HICKS' BUILDERS' GUIDE, COMPRISING An Easy, Practical System of Estimating Material and Labor Carpenters, Contractors and Builders. A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE BUILDING TRADES. BY I. P. HICKS. ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS OF ORIGINAL DRAWINGS. FIFTH THOUSAND. PRICE, ONE DOLLAR. DAVID WILLIAMS, PUBLISHER, Nos. 96-102 READE STREET, NEW YORK. Copyright I. P. HICKS. 1893. PREFACE. The importance of such a work as "Hicks' Build- ers' Guide " will be apparent to all making an in- spection of its contents, while every one who will give its pages a few hours of careful consideration and attention cannot fail to appreciate the conven- ience and usefulness of the volume. From actual ex- perience I know there are many things about build- ing which, if arranged for concise and ready refer- ence and put into book form, would be a valuable aid to carpenters, contractors and builders. The frequent inquiries which I have seen in building journals have led me to the belief that a book con- densed in form, giving in an easy, practical way gen- eral items of interest and value to the trades ad- dressed, is much needed. In this volume it has been the object of the author to point out how mistakes ma)'- be avoided in making estimates and to introduce a practical sys- tem for making such estimates, thus enabling the carpenter or builder to do the work with greater accuracy. The information in this work has been collected from the close observation and actual ex- perience of a practical workman, who has spent years in the execution of just that class of work with which the majority of workmen meet from day to day. That the information, methods and rules set forth in this work may serve to instruct and benefit all who become the possessor of a copy of it is the earnest wish of THE AUTHOR. OMAHA, NKB., 1893. POINTS ON ESTIMATING. To the carpenter and contractor there is nothing of more importance than accurate estimating, for it is one on which success in business largely de- pends. What is it worth ? is a question very fre- quently asked the carpenter, and he is expected to know at once everything about a building. What is it worth to build a house like Mr. Blank's? What is it worth to build a porch on my house ? What is it worth to build a bay window on my house ? How much more will it cost to put sliding doors in my house than folding doors? Similar questions by the hundred are daily asked the carpenter, and the persons inquiring naturally expect a prompt answer and a reliable estimate. The question, What is it worth? is often a difficult one to answer, and when applied to a hundred different things it is no wonder the carpenter finds himself beset with diffi- culties. That thousands of mechanics have long felt the need of some reliable and practical method of estimating material and labor required in build'ng there can be no doubt. To make an estimate for a building always re- quires a careful consideration of the plans and speci- fications, as well as a considerable amount of figur- ing. Practical experience and personal familiarity with every item that enters into the construction of a building is what every man needs in order to become a good estimator ; yet this is no reason why he can- not learn or profit from the experience of others. In THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. <:his hustling, bustling age of the world the easiest, quickest and surest way of estimating is needed. Such a method can only be acquired by close atten- tion to business, adopting means and methods which will be a safeguard against mistakes and by learning to estimate actual quantities. Before proceeding further with this subject it will be well to explain some of the principal terms used in measuring dis- tances, surfaces and solids. LINEAR MEASURE. This is used in measuring distances where length only is considered without regard to breadth or depth. It is frequently called lineal measure, mean- ing measured in a line without regard to breadth or depth. It is sometimes called line measure. Fig. i shows a lineal foot, drawn to a scale of i inch to the foot, the three figures following being to other scales. SQUARE MEASURE. This is used in measuring sur- faces or things whose length and breadth are considered without regard to hight or depth, as sheeting, flooring, plastering, &c. rig. 2. -A Square Foot. Fig. 2 shows a square foot. In the measurement of lumber, square measure is fre- quently termed board measure, and when used as board measure the thickness is considered as one inch. A square is a figure which has four equal sides, and all its angles right angles, as shown in Fig. 2. Hence a square inch is a square the sides of which are each THE BUILDERS GUIDE. a lineal inch in length. A square foot is a square the sides of which are each a lineal foot in length, as rep- resented in the diagram. A square yard is a square the sides of which are each a lineal yard in length and contains 9 square feet, as shown in Fig. 3. Square measure is so called because its measuring unit is a square. The standard of square measure is derived from the standard linear measure. Hence a unit of square measure is a square the sides of which are re- 9 square feet --= 1 square yard rig. 3.-A Square Yard. Fig. 4. -A Cubic Foot. spectively equal in length to the linear unit of the same name. CUBIC MEASURE. This is used in measuring solid bodies or things which have length, breadth and thickness, such as stone masonry, the capacity of bins, boxes, rooms, &c. A cube is a solid body bounded by six equal sides. It is often called a hexahedron. Hence, a cubic inch is a cube each of the sides of which is a square inch. A cubic foot is a cube with each of its sides a square foot, as shown in Fig. 4. Cubic measure is so called because its measuring unit is a cube. The standard of cubic measure isde- THE BUILDERS GUIDE. rived from the standard linear measure. A unit of cubic measure therefore is a cube whose sides are respectively equal in length to the linear unit of the same name. ITEMS AND QUANTITIES. Having explained the terms used in the measure- ment of material the next step will be to consider the method of estimating the same. In estimating the lumber required for a building there are many parts for which the amounts required may be listed in a convenient form of table. For example, if we know the amount of material of one kind required for one window frame, we can multiply this amount by the number of frames, and obtain the total amount at once of this kind of material required for frames, and so on with various other parts. Much time will be saved by having a list of this kind, and it will aid very much to insure correctness in estimating. Fol- lowing is a list of items giving the amount of lum- ber required for various parts of buildings arranged for concise and ready reference : LIST OP ITEMS AND QUANTITIES REQUIRED. Fg , Jamb casings for windows, Jg-inch finish 10 Jamb casings for windows, IJ^-inch finish 12 Jamb casings for doors, ,% -inch finish 10 Jamb casings for doors, IJ^-inch finish 12 Jamb casings for doors, l>-inch finish 15 Jamb casings for doors, 2 -inch finish 20 Outside casings for windows, %-inch finish 8 Outside casings for windows, l}^-inch finish 10 Outside casings for doors, %-inch finish 10 Outside casings for doors, IJ^-inch finish 12 Inside window casings, lineal measure 20 Inside door casings, one side lineal measure ... 16 to 18 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. [nside door casings, two sides lineal measure 32 to 36 Band molding window frames 16 Band molding door frames, one side 16 to 18 Band molding door frames, two sides 32 to 36 Molding outside caps of frames 4 Sills for windows, per frame, lineal measure 3> Sills for doors, per frame, lineal measure 4 Window stops, per frame , 12 to 16 Parting stops, per frame 12 to 16 Door steps, per frame 16 to 18 Porch columns, board measure 24 to 30 Brackets, board measure 4 to 6 Horses and treads for stairs, l!^-inch finish 90 to 110 For risers and finish about stairs, ,%-inch finish. . .30 to 60 Shelving for pantries 50 to 100 Shelving common closets 4 to 8 PRACTICAL RULES FOR ESTIMATING. To 3 inch flooring add one-third for the matching. To 4 inch flooring add one-fourth for the matching. To 6 inch flooring add one-fifth for the matching. To 4 inch ceiling add one-third for the matching. To 6 inch ceiling add one-fifth for the matching. To 8 inch shiplap add one-sixth for the matching. To 10 inch shiplap add one-eighth for the matching. To 12 inch shiplap add one-tenth for the matching. ESTIMATING SIDING. To 6-inch beveled siding add one sixth and make no deductions for openings, for in general the open- ings will fully equal the lap and waste in cutting. ESTIMATING SHEETING. In estimating sheeting for shingle roofs make no allowance for spreading the boards. Calculate the same as for close sheeting a roof, for what is gained in spreading the boards is generally lost in the cut- ting. The boards should never be placed more than 8 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 2 inches apart for a good roof. Sheeting for gut- ters on roofs having box cornices is an item often for- gotten. These gutters are variously formed, but usually consist of four pieces of sheeting, forming a bottom, two sides and a fillet next to the crown mold- ing. The combined width of these pieces is from i to 2 feet. Hence the amount of lumber required for gutters may be found by multiplying the length of the gutters by the combined width of the pieces which form it. For example, suppose the length of gutters on a building is 42 feet, and to form the bottom, sides and fillet requires a board equal to i^ feet wide, how much lumber will be required ? Operation: 4.2 x i/^ = 63 feet. The sheeting for gutters often amounts to sev- eral hundred feet on large jobs, and is a matter wor- thy of attention. Sheeting is one of the items of which carpenters usually fall short. The reason is obvious, it being one of the cheapest kinds of material. It is used for many purposes for which the carpenter does not count. Wherever a board is wanted for one purpose or another, a sheeting board is taken, provided it will answer, while several hun- dred feet are usually employed in building scaffolds. A large portion of this is wasted by being nailed, sawed and split, It is safe to say that in estimating sheeting one-fifth should be added to the net estimate. ESTIMATING SHINGLES. In estimating shingles allow nine to the square foot when laid 4^2 inches to the weather, and eight to the square foot when laid 5 inches to the weather. Common shingles are estimated to average 4 inches THE BUILDERS GUIDE. wide, and 250 are put up in a bunch, there being four bunches to the thousand. Dimension shingles are usually 5 or 6 inches wide, 150 to 1 80 being put in a bunch, and four bunches counted 1000. In reality there are not 1000 shingles, but being wider than the average of common shingles they are counted the same. There is more waste in laying dimension shingles than the common ones. One-eighth should be allowed for waste in laying di- mension shingles. ESTIMATING STUDDING. To estimate studding for the outside walls and par- titions in houses, estimate them 12 inches from centers, then when they are set the usual distance, 16 inches from centers, there will be enough for all necessary doubling around doors, windows and cor- ners. I prefer this rule for the following reasons : i. Because it is easier to count the studding 12 inches from centers than 16, as the number of feet in length of an outside wall or a partition gives the number of studding, and is seen at once. 2. Mistakes are less liable than in estimating 16 inches from centers, and adding for double studding, as in adding for double studding more than one-half the places requiring double studding will be overlooked. This rule is not intended to make up for things left out, but is only for making up the number of double stud- ding required around doors, windows and corners. Plates and other places requiring studding must be estimated separately. Studding is another item of which carpenters usually fall short, for the simple reason that many are used in places that were over- 10 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. looked in the carpenter's estimate. To prove beyond a doubt that the method of estimating 12 inches from centers can be relied upon, we will give a plan, Fig. 5, of the outside walls and partitions of a one-story cottage, and a practical example illustrating the method of estimating. Referring to the plan, it will be observed that the size is 24 x 32 feet, and that the length of each par- Figr. 6. Floor Plan of a One Story Cottage, Shoving Walls and Partitions. tition is given. We will suppose it to be a xo-foot story. Now, by the plan it is necessary only to add the length of the outside walls and the partitions to- gether, and to obtain the number of studding re- quired. The operation is as follows : Feet. Two outside walls, 32 feet each 64 Two outside walls, 24 feet each 48 One inside partition 32 One inside partition . . 14 Three inside partitions, 10 feet each 30 One inside partition 4 Total .192 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 11 Thus we see that the total number required is 192 studding. Now, by the old way of estimating, we would have to find the feet as above. Multiply by 12, because 12 inches make a foot, and divide the product by 16 inches, the distance the studding are to be placed from centers. By the old method the work of estimating has but just commenced, but we will help it out a little by an occasional short cut. If we multiply 192 feet by 3 and divide by 4 the result will be the same as though we multiplied by 12 and divided by 16, thus 192 x 3 -^ 4 = 144 studding, the number required without any doubling. Now comes the work of counting up the places requiring double studding, which is more bother- some than all the rest put together. In cutting out for the windows the pieces that come out will make the headers ; consequently, if the sides are doubled it will take about three studding to two windows. Now, there are eight windows, which require 12 studding. This amount can nearly always be saved, as most window frames are made for weights, and the studding has to be set far enough away from the jambs to allow the weights to work freely, and when thus set they seldom require doubling. In cutting out for the doors the pieces that come out will double one side, and it will require one lo-foot studding to double the other side and make the header. There are eight doors on the plan, conse- quently eight lo-foot studding will be required for them. There are four outside corners, to double which will require four studding. There are 12 inside partition angles, which we will suppose in this case to require two studding to the corner, which 12 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. they will not, as one studding has been included in the partition, but we will call it two to the corner, which will make 24 studding. Now, let us sum up and notice the results. Number of studding estimated 16 inches from centers 144 Number of studding for doubling around windows 12 Number of studding required for doubling around doors. 8 Number of studding for doubling four outside corners. . 4 Number of studding for doubling 12 partition angles 24 Total 192 Thus, after allowing an abundance for doubling, we still come out even. After all our figuring, the old method has only proven the correctness of the new, and, as it is so much easier than the old, it may meet with favor. As for myself, I can say that I have used the method of estimating studding 12 inches from centers with perfect satisfaction, and have al- ways had a few left. I not only consider Jt the easiest, but the most accurate way of estimating stud- ding for outside walls and partitions. At the present day the frame work of most houses is composed principally of studding, such as are used in the outside walls and partitions. This is especially true regarding the plates, rafters and sometimes the ceiling joists. The plates on the outside walls are usually doubled and the partition walls usually have a single plate, top and bottom. The outside walls of small buildings do not require plates across the ends, but on tall buildings it becomes necessary to extend the plates across the ends. To estimate the number of studding required for plates, add together in feet the lengths of the outside walls and partitions which require plates and divide by the length of studding THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 13 used for plates. For example suppose it is required to put plates all around on the plan shown in Fig. 5, which is 192 feet, including outside walls and parti- tions, and that the lengths of studding used is 16 feet; then 192 -4- 16 = 12, which represents the num- ber of studding required for a single plate. This amount doubled will give the number required for double plates on the outside walls and single plates top and bottom, on the partition walls, making 24 studding, the net amount, to which should be added one-eighth for waste in cutting, making in all 27, the number required for plates. If the outside walls and partitions do not have the same amount of doubling, or the same number of pieces for plates, then they will have to be estimated separately. ESTIMATING FLOOR JOISTS. These are usually placed 16 inches from centers, except for floors which are to carry very heavy weights. In these the joists are frequently placed 12 inches from centers. To estimate them 12 inches from centers add i to the number of feet in length of one wall on which the joists are placed. For ex- ample, suppose a building is 32 feet long, and the joists are placed 12 inches from centers. We simply add i to 32, which makes 33, the number of joists required for one span. If there are similar spans it will only be necessary to multiply by the number of spans. If the spans are unlike, then estimate each span separately. If the joists are placed 16 inches from centers, then multiply the length of wall by ^ and add i. This will give the required number. Thus if the wall is 32 feet long, then 32 x ^ + i = 25, he number required for one span. The reason for THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. adding i is because the first operation, that of multi- plying by 2^, gives the number of spaces between joists, and one joist more than there are spaces is always required, except in cases where the sills serve the place of a joist. In such a case the exact number will be one less than the number of spaces. A few extra joists are usually required for doubling and framing headers around stairways, chimneys, &c. A little attention given to a plan will show the number required for this purpose. Ceiling joists, collar beams and rafters may be estimated in the same manner. ESTIMATING CORNICE. A cornice usually consists of several members, the most common kind being known as the five-member cornice, which consists of a planceer, fascia, frieze, crown and bed molding. To estimate the quantity of lumber required for a cornice, multiply the length in feet by the combined width of the planceer, fascia and frieze in feet. Thus if the planceer is 12 inches wide, the fascia 4 inches and the frieze 12 inches, the combined width is 28 inches, which re- duced to feet equals 2^. Now, if we have a cornice 120 feet long and 2^ feet wide, the operation will be as follows: 120 x 2^i = 280 feet, net amount. In cutting up lumber for cornice there is always more or less waste, and it is safe to say that one-eighth should be added to the net figures. One-eighth of 280 is 35; thus the total amount required is 315 feet board measure. The bed and crown molding will each be the same as the length of the cornice, with one-eighth added for waste in cutting. One-eighth of 120 feet is 15; thus the total amount of molding re- THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 15 quired is 135 feet lineal measure. It usually takes a few feet more of the crown molding than of the bed molding on account of the crown molding being on the outside line of the cornice. This difference is hardly worth noticing except on large jobs. The difference usually amounts to from 2 to 3 feet per square turn in the cornice, and is usually estimated by counting the number of turns. ESTIMATING CORNER CASINGS. The width of the average corner casing is about 5 inches, and the easiest and quickest way to estimate material for this purpose is to allow i foot board measure to each lineal foot in hight per corner. Thus the hight of a corner in feet gives the number of feet board measure required, and is very easy to calculate. For example, if a building has iSfeet studding for out- side walls it will require 18 feet of lumber, board meas- ure, per corner for corner casings. Many houses have what are commonly termed belt courses. These are usually casings of the same width as the corner casings and extend around the building at the top or bottom of the window and door frames. To esti- mate these, find the number of feet, lineal measure, required and divide by 2, which gives the amount in board measure. Board measure is understood to mean i inch thick. One quarter must be added for i^-inch lumber, and one-half for i^ inch lumber. In estimating corner casings and belt casings in the manner just described, nothing need be added for waste, because we have estimated the casings 6 inches wide when only 5 inches are required. This allowance is sufficient to cover the waste and makes the computation much easier. 