. 80. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, Eng poetess, 1809— 1S61 ; 507. Browning, Robert, husband of Mrs. Browning, Eng. poet, 1S12 — . Brush Light, 223; 352. Brunner's Glands, 107. Bruce, Robert, 1271 1329; aSS. Brussels. [67,603; I -. . Bryant, Wo, Cullen, American poet and jour- nalist, I'm— 1878. ^ Buchanan, James, 1791— 1S6S; 340. Buddhism, 33; 260. Buda-Peath (bo., -da-pest) (two cities were united), 309,208; 61. Buenos Avres, "good air," 200,000; 55 Buffalo, 155,13": ■!''• L „. , fQ .1 Buffalo, [BOS. htbalHS. the true buffalo of South- ern Africa, differing from the Bison (bos Americans) of our Western plains which is f.i-t becoming extinct], 70. Buhrstone, often written burr-stone, O. Eng., a whetstone, a»S. Bulgaria, Lat. country of the \olganans, or Huns, a. H,°59i !'• "- s 5J.ooo; 64. Bull Bun, ;,!-•. Bunker Hill. $»6. Burns, Ro icrt, Scottish poet, 1759—17°"; S°7- Burlington, Iowa, 19,45°; 4'- Burlington, Vt, 1 1,364 ; 48. Burnside, Ambrose B., 1S24— 1SS1; 345. .yne,John,(bur-goin , ) I 1730—1793; 327. Bursae, Lat., bursa, a purse, 16a. Burr, Aaron. 1750 — 1836; 33 1- Butternuts, ;i". co Byron, Lord George Gordon, Eng. poet, I7b!>— 1S24; 507. Byzantium, 501. c. Cabot, John and Sebastian, 316. Cadmium, Gr. for carbonate of zinc, Cd*, At. Wt. 112. Caesar, Julius, B. C. 100—44; 277. •11, Lat. blind, 166. i .isium, Csl, At. Wt. 133. Cairo, *■ City oi Victory," 349.SS3; °9- Calhoun, John C, 17S2— 1S50; 33S. California, a. 158,360. From a name in an old Spanish romance, ["The Golden State. Motto, Eureka, "I have found it," 39; 351. California, Gulf and Pen. 35. Calcia, calcium and oxvgen combined, 22S. Calcutta, cutta, a temple, dedicated to Caly, the goddess of time, Hindoo 794,645; 66. Caivv, Gr. kalvx, a cup, 236. Calbrifacient, Lat. calor, heat and facere, to make, 170. „ Calcium, Lat. calx, lime, Ca->, At. W t. 40; 2*8. Caledonia, 50). Campeachv Bay, 52. Cambridge, (Mass), 52,740; 43; 5 s - Campanulate, bell-shaped, 236. Cancer, Lat. crab, from a constellation, 29. Canvon, Sp. a tube, or hollow, 30. Canine, Lat. canis, a dog, 167. Canaliculi, Lat. little canals, 162. Canada, 50. Candia, 57. Canute, 2S7. C.inna:, 274. Canaan, 503. Capricorn, Lat caper, a goat, andcornu, a horn, from a constellation oC stars of that name, 29. Capital letters, 19. Cape, 29. Cap. Colony, a. 199,95°. P-7 20 ,9»4- Capsule, I. at. capsa, .best, 241. Capillaries, Lat. capillus, a hair, i75« Cape Breton Island, 50. Cappadocia, 501. Carbon, Lat car ■<-, coal, C*, At. Wt 12; 226. Carotid, Gr. karos, heavy sleep. The ancients thought that the flow of blood to the heart caused sleep, 174. Carapax, or carapace, Fr. 404. Cardinal points, 1; . Caraccas, >"• Carpathian MtS, 57. Cartier, James, 310. Carpel, Gr. karpos, fruit, 237; 240^ Carboniferous, Lat carbon, and ferre, to bear, karvon, a nut, and opsis, to see, »3" Caryopsis, < Sr Carnivora. Lat carnis, tlesh, and vorare.tode vour, 401. Carpus, Gr. karpos, wrist, 160. 520 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIB HART Carbo-hydrates, 170. Cardiac, Gr. cardia, heart, 105. in City, !,,ooi ■ ; 4 j. Caribbean Sea, 35. Camelian, Lat. cameos, Hesh, from its color, -'-7- C arthage, 503. Carlyle, Thomas, British Essayist and Ilisto- nan, 1795 — 1SS1. Case, 01. Caste, 261. Casein, Tat caseus, cheese, 170. Caslimcre goat, Caspian Sea, a. 132,000, S3 ft. below sea level, depth 2,700 ft., 57. Catalysis, (Jr. katalucin, to loosen, 395. Calkin, Lat. dun. of cat, 239. Cataract, Gr. kataraktas, a falling down, 191. Cathay, 504. Caucasian race, from Mt. Caucasus, 32. Caucasus MtS., (White mountains), 64. Caulis, Lat. stalk, 244. Cavaliers, 303. Cawnporc, 312. Cell, 245; 510; 51 1. Cellulose, Lat. cellula, a little cell, 170. Cenozoic, Gr. kainos, recent, and zoe, life, 233. Centi r of population, 36. Centripetal, Lat centrum, center, and petere, to move toward, 21 1. Centrifugal, Lat. centrum, center, and fugerc, to fly, 21 1. Centigrade, Lat. centum, hundred, and gradus, gree, 214. Censors, 273. Cervical, Lat. cervix, neck, 160. Cerebrum, I. at. lirain, 185. Cerro Gordo, 339. , j68; 495. Cerebro-spinal .cuter, 185. ( !i luminous, l.at. cera, wax, 195. Cerebellum, l.at. dim. of cerebrum, l8j, Ci rium, after the planet Ceres, both having- been discovered near the same date, Ce 4 , At. Wt, 03. Cervantes, Spanish novelist, and author of Don Quixote, 1547 — 1616; 510. Cetacea, l.at. cetus, a whale, 401. Cevlon, (the island of lions), 66. Charles II. 1030 — 16S5; 303. Charles XII. 10S2— 171S; 306. Chad's Ford, $2$. Charleston, 50,000, 47:326. Champlain, (after Sam. Champlain, French ex- plorer, 1507— 163s), 45 ; 48; 3#- Chapultepec, 330. Chalcedony, from Chalcedon, a town in Asia Minor, 227. ( h.irlatan,I'r. one who prates in his own favor, 7. Charlemagne, Fr. for Charles the Great, 742— Si*; --;• < halk, 228. Chaldea, 258; 503. Chaucer, Geoffrey, " Father of English Poetry," i3_-S(?) — 1400. ( heiroptera, Gr. cheir, hand, and pteron, wing, 402. Chesapeake, Ind. "Cm. it Waters," 42; 334. Chemistry, Arab, alkimia, " the secret,'" jot. Chi it, 228. yenne, (she-en'), 4,015; 50. Chii amauga, 346. Chimpanzee, (Troglrnlytss ttiger, black cave dweller"), order Quadrum.m.i . Chicago, Ind. skunk, or wild union. "The Gar- den City," "The Metropolis of the Prairies," -03,304. ; p.. Chili, "land ol snow,*' a. 132,600, p. 2,1 ; .7 Chinese Empire, a. 1,510,000, p. 434,500,000, •. China, "the middle nation," a. 1,554,000, p. 4o5,ooo,coo; 66; 311. ( hivalry, Fr. chevalier, knighc, 291. Chimborazo, '"a chimney," 21,12) ; 55. Chlorine, Gr. chloros, green, CI', At. Wt., 35.5. Chromium, Gr. chroma, color, Cr e , At. Wt., _5».5- Churubusco, 339. Chyme, Gr. chymos, juice, 169. Chyle, Gr. chyfos, juice, 169. Cicero, 279. Cincinnati, 255,708, -'The Queen City," "The Paris 0! America," 46. Ciliated, ciliary, Lat. cilia, hair, 198; 102. 1 ■ in, Lat sectio, a cutting, 245. Circulation of blood, 176. Circinate, Lat, circinare, to make round, 213. Circumflex, Lat, circum, around, and tlectere, to bend, 12. Circles of Situation, 2 < \ Civil Government, 122. Clay, 224. Clavicle. l.at. cla vis, a key, 159. Cleopatra, 69 I'.. c . 