16 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. MISTAKES FROM OMISSIONS. Having given the reader the essential points and short cuts in estimating material, we will now point out what is considerd a source of frequent mistakes, and give a safeguard for it. In estimating material many mistakes are made from omissions. A bill of material for the construction of a building always requires a long list of items, and it frequently hap- pens that some items have been forgotten and left entirely out of consideration. Probably more serious mistakes in estimating material arise from this cause than any other. They are very discouraging to the contractor. They are things he did not count on, but nevertheless he has them to buy, and as extras he always has to pay more for them than he would had he included them in his original bill. Now, if a person had an itemized list of the material entering into the construction of a building, there is no doubt by comparing his bill with the list mistakes from omitting items would be avoided. In a bill there are many items of material that are used for different purposes and different parts of a building, hence to make a list complete in every detail it should mention the part of a building for which each kind of material is used. In the list following, the items which are likely to be used for more than one purpose or part of a building are in full-face type, and the different parts for which the same are likely to be used are in type of the usual face. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. LIST OF ITEMS FOR ESTIMATING LUMBER. Sills. Side Sills. End Sills. Middle Sills. Trimmers. Post?. Main Posts. Center Posts. Door Posts. Basement Posts. Girts. Main Girts. Side Girts. Tie Girts. Joists. First Floor. Second Floor. Third Floor. Ceiling Joists. Porch Joists. Studding. Side Studding. Gable Studding. Partition Studding. Braces. Plates. Porches. Bay Windows. Roof Timbers. Common Rafters. Hip Rafters. Valley Rafters. Jack Rafters. Trusses. Purlins. Collar Beams. Sheeting. Outside Walls. Roof Sheeting. Gutters. Floor Lining. Shiplap Sheeting. Shingles. Dimension Shingles. Siding. Beveled Siding. Cove Siding. Barn Siding. Battens. % Ogee Battens, i^-inch Battens. Lattice. Furring. 1 x 2 Inch. 2x2 inch. Fencing. 4 Inch. 6 Inch. Paper. Straw Board. Tarred Board. Finish, % Inch. Outside Base. Bay Window Finish, Porch Finish. Cornice. Brackets. Stair Risers. Jamb Casings. Pantry Shelves. Closet Shelves. Is THE BUILDERS GUIDE. Finish, l^Inch. Outside Casings. Corner Boards. Jamb Casings. Porch Finish. Bay Window Finish. Scroll Work. Stairs and Steps. Outside Steps. Finish, 2 Inch. Door Sills. Window Sills. Jamb Casing. Brackets. Cellar Stairs. Finish, 1% Inch. Outside Casings. Outside Steps. Finish, % Inch. Panels. Drawer Bottoms. Flooring. Main Floors. Kitchen Floor. Dining Room Floor. Porch Floors. Ceiling. Porch Ceilings. Panels. Wainscoting. Lining Partitions. Inside Finish. Casings. Corner Blocks. Plinth Blocks. Stair Rail. Newel Posts. Balusters. Molding. Bed Molding. Crown Molding. Panel Molding. Cove Molding. Base Molding. Band Molding. Quarter Round. Door Stops. Window Stops. Parting Stops. Wainscoting Cap. Window Stools. Water Table. Thresholds. Doors. Front Doors. Sliding Doors. Closet Doors. Cupboard Doors. Cellar Doors. Windows. Bay Windows. Pantry Windows. Cellar Windows. Transoms. Art Glass. Plate Glass. Blinds. Outside Blinds. Inside Blinds. Corner Beads. GEOMETRICAL MEASUREMENT OF ROOFS. In the measurement of carpentry work there is probably no part so difficult to master as the accurate measurement of roofs, particularly where they are composed of hips and valleys forming a great variety of irregular surfaces. The shapes of roofs having hips, valleys and gables are usually represented in the form of some triangle. The Figs. 6-10. Different Forms of Triangles. Fig. 11. A Square. Fig. 12. A Rectangle. different forms of triangles are shown in the dia- grams, Fig. 6 representing an equilateral triangle, Fig. 7 an isosceles triangle, Fig. 8 a right-angled tri- angle, Fig. 9 an obtuse-angled triangle and Fig. 10 a scalene triangle. Figs. 6, 7 and 10 are also acute- angled triangles. Fig. u shows a square and Fig. 12 a rectangle. It is a very easy matter to compute the area or surface measurement of a square or a rectangle. The area of a square or a rectangle is 19 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. found by multiplying its length by its breadth. In computing roof measurements all triangles can be reduced to squares or rectangles of equal areas by very simple methods. FINDING THE AREA OF A GABLE. Referring to Fig. 13, A B C represents the gable of a building of which A C is the width and D B is the perpendicular hight. By dividing the gable on the line D B we have two triangles of equal areas and equal sides. It is evident that if the triangle D B C is placed in the position shown by the dotted lines A E B, it will form a square whose side is equal to one-half the width of the gable. This of course applies to gables Fig. 13. Diagram for Finding Area of a Gable. ADO Fig. U. Finding Area of Gable when Koof is Less than Half Pitch. on buildings of a half pitch roof. With a roof of less pitch a rectangle would be formed with A D for its length and D B for its breadth, as shown in Fig. 14. In this figure the triangle A B C is equal in area THE BUILDERS GUIDE 21 to the rectangle A E B D. From the foregoing illus- trations and principles we derive the following : Rule. Multiply one-half the width of the gable by the perpendicular hight. For example, if a gable is 24 feet wide and the perpendicular hight is 8 feet, then 24 -H ^ x 8 = 96 feet, the area of the gable. FINDING THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE. Let ABC represent a right-angled triangle, as shown in Fig. 15. If we divide the triangle hori- zontally half way on the perpendicular, then the tri- .angle E B D will equal in area the triangle shown .by the dotted lines A F E ; hence the triangle ABC equals in area the rectangle AFDC. From the illustra- tion we derive the following: Fig. 15. Finding Area of a Right- Angled Triangle. Rule. Multiply the base by one-half the perpen- dicular hight. D C Fig. 13. Finding Area of a Scalene Triangle. In Fig. 16 A B C represents a scalene triangle which has no perpendicular line in reality, but for convenience in estimating we draw one, which is 22 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. B D, dividing the triangle into two right-angled tri- angles of unequal areas. By dividing the triangle horizontally half way on the perpendicular, as shown by E F, the triangle E B F equals in area the two triangles shown by dotted lines AGE and F H C. Hence the triangle ABC equals in area the rectangle AG H C. Having shown how triangles may be reduced to squares and rectangles of equal areas, the next step will be to show their proper application to roof measurements. PLAIN GABLE ROOFS. The gable roof is the most common in use, and is formed by two sets of rafters which meet at the ridge. Fig. 17 shows a plan of this kind of roof, Fig. 18 a side elevation, Fig. 19 an end eleva- tion and Fig. 20 showing the size of roof necessary to cover the side elevation represented in Fig. 18. An error liable to occur in Fig. 17. Plan of Gable taking roof measurements from architectural plans consists in taking the line A B in the side elevation, Fig 18, for the length N A l cc l I Figs. 18, 19 and 20. Side and End Elevations of a Gable Roof. of the rafter. This line is only the perpendicular rise of the roof, as shown in the end elevation, Fig. 19, by THE BUILDERS GUIDE. the dotted line A B. In Fig. 19, B G represents the length of rafter which, when shown in a perpendicu- lar position, is indicated by B C in Fig. 20. This shows the length of roof and of rafter necessary to cover the side elevation, represented in Fig. 18. Hence the area of the roof is found by multiplying the length of the roof by the length of the common rafter, which gives the area of one side. This amount doubled will give the area of both sides. HIP ROOFS. The liability to error in estimating the area of hip roofs is still greater than in the case of gable roofs, for no matter from which point we view the eleva- Fig. 21. Plan of Hip with Deck. Fig. 22.-Side Elevation of Koof shown in Fig. 21. tions the length of the common rafter is not shown in proper position to indicate the true size of the roof. Fig. 21 shows a plan of a hip roof with deck, and Fig. 22 a side elevation of this kind of roof. In this figure some might take the lines A B and C D for the length of the hips, and C E for the length of the common rafter, but such is not the case. C D shows the length of the common rafter as we would THE BUILDERS GUIDE. see it on the end looking at the side view, hence E D is the run, E C the rise and C D length of com- mon rafter. I will now indicate the method of de- veloping the lengths of the hips, showing the true size of the roof, and how to reduce the figure to a rectangle of equal area. Referring to Fig. 23, A B C D and Fig. 23,-Size and Shape Necessary E represent the same to Cover Roof. ,. lines as shown in Fig. 22. Now, take the length of the common rafters A B and C D in Fig. 23 and draw them perpendicu- larly, as shown by E F and G H. Connect F with D and H with A for the length of the hips, then the figure inclosed by the lines A H F D will be the size and shape of the roof necessary to cover the side ele- P Fig. 24 Plan of Pyramidal Roof. Fig. 25. Plan of Roof which Hips to a Ridge. vation. The triangle described by the lines D E F equals in area the triangle A I H, shown by the dot- ted lines. Hence the roof A H F D is equal in area to the rectangle A I F E, whose length is one-half the sum of the eaves and deck lengths and whose breadth is the length of the common rafter. The THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 25 length multiplied by the breadth gives the area. From the foregoing illustrations and principles we derive the following : Rtde. Add the lengths at the eaves and deck to- gether, divide by two and multiply by the length of the common rafter. The area of the deck is found by multiplying the length by the breadth. Example. What is the area of a hip roof 20 x 28 feet at the eaves, with deck 4x8 feet, the length of the common rafter being 10 feet ? Operation. 20 + 4+20 + 4+28 + 8 + 28 + 8-^-2 x 10 = 600 feet, the area of the four sides. 4x8 = 32 feet, the area of the deck. 600 + 32 = 632, the total area of the roof. This rule will apply to hip roofs of most any kind. If the roof is pyramidal in form and hips to a point, as shown by Fig. 24, then theie is noth- ing to add for deck, and we simply multiply one- half the length at the eaves by the length of the common rafter. The principles of the three forms of hip roofs are essentially the same. HIP AND VALLEY ROOFS. Let Fig. 26 represent the plan of a building having a roof of three gables ' of equal size and Pig. 26. Plan of Roof with Four Gables. one smaller gable hipped on the rear side, as shown in the diagram. Fig. 27 shows this roof as it would appear in the front side elevation. Refer- Flg. 27. Front Elevation of Roof Shown in Fig. 26. ring now to Fig. 28, A B and B C represent the length of rafters on the front gable. Next set off the length of the common rafters of both the right THE BUILDERS GUIDE. and left gable perpendicularly, as shown by F G and D E, connecting E with G for the ridge line. On the perpendicular line of the front gable set off the length of the common rafter, shown by the dotted line J H. Fig. 23. Diagram for Finding Area of Hoof Shown in Previous Figure. Connect H with A and C for the valley rafters, which completes the profile of this side of the roof. The two figures, now represented by A D E H and C F G H, are termed trapezoids. To find the area of a trapezoid multiply half the sum of the parallel sides Fig. 29. Appearance of Roof in Bight End Elevation. by the altitude. In this case to make the matter plain we multiply half the length at the eaves and ridge by the length of the common rafter, which gives the area of the roof necessary to cover the ele- vation shown in Fig. 27. Fig. 29 shows the roof as it would appear in the right end elevation. We will now develop the THE BUILDERS GUIDE. shape of the roof and obtain the necessary lengths for finding the area of this elevation. Referring now to Fig. 30, A B and B C represent the length of rafters on the right gable. Next set off the length of rafter on the front gable shown by D E. Then set off the same length in the center of the left gable shown by the dotted line J H. Connect H with E for ridge line of front gable. Connect H with A and C for the valley rafters. Now take half the width of the rear gable, which is to be hipped on the end, and in this Fig. 30. Diagram for Finding Area of Roof Shown in Fig. 29. case is represented by C F From C erect a perpen- dicular the length of the common rafter on this part, shown by the dotted line C G. Connect G with F for the hip rafter and draw the ridge line G I par- allel with C F, which completes the profile of this view of the roof. The figure shown by A D E H is a trapezoid, and its area may be found as has been previously described for such figures. The figure shown by C F G I is termed a rhomboid. Its area may be found by multiplying C F by C G, or, in other words, the length at the eaves multiplied by the length of the common rafter gives the area. The areas of the two figures added completes the area of the roof necessary to cover the end elevation THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 2*1 shown in Fig. 29. As the left end elevation is similar to the right in shape and size the last estimated area doubled will give the area of the roof necessary to cover the two end elevations. We have now to consider the rear elevation and the roof necessary to cover it. Fig. 31 shows the roof as it Fig. 31. Roof as it Appears n Rear Elevation. would appear in the rear elevation. We will now de- velop the shape of the roof and obtain the necessary lengths and lines for finding the area of this elevation. Referring to Fig. 32, A B and B C represent the length of the common rafters on the rear gable. Fig. 32. Diagram for Finding the Area of Roof Shown in Fig. 31. From the center of the gable set off the length of the common rafter, as shown by the dotted line J H. Con- nect H with A and C for the length of the hips. Set off the length of the common rafter on the right and left gable, as shown bv F G and D E ; connect E and 30 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. G for the ridge line, which completes the profile of the rear view of the roof. It will be seen that the ridge of the rear gable does not come up even with the ridge of the other two ; hence the rear elevation shows a different shape than the front. For conven- ience in estimating, we divide the roof in the center of the gable, shown by the dotted line H I; then divide the roof perpendicularly each side of the gable, as shown by the dotted lines A K and C L. We now have the roof divided into four figures, of which D E K A and C L G F are rectangles, A K I H and C L I H are trapezoids. As the method of obtaining the areas of such figures has been previously described, further explanation is unnecessary. It has now been shown how to find the area of each side of the roof, as indicated in the plan, Fig. 26. By adding the area of the four sides the total area of the roof will be obtained. THE CIRCLE. A circle, Fig. 33, is a plane figure bounded by one uniformly curved line called the circumference. The diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the center and terminating at the circum- ference. The radius is a straight line drawn from the center to the circumference, and is there- fore half the diameter. To find the circumference of a circle from its diameter, multi- Fig. 33.-A Circle. pjy the diameter by 3 . I4I59 . To find the diameter of a circle from its circumfer- ^e, divide the circumference by 3.14159. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 31 To find the area of a circle multiply half the cir- cumference by half the diameter, or multiply the square of the diameter by the decimal .7854. To find the side of the greatest square that can be inscribed in a circle of a given diameter, divide the square of the given diameter by 2 and extract the square root of the quotient. TO FIND THE RADIUS OF A CIRCLE FROM A SEGMENT. Let A C, of Fig. 34, represent the chord of an arc From the center of A C square up the rise of the segment to B. Connect B with A and C. From the Fig. 34. Diagram for Finding Radius from a Segment. Fig. 35. Drawing a Circle Through Three Points. center of A B and B C square down the lines as shown. The point of crossing at D is the center of the circle, and D C is the radius. TO DRAW A CIRCLE THROUGH THREE PJINTS. Set off any three points, as A B C, Fig. 35. Con- nect A B and B C by straight lines. From the center of A B and B C square down to D, as shown, which will be the center of the circle. D B is therefore the radius of the circle which will strike the three points ABC. 32 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. POLYGONS. A plane figure bounded by more than four lines is called a polygon. It must therefore have at least five sides, and the number of sides which it may have is not limited. In this work will be intro- duced only the forms in common use, for the purpose of showing simple methods of estimating their areas A regular polygon has all its sides and angles equal, as shown in Fig. 36. An irregular polygon has its sides and angles unequal, as shown in Fig. 37. Fig. 36. A Regular Fig. 37. An Irregular Polygon. Polygon. A polygon of five sides, as shown in Fig. 36 or 37, is called a pentagon. The diagonal is a straight line drawn between any two angular points of a polygon. The diameter is a straight line drawn from any angle through the center to the opposite side or angle, as the case may be. To find the area of a regular pentagon we will let A B C D E represent the sides of a regular pentagon, as shown in Fig. 38. Draw the diameter A F and connect E with B, which divides the pentagon into four figures namely, two right angled triangles of equal areas and two trapezoids of equal areas. E G THE BUILDERS GUIDE. multiplied by G A will give the area of the two tri- angles. Half the sum of D C and E B multiplied by G F will give the area of the two trapezoids. The two areas added will give the total area. To find the area of an irregular pentagon, we will let A B C D E represent the sides, as shown in Fig. 39. Next draw A D and A C, which will divide the pen- tagon into three triangles of unequal areas ; then draw the altitude of these triangles, which is the per- Fig. 38. Finding Area of Regular Pentagon. Fig. 39. Finding Area of i Irregular Pentagon. pendicular distance from their vertices to the oppo- site sides, called the base and shown by the lines E F, A G and B H. This divides the figure into six right angled triangles of unequal areas. A D multiplied by half the altitude E F will give the area of triangles i and 2, or A E D ; then D C multiplied by half the altitude A G will give the area of triangles 3 and 4, or D A C. Again A C multiplied by half the altitude H B will give the area of triangles 5 and 6, or A B C. The three areas added will give the total area. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. A polygon of six sides is called a hexagon, and is shown in Fig. 40. To find the area of this figure draw the diagonals as shown in Fig. 41, which divide the hexagon into equal triangles, the size of Fig. 40. A Hexagon. Fig. 41. Finding the Area of a Hexagon. which is represented by A B C. Next draw the alti- tude of this triangle, as shown by the dotted line B D. Now, A C multiplied by half the altitude B D Fig. 42. Describing any Reg- ular Polygon. Fig. 43. An Octagon. will give the area of the triangle ABC, and this mul tiplied by six will give the total area. The area of any regular polygon may be found by drawing lines THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 35 from all of its angles to the center, thus forming tri- angles of equal areas, which may be estimated by multiplying the base by one-half the altitude, as shown in Fig. 41. To describe any regular polygon draw the circumference of a circle; divide the circum- ference into as- many equal spaces as the polygon has sides, connect these points with straight lines, and the polygon is completed, as shown in Fig. 42. A polygon of eight sides is called an octagon and is shown in Fig. 43. In Fig. 44 is represented a plan Fig. 44. Plan of an Octagon Tower Roof. Fig-. 