30 B. C; 278. Cleveland, 160,142, ''The Forest City," 46. Climate, Gr. klima, slope, 30. 1 k ks, 207. Clovis, 2^5. Coal, 3S] 232. Cobalt, from Kobold, the name of a demon sup- posed to inhabit the mines in Germany. Co 4 , At. Wt. 58. Coccyx, Gr. kokkux, cuckoo, from its resem- blance to the bill of that bird, 160. Cocoon, Fr. dim. of coque, shell, 405. Cochlea, Tat. a snail, 195. Cockatrice, 502. 1 'celiac axis, Gr. koilia, belly, 174. Ccelenterata, Gr. koilos, hoilow, and enteron, intestines, |c 7. Cohesion, Lat. con., together, and hacrere, to stick, 123. Colorado. 194,649, Sp. colored(f), "The Centen- nial State, motto, Nil sine memine, " Nothing without God," 39; 351 Colorado It., 1,000; 39. Columbia R., 1020; 46. Colon, Gr. kolon, a limb, 166. Coliseum, 279. Collum, l.at. neck, 245. Coligny, 151 1 — 1572; 301. Columbus, Christopher, 1435 — 'S 00 ' 3'5» Commission, 447. Commerce, 3 l Compromise ''ill, 339. i 'ompass, 27; 298. 1 oinma, Gr. a segment, 109. ( .imposition, 108. ipte, (kont), French philosopher, (Positiv- ism), 170- 1857. Concretion, l.at. con, together, and crescere, to grow, 230. Concord, 13, 838; |X. Conjunction, l.at. con, together, and junction, a joining, 102; So. Constitution. 122. Constantine, 272 ; 357; 281. Condor, order Raptorcs, 51. ' in itantinople, 000,000, City of Constantine, founded by Con tan tine the Great, 63. Consonant-, Lat con, together, and sonare, to sound, I s . Conglobate glands, Lat conglobare, to collect, "7». Conjugation, l.at. con, together, and jugare, to i,^5- 1 hi inental monci . ',21. INDEX AND GLOSS ART 521 Convolutions, I .at. con, together, and volvere, to roll, 185. Conkling, Roscoe, 1^20 ; 3 (o. Continental Congress, 325. Connecticut, p. 623,683, •' Kami of Steady Hab- its," "The Nutmeg State,' "Freestone State,*' " Blue Law State," Ind. name, mean- ing " long river.' 1 Motto, £ic* transtuiit sus- tiiul, " I le who brought us over sustains us." 3o;35'.3'S- Convolute, see convolutions, 2 1 3. Conglomerate, Lat. con, together, and glomerer, to roll, 229. Coper 'nicus, Prussian astronomer, 1473 — i;t,;. Copper, (Lat. cuprum), Cu2, At. Wt., '>•-,.•,., Sp. Gr., s .o. Copperheads, 346. Corium. Lit. leather, 18a. Cornwallis, Charles, 173s — [S05; 331. Corolla, Lai. a crown, 230. Conn, 2 1 1. Corinthian, 269. Coriaceous, Lat. corium, leather, 240. Coralline, resembling coral, 24;. Cortical, Lat. cortex, bark, 217. Corundum, 22^. Cornea, Lat. cornu, horn, 192. Corymb, z\o. Corsica, the birthplace of N'apolcon, 57. Costa Rica, a. 21,495, p. iS5,ooo; 55. Cosmetics, Gr. kostnos, ornament, 184a Cotyledons, Gr. kotula, a cup, 241 ; 243; 2 p. Cotopaxi, vol., 18,875; 55. Covington, 29,720; 41. Cranium, 159. Cranial nerves, 1S6. Crassus, 277. Credit Mobilier,349. Creoles, 52. Cretaceous, Lat. crcta, chalk, 233. Cricoid, Gr. krikos, a ring, and cidos, form, t^o. Crimean War, 312. Crocodile, 6S; 404. Cross-eves, 194. Cromwell, Oliver, 1599—165$; 303. Cruciform, Lat. crux, cross, and forma, form, »33. Crusades, Lat. crux, cross, 294. Crystalline lens, 193. Cuba. ;;. Cuboid, Gr. kubas, cube, and eidos.lorm, 161. Culloden, 307. Culm, Lat. culmus, stalk, 24^. Cuneiform, Lat. cuneus, a wedge, and forma, form, 160. Cupid, i";. Curfew, Fr. COUVTir, to cover, and leu, tire, 2 s -. Cuticle, Lat. cutis, skin; cutis vera, true skin, 182. Cuvier, French naturalist, 1700— 1S32. Cycloidal Pendulum, Gr. kuklos, circle, and eidos, form, 210. Cyme, Gr. kyma, a wave, 240. Cyprus. 57. Cyrus, 2'o. Cyrenatca, 501. Cytoblast, Gr. kystos, cell, and blastcnein, to sprout. 246. D. Dakota, 49. Data Dana, fan I D., American geologist, 1S1 ; . Danton, 1759- 1794" 30°. Danube It , " low plain or meadow," iSoo; 57. Darius, a Dark Ages, . Darwin, Charles, English naturalist, 1 Develop- ment thei ; 507. Davis, Jefferson, 1S06 ;.;i-; 348. Davenport, 21,833 ; ♦'■ D. is- ami \ ight, .7. Dayton, 3V77 ; y,. Deadwi 1 id, 1,258; 49. Declaration ni Independence, 327. luous, Lat. de, off, and cadere, to fall, 2;-.. Decimals, Lat. decern, ten, 130. tes, 28. Deglutition, Lat. de, down, and glutere, toswal- low, 1 ••). Dehiscence, Lat. dehiscere, to open, 240. Delaware, after Thomas West, Lord d,- la Ware, " Phe Diamond State," -The Blue Hen's Chickens." Motto, Libert van J Independence, p. 140,650; 39; 351. Delta, 1 1& Deltoid, Gr delta, and eidos, form, 164. Demons, ; Democrats, ^\. Dentine, Lat. dens, a tooth, 167. Denmark, a. 1 (.7^0. p. 1,940,000; "■',. Denver, 35,630; 39. Derma, Gr. skin, 182. De Soto, Ferdinand, 1496 — 1542; ;i S D'Estaing, 1729— 1794; 329. Des Moines, 22,408; 41. Desert, 30. Detroit, 116,342, "City of the Straits,' 1 (j; 335. Devonian, from Devonshire, Eng., where first studied, 232. Dey, 337. Diastase, Gr. dia, through, and istanai, to stand, "■48. Diastole, Gr. dia, asunder, and stellein, to place, 176. Diaphragm, Gr. dia, through, and phrassein, to fence, i^). Diacritical spelling, i*\ Diarthrosis, Gr. dia, through, and arthron, a joint, 161. Diatoms, Gr. dia, through, and tetnnein, to cut, 246. Diadelphous, Gr. dis, twice, and adelphos, brother, 237. Diana, 26S. Diaphysis, Gr. dia, through, and phein, to grow, ■5 s -" Diagramming, Gr. dia, through, and graphein, to write. 89. Dickens, Charles, English novelist. 1S12 — 1-70. Didvmium, Gr. didymos, double, D-, At. Wt. />. Didactic poems, p:. Diet of Spires, 299. Diet of Worms, 299. Digastric, Gr. di, double, and gaster, belly, >6j. Digraph, (Jr. di, double, and graphein. to wiite, Dimorphous, Cr. di, double, and morphos, form, 398. . Gr. di, double, and oikos, house, .'|\ Diocletian. 180. Dipping needle, ---. Diphthong, Gr. di, double, and pthongos, \ 18. : ' int. 152. : ' table, 17. 1 1 r acli (di/.-ra -lei 1. Benjamin, Karl of Beacons* field, English Prime Minister, and author, 180; :i6. Divisi Dnieper U. (nee -pari, i.oSo; 57. Dodo, Doge, 1S9. ite, --■ . TEACHERS' AXD STUDENTS' LIBRARY. Dolomite, 2:7. D..:i K., •• deep," 960; 57. Dorr Rebellion, 338. Doric, -'•'• Dorsal, Eat. dorsum, back, 160. Douglas, Stephen Arnold, 1S13 — 1S61 ; 340. Dover, 7,504; 39. Draco, ."■(. Drift, 233. Drupe, 241. Druids, 502. Dryads 496. Dubuque, from Julian Dubuque, a French ex- plorer, 22,254; ■('• , , , Ductility, Lat ductilis, from ducere, to lead, 205. Ductus communis choledochus, "common duct oi the chyle," 169. Duodenum, Lat twelve, because 13 finger- breadths in length, 166. Duramen, Lat durare, to harden, 247. Dwina R., 864; 57- E. Earth, 25; 27. Bar, 195. Early, Juba] A., iSis(?) ; 347. Echinodermata, Gr. echinos, spine, and derma, skin. Echo, 496: »l6. Ecuador, "equator," a. 243,390, p. 1,500,000, 55. Edda, 499. Edentata, 402. Eden, Hebrew, delight. Edict of Nantes, 301. Edmbnrgfcdinburro), 200,000; 59. Edison, Thomas Alva, American electrician and inventor, 1847 ; 352. Education, I. at. e, out, and ducere, to lead, 37. Edward the Confessor, 2S7. Egypt.a. 1,051,162, p, 17,386,280; 68; 255; 502. Eider duck, 51. Elam, 503. ticity, 205. Elbe Jt.,57- Electors, 132. Electric light, 225. Electricity, Gr. clektron, amber, because first produced by rubbing amber, 219. Electrolysis. 222. Electroplating and Elcctrotvping, 223. Elephant, 68; 401. Element. 1. J91, Elizabeth, 1533 — 1603; 301. Eliot, George, the assumed name of Marian Evans, an English novelist, married Geo. II, Lewes, 1820 (?)— 1881; 5°7- Eli ution, Lat e, out, and loqni, to speak Elves, 500. Emanuel, Victor, 294. !. bryo, Gr. em, in, and bryein, to produce, 2 (S. wg-0,334. Embalming, 257. Emerald, 35. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, American essayist and philosopher, 1803 — ; 51 Emery, 228. Emphasis, 11. Kn arthrosis, (Jr. en, in, and arthron, joint, l6l. Enamel, i( 7. Bncepalon. Gr. en, in, and kephale, head, i\v Encysted, Gr. en, in, and cystes, a sac, \ ■ I 111, 1589—1655; 318. i idoi urdium, Gr.eodon, within, and kardia, "'■ ' 7i ' , Endoc irp, Gr. 1 ndon, and karpos, Iruit, 240. I ,■ . endon, and gi nesthai, to be produced, 24S. Energy, 20S. England, "Angle land," a. 50,922, p. 23,590,116; 58 and 2S6. Entomology, Gr. entomos, an insect, 399- Bolus, 497- Eozoon Canadensc, 231, Eozoic, Gr. eos, dawns, and zoe, life, 231 . Bpaminondas, 267. Epiglottis, Gr. epi, upon, and glolta, a tongue. Epidermis, Gr. epi, and derma, skin, 182. Epiphysis, Gr. epi, and phein, to grow, 15S. Epicarp, Gr. epi. Equator, 2S. Bquitant, Lat. equitare, to ride, 213. Equilibrium, Lat equal weight, 209. Erbium, from Yttcrbv, Sweden, where found. Eb'-\ At. Wt, 1 12.6.' Erebus, 492. Erie, L., Ind. " a wild cat," a. 10,000, alt. 565 ft. depth, So ft. Estuary, 30. Ethmoid, Gr. cthmos, a sieve, and eidos, form, '59- Ethiopian Race, Gr. aithein, to burn, 31. Ether, 21S. Etna, vol. 10,874; 61. Etruscan, 270. Etymology, Gr. etymos, real, and logos, dis- course, 79. Ethiopia, 504. Euphrates' K. 1750. Eustachian valve and tube, from Eustachi, an Italian physician, 172; 195- Eutaw Springs, 330. Evansvillc, 29,280; 41. Exchange, 4.56. Ex post facto law, after the fact or deed, 131. Excretion, Eat. ex, out, and crescerc, to grow, iS*. Executive Department, 132. Expansibility, 205. Expiration, Eat. ex, out, and spirare, to breathe, l8l. Eye. 192; 511. F. Factoring, 429. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, Ger. physicist, tOSo — 1730; 219. Falx cerebri, and cerebelli, Eat. falx, a scythe, 186. Faraday, Michael, Eng. chemist and naturalist, 1791 — 1869 . Parragut, David Glascoe, 1S01— 1S70; 315. Faroe Isles, 58, Fascicle, Lat. dim. of fascis, a bundle, 2 p.. Faults, 230. Faun, 490. Federalist, 337. Feeji e Isles, 70. Feldspar, Ger. feld, field, and spath, spar or splinter, 22S. Femur, 100. Ferdinand, 1452—1516; 315. Fetichism, Lat tacticius, artificial, 33; OS. Fibula, Eat. ngere, to fasten, 161. Fibrine, 170. Fii F, 201. Figures of Bpeech, 476. 1 worship, 260. Fiord, Danish, " an inlet," 30. Flamingo, Lat flamma, flame. Order Lamelh- rostres, si. Flexibility, 205. Flint, Florence, 2^0. INDEX AX J) GLOSSAJRT. 523 Florida, from Easter Sunday, Pascu i Florida, "The Peninsula State." Motto, " In God we trust." p. 266,566; 40; 351, Fluorine, Lat. tluo, to How, because used in compounds as a (lux in melting metals. Fl 1 , At. Wt. 19. Follicle, Lat. folliculus, a small bag, 241 . Food, 170. Foramen, Lat. forare, to pierce, 159. Force, 206. Fort Du Quesne, 322. Fort Necessity, 322. P'ort MeigS, 336. Fort Mc Henry, 336. Forum, 2S0. Fossil, Lat. fossum, to dig, 226. Fossil Ivory, 65. Fractions, 433. Franco-Prussian War, 313. Franks, 2S4. Frankfort, 7,000; 41. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 95,000; 60. Franklin, Benjamin, 1706 — 1790; 325. France, a. 204,092, p. 36,9os,7SS; 59; 311 Fredericton, 6,006; 51. Frederick the Great, 1712 — 17SS; 300. Fredericksburg, 345. Fremont, John Charles, 1S13 ; 339 French Revolution, 307. Friction, Lat. fricare, to rub, 211. Feudal System, 290. Funiculi, Lat. funis, a cord, 1S9. Furies, 497. Fusiform, Lat. fusus, a spindle, and forma, form, 246. Galerius, 2S1. Galeate, Lat. galea, a helmet, 23S. (Jail bladder, 169. Gallina?, Lat. gallina, a hen, gallus a cock, 403. Galileo, (gal-i-lee-o,) Italian astronomer, 1564— 1642. Galvanic, 222. Galveston. 22,253; 4 s - Gamopetalous, Gr. gamos, wedding, petalon, petal, 23S. Ganglion, Gr. a swelling-, 1S7. Ganges R. " great river," 1600; 64. Garfield, James Abram, 1831 — 1SS1; 349. Gastric follicles, 166. Gasteropoda, Gr. gaster, belly and podos, foot, 407. Gastrocnemius, Gr. gaster, belly and kneme, leg, 164. Gaudaloupe Hidalgo, 339. Gauls, 270; 503. Gelatine, Lat. gelare, to congeal, 162. Gender, Lat. genus, birth, So. Genii, singular, genius, 49S. Georgia, from George II of Eng. " The Buz- zard Slate.'' Motto, "Wisdom, Justice and Moderation." p. 1, 538,983; 40; 351. Geography, Gr. ge, earth andgraphein, to write, 26. Geode, Gr. ge, earth, and oidos, form, 230. Geology, Gr. ge, earth, and logos, a discourse, 231 Germany, a. 208,431, p. 42,727,360; 60; 2S9. Germ, Lit. gfermere, to produce, 24 1 . Geysers, Icelandic, geysa, to be impelled, 140. Ghent, Treaty of, 337. Ghibbellincs,.2S9. Ginglymous. Gr. a hinge, 161. ( rirondists, 310. tone, Win. Eng. statesman, 1S00 . iiolns, Lat. dim. of gladius, a