45. An Elevation of an Octagon Tower Hoof. and in Fig. 45 an elevation of an octagon tower roof. In Fig. 45 A B C D represent the plates and A E, B E, C E and D E the hip rafters. The dotted line F E represents the common rafter. To find the area of this roof multiply B C by half of F E and this 36 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. product by eight, the number of sides. It will now be seen that the area of any tower roof from a square to a polygon of any number of sides may be found by multiplying the length of its side by half the length of the common rafter. If the tower has a round base then the circumference of its base multi- plied by half the length of the common rafter will give the area. The reader has now been shown wherein it is possible to make mistakes in the measurement of roofs, as indicated by the elevations. It has been shown how to develop the true shapes and sizes of irregular roof surfaces and how to reduce them to squares or rectangles of equal areas, or to figures whose areas are easily calculated. I might go on illustrating and describing roofs seemingly without end, but enough has been illustrated to thoroughly show the principles and methods of estimating roof surfaces. By a little study of the principles and methods, as previously set forth, the reader will be able to make proper application of them to the sur- face measurement of any roof. It will be noticed in nearly all cases that the essen- tial measurements for computing the area or surfaces of roofs are i, the length at the eaves ; 2, the length at the ridge or deck, as the case may be, and 3, the length of the common rafter. In works of this kind it has. been customary to show a number of illustrations on geometry, merely indicating how to construct certain figures from a given side or a few given points, while in all cases the most important part which a carpenter requires that of computing the area of irregular surfaces has been omitted. In the art of carpentry there is no THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 37 place in which these irregular-shaped figures appear as frequently as they do in the construction of roofs, and if the carpenter has no accurate methods for computing their areas then he has to make a guess, which is the course taken by many who have nevei seen a proper application of geometry to the surface measurement of roofs. Roof surfaces have to be estimated in order to ascertain the amount of ma- terial required to cover them, as the sheeting, shin- gles, slate, tin, copper, iron, &c., or whatever may be used for the roof covering. In the illustrations and examples given there might have been presented many rules for finding the length of certain sides of a figure, by having the lengths of one or more of the other sides, but they would be merely mathematical problems, which in most cases could be solved only by square root. As many carpenters, are not con- versant with square root it has been deemed best to avoid its use as much as possible in this work, and especially in places where it is not needed. It must be generally conceded in taking roof measurements, that if a carpenter can measure one distance he can measure the roof to find any distance he may desire to know. Therefore the illustrations given have been more to show how to measure roofs to obtain the proper dimensions for computing their areas than as geometrical problems and methods of construction. The author has considered the subject of roof meas- urement worthy a place by itself in estimating, and the subject of roof framing will be taken up, thor- oughly illustrated and described in another part of this work. ESTIMATING LABOR FOR CARPENTRY WORK. It is. generally claimed that the question of labor is the most difficult and uncertain the car- penter is called upon to solve. Material can often be figured very closely, but just how long it will take to work up a lot of material and place it in position in a building can not be so easily de- termined. The cost of labor depends upon the time required to perform a certain amount of it. All men do not work alike ; some will do easily one- third more than others hence the time required to perform a certain amount of labor depends largely upon the ability of the men employed, the advantages they take in doing work and the skill of the foreman in the management as it progresses day by day. It is an easy matter to find four men who will do as much in a day as five others, and to illustrate the surprising result of the difference in the ability of men to perform labor, I will give a practical ex- ample. Suppose two contractors, A and B, each have a job of work exactly the same. A takes his job for $900 and B his for $800. Each pays wages at the rate of $2.50 per day, and each employs five men ; but four of B's men are equal to five of A's and it takes 60 days to complete his job. Which will make the most money, and how much ? The solution of this problem is as follows : If A employs five men at $2.50 per day for 60 days, the labor will cost him $750 ; as he took his job for $900, his profit is $150. Now if four of B's men are equal to five of A's, B will THE BUILDERS* GUIDE. 39 complete his job in one-fifth less time than A, which will be 48 days. Now, if B employs five men at $2.50 per day for 48 days, the labor will cost him $600, and, as he took his job for $800, his profit is $200. Thus we can see how one man can underbid his competitor $100 on $900 worth of work and still make the most money. Again, suppose it required B 52 days to complete his job ; even then he could bid $100 lower than A and still make as much money. The above example shows at least one chance for the surprising difference in builders' estimates on the same work. It also shows how the difference in the ability of the workmen employed and the management of the work can make a vast difference in the cost of a building. Under such circumstances how can a contractor make estimates upon which he can rely ? In all kinds of work there must be an average, and this average is what is wanted as a standard in estimating. If labor cannot be estimated from what is known to be an average day's work, then we naturally conclude it must be estimated by com- parison or guessed at. The best way for a contractor to obtain facts and figures that he can rely upon in estimating is to keep a record of all the work he does. It will not do to trust to memory, for in a few months or a year he will not know whether such and such work cost $42 or $54, or what it cost. If he would profit by experience he will keep a record of the cost of his work, so that he can refer to it at a moment's notice. To keep a record that will give the best and most reliable facts and figures prepare a list of all kinds of work, having two sets of money columns, one for estimated cost and one for actual cost. 40 THE BUILDERS* GUIDE. When estimating a job put down the estimated cost, and when the actual cost is found from experience in doing the work put it down, and keep each particu- lar kind of work or portions of a job separate from the entire job. By so doing one will soon be able to see where he has estimated too high or too low, and will have facts and figures which will enable him to make a proper average. Some parts of a building are easily estimated by the " square," which contains 100 square feet. Some parts are easily estimated by the lineal foot, while other portions are best esti- mated by the piece. Keep a record of the time required by different men in doing work by the square, lineal foot or piece. In this way one will find the average day's work from actual experience, which is the only plan that can be followed with success. When it is known what it is worth to do work by the square, lineal foot or piece, any person of ordi- nary skill in figuring ought to be capable of making an estimate reasonably accurate. As I have said be- fore, the average day's work of all kinds is what is wanted as a standard in estimating. Accordingly I have prepared a table with the average day's work of each kind and the average rates to figure on. The table is made on a basis of ten hours for a day's work and as near as practical to average $3.50 per day. If an estimate is wanted for nine hours add one-tenth to the price ; and if for eight hours add one-fifth. The prices can easily be made for any rate per hour or any number of hours per day. To those who want to test the advantage of a table of this kind I would say, do not take it for granted that my THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 41 rates and averages are the best in the world, or that they are just the thing for a guide, but prepare a similar list and begin entering rates and averages as they are found from actual experience. Then one will have something that will suit the locality in which he lives, and there can be no doubt that in a short time he will have something that will be much to his advantage in estimating. Let me say how- ever, that the average day's work as found in the table is a reasonable average, as I have found from experience, and considerable dependence can be placed on estimates made from it. POINTS ON ESTIMATING LABOR. While the tables show the average day's work with the average rate per square, per lineal foot, and per piece for nearly all kinds of carpentry work, yet I TABLE OF PRICES FOR ESTIMATING LABOR BY THE LINEAL FOOT. Different kinds of work per lineal foot. Average day's work. No. of feet. Rate foot. Putting down base and quarter round Putting on base molding 90 180 $0.04 .02 Cap and molding for wainscoting Putting up cornice 140 24 Making gutters in cornices 50 .07 Putting up corner casings 70 .05 Putting on belt casings 90 .04 think it proper to show how and why variations should sometimes be made, and that it is necessary to use some discriminating judgment in connection 42 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. with the tables as regard the average day's work. .Undoubtedly, many will think the rates in the table too high, and the averages too low, but right here TABLE OF PRICES FOR ESTIMATING LABOR BY THE SQUARE. Different kinds of work per square. Average day's work. No. of squares. Rate per square. Framing floors in houses . 5 $0 70 Framing floors in barns 4 90 Framing outside walls of housBS Framing outside walls of barns Framing and setting partitions 6 4 6 .60 .90 60 Framing ceilings 7 .50 Framing plain roofs 6 60 Framing hip and valley roofs 3 1 20 Sheeting sides with common sheeting. . Sheeting sides with 8-inch shiplap Sheeting sides with 6-inch flooring Sheeting roofs with common sheeting. . Sheeting roofs with 8-inch shiplap Shingling with common shingles . . 8 7 6 8 6 2 1 A .45 .50 .60 .45 .60 1.40 Shingling with dimension shingles Siding with 6-inch beveled siding If papered before siding / 2 3 2K .75 .20 .40 Siding with 6-inch cove siding 2^ .40 If papered before siding 2 .75 Siding with 12-inch barn boards 6 .60 Siding with 12-inch boards and battened Laying floor with 6-inch pine flooring. Laying floor with 4-inch pine flooring. Laying floor with 6-inch hardwood. . . Laying floor with 4 -inch hardwood. . . Laying floor which has to be surfaced . Ceiling with 6-inch pine ceiling 4 6 f 2 4 .90 .60 .80 .70 .90 1.75 .90 Ceiling with 4-inch pine ceiling Plain wainscoting without cap 3 4 1.20 .90 let me say that no contractor should make an esti- mate based on these so-called big day's work. If he does he is almost sure to find he is mistaken. An THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 43 estimate should always be made from a reasonable average, and then if the contractor is able to average as well as he estimates, and perhaps a little better, he feels that he is making a success of his business TABLE OF PRICES FOR ESTIMATING LABOR BY THE PIECE. Different kinds of work per piece. Average day's work. No. of pieces. Rate per piece. Making plain window frames Making plain door frames 4 Making transom frames Setting frames in position in building. 14 Hanging blinds before frames are set . . 15 Hanging blinds after frames are set. ... 10 Hanging inside blinds 5 Fitting sash in frames Hanging sash with weights 14 Hanging transoms Casing windows Casing doors, one side 16 Casing doors, both sides Casing transom frames, one side 12 Casing transom frames, both sides 6 Cutting in window stops 35 Cutting in door stops 30 Band molding frames, one side Band molding frames, two sides 12 Putting down thresholds Fitting common doors 20 Hanging common doors 20 Putting on rim knob locks 35 Putting on mortice knob locks 14 $1.20 .90 1.20 .25 .70 .20 .25 .35 .30 .22 .44 .30 .60 .10 .12 .15 .30 .15 .18 .18 .10 .25 and is satisfied. On the other hand, if the estimate is made from too large an average, the big day's work which was counted on may not be accomplished and many a time, what seemed like time enough, 44 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. would prove insufficient. Then there would be dis- satisfaction and disappointment. I will now return to the tables and show how to make some short cuts by combinations. In the tables every item is given separately for convenience in estimating any particu- lar portion of a job, but to facilitate the work of estimating an entire job, many of the different items maybe combined and regarded as one. For example, it is worth For framing and placing joists in position per square ...$0.70 to $0.90 Laying floor per square 60 to 1.75 Total $1.30 to $2.65 Thus the framing and laying of floors may be estimated at once if desired. The bridging of joists should be estimated at 3 to 5 cents per joist for each row of bridging. DOUBLE FLOORS. Where one floor is laid over another it is worth one-fourth more to lay the second floor than the first. Thus if it is worth 60 cents per square to lay the first floor, it is worth 75 cents per square to lay the second, or $1.35 per square for both. Framing floors for brick buildings may be estimated at the same rate as for frame, for, while there is usually less framing, more time is required to place joists in position and level up, thus making the labor about equal. As a building progresses in hight more time is required to place joists in position, hence 10 per cent, should be THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. added to each succeeding story after the first. The outside walls of a house may be estimated as follows: To frame and raise, per square ............. $0.60 to $0.90 Sheeting the same, per square ................. 45 to .60 Siding the same, per square .................. 1.20 to 1.75 Total ................................ ... $2.25 to $3.25 Thus the outside walls of a house may be esti- mated at $2.25 to $3.25 per square. Framing should include raising and sneering ; and siding should be estimated sufficiently high to cover the cost of building scaffolds. It is worth one- third more to sheet a building inside than outside, and twice as much to sheet it diagonally. The siding of a house is subject to large variations, as a man can often side three or four times faster on some build- ings than he can on others. The amount an average workman will put on in a day depends upon the num- ber, size and shape of the openings around which he has to side, the hight of the building and the amount of scaffolding he has to do. Difficult places to side can be readily seen on a building or even from a plan, and the siding should be estimated sufficiently high to cover the cost. I have known men to put on siding for 60 cents per square, but not one man in ten can make anything like respectable wages at this price, even on the plainest kind of work and under the most favorable circumstances. Some men may be able to put on four squares a day and perhaps a little more than that, but the large majority will fall short of four, and some will not put on more than two squares a day. The average is therefore not more than three squares per day, which would amount to $1.80 per 46 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. day, with chances of not doing so well. In estimat- ing siding or sheeting by the square no deduction is made for openings. Roofs may be estimated as fol- lows : "> For framing, per square $0.60 to $1.20 For sheeting, per square 45 to .70 For shingling, per square ; 1.25 to 1.75 Total $2.30 to $3.65 Thus to frame, sheet and shingle a roof it is worth from $2.30 to $3.65 per square. Each hip or valley in a roof is worth from 75 cents to $1.50 for sheeting and shingling. Hips and valleys cannot be shingled or sheeted with as much speed as plain roofs, and are seldom estimated high enough. The shin- gling of belt courses and gables with dimension shin- gles is worth from $2 to $3.50 per square, according to the windows and difficult places with which the workman has to contend. CORNICES. A cornice is composed of several members, the most common kind containing five, which are known respectively as planceer, fascia, frieze, crown and bed moldings. It may be estimated at 15 cents per lineal foot. If a cornice has more than five members add 2 to 3 cents per lineal foot for each member. If there are less than five members a similar deduction may be made. If a cornice has brackets it will be necessary to add a sufficient amount to cover the cost of putting them up. GUTTERS. These are variously formed on roofs and in cornices and are worth from 4 to 10 cents per lineal foot. A THE; BUILDERS GUIDE. 47 standing gutter on a roof is worth from 4 to 6 cents per foot. A flush gutter or one sunk in a roof or cornice is worth from 6 to 10 cents per foot. Fig. 46 shows a cornice with a standing gutter on the roof. The gutter is usually placed on the second or third course of shingles, and consists of one piece standing square with the roof, as shown by the dotted lines, and is usually supported by small brackets on the STUDDING Fig. 48. Cornice with Standing Gutter. under side with end pieces as shown. G is the gutter, C the crown tnolding, Fa the fascia, P the planceer, B the bed molding, F the frieze and S the sheeting. Fig. 47 shows a gutter formed in the cor- nice with four pieces namely, a bottom, two sides and a fillet, all as shown by the dotted lines. G is the gutter, FL the fillet, C the crown mold, Fa the 48 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. fascia, P the planceer, B the bed molding, F the frieze and S the sheeting. To make this kind of a gutter is worth 10 cents per lineal foot. PORCHES. Sometimes porches may be estimated by the lineal foot, at from $2 to $4 per foot. This, however, is not Fig. 47. Gutter Formed in the Cornice. the best method, its principal advantage being its simplicity and ease. The most common kind of porches, with which almost every one becomes famil- iar, may be estimated as above with generally satis- factory results. The best and most accurate way, THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. however, is to estimate the framework, flooring, ceiling and roofing by the square ; the cornice, gut- ters and latticework by the foot, and the steps, col- umns, brackets and ornamental work by the piece. After summing up the various parts the result may be taken as the most reliable estimate. ESTIMATING WINDOW FRAMES. The various parts of the work necessary to com- plete a window frame in a building may be put down as follows : Making frame ........................................ $1.25 Hanging blinds .......................................... 25 Setting frame in building ................................ 25 Fitting sash ............................................. 20 Hanging sash with weights ............................. 20 Casing window. ........................................ 30 Band molding frame .................................... 12 Cutting in stops ........................ ................. 09 Total ............................................ $2.66 Thus we see that plain window frames complete in a building, may be estimated at $2.66 each. It should be remembered that a fine hardwood finish is often worth twice or three times as much as a com- mon soft wood finish, and that large transom frames, twin windows, &c., finished in hardwood may be worth as high as $20. DOOR FRAMES. The different parts of work required to complete a doorframe may be estimated as follows : 50 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. Making frame $0.90 Setting frame in building 25 Casing frame 44 Band molding frame 24 Fitting and hanging door 36 Putting on mortice lock 25 Cutting in thresholds 15 Cutting in stops 12 Total $2.71 Thus it is worth $2.71 per frame to make and finish common door frames complete in a building. By looking over the above estimate it will be seen that there is a great deal of work about a door frame besides fitting andjianging the door and putting on the lock hence many are apt to estimate too low. To fit, hang and put a lock on a common door, using one pair of loose pin butts and a common mortice lock, is worth 60 cents. The average day's work is about six doors per day. If the doors are large and require three butts each, it is worth 75 cents per door. Front doors having complicated locks with night keys, &c., are worth $1.50 to $2 per door. SLIDING DOORS. The different parts of work required to put up sliding doors are worth as follows : Lining partitions and putting up track $7.00 Setting jambs 1.00 Casing door frame 1.00 Band molding frame 30 Hanging doors and putting on lock 3.50 Cutting in stops 20 Total $13.00 Thus sliding doors are worth $13 per set, and may vary according to size and style of finish up to $30. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 51 A single sliding door is worth very nearly as much as double doors. The difference in the labor of put- ting them up in most cases would not be over $2. FOLDING DOORS. The cost of labor for putting in folding doors com- plete is from $3.75 to $5.50 per set. To fit, hang and put on lock and flush bolts is worth from $1.75 to $3.50 per set. WAINSCOTING. Plain wainscoting is worth about 90 cents per square. The cap should be estimated by the foot extra, according to style of finish. Paneled wains- coating is often worth twice or three times as much as plain work. SINKS. To finish a kitchen sink in the plainest style is worth $2, and some styles finished in hardwood are worth as much as $10. BATHROOMS. A bathroom having in connection a wash bowl and a water closet, finished in the plainest style, will take a good workman two days, and is worth $7. An inexperienced hand in this kind of work will require about three days to complete the job. Some styles of hardwood finish will require from four to six days' work and are worth from $14 to $21. PANTRIES. The shelving and finishing of a pantry in the plainest style is worth from $3 to $5. Pantries with flour chests, spice drawers and numerous other things, shelves inclosed with doors, all elegantly fitted up, are worth from $25 to $40. 52 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. STAIRS. The cheapest kind of cellar stairs are worth from $3 to $5, and the plainest kind of box stairs from $8 to $12 per flight. Plain open stairs with hand rail, newel post and balusters are worth from $20 to $35. Stairs and staircases finished in hardwood may vary from $50 to $150. It is frequently worth from $ioto $20 to set the newel posts and put up the rail of some of the most elaborate designs. RECAPITULATION". In looking over the items which have been variously combined and bringing them to a minimum, it will be seen on what the carpenter has to figure and the easiest way of estimating it. Framing and laying floors, per square $1.30 @ $2.65 Framing, sheeting and siding, per square 2.25 @ 3.25 Framing and setting partitions, per square. .. .60 @ .90 Framing, sheeting and shingling roofs, per square 2.30 @ 3.65 Hips and valleys, each 75 @ 1.50 Shingling belt courses and gables, per square. 2.00 @ 3.50 Cornice, per lineal foot 10 @ .15 Corner casings, per lineal foot 04 @ .06 Gutters, per lineal foot 06 @ .10 Porches, per lineal foot 2.00 @ 4.00 Window frames, complete, in building, each. 2.66 @ 20.00 Door frames, complete, in building, each 2.70 @ 20.00 Sliding doors, complete, in building 13.00 @ 30.00 Folding doors, complete, in building 3.75 @ 5.50 Wainscoting, per square 90 @ 2.70 Wainscoting cap, per lineal foot 02 @ .05 Sinks.eacb. 2.00 @ 10.00 Bathrooms, finished complete 7.00 @ 21.00 Putting down base in houses, per lineal foot.. .03 @ .05 Finishing pantries 3.00 @ 40.00 Cellar stairs, very common 3.00 @ 5.00 Plainstairs 20.00 @ 35.00 Front stairs 30.00 @ 150.00 SHORT CUT IN ESTIMATING. As many of the principal parts of construction in common buildings are essentially the same, a short cut may be made in figuring the bulk of the rough work, which includes the framing, raising, sheeting, siding, roofing, laying of floors, and setting partitions. Take the number of cubic feet in the building from top of foundation to top of ridge of roof and multiply by the rate per cubic foot, which is usually from two to three cents. After estimating the rough work in this manner add all the parts that are considered of a changeable character, such as the cornice, gable trimmings, porches, bay windows, in- side finish, and all parts not included in the bulk of the estimates. Of course one can see that a change in price will change the amount of the estimate, and that it is as necessary to use discriminating judg- ment in fixing rates for this method as in any other. To successfully estimate the labor in a building every one must fix his own rates from personal ex- perience in doing the class of work which he is called on to perform. Tables, prices and methods are good in their way, and many times will give valuable aid in estimating, but actual experience is far better. The foregoing items include those which come under the head of carpentry. Of course the con- tractor will have many other items on which to figure if he desires to estimate or contract for the entire job. The following list, arranged in regular order, will THE BUILDERS GUIDE be found to include the principal divisions of estimat- ing an entire job, and also shows a good form for an estimate : FORM FOR AN ESTIMATE. Excavating Foundation walls Brick walls and piers. Chimneys Lumber Carpentry work Hardware Tin work Galvanized iron work. Plastering Plumbing Gas fitting Steam fitting Painting Incidental expenses . . . PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS IN ESTIMATING. Under each division there will always appear many items on which to figure, but as contractors are sup- posed to be supplied with specifications, it is useless to enumerate all the items as they may appear under each head. The two principal divisions of lumber and carpentry have been given in full in every detail of the work. Under the other divisions it will only be necessary to mention a few of the essential points to enable any one to estimate them easily and accu- rately. EXCAVATIONS. Excavating for foundation walls, cellars, cisterns, &c., is estimated by the cubic yard, which contains 27 cubic feet. The rate per yard is variable in dif- ferent localities and according to the location of the THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. grounds and the hardness of the earth to be ex- cavated. FOUNDATIONS AND CHIMNEYS. Foundations are generally laid of brick or stone. Brick are laid by the thousand, and stone by the perch. The rates and customs of measuring are variable in different localities. The following, how- ever, is the usual custom of measuring brick and stone work. For a foundation the outside measure- ment of the wall is the one taken. To find the num- ber of perches of stone in walls, multiply the length in feet by the hight in feet, and that by the thickness in feet, and divide the product by 22. No allowance is made for openings, unless they are numerous or of considerable size. EXAMPLE AND SOLUTION. Take the following example : How many perches of stone in a wall 48 feet long, 8 feet high and i foot 6 inches thick ? The solution to this is : 48 x 8 x ii -*- 22 = 26.18 perches. A perch of stone measures usually 24.75 cubic feet, but when built in a wall 2.75 cubic feet are allowed for mortar and filling. To find the perches of masonry divide the cubic feet by 24.75 instead of 22. In estimating the masonry no allowance is made for openings. A thousand brick are about equal to two perches of stone when laid in a wall. Brick are counted as follows : For a 4-inch wall 7^ bricks to the foot. For an 8-inch wall 15 bricks to the foot. For a i2-inch wall 22^ bricks to the foot. For a i6-inch wall 30 bricks to the foot. In estimating for the number of brick the open- 56 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. ings may be deducted if they are large or numerous. In the measurement of masonry, however, no deduc- tion is made for openings. Seven hundred and fifty brick laid in a wall are equal to 1000 brick, wall count. The customary price allowed for the labor of laying brick is $2 per 1000, wall count. A chimney of i^ by 2 brick makes a flue 4x 8 inches inside and requires 25 bricks per foot. A chimney of 2 by 2 brick makes a flue 8x8 inches inside and requires 30 bricks per foot, while a chim- ney of 2 by z% brick makes a flue 8 x 12 inside and requires 35 bricks per foot. Chimneys of any size may be estimated by counting the number of brick required for one course and allowing five courses to the foot. A chimney breast for a fire place is usu- ally of 2 x 7 brick and requires 80 to 90 bricks per foot. LATHING AND PLASTERING. Lathing is estimated by the square yard and the usual rate is 3 cents per yard. Fifteen lath are counted to the yard, and 6^ pounds of threepenny nails per 1000 lath. Plastering is also estimated by the square yard. The lathing and plastering are usually estimated together at the following rates, including material and labor : For two-coat work, 18 to 23 cents per yard, and for three-coat work, 23 to 27 cents. In the measurement of plastering no deduction is made for openings. PAINTING. When a carpenter has to figure upon painting it is better for him to get some reliable mechanic who is in the business to give figures on the work. Painter: THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 57 figure their work by the square yard. I have in- quired of practical painters concerning their methods of calculation and have failed to find any uniform scale or rule by which to measure surfaces. Nearly all master painters have a basis of calculation, but the accuracy of their estimates depends so much upon personal judgment as to the nature and extent of variations, that their methods would be useless to persons of less accurate judgment. The methods also vary according to the nature of the work and the training of the painter. No two would measure in the same way, perhaps, yet they might reach nearly the same results. Although it is true that very much depends upon the painter's judgment, I will try to give a few hints which will be found in some cases entirety trustworthy and in all helpful. O.ne way of measuring is to obtain the number of square feet in the sides and ends of a building as if they are flat surfaces, give a rough guess as to the dimensions of trimming, &c., and let it go at that. This plan may work well for a good guesser, but for general use it is not very satisfactory. Another way in connection with wooden buildings is to measure the length and exposed surface of one strip of siding, then count the siding and multiply the dimensions of one by the whole number on the side or end of the building ; the product will be the surface meas- ure. This is a better way, but its accuracy depends upon a pretty thorough acquaintance with compound numbers, as dimensions must be reduced to inches, then back to feet or yards, according to the basis of calculation. Trimmings, &c., are measured separately. Common siding are put on with one board over- 58 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. lapping another, and the lapping edge of the board is raised from the perpendicular, so that it presents a di- agonal instead of a flat surface ; and there is also the exposed edge of the board, about ^ inch, which should be included in the estimate. Suppose, now, that the exposed portion of a board of siding is 4 inches the usual width and the edge y 2 inch. It will give the side of a building just 12^ per cent, more surface than it would possess if it were per- fectly flat. Hence one-eighth added to the dimen- sions, obtained by multiplying hight and length to- gether, will give the actual surface measure of com- mon siding. In drop siding, which is frequently used, there is an exposed edge of about ^ inch, and about ^( inch more surface on the molded edge than there would be if it were flat, thus making a total gain over flat surface of ^ inch on each piece of siding, or 18^ per cent., which is very nearly equal to one-fifth. Hence one-fifth should be added to the dimensions in square feet of a building to obtain the surface measurement for drop siding. In measuring the gable ends of ordinary buildings the dimensions should be one-half less than actual square measure. For example, if a building is 20 feet wide, and is 10 feet from the level of the frame plates to the point of the roof, multiply half the width, 10 feet, by the hight, 10 feet, and we have 100 feet surface of the gable end, to which should be added the percentages for the edges of the siding boards, &c. No deduction is usually made for open- ings. Cornice and trimmings should be measured separately. If there are panels, beads and other pro- THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 50 jecting and receding features, brackets, &c., carefully measure one of each, count the number on the build- ing and multiply by that number; the product will be the total surface. Open brackets on cornices and scroll and lattice work on verandas should be meas- ured solid, as the edges fully make up for open spaces. The utter lack of uniformity in house trimmings compels more or less reliance upon the judgment of the painter in measuring them. I can suggest no rule for measuring which can be used with satisfac- tory results in all cases. What would be admirably suited to one would be wholly unadapted to another, simply because the architectural features are unlike. Here there is no alternative but to exercise judg- ment in considering these important features. In calculating the quantity of paint required upon the basis of surface measurement, from 12 to 40 per cent, should be allowed for trimmings, &c., accord- ing to their size and shape. For plain work 12 to 20 par cent, will be found a fair average. This de- pends, however, upon the number of doors and win- dows, style of frames, &c. On Queen Anne struct- ures, which are painted with two or three body colors and are burdened with numerous and elabor- ate trimmings, calculations must be made of the portions of the buildings to which the different body colors are to be applied either by divisions of total measurement or by separate measurements and the trimmings considered separately. As outside paint- ing on buildings usually consists of two coats over a previously painted surface, or if on a surface never before painted, preceded by a primary coat, it is cus- tomary to estimate the quantity of paint required for 60 , THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. two coats. Surfaces are so variable in condition that no rule can be given which will be found applicable to all cases. The quantity of paint required for two-coat work varies from 3^ to 5 gallons per 100 square yards, and I would by all means advise carpenters to obtain figures from experienced painters in this particular line of business. HARDWARE. Estimating hardware is as much of a necessity with the carpenter as estimating lumber, but it is not attended with as many variations and difficulties. The number of fixtures for door and window trim- mings, &c., may be readily counted from the plans, and it is only through the omission of some items that any serious mistake is likely to happen. A care- ful study of the plans and a well prepared list of hardware items from which to figure is a guard against mistakes from omissions and a guide to cor rect estimating. LIST OF ITEMS FOR ESTIMATING HARDWARE. Nails, various sizes (see table). Brads. Hooks and eyes. Blind hinges. Drawer pulls. Window bolts. Mortise bolts. Axle pulleys. Flush bolts. Sash locks. Registers. Sash cord. Door stops. Window weights. Tin window caps. Mortise locks. Tin shingles. Rim locks. Valley tin. Butts, various sizes. Hip shingles, Parlor door hangers. Tin roofing. Wrought butts. Conductors. Strap hinges. Screws. Transom lifters. Sandpaper. Cupboard catches. Wardrobe hooks THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 61 On small jobs old contractors who have learned to judge from experience usually arrive at the quanti- ties of nails by guessing. The following table, how- ever, may be found available to many in estimating nails for various purposes. As wire nails are coming into general use, and are already extensively em- ployed, the basis of estimating has been made on the number of wire nails to the pound. If cut nails are used add one-third to the amount : TABLE FOR ESTIMATING NAILS. 1000 shingles require 3* pounds 4d nails. 1000 lath require 6% pounds 3d nails. 1000 feet of beveled siding requires 18 pounds 6d nails. 1000 feet of sheeting requires 20 pounds 8d nails. 1000 feet of sheeting requires 25 pounds lOd nails. 1000 feet of flooring requires 30 pounds 8d nails. 1000 feet of flooring requires 35 pounds lOd nails. 1000 feet of studding requires 14 pounds lOd nails. 1000 feet of studding requires 10 pounds 20d nails. 1000 feet of furring 1x2 requires 10 pounds lOd nails. 1000 feet of % finish requires 30 pounds of 8d nails. 1000 feet of 1% finish requires 40 pounds lOd finish nails. The following table shows the name, length and number of nails to the pound of the different sizes : NUMBER OF NAILS TO THE POUND. No. to a Name. Length. pound. 3dfine 1 inch 1150 3d common 1^ inch 720 4d common 1% inch 432 5d common 1% to 1^ inch 352 6d finish 2 inch 350 6d common 2 inch 252 7d common 2% inch 192 8d finish 2% inch 190 62 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. No. to a Kame. Length. pound. 8d common 2^ inch 132 9d common 2% inch 110 lOd finish 3 inch 137 lOd common 3 inch 87 12d common 3J^ inch 66 20d common 3% inch 35 30d common 4 inch 27 40d common 4^ inch 21 50d common 5^ inch 15 60d common 6 inch 12 70d common 7 inch 9 FORM OF CONTRACT. Articles of Agreement, made on this day of , A. D. 18 , by and between , party of the first part and , party of the second part : Wi'nesseth, That for and in considera- tion of the money hereinafter stipulated to be paid to the party of the first part by the party of the second part, the party of the first part has, and by these conditions does hereby agree to furnish all labor and material of every kind and to build and complete on or by the on the premises of the party of the second part, situated in a residence as shown upon the drawings and set forth in the specifications. Said drawings and speci- fications being verified by the signatures of the parties are taken as a part of this contract. And the party of the first part agrees that all material furnished, or workmanship employed, shall be of the best char- THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. acter and quality, as mentioned in the said specifica- tions. The party of the first part further agrees that he will complete, in accordance with the plans and specifications, to the full and entire satisfaction of the party of the second part, all the work that is to be done by the .................................. In consideration of which the party of the second part agrees to pay to the party of the first part the sum of $ .......... as follows : When the foundations are completed .... $ ........ When the entire building is under roof. . $ ........ When the entire building is plastered. ... $ ........ When the entire building is completed.. . $ ........ In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have affixed their signatures : Witness ; [L.S.] PRACTICAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION. As most carpenters are familiar with the usual methods of construction in the line of carpentry, I will only mention a few points on this subject, which seem to me to be more or less neglected. MAKING CORNERS. It is customary, nowadays, to make the outside corners of many buildings by simply doubling and spiking two studding together, as shown by section in Fig. 48. By this method there is nothing to receive the lath from one side, and as soon as the lathers begin work, the carpenter is called upon either to put in another studding or the lather P uts in an X thin g h e can find to which to nail the lath. In many instances it is nothing more than a double thick- ness of lath nailed up and down the corner. This does not make a solid corner, and as a consequence the plastering soon cracks, even before the carpenter is through finishing. It is al- most impossible to put down , Fig. 49.- Section of a Corner, the base in a house construct- indicating a Better Method ed with such corners without cracking them, simply be- cause they are not solid. Fig. 49 shows a section of a corner which is a much better method of construc- tion, and one which makes a solid corner. The 64 of Construction than shown in Previous Figure. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 65 corner is made of three studding, A, B, C, spiked together as shown. D is an open space between A and B, which may be filled in with blocks. Corners constructed in this way make solid nail- ing for the lath and base from both sides. Figs. 50 and 51 show two forms for making solid cor- ners for partition angles by using three studding. U H n Fig 50. Method of Making Fig. 51. -Another Method SoUd Corners for Parti- of Making Solid Cor- tion Angle. ners. If it is desired to save studding aboard can be nailed to the back of studding C, which will often an- swer the purpose. It is a very common thing for carpenters in set- ting partitions to place the studding joining another partition half an inch away from it, so that the lather Fig. .-8howtagJpro^r Manner of Run- ^ ^ ^ ^ through back of the partition studding, as shown in Fig. 52. This does not make a solid corner and is a very poor method of construction. SPACING STUDDING. As the second floor joists in buildings usually rest on a ribbon board framed into the studding, it is 66 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. necessary that the studding on both sides of the build- ing on which the joists have their bearing should be regularly spaced. Many are in the habit of laying off the openings and spacing the studding to conform thereto. This method causes great irregularity of spacing, making some wide and some narrow spaces, which either bring the joists overhead out of position LJUJJJ J _J JJ Fig. 53. Showing Proper Method of Spacing Studding. or leaves them standing alone on the ribbon without any means of being properly fastened. Studding should be spaced regardless of the open- ings, after which the openings may be laid out and the necessary studding may be cut and headers put in, as shown in Fig. 53. This method leaves the studding all regularly spaced, and the joists will all nail to the side of a studding and come in the proper order. Now, if the studding are set to conform to THE BUILDERS GUIDE. the openings, as shown in Fig. 54, it breaks up the regular order of spacing, leaving some spaces wide and some narrow. It will also be noticed that we have two more studding spaced on the sill and plate than in Fig. 53. It is, therefore, evident that if the joists are regularly spaced many of them will stand alone on the ribbon board, with no place to properly JL 1 JL 1 J J L 1 1 J = J n~~ ~ Fig. 54. Showing Studding Set to Conform to Openings fasten them, as shown. If they are placed over to the side of the studding, as they frequently are, then they are thrown off their centers and the spacing is wrong. CORNER BLOCKS. Every workman has experienced more or less diffi- culty in nailing up corner blocks in' casing doors and windows. The trouble all comes from the want of a solid background on which to nail the blocks. Very THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. often the plastering is not finished level and true with the jambs. All trouble with corner blocks may be avoided by taking a common board of the proper thickness, 1^2 inches narrower than the inside head casing, i^ inches shorter than the width of win- dow and side casings, and nail it tight down on the head jamb, as shown in Fig. 55. By this method the corner blocks will nail up true and solid without cracking the plastering. Care should be taken that the board is not too wide nor too long, as the blocks and head casing should com- pletely cover it from view. MITERING AND COPING BASE. Many mechanics have proba- bly experienced more or less dif- ficulty in mitering and coping base, particularly of the hard- wood finish and molded-edge pat- terns. There are two distinct kinds of joints to make in putting down base. The angles which form the four sides of a room are called internal angles, and the joints should always be coped. The projecting corners of a chimney, or any corners projecting into a room, are termed external angles, and the joints should always be mitered. To cope a joint in putting down base, cut and fit in square the first piece. Cut the piece which is to be coped to the other about i^ inches longer than the actual length needed; place it as nearly as possible in position, and with the n n r BOARD Fig. 55 Method of Putting up Corner Blocks. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 69 dividers set to about the thickness of the base, scribe down by the side of the piece already fitted and nailed in place; then scribe all the parts which are easy. Beads and molded surfaces which are difficult to scribe, prick with the dividers near the center of each member ; cut the square part of base as usuai, but cut the molded part on an angle which will just touch all the points made by the dividers. This will give the true line for coping. After cutting the base to the coping line, first see that the joint will fit, as sometimes a little trimming is necessary; then obtain the proper length, cut off and place the board in position, putting in last when possible to do so the ena which is coped. By this method a joint can be made very tight without the annoyance of the other end of the board scraping into the plastering. Many carpenters use a templet for obtaining the cut which gives the coping line. It, however, is of little use, as it is always made with the supposition that all angles are square and true, which is far from being the case. Scribing and cutting as above described is far bet- ter, as it will make a joint to fit any angle, and with a little practice a perfect fit will be obtained at the first cut. To miter base around external angles, mark the proper miter on the square edge of the base and square across on the back side and the square part of the face side. Cut from the top edge of base, starting on back line and cutting on an angle which will just cut the line on the square part of the face side. A little practice will convince any one that a templet for cutting base is not really worth carrying around. When properly basing a chimney, fit all the 70 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. joints before nailing, and then clamp all the pieces in their proper places by nailing blocks on the floor and driving in braces. One will be surprised at what a neat job can be done and how easy it is to do it. There will not be the usual difficulty in driv- ing the nails, and cracked and mutilated chimney corners will not bear evidence of a bad job of basing around them. The great difficulty of driving nails i nto the bricks is largely overcome by having ihe work clamped tightly against it. BINDING SLIDING DOORS. I have frequently noticed that a remedy is wanted for binding sliding doors. This question is very frequently asked, and it is not to be wondered at, for not one sliding door in ten put up works in anything like a satisfactory manner. I have had a great deal of experience with sliding doors, and am pretty well acquainted with the common defects and causes of unsatisfactory working. I do not wonder that a good remedy is wanted for these troublesome doors, for unless they work properly they become a great inconvenience. The causes of the unsatisfactory working of sliding doors are many, and a little gen- eral information on the subject may not come amiss. Nearly all the causes of the imperfect working of sliding doors can be traced directly to the improper construction of some part of the work in putting them up, and in most cases an ounce of prevention is worth about 4 pounds of the cure. As overhead hangers are almost exclusively used these are the ones we will take into consideration. First, it is necessary that the floor under sliding-door partitions should be perfectly solid and very nearly level. It is a common occurrence for buildings to settle, and if partitions, which often have a great weight to support, are not provided with a properly constructed foundation, they will settle enough to throw the or- dinary sliding door entirely out of working order. It will not do to block up under sliding-door parti- tions with a little chip, a piece of a shingle, a little loose dirt under a post in the cellar bottom or some n 72 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. fresh mortar, as is often practiced. As the increased weight of the plastering and floors is put upon the partitions above, the floors begin to settle. I have seen floors under sliding doors ^ inch out of level. How can sliding doors work when put up under such circumstances ? If the track was level, one door would be sure to strike the floor as it was rolled back, while the other door would rise almost \y 2 inches from the floor. Again, if the track was not level, but placed parallel with the floor, then the doors could not be adjusted to hang plumb ; consequently, they would not fit the jambs, unless the jambs were set to fit the doors y inch out of plumb. Thus far we see that the floor must be perfectly solid and level, the partitions must be set plumb, the headers put in solid and of sufficient strength to carry all the weight placed upon them without yield- ing or sagging. We will now turn our attention to the putting up of the track. This should be level and straight, and it should be straight sideways as well as on top where the rollers run. This is a point overlooked by many. They think if the track is straight on top that is all that is necessary, but short kinks sideways in a track will cause the doors to run crooked running away from the stops on one side of the jamb, and crowding them on the other, often causing binding. Again, most hangers require a double track, constructed in the following manner : The track is i x i^ inches, and screwed to the edge of a board ^ x 6 inches. These boards are then fast- ened to the partitions at the proper hight for the doors, and another piece 4^ inches wide, called a spreader, is placed over the top. The sketch, Fig. 56, gives a THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 73 general idea of the construction of the track and box- ing. In the diagram it will be noticed that the open- ing between the tracks and between the jambs, through which the lower part of the door hanger passes, is only one inch wide. The hangers have small SPREADER i X 4} Fig. 56. Section showing Construction of Track and Boxing for Sliding- Doors. friction rollers, which run between the two tracks, serving as a guide for the wheels above, and not leav- ing more than yi inch play between the two tracks. This }i inch is plenty of room if the work is properly done. It is necessary that the friction rollers run 74 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. close to the track in order that the doors may run true and without crowding the door stops. But sup- pose the boxing is insecurely fastened to the stud- ding, and the dampness from the plastering, when it is put on, causes the two 6-inch boards to cup. The tendency at once is to narrow the opening re- quired by the friction rollers of the hangers, thus causing a binding of the door hangers between the two tracks. Again, suppose the spreader, which is for the sole purpose of keeping the tracks the right distance apart, is carelessly put in a little narrow, or, perhaps, left out entirely, as it is occasionally by some, who consider it an unnecessary appendage to the working of sliding doors, then there is practically nothing to keep the tracks from springing together, causing a binding of the doors. Again, if the ^spreader is narrow or left out, the continual pounding of the lathers on the partition walls, and the carpenters in finishing, have a tend- ency to drive the partitions a little closer together, especially if they are not securely fastened at the top. Fully as many binding sliding doors are caused by the tracks springing together as in any other way, and when from this cause, the remedy is a difficult one to apply, as the doors may have to be taken down and the sides of the track trimmed off with very long-handled, sharp-edged tools. This cause of binding is likely to be overlooked, as it is the least suspected, and comes very near being an invisible cause. Again, we will suppose that a building being erected is to have sliding doors that the tracks are put in level and at the proper time. Now, after the building has been plastered and the carpenter comes THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 75 to finish the sliding doors, he finds that the weight of the plastering or something has caused the floor to settle and the track is out of level. Well, about nine carpenters out of ten will put the head-jamb level, which will bring one end of the jamb down from the track just as much as the floor is out of level. The consequence is that when the doors slide back, one of them will rub the head -jamb and quite likely stick fast. The head-jamb belongs snug up to the bottom edge of the track, as shown in Fig. 56, and there is where it should be placed, even if the track is out of level. To level the head-jamb when the track is not level only makes matters worse. A doorway with the head-jamb slightly out of level will not be noticed, but a door that will stick fast will be noticed every time it is opened. Of course I advocate doing the work correctly in the first place, and am now showing what to do in cases of emer- gency. Sometimes it is necessary to rabbet the head- jambs at the lower portion of the inside edge, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 56. Again, some workmen do not plow the groove in the bottom edge of the door deep enough for the floor guide. It might work when the door was first fitted, but a little settling of the track would cause binding of the door. This can be easily remedied by letting the floor guide into the floor, or by taking the door down and plowing the groove deeper. The former is the easiest and quickest and in every way just as good. The binding of sliding doors is often caused by the door stops being placed too close to the doors. When this is the case a removal of the stops and '.6 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. placing them a little farther away will remedy the trouble. In hanging sliding doors it is better, if possible, to do so before the jambs are set. Many times little things that would interfere with the proper working of the doors can be easily remedied ; whereas, if the jambs were set, they would be concealed from gen- eral view and not discovered until they had caused a considerable amount of trouble. Is there any dif- ference in door hangers? is a question which very naturally arises. In our estimation there is consider- able difference, although any of them, I think, would give satisfaction if every part of the work in putting them up was done in a substantial manner. Some hangers have more points of excellence than others, but I think the Prescott hanger the nearest perfec- tion. With this hanger there is no track and no rollers. The doors hang suspended from the back edge, the hangers being fastened to the studding back of the jambs. They are as nearly frictionless as a door swinging on hinges, and there is no binding of doors from tracks and rollers. In fact, there is no more chance for the doors to bind from settling par- titions than there is with the ordinary swinging doors on common hinges. Of the double-track overhead hangers, I think the Annex a very good specimen. All parts of the hanger are accurately fitted and the adjustment is as good as could be desired. The Standard door hanger is another good specimen, and I think sometimes it will allow doors to work free and easy under circumstances which other overhead hangers would not. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 77 TO PREVENT LEAKS IN BAY WINDOWS. It seems to be a very difficult matter for a car- penter to build a bay window that will not leak in a bad rain storm. There are comparatively few bays built that do not have a window or a large double win- dow directly over them, and the leak is almost invari- ably down the side of the casings of these windows. The bay window may be well roofed and the tin turned up under the siding for 5 or 6 inches, yet it will leak, and where the water gets in will be a mys- tery to a close observer. Water-tight joints are not always made in siding, and t sometimes the casings shrink from the siding ; then the rain beats in by the side of the casing of the upper windows and runs down behind the tin turned up from the roof, thus causing a leak. To prevent this, saw through the sheet- ing under the window casings and to about 6 inches each side, slanting the same upward in sawing. Now put a piece of tin well into the saw kerf, and bend it down over the tin that turns up from the roof ; then, after the siding is properly put on, we have a bay window that is positively water tight. Care should be taken in siding and not drive nails too near the roof. It is better to slant them a little upward in driving. In no case should the sills of the upper windows come closer than 4^ inches to the roof of the bay window, as it is necessary to have room for the tin to insure a good job. SHINGLING HIPS AND VALLEYS. There are several methods of shingling hips and valleys, but as most mechanics are familiar with the different methods, I will briefly describe only a few 78 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. of the best and most practical ones. In shingling hips both sides should be shingled up at the same time, and on hip roofs of unequal pitch it is neces- sary to lay the shingles more to the weather on the long side of roof than on the short side, in order to have the courses member evenly on the hip. One method frequently employed is to cut the hip shingles so that the straight edge of the shingles will line with the center of the hip when laid, and the grain of the wood run parallel with the hip instead of straight up the roof, as in the case of common shingles. Some are inclined to think this method makes a nicer look- ing job than the old way of placing the sawed edge of hip shingle to the hip line. As it is customary to use tin hip shingles, I think the old way is by far the best, as the water which falls on the roof will run with the grain of the wood, and not soak into the shingles, as it would running diagonally across the grain. The same is true in shingling valleys. Always place the valley shingles with the grain of the wood running up the roof the same as the common shin- gles, then the water running down the roof to the valley will run with the grain of the wood. Some trouble is experienced in shingling valleys straight. The usual custom is to put in a strip of i4-inch tin for the valley, and strike two chalk lines, leaving a space in the center of the valley 2 inches wide at the top and 3 inches at the bottom for the valley. It is a very particular job to shingle to a chalk line up a valley and shingle it straight. Then again, the line will be rubbed out before the shingling is half done. A better way is to stand a 2 x 4 up edgewise in the THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 79 valley, fasten it straight with a few pieces of shingles for braces and shingle to the 2x4, which answers as a straight edge. In this way one will get a respect- able looking valley, even when shingled by inexperi- enced hands. I have frequently seen valleys which some one had tried to shingle to a line that were at least 2 inches crooked, and between 5 and 6 inches wide in places, generally wider in the middle than at either end. Wide valleys should be avoided, as they are very liable to leak. In shingling a valley no nails should be driven through the valley tin except near the outer edge, as a nail hole will frequently cause a leak by water getting under the shingles. The best way to shingle a valley is to use single sheets of tin 10 x 14 inches, under each of the courses of shingles, leaving only about >4 inch of the tin ex- posed below the butts of the shingles. Make a close joint with them in the valley, and a good as well as neat looking job will be the result when the work is finished. To increase the durability of the valley, paint the trn flashings before laying. ART OF ROOF FRAfllNG. Probably no part in the construction of buildings so thoroughly taxes the skill and ingenuity of the builder as the framing of roofs. Many diagrams have been published from time to time showing how to find the lengths and bevels cf hips, valleys and jacks on all kinds of roofs. Yet many of the plans here- tofore published have been too complicated to satisfy the wants of the inexperienced in the art of roof framing. At this time will be presented a choice of methods, beginning with the simplest form and il- lustrating the subject step by step, thus showing new and novel plans as they will appear in actual prac- A * tice. Fig. 57.-Obtainins Lengths and p. .,, , introduced Bevels of Rafters. a plan showing how to obtain the lengths and bevels of common rafters, hips, valleys and jacks in the simplest manner, and with the fewest lines possible. Referring to Fig. 57, draw a horizontal line twice the run of the com- mon rafter, as A B. From the center of this line at C erect a perpendicular, continuing it indefinitely. Next set off on the perpendicular the rise of the com- mon rafter C D; connect D and B for the length of the common rafter. A bevel set in the angle at B will give the bottom cut and at D the top cut. Next THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 81 set off on the perpendicular line the length of the common rafter C E, which is the same length as D B. Connect E and A for the length of the hip or valley, as the case may be. Next space the jacks on the line A C and draw perpendicular lines joining the hip or valley. The lines J J will be the lengths of the jacks, and a bevel set in the angle at F, where the jack joins the hip or valley, will give the bevel across the back of the same. The plumb cut or down bevel of a jack is always the same as that of the common rafter. There are now shown all the lines necessary to be drawn, the plan indicating everything but the cuts of the hip or valley rafter, and this, be it re- membered, is always 17 for the bottom cut and the rise of the common rafter to the foot run for the top cut. As some may think a system which C does not show the cuts & 68.-Diagrram Showing Cuta ,. , . ,, of Hip or Valley Rafters, of a hip or valley as well as its length is incomplete, we will take the same plan and by the addition of three more lines show everything that can be desired, as in Fig. 58. Draw the lines the same as in Fig. 57, then set off on the perpendicular line the run of the common rafter C F. Connect F and B for run of hip or valley. Next square up the rise from F to G and connect G and B for the length of hip or valley rafter. A bevel set in the angle at B will give the bottom cut, and at G the top cut. It will be noticed in Fig. 58 that the 82 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. lines A E and G B are of the same length, and in both cases represent the hip or valley, while showing it in different positions. The line A E shows the hip or valley in position for finding the length and bevel of the jacks, while the line G B shows the hip or valley in position to find the length and bevels of the same. This plan will work on roofs of any pitch and has only to be slightly varied to meet the require ^ ments of roofs having hips and valleys of two pitches. On half pitch roofs one less line is re- quired, as shown in Fig. 59. The line D B in Fig. 58 comes in the same po- sition as F B, when ap- plied to half pitch roofs, and is therefore the length of the common rafter and at the same time represents the run of the hip rafter. As two lines cannot be drawn in the same space we drop the line D B, remembering that it is shown by F B. BEVEL OF JACK RAFTERS. Before proceeding further with the subject of roof framing we will illustrate a very simple method for obtaining the bevel across the back of jack rafters, or any rafter which cuts on a bevel across the back. Referring to Fig. 60, draw the plumb line or pitch of the roof on the side of the rafter B C. Next draw another plumb line the thickness of the rafter from the first, and measured square from B C, as shown A Fig. 59. Diagram for Half Pitch Roofs. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 83 by the dotted lines. Square across the back of the rafter, from the dotted plumb line to A. Connect A with B, and the lines to follow in cutting are A B C. This plan is worth remembering, as it will work on roofs of any pitch, and, in fact, will cut the bevel across the back of any rafter which cuts on a bevel. It is the plumb cut and the thickness of the rafter applied in the manner described that does the business every time. After the cuts have been found bevels can / re be set for them if desired. BACKING HIP RAFTERS. Let us now consider the backing of the hip rafter, an item which on common house and barn framing is of but little .. ' .... n Fig. 60. Obtaining: Bevel Across importance, yet it is well the Back of Jack Rafter> enough to know how it is done. Almost any roof is as good without as with the hips backed, and when the roof is com- pleted it is impossible to tell which method was pursued. In cases where the hip rafter is doubled or very thick it is advisable to back it, but ordinarily this is unnecessary, being a waste of time. Where backing is necessary, a rule near enough for all prac- tical purposes is as follows : Working from the cen- ter of the back of .rafter set the bevel to cut off % inch in 1 inch for three-fourth pitch roofs. i inch in 1 inch for one-half pitch roofs. Y*, inch in 1 inch for one-third pitch roofs. X inch in 1 inch for one-quarter pitch roofs. 84 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. As the above table may not be considered a scien- tific way of doing the work, Fig. 61 is presented. Draw a horizontal line, A B, and from A draw another at an angle representing the bottom cut of the hip rafter, as A C. On the line A C square up the thickness of the rafter to D. Mark the center and draw the line C F at an angle of 45 to A D. On the line E F square up from E to G, and the lines Fig. 61. Backing a Hip Baf ter. for the backing are G E F. The other lines are merely to show that the piece is off the bottom end of the hip rafter itself. HIP ROOFS OF UNEQUAL PITCHES. In Fig. 62 is shown the manner in which the method represented in Fig. 58 may be varied to meet the requirements of roofs of unequal pitches. Draw the line A B, in length equal to the runs of the com- mon rafters on both the long and short sides of the hips. Divide the line A B so that A C will represent the run of the common rafter on the long side of the hip, and C B the run of the common rafter on the short side. From C erect a perpendicular line, ex- tending it indefinitely. Set off on the perpendicular line the rise of the common rafter C D. Connect D THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 85 with A and with B for the lengths of the common rafters. A bevel set at D on line A D will give the top cut of common rafter on the long side of hip and at A the bottom cut. A bevel set at D on line B D will give the top cut of common rafter on the short side of hip and at B the bottom cut. Next set off on the perpendicular line the length of the com- mon rafter on the short side of the hip C E. Con- nect E with A for the length of the hip and position for finding the length and bevel of jacks on the short side of the hip. A bevel set in the angle where they join the hip line A E will give the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter on the short side of the hip shown at D on the line D B. Next set off on perpendicular the length of common rafter on the long side of hip C F; connect F with B for the hip and position for finding the length and bevel of jacks on the long side of the hip. A bevel set in the angle where they join the hip line F B will give the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter on the long side of the hip, shown at D on the line A D. To find the cut of the hip rafter set off C B Fig. 62. Diagram Showing how Method Pre- sented in Fig. 58 may be Varied for Roofs of Unequal Pitches. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. on the perpendicular the run of the common rafter on the short side of hip C a. Connect a with A for the run of the hip. Square up the rise of the hip a H and connect H with A for the hip rafter. A bevel set in the angle at H will give the top cut and at A the bottom cut. It will be noticed that the lines, B F, A E and A H show the length of the hip rafters. B F shows hip rafter in position for finding the length and bevel of the jacks on the long side of the hip. A E shows the hip in position for finding the length and bevel of the jacks on the short side of the hip. A H shows the hip in position for finding the length and bevel of the hip rafter. For plain hips and val- leys on roofs of equal pitch no one could wish for an easier method than represented in Fig. 58, but Fig. 62, which has been modified to meet the requirements of roofs of unequal pitches, necessarily makes the method more complicated, and with beginners there is much danger of making mistakes by taking measure- ments and bevels on the wrong side, as the lengths of jacks for the long side of roof appear on the short run of common rafter, and vice versa the jacks for the short side of roof. This circumstance may seem somewhat strange, yet it is nevertheless true, and can perhaps be more fully demonstrated by Fig. 63. GREAT CIRCLE OF JACK RAFTERS. The great circle of jack rafters is another modifica- tion of Fig. 58 for roofs of unequal pitches. Refer- ring to Fig. 63, let A B represent the long run of common rafter, B E the rise and A E the length. A bevel set at E on the line A E will give the down bevel and at A the bottom bevel. B C is the short THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 87 run of common rafters, B E the rise and C E the length. A bevel set at E on the line C E will give the down bevel and at C the bottom bevel. B D is the short run of the common rafter and the same as B C ; then A D is the angle and run of the hip, Tig. 63. Great Circle of Jack Rafters. D F the rise, and A F the length of hip rafter. The bevel at F is the down bevel and at A the bottom bevel. A H shows the hip rafter A F dropped down in position to find the length and bevel of the jacks for the side of roof having the short run of common rafter. Space the jacks on the line A B and draw perpendicular lines joining the hip line A H for the 88 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. length of jacks. A bevel set in the angle at G will give the bevel across the back. The down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter for the short run and is shown at E on the line C E. H is the apex of the triangle formed on the side of the roof having the short run of common rafter. It is evident that the apex of the triangle formed on the side of the roof having the long run of the common rafter must be at the same point, therefore H is the apex of the hip and of the common rafters from either side of the hip. Now, to find the length and bevel of jacks on the side of roof having the long run of com- mon rafter, measure down from H to I the length of the common rafter on the long run, which is the same as A E. From I set off the short run of com- mon rafter to J ; connect J with H, which places the hip rafter in position for finding the length and bevel of jacks on the side of roof having the long run of common rafter. Space the jacks on the line I J and draw perpendicular lines, joining the hip line J H, which gives the length of jacks. A bevel set in the angle at K will give the bevel across the back. The down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter for the long run, and is shown at E on the line A E. The circular lines show that taking H as a center the triangle H I J will swing around opposite the triangle A B H, and bring every jack opposite its mate on the hip line A H, thus proving the correctness of the method, as well as showing how to space the jacks correspondingly. In Fig. 64 is shown another method for obtaining the lengths and cuts of rafters in hip roofs of un- equal pitch. Let ABC represent the wall plate and THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 89 D E F the deck plate; then A E is the run of the common rafter on the short side of the hip, E D the rise and A D the length. The bevel at D is the plumb cut at the top and at A the bottom cut. From A set off the length of the common rafter to G, which should be the same length as A D. Connect B G, which places the hip rafter in position to find the length and bevel of jacks on the short side of the hip. Space the jacks on the line B A, and draw perpendicular lines joining the hip line B G for the length of the jacks on the short side of the hip. The bevel at J is the bevel across the back of the same. The plumb cut or down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter shown at D. C E is the run of the common rafter on the long side of the hip, E F being the rise and C F the length. The bevel at F is the plumb cut at the top and at C the bottom cut. From C set off the length of the common rafter to H, which should be the same length as C F. Connect B H, which places the hip rafter in position to find length and bevel of jacks on the long side of the hip. Space the jacks on the line B C and draw the same, joining the hip line B H, which will give the length of jacks on the long side of the hip. The bevel at K is the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter shown at F. BE is the angle and run of the hip, E I the rise and B I the length of the hip rafter. The bevel at I is the plumb cut at the top and at B the bottom cut fitting the plate. Now , the lines B G, B H and B I show the hip rafter in three different positions for finding the length and bevels of the jacks and the hip, and are practically 90 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. the same as shown in Fig. 62. Of the two plans Fig. 64 is perhaps plainer and more easily understood, yet both have the common difficulty, a confusion of cross lines, which is very bothersome to many who are try- ing to master the art of roof framing. To make this system of roof framing so plain that even the most inexperienced may readily master it, we will show Fijr. 64. Another Method of Obtaining Lengths and Cuts of Rafters in Hip Roofs of Unequal Pitches. how the first simple method, Fig. 57, may be further extended to meet the requirements of any roof, show- ing ail the rafters without the usual complications of cross lines. The plan never fails on roofs of any pitch, equal or unequal, and, no matter how compli- cated the roof may be, it will all appear easy by this method. COMPLICATED ROOF FRAMING MADE EASY. Let us now take the plan of a hip roof building having a long run of common rafter on one side of the hip and a short run on the opposite side. This THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 91 kind of a hip is called an irregular hip, because the base line or run of the hip is not on an angle of 45 with the plates, as in the regular hip. In Fig. 65 A B is the run of common rafter on the left side of the hip and the long run. B D is the run of com- mon rafter on the right side of the hip and the short run, A D being the run of the hip rafter. Now, to make everything plain and avoid the confusion of & B Fig. 65. Plan of an Irregular Hip Roof. cross lines which are so troublesome to the inex- perienced it is better to make separate diagrams showing each succeeding step as the plan progresses until all is made clear; then one can adopt the plan of separate diagrams or he can combine the whole in one if desired. To beginners separate diagrams are recommended, especially in connection with compli- cated roofs. Referring now to Fig. 66, A B is the run of com- mon rafter on the left si:e of the hip, B E the rise of roof and AE the length of common rafter for the THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. long run. A bevel set in the angle at E will be the plumb cut or down bevel at the top, and a bevel set at A will give the bottom cut fitting the plate. Next set off the run of common rafter on the right side of the hip, B C, and connect E with C for the length of the common rafter for the short run. A bevel set in the an- gle at E will give the down bevel at the top and at C the bot- tom cut. We will now proceed to find the hip rafter and bevels for cutting the same. A B is the run of the common rafter on the left side of the hip, B D the run of common rafter on right side of hip, while A D is the run and angle the hip makes with the plates. From D square up the rise of the roof to F; connect F with A, and we have the length of hip rafter. A bevel set in the angle at F will give the down bevel at the top and at A the bottom bevel fitting the plate. The next step will be to show the length and bev- els of the jack rafters. Referring now to Fig. 67, draw a horizontal line, as A C, representing the length of plate in the plan. From A set off the run of the common rafter on the left or long run to B. From B erect a perpendicular to F, which is the length of common rafter on the short run and shown by E C in Fig. 66. Connect F with A, and Fig. 66. Diagram for Finding the Lengths and Bevels cf Rafters for Irregular Hip Roofs. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 93 the hip line is in position for finding the lengths and bevels of the jacks on the side of the building having the short run of common rafter. Space the jacks on the line A B and draw perpendicular lines joining the hip line. This will give the lengths of jacks, and a bevel set in the angle at G will give the bevel across the back of the same The plumb cut or down bevel will be the same as that of the common rafter on the shcrt run. F D shows the length of ridge and the space which the common rafters oc- A BE C Fig. 67. Lengths and Bevels of Jack Rafters. cupy. C E D shows a space for jacks similar to A B F. It is unnecessary to draw the jacks in this space, and it is therefore left blank. The next step will be to find the lengths and bevels of the jacks on the end of the building having the long run of the com- mon rafter. Referring to Fig. 68, let A C represent the width of the building, A B the run of the com- mon rafter on short run, B F the length of com- mon rafter on long run and the same as shown by A E in Fig. 66. Space the line A B for the jacks and draw perpendicular lines joining the hips. A bevel set in the angle at L will give the bevel across the THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. back. The plumb cut or down bevel will be the same as that of the common rafter on the long run. Now everything desired has been shown, and with- out the confusion of cross-lines. By this method all F complications in roof framing are made easy. And the most difficult roofs will show the su- periority of this plan, as it is rarely ever necessary to cross a line, and if necessary every rafter may be shown. For roofs having hips and gables of varying pitches this plan has no equal. In Fig. 69 is shown how Figs. 66, 67 and 68 may be combined to indicate the different lengths and cuts of all the rafters directly from the plan. This method is attended with many cross lines and is not recommended even to the most experienced, for, in connection with complicated roofs, there is danger of making mistakes. Referring to the plan, Fig. 69, A B is the run of the common rafter on the left side of the hip, and the long run B E is the rise, A E being the length. A bevel set at E on the line A E will give the plumb cut or down bevel, and at A the bottom bevel. B C is the run of the common rafter on the right side of the hip, and the short run B E the rise and E C the length. A bevel set at E, on the line C E, will give the plumb cut or down bevel, and at C the bottom bevel. Fig. 68. Finding Lengths and Bevels of Jack Rafters on the End of Building Having the long run of the Common Rafter. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. Of, A B is the long run of the common rafter, B D the short run of the common rafter, A D the angle and run of the hip, D F the rise of the hip and A F the length of hip rafter. The bevel at F is the down bevel and at A the bottom bevel. B H is the length of the common rafter for the short Fig. 69. Showing how several Diagrams may be combined to indicate directly from the Plan the different Length and Cuts of all the Rafters. run and the same as C E, while A H is the hip dropped down in position for finding lengths and bevel for jacks on the side of the roof having the short run of the common rafter. The jacks are spaced on the line A B and drawn perpendicular, joining the hip line AH. A bevel set in the angle at G will give the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter on the short run, and is shown at E on the line E. C. The letters I J represent the length of the common rafter for the long run, which is 96 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. the same as A E ; then J K is the length and position of the hip for finding lengths and bevel for the back of the jacks on the side having the long run of the common rafter. Space the jacks on the line I K and draw them at right angles joining the hip line K J. A bevel set in the angle at L will give the bevel across the back of the same, the down bevel being the same as that of the common rafter on the long run. It is shown at E on line E A. In Fig. 69 all the work is shown in one diagram very plainly, yet to many it may appear somewhat complicated. Two pitches in one roof always make a complication of bevels, often requiring many lines to illustrate. As a proof of the correctness of this method observe the following point : A F, A H and J K each represent the hip rafter, showing it in different positions, and if the work is right these lines must be of the same length. A F is the position of the hip for finding the cuts, while A H is the position of the hip for finding the bevel for the back of the jack on the short run. J K is the position for finding the bevel for back of jack on the long run. Having shown the most practical system of hip roof framing, let us now consider its application to some of the most complicated plans which frequently come up in actual practice. HIPS ON END OF BUILDING OUT OF SQUARE. A plan of a hip roof with one end out of square is shown in Fig. 70. Let A B C D represent the plates in the plan ; D E C the angle and run of hips on the square end of the plan, and A F B the angle and run of hips on the end which is out of square. In order to determine the point F so that the ridge of the roof THE BUILDERS GUIDE. will be level, make A F H equal to D E G in the plan. From F on line A F square up the rise of hip to I, which connect with A for the hip rafter. Then I is the down and A the bottom bevels. The hip rafters on the square end of the plan will be the same length as A I and will have the same bevels. From F, on the line B F, square up the rise of roof to A H M Fig. 70. Plan of Hip Roof with One End out of Square. J, which connect with B for the length of the hip on the long corner. Then J is the down and B the bot- tom bevel. K F is the run, F L the rise and K L the length of the common rafter on the end of plan which is out of square. L is the down bevel and K the bottom bevel. M N O shows the rise, run and length of the common rafter on the main plan, O be- ing the down bevel and M the bottom bevel. To avoid the great confusion of cross lines which would now follow if the work was further developed in Fig. 70, we will dispense with this plan, only tak- THE BUILDERS GUIDE. ing from it measurements to develop the new lines and bevels of the rafters. Referring now to Fig. 71, let A D represent the plate, A H the run of the com- mon rafter and H I the length of the common rafter on the main roof, which is the same as M O of Fig. 70. Connect I with A for the position of the hip for finding the lengths and bevels of jacks on the front side of plan. Space the rafters on the line A D and draw them perpendicular to the hip. A bevel set in the angle where they join the hip Fig. 71. Diagram for Finding Lengths and Bevels of Jacks on Front Side of Plan, Fig. 70. line will give the bevel across the back of the jacks, the down bevel being the same as that of the com- mon rafter on the main part. It is shown at O in Fig. 70. The lengths and bevels of the jacks on the square end of the plan will be the same as the part of the roof already illustrated. The hip rafter D E is the same as A I. We will now consider the end of the plan which is out of square. Referring to Fig. 72, the lines B C A show how much the plan is out of square. A B is the plate, K L the length of the common rafter on the end of plan, being the same a$ THE BUILDERS GUIDE. Of! K L of Fig. 70 ; B L the hip on the long corner, be- ing the same as B J of Fig. 70, while A L is the hip on the short corner, and is the same as A I of Fig. 70. Space the jacks on the line B A and draw them perpendicular, joining B A with the hip lines B L A, which gives the lengths of jacks on this end of the plan. The bevel at E is the bevel across the back joining the long hip. The bevel at F is the bevel across the back joining the short hip. The down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter shown at L in Fig. 70. We have now to find the lengths and bevels of the jacks en the rear side of the long hip. Referring to Fig. 73, B C represents the rear plate, B D is the square of the hip, being the same as B P of Fig 70; D L the length of the common rafter, being the same as O M of Fig. 70, while B L is the position of the hip for finding the lengths and bevels of jacks on the rear side of the long hip, and is of the same length as B L of Fig. 72. The jacks are spaced wider on B D, Fig. 73, than on B K, Fig. 72, in order that they may meet opposite on the hip B L. Draw the jacks per- pendicular from B D, Fig. 73, joining the hip B L, which will give their lengths. A bevel set in the angle at E where they join the hip will give the bevel across the back. The down bevel will be the same as that Fig. 72. Diagram of End of Plan Out of Square. 