sword, 159. Glass, 21,17. Glaus, Lat. an acorn, 241. Glasgow, 578,150; 59. Glosso-pharyngeal, nerve " tongue and phar- ynx, iSS. Glomerule, Lat. glomus, a ball, 2.10 Glucinum, see Beryllium. Glumes, Lat. glumii, husk, 239. Gluten, Lat. giuerc, to draw together Gneiss, 230. Godfrey, 295 ( Solden Age, 379. Gold, (Lit. Aurum), Au». At. Wt. 197, Sp. Gr. ^ 1931, melting point, 1250, c. Gomphosis, Gr. a bolt, 161. I Hope, C, ' 7 . Goodyear, Charles, American inventor, 1S00 — 1S60; 352. Government, in School, 471. Gorilla, (Troglodytes gorilla). See Chimpanzee, 68. Gorgons, 497. Government, 33 ; 122. Granite, Lat. granire, to make grains, 229. Grant, Ulysses Simpson, 1S22 ; 349. Graphite, Gr. graphien, to write. Grand Banks, 52. Grammar, 70. Granular lids, 194. Gracchi, 276. Gravitation. Lat. gravis, heavy, 208. Great Bear L. a. 9,300, alt. 230 ft ; 36. Great Lakes, 36. Great Salt Like L. a. 3,200, alt. 4,2-0 ft. Great Britain, 58. Great Meadows, 322. Greece, a. 19,353, p. 1,679,775; . »■ Icthvology, Gr. ichthys, fish, and logos, dis- Idaho, 49. Igneous, Lat. i^nis, hre, 22 >. Ileo oecal valve, H»>. Ileum, Lat. ilia, groin, 166. Ilium, Lit. ilia, groin, 160. Iliad, 263. Illinois, Ind. and Fr. "Tribe of men," "The Sucker Mate," "The Prairie State.' Motto, "State Sovereignty, National Union," p. 3.078.636; 4"; 35'- 1,405. Impeachment, 12S. Impenetrability, 204. Incus, Lat, an anvil, 195. Incisors, Lat. incidere to cut, 167. Inclined plant , 123. Indian Territory, 49. Indium, In 4 , At. Wt 76. Indians, 314. In.li is tructibility, 205. India, a. 1,576,650, p. 245,750,000; 06. Induction, Lat. in, and ducere, to had, 222. Indo-China, a. 780,560, p. 35,757,000; 1 6. Indus H., 1S50; 64. Indiana, from the Indian. "The Hoosier State," p. 1,978,36a j 10; 35 '■ Inertia, Lat. in, not, and ars, art, 204. Inflection, Lat. in, and llectere, to bend, 12. Infinitives, Lat. infinitivus, not bounded, 87; 101. Inflorescence, Lat. in, and florescere, to begin to blossom, 239. Inkennan, 312. Innominata, Lat. in, not, andnominare, to name, 100. Inquisition, 300. Inspiration, Lat. in, and spirare, to breathe, l8l. Interjection, Lat. inter, between, and jacere, to throw, S7. Internodes, Lat. inter, between, and nodus, knot, 2 1 1. Intestine, Lat. intus, within, 166. Interest, 4 io. Involucre, Lat. " to wrap." 239. Iodine, Gr. ion, violet, and eidos, likeness, from the color of its vapor, II, At. Wt, 127, Sp. (ir. 4«95- Ionic, 2"<). Iowa, Ind. "drowsy ones," "The'Hawkeye State." Motto, Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain ; p. 1,624,46;; 41 ; 35'- Irawaddy R., 1,200, Southern Asia. Ireland, " The Emerala Isle," a. 32,531, p. 5. 324; 59- Iridium, Lat. iris, the rainbow, Ir*, At. ^ t. 197, Sp. Gr. 21.1. Iris, " the rainbow, " 192. Irish Land League, 51 5. Iron, (Lat. FerruniJ, Fe«, AtWt 56, Sp. Gr. 7.84. Irving, Washington, American author, 17S3— 1859; 50 i. ' 'i. '15 1 --1504; 3'5- Ischium, Gr. ischion, the hip, 160. Israelites. 2 v. [slam, 33. Isthmus, Gr. a neck, 29. Italy, a. 114,415, p. 2S, 209,620; 6t Italics, 1 12. Jackson, ("Miss.), 1,750; (4. Jackson, Andrew, 1707- s,- ; .- ]a. kson, "Stonewall," 1S24— iS<5: Jacksonville, (l-'la.), 14,500; 40 jacquerit . Jaguar, order carnivora, 51. ii a, ;',. Jamestown. 317. 3; 345- INDEX AX J) GLOSSART 525 Janus, 2S0; .\qi\ Japan, a. 146,613; p. 33,623,373; 317. [asp< 1 . 22s. Java, 70. Jay Hawkers, 340. Jefferson, Thomas, 1743— 1S25, "The Father of Democracy," 33]. Jefferson City, 71-3; 44. Jejunum, Lai. 'empty,'' 166. Jena(ya'-na),.6b. Jerusalem, 50S. Jewish Religion, 33. Johns in, Albert Sidney, 1S03 — 1S62; 344. Johnson, Joseph E. iSo~ ; 347. Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 1709—17^4, English lexi- 1 .!|ih<-r and writer. Johnson, Andrew, 1S0S— 1S75; 3+S. Jones, John Paul, 1747— '792; 329. Josephus, 503. Juno, 26S; 494. Jupiter, or Jove, 493. Jurassic, from Jura Mts., 236 Jutes, 286. K. Kalahari Desert, 6S. Kamtschatka, 64. Kansas City, 55.^13: 42. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 340. Kansas. Ind. " smoky water," "The Garden of the V 'est." Motto, Adastra ptr aspera, " To the stirs through difficulties," p. 995,966; 41; 3SJ- Kangaroo, order marsupialia, 70. Katahdin Mts., 5,385 ft.; 42. Keats, John, English poet, 1796 — 1S21. Keewatin, 50. Kentucky, Ind. "at the head of a river," " The Blue Grass Slate," " The Corn Cracker State." Motto, " United we stand, divided we fall." p. i/'i-^.w; 4>; 3S 1 - Khedive, 6<. Kilimandjai o Mt., 67. Kinetic, Gr. kinein, to move, 207. Kingston, 53. Kings Mt., 330. Knights-errant, 292. Koran, same as Alcoran, Arab., "the hook," 2S5. Kossuth, 1802 ; 312. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, 1746 — 1S17; 329. Krause, German philosopher, 17S1 — 1S32. Kuklux, 349. L. Labrador, Sp. "cultivatable land," to distinguish it from Greenland, 52. Labradorite, 228. Lacuna, (>r. lakos, a pic, 162. Lacteal, Lat. lac, milk, 17S. Lacertilia, Lat. lacerta, a lizard, 404. irymal glan I, Lat. 1 icryma, a tear, 193. Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yyes Gilbert Motier, 1757— 1S34; 309. Lamella, Lilt. 1 imina, a plate, 162. Lamellirostres, Lat. lamina, a plate, and rostrum, a beak, 40?. language, Lat, Lingua, a tongue, 7"; 512. Lanthanum, Gr. lanthanein, tobe c .La-, At. W't . .,.'. La Pa , 75.000; 55. nt, Lat. latere. t<> lie concealed, 219. Latitude, Lat, latus, broad, wide, 55. Laurentian, from St. Lawrence K., 231. Lava, I.nt. lavare, to wash, 220. Law, Lead, (Lat. plumbum), I'i<, At. W't., 207, Sp. gr. 11.21; 35. I.-. . Robert I-., 1S07— 1S70; 344; 348. Lee, Charles, 1731 — 1782; 327. Legume, Lat legere, to gather, 241. Letp 1 11. Lena R., 2,700; 04. Lens, Lat. lentil, a kind of seed, 21S. Leopold, 313. Leopard,- Felis leopardus, order carnivora, 6S. Leonidas, 265. Lepidus, 27S. Letter writing, 22. Letters of marque and reprisal, 132. Lewis and Clarke, 334. Liberia, Lat. free, free State, 69. Lieberkuhn, German physiologist, 167. Ligament, Lat. ligare, to bind, 161. Light, 217. Lightning, 221. Linn (lee -ma), 100,073, S' J - Limbosa, Lat. limbus, border, 161. Limestone, 35; 229. Lincoln, Neb., 13,004; 44. Lincoln, Abraham, 1809 — 1S65; 340; 34S. Linnams, Swedish botanist, " Father of Botanv," 1707-177S. Lion, (Fc-/is l,-o), order carnivora, 6S. Lisbon, a corruption of Ulyssipo, and said to have been founded bv L T lvsses, q. v., 265,032; 61; 143- Little Hock, from a rock in the river, visible at low water, 13,185; 39. Liver, 16B. Livingstone, 1S13 — 1873; 69. Livy, 59 B. C— 17 2V. D. ; 279. Llanos, 30. Llama, {anchenia llama), allied to the camel, order nngulata, 54. Lobules, "little lobes," 16S. Loculicidal, Lat. loculus, a cell, and ccedere, to Cut, 240. Lombardy, 2S5. I-ondon, 3,620,86s, " City of Masts," 58. Longfellow, Henry W., American poet, 1807 — Long Parliament, 303. Long Island, 327; 45. Longitude, Lat. longus, long, 28; 440. Loricata, Lat. ioricare, to clothe in mail, 404. Louisiana, alter Louis XIV, of France, "The Creole State," " The Pelican State. ' Motto, "Justice, Union and Confidence," p. 940,213; 4-; 351. Louis XIV, "The Great," 1638— 1715; 305. Louisburg, 323. Lowell, James Russell, American poet and es- sayist, 1S19 . Lowell, 59,435, •• City of Spindles," 43. lands, 29. Lucknow, 312. Lumbar, Lat. Iambus, loin, 160. Lungs, 17'/. Luther, Martin, 14S3 — 1546; 2 ; 1. Lutzen, 304. Lymphatics, allied to Nymphe, goddess of moisture, 17 s . T.vnn, 3?,a04J 13. Lyre bird (menura superb. 1). or ler pa*seres, 70. M. Macaulay, Thomas B., English historian, es- sayist and statesman, 1S00 — 1859; 507,516. Machines, (Jr. machos, means, 211. Mackenzie R., 2,300; 3d. Ion, 2'4. : ima, 504. Magnesium. Magnesia, a town in Asia Minor, M g», At. \\ • . . .- ; . 1 Charts (magna-kar-ta), . - TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY Magi nta, 31s. Mahomet, j s > M ine, " main land," "The Pine Tree State, 1 "The Border State." Motto, Dingo, "I di- rect,"p. 648,945; t-=; 35'- Malaysia, 7". Malay Rao . 31. Malleability, Lat malleus, a hammer, 205. Malleus, I -it. a hammer, 195. Mammoth Cave, 41. Mammoth, Tartar, mamma, the earth, because believed that this animal worked in the earth like a mole. (Elefkas primogemis), fossil, anything- large, 2;;. Mammalia, Lat. mamma, the breast, 402 Management of School, 464. Manchester, Eng., 361,819; 58. Manhattan island, 45. Man-i-to-ba', 51. Manganese, probably a modified form of mag- nesia, as their compounds were confounded, Mn«, At. Wt. 55, Sp. gr, 8. Manubrium, Lat manus, a hand (" a handle ") 159. Map Drawmg, 7a. Marco Polo, i»S4(?]— i3*4443; 44; 35"- 1 Nebular Hypothesis, 231 ; 139 Nebuchadnezzar, 259. Neptune, 49}. Nervous System, i^t- , Netherlands. (" low lands "). See Holland, 300. Neurilemma, Gr. neuron, nerve, and lemma, a Nevada 1 ,'-' I 'he Mining State." Motto, "Will- ing and able," 44; 3s ■• New Orleans, Battle of, 3?7- Newfoundland, 52. New England, $8. New Brunswick, a. 27,322, p. 2S.;,S9t; 5°; 5'- Newport, Ky., 20,4,33; \t. New Haven, Ct, 62,882, " C ity ot Elms,* 39- New Orleans. La., 210,140, " Crescent C ity, *i. New Zealand, a. 105,3421 P- 4M>o«>: 7?- New York City, 1,206,590, " Empire City, 1 t New York, " The Empire State." Motto, •■ E • celsior," p. 5,083,173; 45! 35?" . , Ni Hampshire, " I he Granite State, p. 340, New jersey, "The Clam State," "The Garden State." Motto, " Liberty and Independence, p. 1,130, IS'- Newark, N.J., I3",4<*>'. IS- New Guinea, 70. New Mexico, 50. Niagara Falls, 46; 14S. Nice, 2Q5. , , Nickel, from nil, worthless, as was first sup- posed, Ni«, At Wt S9f S P> >- rr - ^ J - Nicar.iug.i, a. ,\ooo, p. 300,000; 53. nee, English philanthropist, . Nile II., 4,000; Nineveh, 503. N . ium, S ■■'. At. Wt ot- Nitrogen, Gr. nitron, niter, and genere, to gener- ate, N», At. Wt it, Sp.gr. 0.969. Nodes, I- it. nodus, knob; 244. Nodulous, »45 Northmen, 315; J99. Norman Conquest, 2S7. Norfolk. \'a., 21,966; ?J". North Pole, - . , _ , North Carolina, from Charles II, of England, "The Old North State," "The Turpentine Slate," p. 1, 100,000; 46; 351. Nottingham, 58. Noun, Lat. nomen, name, 7;. Nouns parsed, 99. Nova Scotia, a. 21,731, p. 3*7.Soo; " New Scot- land,'' 35. Numidia, 504. Nymphs, 196. o. Oases, 30. Obsidian, 229. Obturator foramen, 160. I I olute, Lftt ob, and volvere, to roll, 243. Occipito trontalis, 164. Ocean, 30. i >, eanica, a. 4,2 m, p. ,iNHt.«»; °9- Octavius, 27s. Odin, 499. ... Oesophagus, Gr. oiso, future of pherein, to bear, ana phagein, to eat, 165. Oglethorpe, limes, 1696— 17S5; 320. Ohio, Ind. •'beautiful river," "The Buckeye State." Motto, Imperium in imperio, " An empire within an empire, "p. 3. '97.794; 40", 3S 1 - Okhotsk Sea, 65. Olecranon process, 160. < >leaginous, Lat olea, olive, 17c. Olfactory, Lat. olere, to smell, facere, to make, 187. Olfactory cells, 192. Olymnus, 493. Olympiad, 263. Olvmpia. \Y. T., 1,250; 50. Omaha, $0,518; 44. OOlite, Gr. oOn, egg, lithos, stone, 22^. Opaque, 217. Opal, 22^. Opacity, Lit. opacere, to shake, 104. Oph'uli'a, 40). Oplics, Or. ops, sight, 217. Ophthalmic, Gr. ophthalmos, eyes, 1S7. Oracles, _■ Orbiculo palpebrarum, v , Oregon, Sp. oregano, wild mar]orum, I he, Beaver State." Motto, Alis volat proprus; " She rlies with her own wings," p. 174,767; |6 Ornithologist, Gr. ornis, ornithos, bird, logos, discourse, 3g9- Ornithorhynchus, Gr. ornithos, turd, and rhyn- Orthography, Gr. orthos, right, graphem, to write, 7 1. . , Os cal me, and calx, heel, 101. Os hyoids, 161. Osiris, 257. Osmium, Os«, At Wt 109. Osn: «is, impulse, 123. ■ I 1 triquetra, 161. . Ossification, Lat. os, bone, and tacere, to make, 163. -i h, order brevipennes, 68. Ottomans, Outlining. ne m tps 73- ,, icid, and genesis, generation, At Wt 16, Sp. gr. 1. 105". Packcnham, Edward, 317. Pales, : | •■ TEACHERS* AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY P -inc, 503. Palo Alio, 339. Paleozoic, Or. palaios, ancient, and zoe, lite, 1 , (Jr. palaios, ancient, onta, being, and logos," discourse, 232. Palladium, Pd«, Ai. Wi. 106. Pallas and Palladium, 495. Pampas, Peruvian lor plain, 30. Pan, -. - 1. Pandora, 49S. Panicle, i\0. Pancreas, Gr, pan, all, and kreas, flesh, 169. Papyrus, 29S. is, Gr. pappos, an old man, 238. • Papilii Lat. papilio, a butterfly, 2 s s Papua, 70. Papillae, 182. Paraguay, a. 02,000, p. 293,844; 56. Parenchyma, Gr. para, beside-, and enchein, to pour, 243, Parotid, Gr. para, beside, and ous, Otos, cir, 16S. Participle, Lat particeps, sharing, 101; B7. Parliament. Ital. parlare, to speak, 58. Parliamentary Hub-, i s ,;. Parchment, from PergamOS, where invented, :,-. Paragraph, Gr. para, beside, and graphein, to write, 112. Parenthesis, Gr. para, beside, and entithenai, to put in, 1 1 1. Pari-, 1 . , l'he City of Fashions,"' 262. Par vagum, 188. Parthenon, 209. Parieials, 150. Partial Payments, 45-- Pascal, 1623 ifiba, French philosopher, 314. Paterson, SO.SS;; 44. Pathetic, Gr. pathos, suffering, 1S7. Patricians, 271. Pearls, 30. I', duni ■ . 1 at. pes, pedis, foot, 239. Pekin, 1,500,000; 67. Pelvis, 160. Peloponnesus, 262; 166. Pennsylvania, from Wm. Penn, and sylvan, woods, " The Keystone State," Motto, Virtue, liberty and independence," p. 4,282,786; 47; $51. Pendulum, Lat. pendere, to hang, 210. Penates, a8i. Penniform, Lat. penna, feather, 163. Penmanship, 382. I'. nult, 17. Peoria, JU.3'5', 4°- Pepin, 714 7 ,lS ; ^SS- Pepo, Lat. pepo, a melon, 241. Peptic glands, 160. Percentage, Lat. per, by, and centum, hundred, Periosteum, (Jr. peri, around, and osteon, a bone, 162. loth, <>r. peri, around, and anthos, a flow- 's 6, ~ ■ j r 1 I'erigvnous, Gr. pen, around, and gyna, female Peritoneum, Or. pen, around, and tenein, to stretch, 19S. Pericardium, Gr. around the heart, 198. Pericarp, Gr. around the fruit, 240. ;•, ,,, 1. ,1 >j B. 1 . -420 15. C; 200. Period, Gr. peri, around, and odos, way, 109. Persia, a. ' 36,000, p. 6fi& .■ o; 66, Perineurium, Or. perl, around, and neuron, n. rve, i"*q. Peru. a. (03,380, p. ».' sO.oOO; 50; 315. Petals, Gr. petalon, a 1 « - - • * . 236. Petioll , Lat. " a little foot," 242. P. tili,.n of Right, 303. Petroleum, Lat. petra, a rock, and oleum, oil 23 * Peter the Oreat, 1672—1725; 306. Peter the Hermit, io;o — 1115. 294. Petrous, LaL petra, stones, 159. Pej ei's glands, 107. I'll irsaiia, .'77. Pharynx, (Jr. 165. Phalanges, 161 ; 160. Philology, Or. philos, loving, and logos, dis- course. Phillippi, 27S. Philadeli " Iphia, 846,984, "City of Brotherly Love,*' 47- . Phcnix, 501. Phoebus, 495. Phoenicians, 259. Phonic spelling, 17. Phonograph, Or. phone, sound, and graphein, to write, 2 17. Phosphorus, Gr, phos, light, and pherein, tc bear, P», At. Wt. 31. Photophone, Or. phos, light, and phone, sound, 217. Phrygia, 504. Physics, 203. Physiology, Or. physis, nature, and logos, dis- course, 157. Physical Geography, 26. Phvliotaxv, Gr. Phyllon, leal, and taxis, order, l'ia Mater, La;, "a tender mother," 1S6. Picarae, 403. Pickering, American philologist, 1777 — 1846531. Pigmentary, 19S. Pinna, Lat. " feather," 195. Pistil, Lat. pinserc, to crush, 236. Pisiform, Lat. pisum pea, forma, form, 160. Pitt, William, 1708— 1778. Platinum, Sp. platina, dim. of plata, silver, Pt*, At. W't. 107, Sp. gr. 21.5. Plataea, 265. Plant, 236; 139. Plaster of Paris, 22s. Plateau, Gr. platus, flat, 30. Plantagenets, 287. Plasma, 177. Plebeians, 271 Pleurenchyme, 246. Plumbago, Lat plumbum, lead, 35. Pluto, 494. Pneumogastric, Gr. pneumon, lung, gaster, stomach, iSS. Pneumatics, Oi. pnevina, wind, pnein, to blow, Pocahontas, is.95— 1617; 317. Poetic Feet, 15; 480. Poetry, 4 So. Poland, 307. Politics, Gr. politicos, from polis, city, 34. Polynesia, 70. Poles, 27. Political geography, 26. Polytheistic, (ir. polvs, many, theos, god, 33. Polysyllabic, Gr. polys, ancfsyll ibe, a syllable, '7- PolypetalOUS, Gr. polys and petalon, a leaf, -\>s. I 1 ,, ydelphous, Gr, " many brotherhoods," 237. Pollen, Lat. "fine dust, '248 Pompev, .177. Ponce de Leon, 14OO— 1521; 316. Pontiac'a War, 333. Ponl variolii, 185. Pontus, 492. Popi rv, Rise of, 292. Popliteal arteries, 174. Popocatepetl Mt., 17,720; 52. Pope, Alexander, English poet, 1688—1744; 507. INDEX AXD GLOSSARY. 529 Porcius Gato, 274. Portsmouth, N. H.,9,7.13; 45. Portland, Me., 33,^10; 42. Porto Rico, 53. Portio dura, 187. Porta] circulation, 17;. Portsmouth, Va., 11, 3&; \S. Portland, Ore., 20,549; 47. Porphv rv, 139. Portugal, a. 34,606, p. 4,745,124; 61. Potassium, from potash, because Ive from wood ashes was evaporated in pots, (Ralium, Arab. kali, ashes). K', At. \Vt. 39. Present Worth. 452. President's inability. 134. Predicate, Lat. pre," before, and dicere, to speak, ■79. Preposition, parsed, 102. Pres rvation of teeth, 16S. Presbyopia, Gr. presbys, old, and ops, sight, 194. Prescolt, Ariz., 49. Prescott, Gen., 1726 — 1795; 326. Prescott, Win, H., American historian, 1796 — ■SS9; 5°7- Prism, 21S. Prometheus, 49S. Proteus, 496. Proportion, 412. Protoplasm, Gr. protos, first, plasein, to mold, -im- providence, R. I., 104, S50; 47. Pronators, Lat. pronare, to bend forward, 163. Process of digestion, 169. Pronoun, 82. Prosody, 79. Proctor, R. A., English astronomer, 1S37 ; 5°7- Prosody, 476. Pronouns parsed, 100. Protective tariff, 337. Protestants, 299. Prussia, Co; 306. Psyche, 497. Pudding stone, 229. Pulse, 174. Pulley, 212. Pulaski, 1747—1779; 329. Pulmonary circulation, 176. Punic War. 273. Punctuation, Lat punctum, a point, 10S. Punishments, 474. Puritans, 303; 321. Pygopodes, Gr. pyge, rump, pous, podos, foot, 403. Pyramids, 256. Pyrenees, 57. Qualifications of Teachers, 464, Q11 ility of Voice, 13. Quartz, 227. Quadrumana, Lat. quatuor, four, and m;: hand, 400. Qui bee, 59.600; 5»; .V5- Queenstown Heights, 335. Quito, v o,ooo, " City above the Clouds, (Quotation marks, ill. R. Races, 30. Rachis, Gr. "a sharp ridge,'' 239. Radiated muscles, 163. Radiation, 219. Rainy Lake, 4^. Railroads in United States, 37, Raleigh, Sir Walter, 1552— 101S; 31*. Raleigh, N, C, 14,110; 46. Ramous, Lat. " a branch,"' 24;. Randolph, Edmund, 1753 — 1S13; 333. Ravine, Lat. raperc, to wear away, 30. Rawdon, Lord, 1754— 1820; 330. Reaumer, French philosopher, 16S3— 1757: - Reading, 7. Rectum, Lat. rectus, straight, 166. Recitation, 4'-^. Receptaculum chyle, 17S. Reflex action, igo. Reference marks, 112. Reformation, The, 299. Regulus, 273. Reichstag, 60. Reign of Terror, 310. Remus. 271. Representatives, 127. Reptilia, 4C4. Repellant force, 207. Resaca de la Palma, 339. Respiratory system, 179. Resonance, Lat. resonare, to resound, 216. Resultant force, 211. Respiration in plants, 249. Res'oration, The, 304. Revolution, American, 324. Revolute, Lat. re, again, and volver ■, to roll, 243. Richard II, 2SS. Richelieu, Cardinal 15S5 — 1642; 3S5. Richard Cceur de Lion, 1 157 — 1 19,), 2S7. Rickets, 163. Richmond, Va., 63,803 ; 4S. Rio Grande R., i,Soo; 4S. Rio Janeiro, 274,972; 55. Ringent, " Lat. •■ to open wide the mouth," 23S. Rivers, 30. Rhetoric, Figures of, 47S. Rhizopods, Gr. ridza, root, and pous, podos, foot, 164. Rhizome, 244. Rhinoceros, order ungulata, 68. Rhine R., S53; 57- Rhomboideus, Gr. rombos, and eidos, shape. Rhodium, Ro 4 , At. Wt. 104. Rhode Island," Little Rhody." Motto, Hope, p. 2/6,53°; 47! 35'- Robespierre, 175S — 1794; 309. Rocky Mts. 36. Rochester, N. Y., 80,3^3; 46. Rome, 233,63^, '-The Eternal City," 62. Roman characters, etc., 281. Romulus, 271. Rosecrans, Gen., 1S19 ; 344. Rosctta stone, 255. Roundheads, 303. Roumelia, 313. Houmania, a. 4'i,2''>2, p. 5,376,000; 64. Rubidium, Rbi, At. WL 85. Ruby, 35. Rules for Spelling, 20. Rules for Capitals, 19. Rules for Punctuation, 109. Rules for Grammar, 98. Runic, runes, secrets, : 02, Ruthenium, Ru*, At wt io«. R 1 1. (in Europe), a. 2,177.990, p. 7'.,}2r,ooo; ' ; i 306. Russian Turkestan, Sacramento City, 21,420; 39. Saccharine, 170. Sacrum, Lat. " the sacred bone," irio, - Sahara Desert, 68. 34 530 TEACHERS' AND STUDENTS' LIBRARY Salem, Ore., >,ooo; 47. . l6S$. .. M.i-s., >7,S9S; (j. Sal .1: . . Sallilio, 339. Saliva, 1 oak Lake Citv, 20 76S; 50. . J94- mander, 501. San Fwu -956; 39- Sandwii .70. Santa Anna, 170S— iS7< ; 539. Santa l'c X. Mux., 6000; 50. .367; 55- San Salvador, 53,315. ' ' - • 53- San Marino, 64. Sanscrit,' . Sarmatia, < ■(. . is, Lat sarcire, to ->atch, 164. - ns. 2^5. Sardinia, 57. Sa irp, Gr. sarx, flesh, and karpos, fruit, 24 . Sarc lemma, Gr. sarx, tiesii, anu lemma, skin, 164. Satire, 4^2. ns, aS . Scapula, IC :. Scaphoid, Gr. scaphos, boat, and eidos, shape, 161. e of criticism, 121. Schindylesis, Schliemann, 1^22 , German traveler, - -. Scipio, 271. Sclerous, Scotland, a. 30., -;..:.; SS. Scott, Walter, Scotch novelist a.id poet, 1771 — [a; S07. Scott, SVinlicl —1866; 339. Screw, 123. 30. Sebaceous, Lat. sebum, tallow, 1S3. Sebastopol, 312. Secondary races, 32. Secession, 512. Secretion, Lat. secernerc, to separate, 1S1. Seine K.. 5 Selenium, Se 6 , At. Wt. 79.5. Selvas, 30. Seljuk Turks, 290. Semilunar valve, 173. Semitic, 254. Semicircular canals, 195. Seminole War, ,i.; N . Senate, 127. Senegambia, 09. Septicidal, Lat. septum, a partition, and ca.-- dcre, to cut, 2(i>. Stptifragal, Lat. septum, and fragere, to break, 2)0. Sepal-, 233. Sepoy, ',1-'. .> membranes, 198. im, 177. 1. .1. 18,787, p. 1. ?7- ,'--•: 64; 313- Lat. serra, a saw, 161. amoid bones, 161. Seth, 2:7. Shakespeare, i5''t — t6i6: ;o-. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, English poet, 1792—1832; .Ian, Irish dramatist, 1751 — 1 sh. rman's March, U7- Shiloh, J43. Sibei • 57. Nevad Silicon, Si*, At. Wi. 2-; 227. Silique, Lat. siliqua, a pod, 241. tan, 252. Silver, Ag 1 (Argcntum), At, Wt. 10S. Siphon, 2 . . Sisyphus, 494. i '■ Skalds, 502. Skager Rack, 63. skeleton, 15s. Slate, 34. Sloth, order eilentata, 54. Smith 1. man Institution, 51. Soda, i' 2. Sodium (Natrium), At. Wt. 23, Sodium chloride, 162. Sodom, 503. Solar System, 130. Solferino, 312. Solon, B. C. 63S— 55S; 2''$. Sonnet, 4S1. South C.rolina 1 See North Carolina). "The Palmetto State." Motto, An;::u- OpibusqilC parati, " Ready in will and deed," p. 9^5,7 1 , 47; 35'- Sparta, 263. Spain, a. 196,0^7, p. 16,623,384; - the, 239. Sp.ulix, 239. Spencer, Herbert, English philosopher, i>2n — ; 5°7- Spenser, Edmond, English poet, i553(?) — '599J (Si. Spelling, 17. Specific Gravity, 20?. Sphenoid, Gr. sphen, a wedge, and eidos, shape, ic y . Sphinx, 2; . Spine, 15s. Spinal cord, 1S6. Spinal nerves. iSS. Splenic arteries, 175. Spleen, 169. Spongioles, 24;. Spottsylvania, (4 . Springfield, O., 20,729; 46. Squamose, Ear. squama, a scale, 161. Stamp Act, 324. Stamens, Lat. "a thread," 233. States of matter, 206. Stapes, Lat. "a stirrup," 195. smites, 22S. Stalactites. 22S. Stanley, 69. Sterno-cleido-mastoid, i Slenos duct, 16S. Steuben. Baron, 1730—1794: % Stereopticon, Gr. stereos, solid, opsomai, to see, 3?-- Sternum, Lat. sternon, the breast, 159. St. Augustine, 321. St. < roi\ K., 49. St. Louis, };o,^22, "The Mound Citv,' 44. St. Paul's Cathedral. 68. St. Peter'> Church, 62. St. Petersburg. 667,063; 63. Stipules, I. at. " a stem." 2\2. Stigma, Gr. stidzein, to brand, 233. .holm. 169,429, " The Northern Venice," 63. i'li. 165. stov.i . Mrs. Harriet Beecher, author of " Uncle I om's Cab n," IM2 ; 507. Strontium, sr-. At. Wt. 87.5. smus, Gr. strephein, to twist, 194. Stra-burg, 60. Strait, 30. Structure of bones, ]■■:. Structure of muscles, 164. Ited muscles, i"4- INDEX AND GLOSSARY 5:31 Stripeil muscles, r »• Stuart, James, 303. Study, How to, 505. Style, »33. . Subcutaneous, L:it. sub, under, and cutis, skin, 1S3. Submaxillary duct, Subvoc&ls, i x . Sucre, 23.979; 55- Sudoriferous glands, Lat. sudor.sweat, ana lerrc, to bear, 1S3. Suffix, I. at. sub, under, and figere, to fij Sultan, 63. Sulphur, S«, At. Wt y.. Sumatra, 70. Sumter, Fort, 342. Sumter, 330. rior L., a. 31,400, alt 600, depth, 1,200. Supinators, 103. Sutural,240. Sutura notha, 1 ■■ . Sutura vera, 161. Switzerland, a. 15,981, p. 2,702,264, 62; 2S9. Sympathetic nerve, 18S. Symbols 392. Syngenecious, 237. Synovial membrane, 198; 161. Synarthrosis, Gr. syn, with, arthron, joint, 161. Syracuse, 51,791 '■ - : lie, Gr. syn, and stettein, to place, 17-'. Systemic circulation, 17 . Syria, 504. T. Table lands, 30. Tactile corpuscles, 191. Talc. 228. Tanganyika, 6S. Tantalus, 494. Tantalum, Ta«, At. Wt. 1-2. Tapir, order ungulata, Tarsals, 159. Tarquin the Proud, 1$. C. 495 " Tarsus, l6t. Taranto, G., 61. Tartarus, 494. Tasmania, a. 20,215, p. p. 107,000; 70. Taste buds, 192. Taylor, Zachary, 17^1 — 1 - Taylor, Bavard, American author and traveler, 1825— 1S78; 5°"- Teeth, \(n. Tegumen, Lat. tegere, to cover, 2:1. Telegraph, Gr. tele, tar orT, and graphein, to write, 225. Telephone, Gr. tele, and phone, sound. Tellurium, Te«, At. Wt 129. . Temporal, 15 i\ 164. Tentorium cerebelli, 1S0. Tenacitv, Lat, tenere, to hold. 205. Tendons, Gr. tenein. to stretch, 103. Tennessee, Ind. "River with a great bend," "The Big Bender State," Motto, Agricu Commerce, 47; 315 Tennyson, A- 1S09 ; 507. Ternary compounds, 30;. Tcrti lr'v, l\\. Tessellated. Lat tessela, a square, I Texas, " The Lone Star State," p. 1,5^7,509; |S; 351. Thackerav, Wm. M.. English novelist, iSn— ■ So?- Thulium, T: 3 , At. Wt 20). Thallogi 1 a young shoot, and Than ttos, 1 >S. Thermo-electric current;, 22;. Thermometer, Gr. thermos, heat, and metron, a measure, . Theres , M iria, 1513— 13-2; ; ;■ Thebi . - • 7. Themistocies, R. C. 51 4 —44 9 ; 21 5. Thermopylae, 205. Thor, ; Thorax, Gr., 1 ; Thorium, Th-, At Wt aj\ 1 hrasvme ne, 274. Thucydides Ii. 0. 471—400; V :. Thyroid, (Jr. thvra, a doo , and cidos.shape.iSo Tibialis, Lat., Tilden, S.J., 1814 ; 349- Time problems, \- ■■■ Tin, Sn>, (Stannum), At. Wt n8. Tippecanoe, Battle i>t, jjj. ies, 107. Titanium, Ti«, At. Wt 50. I 1 ilsk, 65. Tokio, 595,905; 67. Topic List for Geography, 73. Toronto, 57. Torricelli, Italian physicist, 1608— 1647; 215. Tourmaline, iiy. Trapezium, Gr. trapedza, a table, 1 Trachenchvme, 240. Trapezoid, Gr. trapedza, and eidos, shape, i. Trachea, Gr. trachys, rough, 1- Trachyte, 229. Translucent, Lat trans, across, and lucere, to shine, 217. Transparent, Lat. trans, and parere, to appear, 217. Transportation, Lat. trans, and portare.to carry. Transvaal. 69, Trenton, N. j., 29.010; 45. Trie ispid valve, 173. Trifacial, 1S7. Triceps, Lat. tres, three, and cap-is, head, 164. Tripoli, a. 344,50:, p. 1,010,000; OS; 3.54. Triumvirate, 277. Triquitrous, 243. Triassic, 233. Trilobite, Gr. tris, three. Trojan \V:ir, 262. Troy, X. Y.. 50,74:: | Troy, Ancient, 504. Tryma, 24'. Tubercules, 15S. Tuberosities, Lat "a hump," 15S. Tuilleries, ; •■ Tunsjsten, W« (Wolfrium), At. Wt. 1-1. Tunis, a. 45,700, p. 2,100,000; Tunicata, 407. Turbine Wheel, 21 ;. Turkey, in Europe, a. 85,800, p. 6,02 . ■ Turmei ii . 10. Tyler, Watt, a inum, (ir. " a drum," 105. Tvndall.John, English scientist, 182 1 ; 507. u. I'lna, Gr. olene, the elbow, 1 U el, I. at. umbra, shadi . -' '. . Unciform, Lat uncus, a hook. 160. ite, Lat unguis, a hoof, 401. United States, a. 3,605,884, p. 19,000,000. Motto, E pluribus unum, "One composed ofmanv." (14- Untcom, Lat unus, one, and cornti, liorn, 501. Unive se, Lat inus, one, and versum, turned, 130. Unit p. 3- O0 °i- 000 ; ; Uranium, U«, At. Wt. 120. 532 TEACHERS 1 AXD STl'DEXTS' LIBRARr Uranos, | . Urban, I'ope, 294. Urceolate, Lat. urceus, a pitcher, 23s Uruguay, a. 72,170, p. 440,000; $6. Utah, 5°- Utricle, Lai. utcr, a sac, 241. Utrecht, 305. Utica, 33,913; -» 6 - V. Valdai Hills, 63. Valvate, Lat. vulva, a fold, 243. Valhalla, 500. Vancouver's Island, 51. Vandals, 2^4. Vanadium, V», At. Wt. 51. Vegetation, Lat vegetare, to enliven, 31 Veins, 175; 230. Venezuela, a. 4»'.95°> P- , .7»t-t , 97; 5 5 - Vena cava, 17^. Venation, Lat. vena, a vein, 242. Venus, 268; 495. Vera Cruz, 53. Verb, Lat. verbum, word, S4 ; 101. Vermont, Lat. verd, green, and mons, mountain, " Green Mountain Mate.'' Motto, "Freedom and Unity," p. 33*,iS6; 4S; 351. Vertebrata, 399. Vertebra, Lat. vertere, to turn. Verlicillaster, 240. Vernation, Lat. vernare, to nourish, 243. Yerrazzani, 14S5— 1527; 316. Vermillion B., from red color of water, 42. Versification, a v o. Vestibule, Lat. " a little hall,' 1 195. Vespuccius, 1451 — 15 12 ' 3' 6 - Vesuvius, vol., 3,048; 61; 141. Vesicular, Lat. vesicula, a small vessel, 1S9. Vesta, 495. Victoria, 51; S. 6S. Vicksburg, 11,814; 44; 345. Victor Hugo, French author, 1S0J ; so; 515. Villi, Lat. villas, hair, 107. Virginia, for " The Virgin Queen." " The Old Dominion." Motto, Sic semper tyrannis, "So always with tyrants,*' 4 s ; 3'5- Virgil,' 70 B. C— 19 B. C; 279. Virginia City, Nev., 13,705; 44. Visual angle, 21S. Vital knot, 191, Vitreous hnnor, 193 Vitellius, 2S2. Vocals, lS. Voltaic, 222. Volcano, Lat. Vulcanus, god of fire, 30. Vowels, S; 18. Vu'can, 495. w. Wagner, German physiologist, 191. Wallace, William, 1270— 1305; 2SS. Wallenstein, 304. War of 181a; 33S; 317- War of King *v% illiam, 322. War of King George, 322. War of Queen Anne, 322. War, French and Indian, 322. Wars of the Hoses, 2SS. Washington, George, 1752— 1709; 333. Washington City, 147,307, " City ol Magnificent Distances," 56. Washington Territory, 50. Waters, Division of, 30. Waterloo, 311. Wayne, Anthonv, 1745—1790; 329. Webb Method, 13. Wedge, 12 (. WeserR.,60. West Virginia. Motto, Montani semper li'.>eri» " Mountaineers are always freemen, " p. 61S,- 193; 4S. Wharton's duct, 16S. Wheel and axle, 212. Whipple, E. P., American essayist and critic. 1S19 ; 506. White Mts.,"39. Whitney, 1 1. Wilderness, Battle of, 346. William the Silent, 300. Wilmington, Del., 42,499; 39. Winthrop, John, 31s. Wisconsin, Ind. "Gathering of Waters," "The Badger State." Motto, " Forward," p. 1.315,— 4 S °; 40; 315. Wittenberg, 299. Witchcraft, 321. Wordsworth, William, English poet, 1770 — iS5o_ Word Method, 14. Wormian Bones, i5i Worms, 209. Wurtemburgs 303. Wvoming, 320. Wyandott Cave, 4 1 . X. Xenophon, B. C. 455(?>— 3s5(?); 267. Xerxes, B. C. 465 ; 2O0. Yale College, 39. Yankton, Dak., 5,000; 49. Yangtse Kiang, It. 64; 3.320. Yeddo, 07. Yellow Sea, 65. Yenesei R., 64, Yorktown, 331. Ytrium, Y-, At. W*. 62. Yucatan, 35. Yukon H., 49. Zama, 274. Zambesi, 68. Zebra, order unsrulata, 68, Zend A vesta, 2' 1 1. Z no, Greek philosopher, B. C. 49 ; IT. Zeus, ioS; 493. Zinc, Zn-', At. Wt. ' 5. Zirconium, Zr«, At. Wt. ": Ha ra Hi ■1 Hi »r*'*.«« ... ■ ?& •a ■ f>4!;W7 :•><>-' ^ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY H H ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ H ^ ■ - 1 _^^P ■ ■ 'A*. ■ H * i I %«[•,'• I