100 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. of the common rafter on the main part or this side of the roof. GABLES OF DIFFERENT PITCHES. In Fig. 74 is represented a plan of a roof having three gables of varying pitches. The right gable A B C is 1 6 feet wide and has a rise of 8 feet. The front gable D F G is 18 feet wide and has a rise of 8 feet. The last gable J I H is 21 feet wide and has a rise of 8 feet. It will be noticed that the left gable has two different pitches. This plan shows as much irregu- Fig. 73. Diagram for Finding tbe Lengths and Bevels of the Jacks on the Rear Side of the Long Hip. larity as can be desired and as much as is generally encountered in actual practice. We will now proceed to find the lengths and different cuts of the various rafters required in this roof. The dotted lines repre- sent lines plumb under the ridge of the gables. The lengths of the common rafters and their proper cuts may be taken from each of the three gables sepa- rately, and are so plain and easily understood from the diagram that further explanation is unnecessary. The roof has two valleys of different pitches, of which the lines N L K are the seats or runs. To find the THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 101 length of the valley rafter on the right side of the front gable on the line K L, square up the rise of the roof from L to M, connect M with K, and we have the length of the valley i after. A bevel set in the an- gle at M will give the down bevel at the top and the angle at K the bottom cut fitting the plate. To find the length of the valley rafter on the left side of the front gable on the line N L, square up the rise of the roof from L to O and connect O with N for the Fig. 74. Plan of Roof having Three Gables of Varying Pitches. length of the valley rafter. A bevel set in the angle at O will give the down bevel at the top and the an- gle at N the bottom cut fitting the plate. Now, if we were to draw all the lines in Fig, 74 necessary to show the lengths and proper cuts of all the different jack rafters required in this roof, there would be such a number crossing each other at various angles as to cause confusion. In this roof there are four different cuts of jack rafters, and it is better not to have them 102 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. mixed up with the valleys and common rafters, hence we will make separate diagrams. Referring now to Fig. 75, to find the lengths and bevels of jacks on the front side of right and left gables, draw a horizontal line, J A, representing the entire length of front plate line. Next set off the ex- act location of the front gable N K. From the cen- ter of the front gable draw a perpendicular line, S O, the length of the common rafter on the front side of Fig. 75. Finding Lengths and Hevels of Jack Rafters on the Front Side of Right and Left Gables Shown in Fig. 74. the left gable, the same as J I in Fig. 74. Connect O with N for the position of the valley rafter for finding the lengths and bevels of jacks on the front side of the left gable. Square up the length of the common rafter on the front side of the left gable J I and connect I O for the ridge line. Space the rafters on the ridge line and draw perpendicular lines to the plate and valley, which will give the lengths of the jacks on the front side of t'.ie left gable. A bevel set in the angle at W where they join the valley will give the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel will be same as that of the common rafter on the front side of the left gable. To find the lengths THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 103 and bevels of jacks on the front side of right gable, set off the length of common rafter from the center of the front gable S M, which is the same as A B of Fig. 74. Connect M with K for the position of the valley rafter for finding the lengths and bevels of the jacks on the front side of the right gable. Square up the length of the common rafter on the right gable A B and connect B M for the ridge line. Space the jacks on the ridge line and draw perpendicular lines to the plate and valley, which will give the lengths of the jacks on the front side of the right gable. A bevel set' in the angle at Z where they join the valley will give the lyj bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel will be the same as that of the common rafter on the right gable. The lines N F K G K T C show the length of the common rafter on the Fig 76. Finding Lengths and Bevels . of the Jack Itafters on the Bight fr n t gable. Side of the Front Gable. To find the lengths and bevels of the jacks on the right side of the front gable draw a horizon- tal line G C, Fig. 76, representing the plate line. On this line set off the location of the right gable K C. From the center of the gable set off the length of common rafter on the front gable T M, which is the same as G F of Fig. 74. Connect M with K for the position of valley rafter for finding the lengths and bevels of jacks on the right side of the front gable. Square up the length of the common rafter on the 104 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. front gable, G F, and connect F M for the ridge line. Space the jacks on the ridge line and draw perpen- dicular lines to the plate and valley, which will give the lengths of the jacks on the right side of the front gable. A bevel set in the angle at Y will give the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel will be the same as that of the common rafter on the front gable. The lines K B C show the length of the common rafter on the right gable. To find the lengths and bevels of the jacks on the left side of the front gable draw p a horizontal line, as H D of Fig. 77, represent- ing the plate line. On this line set off the lo- cation of the left gable, H N. From R, the point directly under the ridge of this gable, set off the length of the common rafter on the front gable R O, which is the same as D F of Fig. 74. Connect O N for the position of the valley for finding the lengths and bevels of the jacks on the left side of the front gable. A bevel set in the angle at x will give the bevel across the back. The plumb cut or down bevel will be the same as that of the common rafter on the front gable. The lines H I J show the lengths of the common rafters on the left gable. In order to throw as much light as possible upon the subject and present a choice of methods, we will N fig. 77. Finding Lengths and Bevels of Jacks on the Left Side of the Front Gable. THE BUILDERS GUIDE, 105 give another diagram showing the different cuts of the jack rafters in a much plainer manner, and which to many, perhaps, will be more satisfactory. Fig. 78 shows the wall plate lines exactly the same as in Fig. 74, except it is divided on the ridge line of the front gable, and spread so far apart that when the roof is developed, showing the different jack raft- ers in their various positions, there will not be a Fig. 78. Diagram Showing More Clearly the Different Cuts of Jack Rafters. series of lines crossing each other to cause confusion. Let H, C, A, K, G, D, N, J, represent the wall plate lines. The dotted lines R L S and S 2 L 2 T are the lines plumb under the ridge of the gables. We will now proceed to find the jack rafters and their proper cuts : Taking the left gable first on the line J H, set off the length of the common rafter from J to I ; from I, at right angles, draw the line I O, which is the ridge proper and extends to the 106 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. center of the front gable represented by the dotted line L S ; connect O with N for the valley rafter ; on the line I O space off the jacks and draw the lines connecting them with the valley N O, as shown in the diagram. This will give the lengths of the jacks in the left gable, and a bevel set in the angle at W will give the bevel across the backs of the same. The down bevel will be the same as that of the com- mon rafter on the front side of the left gable. A similar plan is followed for each gable or each side of a gable, where the jack rafters are of different lengths or have different cuts, as will be readily seen by referring to the diagram. The valley lines N O and N O 2 are of the same length and show the valley rafters in different positions for finding the lengths and cuts of the two divisions of jacks namely, the left gable and the left side of the front gable. The valley lines K M and K M* are of the same length, but show the valley rafter in different positions for finding the lengths and cuts of the other two divis- ions of jacks namely, the right gable and the right side of the front gable. Now elevate the four sections of the roof contain- ing the different jacks to their proper pitch, and move the two divisions of the diagram together till the dotted lines L S and L 2 S 2 meet plumb under the ridge of the front gable. What is the result ? NO and N O z join as one line and constitute the left valley. K M and K M 2 also join as one line and constitute the right valley. This would also bring every jack into its required position in the roof, as can be plainly seen in the diagram. The cuts of the two valley rafters must be taken from Fig. 74, as shown and de- THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 107 scribed before. The cuts could be shown in Fig. 78, but as they would only serve to make the diagram more complicated, they are omitted. If any one would like to see a diagram showing all the rafters and different cuts in a roof of this kind, they can draw the lines of Figs. 74 and 78 in one diagram. If they will imagine one of these diagrams placed over the other, the result will probably be satisfactory. HIP AND VALLEY ROOFS. In Fig. 79 is represented the plan of a hip and valley roof. This form of a roof is frequently termed broken-back hip and valley, because the main hips are intersected by the common rafters of the gables from one side and the valley rafters from the other. This breaks the line of the hip, hence the origin of the term broken-back. In Fig. 79 let A B, B C, D E and E F represent the line and run of the four main hips. It will be seen that C B is the only hip line which is not broken by a common rafter or a jack from the gables. The main hip line A B is broken at H by the common rafter on the front gable which joins it, as shown by the dotted line G H. If A was the bottom terminus of the hip it would cause several of the common rafters on the left side of the front gable to be cut in two, making more jacks and more work, while weakening the general construction of the roof. In framing, the hip should stop against the ridge of the front gable at H. The hip line D E is broken at I by a jack on the left gable, shown by dotted line I J. In framing, the hip should stop against the ridge of the left gable at I. The hip line F E is broken at K by the intersection of the valley 108 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. rafter L K. For a scientific job of framing the valley rafter a b on the front side of right gable should ex- tend to the ridge of the rear gable, as it is the nearest place of support, and the hip rafter E F should stop at c against the valley a b. The line B C is the run of the only hip rafter which forms an unbroken line. Fif . 79. Plan of Hip and Valley Roof. From B square down the rise of the hip to M, and connect M with C for the length of the hip rafter. A bevel set at M will give the down bevel and at C the bottom bevel. The method of obtaining the lengths of the hip rafters, which are termed broken back, will be plainly illustrated in other dia- grams. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 109 Before proceeding further, however, the reader should be reminded of the fact that on one-half pitch roofs the run of a hip or valley is the length of a cor- responding common rafter, hence the dotted line D I shows the length of the common rafter on the left gable for a roof of one-half pitch. If the roof was some other pitch say one-third, for example then the length of the common rafter for this gable could be shown by setting off the run and rise, as indicated by d e j. E B Fig. 80. -Front Elevation of Roof Plan Shown in Fiir. 79. Proceed in like manner with the gables, and also with the main common rafter. Fortunately, there is always an easy way of doing work, and we will now proceed with the method that makes all roof framing easy. Referring to Fig. 80, first draw a horizontal line, A B, representing the front plate, and set off on this line the location or starting points of all hips and gables shown on the front of plan as C D E. Now, C E represents the starting points of two of the main hips, and also the span of the building having the longest common rafter, F being the center of the 110 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. span. From F set off the length of the common rafter perpendicularly, as shown by the dotted line F G. Connect G with C and E for the length and position of the main hips. Set off the length of the common rafter on the right gable B H, and draw the ridge line H I; then I E is the length and position of the right gable valley rafter. Set off the length of common rafter on the left-hand gable A J and draw the ridge line J K; then K C is the length and posi- tion of the left-gable valley. Connect K D for the front-gable valley. Space and draw the rafters as shown, which will give the length and cut of every jack in the front elevation, including those which cut from the broken hip K G to the valley K D. The line K G is also the length of the broken hip, which stops against the ridge of the left gable. A bevel set in any of the angles where the jacks join a hip or valley will give bevel across the back. The plumb cut is the same as that of the common rafter. C L shows the length of the common rafter on the front gable. In Fig. 81 is shown the right elevation of the roof plan, A B representing the length of plate line, C D E F the starting points of the hips and valleys on the right side of plan, while C and F are the starting points of the main hips. From C and F set off the run of the main common rafter as C N and F O. From N and O set off the length of the main com- mon rafter, as shown by the dotted lines N G and O P. Connect G and P, which is the ridge of the main roof. Connect G C and F P for the main hips. Set off the length of the common rafter on the rear gable B H and draw the ridge line H I. Set off the THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. Ill length of the common rafter on the front gable A J and draw the ridge line J K. From the center of the right gable set off the length of the common rafter, as shown by the dotted line L M. Draw the valley from D through the point M, continuing it to the ridge line or rear gable, which is the nearest place of support. Then D R is the length of the valley rafter on the front side of the right gable. Connect M E for the valley on the back side of the right gable. C G is the main, hip, which is full length. AC DNOL Ep B RIGHT SIDE Fig. 61. Right Elevation of Roof Plan Shown in Fig. 79. C K is the front gable valley, and the jacks are cut from the ridge line J K to the valley C K, also from the plate C D to the main hip C G, and from the ridge G P to the valley D M. The main hip P F is broken at I, but extends to the valley rafter D Rfora proper place of support. Jacks are cut from the ridge line I H and the valley line M R to the valley M E, as shown. The dotted portion of the hip line P F shows that if the hip was put in full length it would necessitate cutting two common rafters and two 112 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. jacks on the rear gable, which would make additional work and have a tendency to weaken the roof. Thus the length of every rafter in the right elevation of the plan has been shown, and as the bevels are the same as indicated in Figs. 79 and 80 further ex- planation is unnecessary. In Fig. 82 is shown the left side elevation of the roof, in which A B represents the length of the plate line. CDF, the starting points of the hips and valleys, and C and F the points of the main hips. p G Fig. 82. Left Side Elevation of Roof. From C and F set off the run of the main common rafter, as C D and F O. From O and D set off the length of main common rafter, as shown by the dotted lines O P and D G. Connect G and P for the main ridge. Draw G C and P F for length and position of main hips. Set off the length of the com- mon rafter on the front gable A J and draw the ridge line J K. Set off the length of common rafter on the rear gable B H and draw the ridge line H I. Now from the center of the left gable set off the THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 113 length of the common rafter, as shown by the dotted line L M. Connect M and D for length and position of valley rafter on the front side of the left gable. F I will be the length of the valley on the rear gable. M P is the length of the broken hip which stops against the ridge of the left gable at M, and G K is the length of the broken hip which stops against the ridge of the front gable at K. The jacks are cut from the ridge line H I to the rear gable valley F I ; also from the broken hip M P to the valley M D and from the broken hip G K and ridge line K J to the plate line A D. The length of the common rafter on the left gable is shown by F E. This completes the left side elevation and shows the length of every hip, valley and jack, as viewed from this side of the roof. The next diagram, Fig. 83, shows the rear eleva- tion of the roof ; A B represents the length of the plate line, C D E the starting points of hips and valleys, and C E the starting points of the main hips. Set off the run of the main common rafter, as E F, and draw the length of the common rafter perpendicular, as shown by dotted line F P. Draw P E and P C for the length and position of the main hips. Set off the length of the common rafter on the left gable, A J, and draw the ridge line J K. Set off the length of the common rafter on the right gable B H, and draw the ridge line H I. From the center of the rear gable set off the length of the common rafter, as shown by the dotted line L M. Connect M and D for the rear gable valley. E G shows the length of the common rafter on the rear gable ; I E is the right gable valley. The broken hip P K stops against the ridge of the left gable at 114 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. K, and the broken hip P M stops at the ridge of the rear gable at M. The jacks are cut from the ridge line H I to the valley E I and from the broken hips M P and P K to the rear gable valley M D. This completes the rear elevation and shows the length of every rafter as viewed from this side of the roof. It will be noticed in Fig. 83 that the right gable appears to the left hand in the diagram and the left gable to the right. This is due to the fact that Fip. 83. Rear Elevation of Roof. as we view the front elevation of the roof, Fig. 80, we call the gables right and left. Now, if we view the roof from the rear, the right gable will be to our left and the left to our right, as shown in Fig. 83. AN IMPORTANT POINT. For the purpose of illustrating an important point in roof framing we will refer to Fig. 84, which repre- sents the plan of a roof having three gables of the same pitch, but the front gable being narrower than the other two. Let ABCDEFGH represent the wall plate and from A set off the run of the com- THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 115 mon rafter to I ; square up the rise to J, and connect A and J for the length of the common rafter on the main part of the roof. Swing the common rafter around to a perpendicular position, as shown by A K on the ieft gable. Set off the length of the common rafter on the right gable F L, and connect K with L for the ridge line. Next, set off the run of the com- mon rafter on the front gable E M ; square up the G Fig. 84. Roof Having Three Gables of the same Pitch, the Front Gable being Narrower than the other Two. rise M N, and draw E N for the length of the com- mon rafter. From M set off the length of the com- mon rafter perpendicular to O and then draw the valley from E through the point O, continuing it to the ridge, which is the nearest place of support in a self-supporting roof. It is a common practice among mechanics to stop both valley rafters at O, but this leaves the valleys without support and as a conse- quence the roof sags and gets out of shape even be- fore the carpenter has it finished. This is noticeable 116 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. on large roofs, where, to secure the greatest strength in the framing of the roof, it is necessary to run the first valley rafter to the ridge, as shown by E P, and butt the second valley rafter against the first, as shown by BO. E P is the length of the valley rafter which joins the ridge and the bevel at P is the bevel across the back of the same. B O is the length of left valley rafter and cuts square across the back. The jacks are cut from the ridge to the valleys, as shown. A bevel set in the angle where they join the valley will give the bevel across the back. The plumb out is the same as that of the common rafter shown at J. To find the plumb cut of the valleys set off the run of the common rafter on the front gable A B, Fig. 85; now, at right angles to A B set off the run of common rafter from B to C, and draw A C for the run of the valley. From C square up the rise of valley to D and draw b A, which will give the length of the Valley Rafters. left valley the same as B O in Fig. 84. The bevel at D, Fig. 85, is the plumb cut and at A the bottom cut. The plumb cut of the valley E P is the same as the extension of the rafter to the ridge line and does not change the cuts. OCTAGON HIP AND JACK RAFTERS. Let us now consider the problem of finding the lengths and bevels of octagon hips and jacks by the easy system. Referring to Fig. 86, let A B C D E and F represent the wall plate line, F G being the THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 117 run of common rafter, G H the rise and F H the length of common rafter. Next swing the common rafter round to a perpendicular position, as F I. Set off half the side of the octagon A J and square up the length of the common rafter J K. Draw K I for the ridge line and K A for the hip. Space and draw the jacks perpendicularly from A J to the hip as shown. The bevel at R is the bevel across the back and the plumb cut is the same as that of the common rafter shown at H. The length and bevels will be the same Fig. 86. Finding the Lengths and Bevels of Hips and Jacks on an Octagon Roof. on each side of the octagon, hence further explana- tion of Fig. 86 is unnecessary. The cuts of jacks in an octagon, hexagon or a polygon of any description may be found in the fol- lowing manner. Referring to Fig. 87, let A B rep- resent the length of the side, and from the center set off the length of the common rafter C D. Draw A D and B D for the length and position of hips Space the jacks on the line A B and draw perpendicular to 118 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. the hips as shown, which will give their lengths. A bevel set in the angle at E will give the bevel across the back, the down bevel being the same as that of thj common rafter. Fig. 87 refers only to the length and bevel of the jacks, but the length and cuts of all the rafters in any regular polygon may be found in the following manner : Referring now to Fig. 88 let A B C D and E represent four sides of an octagon. Set off the center of one side as B F, and square into the center G F, which is the run of the common rafter. Square up the rise G H and draw F H for the length of the common rafter. The bevel at H is the top bevel, and at F the bottom bevel. G E being the run of the hip, square up the rise G I and draw E 1 for length of hip rafter. The bevel at I is the top bevel, and at E the bottom bevel. From the center of C D set off the length of common rafter ] K, which should be the same length as F H. Draw K C and K D for the position of the hip rafters for finding the length and bevel of the jacks. Space the jacks on the line C D and draw perpendicular to the hips ; as shown, which will give the lengths. The bevel shown at L is the bevel across the back, the down bevel being the same as that of the common rafter. JOINING GABLES DIAGONALLY. One of the most difficult problems in roof framing with which the mechanic has to contend namely, that Fig. 87 Showing' how to find the Lengths and Bevels of Jack Rafters in an Octa- gon, Hexagon or Polygon. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 119 of joining a gable cornerways or diagonally to another gable is illustrated in Fig. 89. This method is fre quently adopted in city residences to produce diver- sity in design. Let A B C D E F G represent the wall plate lines in the plan ; F H, the run of the common rafter on the main part ; H I, the rise, and F I the length of the common rafter. Transfer F I to F J and draw J K, which represents the main ridge. From the center of the corner gable square up the rise of the common rafter L M, and draw A M for length of common rafter on the cor- ner gable. From c j D C square up to N Fig. 88.-Diagiam I.Iustrating the Method what the main of obtaining the Lengths and Cuts of all common rafter the Rafters in any Regular Polygon. rises in the part of its run represented by L C. Then L N will be the length of main common rafter up to the point where the left valley starts. Transfer L N to L O, which is the starting point of the left valley. From O set off O P, which should be the length of the dotted line L G and of the commo-n rafter A M. Square up G R, which should be the same as L O. From R set off the rise of the common rafter on the corner gable to S, which is the same as L M. From S square up the length of the common 120 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. rafter to T, which is the same distance as A M. Connect T with O for the length and position of the left valley. Connect T with P for the length and position of the right valley, which runs from the ridge of the corner gable to the plate of the corner gable. Draw P G for the length and position of the right valley, which runs from the plate of the corner Fig. 89. Framing: Gables which Join Diagonally- gable to the main plate. Space the jacks on the main ridge and draw perpendicular lines as shown. The jacks from K J to valley O T are the jacks in the main roof The jacks from O S to the valley O T are the jacks on the left side of the corner gable. The valley T P on the right side of corner gable is but little longer than the common rafter on corner gable, and runs so nearly straight with the rafters on THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 121 the main roof that the jacks on this side are seldom needed in the corner gable ; but in case they are, space them between S P and draw to the valley T P, which will give the length and bevel, as shown. Draw the jacks from the valley G P to the main plate, which will give the length and cut of the same. The down, bevel of the jacks will be the same as that of the common rafter. It is natural for one to think the valley rafter O T Fig. 90. Diagram showing Starting Point of Valley between Gables Joining Diagonally. should start from the point C, but such is not the case, as will be plainly seen "by referring to Fig. 90, which shows that the valley starts at O on the line of the main common rafter, and comes far above the point C, for C O is the same asC N in Fig. 89. CURVED OR MOLDED ROOFS. Having presented to the reader a practical sys- tem for almost every conceivable form of straight work in roof framing, the next step will be to show an easy system of framing curved, or molded, roofs, as they are sometimes called. Curved roofs usually take the form of concave, convex or ogee. An 122 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. ogee is a form having a double curve, and is both con- cave and convex. Fig. 91 shows a conical tower roof, the rafters being of the concave form. Fig. 92 shows a convex mansard roof. Fig. 93 shows an ogee veranda roof. These are the principal forms, Fijr. 91. Conical Tower Roof with Rafters Concave in Form. of curved or molded rafters, though they are variously combined and applied. The lengths, bevels and shapes are, however, developed in much the same manner, and when once it is understood how to develop the shape in one form any shape desired can be readily worked by the THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 123 same method. The plan- Fig. 94, represents the corner portion of a roof with ogee rafters. The lines A B and B C represent the wall plates and D E and D F the deck plates. A D is the run of common rafter, FLOOR JOIST Fig. 92. A Convex Mansard Roof. D E the rise, and A E the length of common rafter on the working line. This line governs the pitch of roof and the bevels. E is the down bevel at the top and A the bottom bevel. Connect B D for the run 124 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. of the hip, square up the rise, D G, and connect B G for the length and working line of hip rafter. G is the down bevel at the top and B the bottom bevel. To lay out the curved rafter, referring now to Fig 95, set off the run A D, the rise D E, the length and work line A E. Draw the desired curves, as shown. H I indicates the bottom edge of the rafter, and J H shows the width of lumber necessary for making the Fig. 93. An Ogee Veranda Roof. curved rafter. To economize in the width of luinoer, the convex portion above the work line may be worked out separately and nailed on. As a guide in laying out the corresponding curves in the hip rafter divide the length of the common rafter on the work line into any number of equal spaces, as i, 2, 3, &c. From these points on the work line plumb up or down, as the case may be, to the curve line of the rafter. Now we are ready to develop the shape of the hip. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 125 Referring to Fig. 96, set off the run B D, the rise D G, and connect B G for the length and work line of the hip. Divide the work line of the h>p into the same number of equal spaces as numbered on the work line of the common rafter i, 2, 3, &c., and Fig. 94.- Plan of Corner of a Koof with Ogee Rafters. plumb up or down, as the case may be, the same dis- tances as shown on the common rafter. Then a line traced from B through these points to G will be the profile of the hip rafter. Fig. 97 represents the corner portion of a roof having two pitches. In this the angle and run of the hip are changed, without 126 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. changing the method of finding the profiles of the rafters. Take the run, rise and length of common rafter on one side of the hip, and draw the desired shape. Then find the profile of the common rafter on the opposite side of the hip by dividing the work line into the same number of spaces and proceeding as before. The run of the hip being changed, we obtain a different length for the work line. When this is divided into the same number of equal spaces as were the common rafters, and the curved lines traced through the points, we obtain the shape of hip which will correspond to the profiles of the com- mon rafters from either side. In roofs of two pitches it is evident that there must be two sets and two bevels of com- mon and jack rafters. Now in curved roofs the lengths and bev- els may be found by following the work lines of the common rafters, which maybe drawn straight, as has been shown in Fig. 95. The lengths and bevels of the jacks for the dif- ferent pitches may be found as shown in Figs. 62, 63 or 64. Again, it is evident that a jack rafter must be the same shape as the common rafter on the same side of roof from the bottom, or plate, up to the point where it joins the hip. Hence its length may Fig. 95. Laying out a Curved Rafter. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 127 be found in the following manner by measuring on the work line of the common rafter. Referring now to Fig. 98, A D is the run of the common rafter, D E the rise and A E the length and work line. To find the length of jack, set off the run of jack A B and square up the rise B C to the work line of the common rafter; then A C is the length of jack on the work line. This method is very simple, yet as it is a new and novel way of finding the length of jack rafters it will be well to point out a common Fig. 96. Developing the Shape of the Hips. mistake which the inexperienced might chance to make. Bear in mind that A E is the length of com- mon rafter. B C is not the length of jack, as some might suppose, but the rise of jack ; A C is the length of jack. The down bevel is the same as that of the common rafter. To find the bevel across the back, set off from D the length of common rafter to F, and connect F with A, which shows the work line of the hip. Now continue the line B C to the work 128 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. line of the hip, and the bevel at G will be the bevel across the top of jack. B G is also the length of jack, and will be found to be the same as A C. When the bevel of the jacks is known all that is necessary is to square up the rise of each jack from the base line of common rafter A D to the work line A E and take the length from A to the point where the B C Fig. 97. Plan of Corner Portion of a Roof having Two Pitches. rise of each jack joins the work line of common rafter, as shown. Many lines and much time may be saved in finding the bevels of jack rafters on roofs of different pitches by using the plan shown in Fig. 60. which is the simplest and easiest of all to remember and is applicable to roofs of any pitch. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 129 ROOF FRAMING BY THE STEEL SQUARE. The lengths and cuts of any rafter, hip, valley or jack on roofs of any pitch may be easily found by a proper application of the steel square and 2-foot rule. There are a few simple facts which, if remembered, will serve to make hip and valley roof framing so plain and easily understood that no one need have any difficulty in finding the length and cut of any rafter. The pitch of a roof is always designated by the number of inches it rises to the foot run, hence the cut of a com- mon rafter is always 12 for the bottom cut and for the top cut is the rise of the roof to the foot. The cut of a correspond- ing hip or valley of equal pitch is always 17 for the bottom cut and for the top cut the rise of the common rafter to the foot. Thus if 12 and 8 cut the common rafter, 17 and 8 will cut the hip or valley. The top bevel of a jack rafter is always 12 on the tongue of a square and the length of the common rafter for a foot run on the blade. The blade gives the cut. In other words, the run of the common rafter on the tongue and the length on the blade will always give the top bevel of jack rafters on roofs of equal pitch. The plumb cut D Fig. 98. Finding Lengths of Jack Bafters. 130 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE, or down bevel of a jack is always the same as that of the common rafter. Referring now to Fig. 99, to find the length of a common rafter, take the run on the blade of a square and the rise on the tongue, measure across, and we have the length. For example, if the run of a rafter is 12 feet and the rise 8 feet, take 12 inches on the blade and 8 inches on the tongue and measure across, which will give the length, 14 7-16 inches, equal to 14 feet 5^ inches, 12 and 8 giving the cuts. The blade Fig. 99. Finding Length of a Common Rafter by means of the SteelSquaie. gives the bottom cut and the tongue the top cut. To find the length of a corresponding hip or valley, take the run of the common rafter on both blade and tongue and measure across, which will give the run of hip or valley, which is 17 inches. To avoid con- fusion by cross lines, refer now to Fig. 100. Take 17 inches on the blade and the rise, 8 inches, on the tongue and measure across, which gives the length of hip or valley 18 13-16 inches, equal to 18 feet 9^ inches, 17 and 8 giving the cuts. The blade gives the bottom cut and the tongue the top cut To find th THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 131 bevel across the top of jacks, take the length of com- mon rafter, 14 7-16 inches, on the blade and the run, 12 inckes, on the tongue, and the distance across also represents the length of hip or valley. This merely changes the position of hip or valley in order to ob- tain the bevel across the top of jacks, which is 12 on the tongue and 14 7-16 on the blade. The blade gives the cut. The plumb cut or down bevel is tha same as that of the common rafter. The lengths of the jacks may be obtained in the Fig. 100 Finding Lengt h of Hip or Valley Rafter. following manner : Take the run of common rafter on the blade, 12 inches, and the length, 14 7-16 inches, on the tongue, and lay a straight edge across, as shown in Fig. 101. Space the jacks on the blade of the square, which represents the run of common rafter, and measure perpendicularly from the tongue to the straight edge on the line of each jack for their length. The lengths of hips, valleys and jacks on roofs of unequal pitches may be found in the same manner by taking figures on the blade and tongue of a 182 THE BUILDERS GUIDE. square which will represent the different pitches. For example, suppose a roof hips 9 feet on the right side of the hip and 13 feet on the left and has a rise of 8 feet, what will be the lengths and bevels of the rafters? Referring to Fig. 102, take 13 inches on the blade of a square and 8 inches on the tongue and measure across. This gives 15^ inches, equal to 15 feet 3 inches, which is the length of the common rafter on the left side of hip. Now, 13 inches on the Fig. 101- -Obtaining the Lengths of Jack Rafters with the Steel Square. blade and 8 inches on the tongue give the cuts, the tongue giving the top cut and the blade the bottom cut fitting the plate. Now take the length of com- mon rafter on the left side, 15^ inches, on the blade, and the run of the common rafter on the right side of hip, 9 inches, on the tongue and the blade will give the cut across the back of the jack rafters on the left side of the hip. The lengths of the jacks may be found in the following manner : Divide the length of common rafter by the number of spaces for jacks. This will give the length of the shortest jack and the THE BUILDERS GUIDE. second will be twice that length, the third three times, and so on till the required number are found. Each side of the hip may be worked in the same manner till ail the different lengths and cuts are found. The whole thing boiled down results in a few simple facts : i, that the run of the common rafter on the tongue of a square and the length of the common rafter on the blade will always give the bevel across the back of a jack rafter on roofs of equal pitch 5-2, if the roofs are of different i i i i i i i i Fijr. 102. Finding Lengths and Bevels of Bafters on Roofs of Unequal Pitches. pitches the length of the common rafter on the blade and the run of the common rafter on the opposite side of the hip or valley on the tongue will give the cut of the jack on the side of the roof from which the length of the common rafter was taken. The blade gives the cut. Hence the bevels of jack rafters on roofs of different pitches may be found as easily as on roofs of equal pitch. The nex+ step will be to show a simple plan for ob- taining the length and cuts of the hip rafter by 134 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. means of the square and 2-foot rule. As the run of common rafter on the left side of hip is 13 inches and on the right side 9 inches, we will take figures on the blade and tongue of a square which will represent the runs of the common rafters. Referi Ing to Fig. 103, take 13 inches on the blade and 9 inches on the tongue and measure across and we have 15 10-12 inches, equal to 15 feet 10 inches, the run of the hip rafter. Now take the run of the hip, 15 10-12 inches, on the IM Fig. 103. Obtain, ng Length and Cuts of Hip Rafter by means of Steel Square and Two- Foot Rule. blade and the rise of the roof, 8 inches, on the tongue, and measure across and we have the length of the hip rafter, 17^ inches, equal to 17 feet 9 inches. Now, 8 inches on the tongue and 15 10-12 on the blade will give the cuts. The tongue gives the down bevel at the top and the blade the bottom cut fitting the plate. ROOF FRAMING WITHOUT DRAWINGS. The system to which we shall now refer is one by which the lengths of common rafters, hips, valleys THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 135 and jacks, with all their different bevels, on roofs of equal pitch, may be easily found without the aid of drawings. It is so simple that any one can under- stand it and find the lengths and cuts in less time than it takes to describe the operation. The system consists of a table, given below, from which the lengths and cuts of any rafter may be determined at once : Rafter Table. 1 2 3 4 5 6 02 ft *& h 2 2* JS ^ -<" % * || 1 fl * IS h 1 5 P $ 1 | w i~ s c - a g * 2 M fi 6" 6* 5 i z Inches. Feet. Feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. 6 1.12 1.50 12 and 6 17 and 6 13^ and 12 7 1.16 1.58 12 and 7 17 and 7 13% and 12 8 1.20 1.56 12 and 8 17 and 8 14% and 12 9 1.25 1.60 12 and 9 17 and 9 15 and 12 10 1.30 1.64 12 and 10 17 and 10 15% and 12 12 1.42 1.73 12 and 12 17 and 12 17 and 12 1.") 1.60 1.88 12 and 15 17 and 15 191^ and 12 18 1.80 2.07 12 and 18 17 and 18 21% and 12 Column i shows the pitch of roofs in the number of inches rise to the foot run. Column 2 shows the length of common rafter to a foot run. Column 3 shows the length of a hip or valley corresponding to a foot run of the common rafter. Column 4 shows the figures to take on the square for the top and bot- tom cuts of the common rafter namelv, 12 for ttv: 136 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. bottom cut, and for the top cut the number of inches the common rafter rises to the foot run. Column 5 shows what figures to take on the square for the top and bottom cuts of a corresponding hip or valley, which is always 17 for the bottom cut and the num- ber of inches the common rafter rises to the foot run for the top cut. Column 6 shows what figures to take on the square for the top bevel of the jack raft- ers, which is always 12 on the tongue of a square and the length of the common rafter for a foot run on the blade. The blade gives the cut* The plumb cut or down bevel is always the same as that of the common rafter. To avoid a complication of fractions the figures given in columns 2 and 3 are in feet and decimals. To find the length of common rafters, hips, valleys and jacks, it 'is only necessary to multiply the run by the figures given corresponding to the pitch. We will now give a practical example showing how to find the lengths of rafters by means of the table. Example. What will be the length of rafters on a building 16 feet wide, with roof of 7 inches pitch, hipped to the center and rafters placed 16 inches from centers ? Analysis. The run of the common rafter is one- half the width of the building, which is 8 feet. Mul- tiplying the run by the length of rafter for i foot, y-inch pitch, column 2 of the table, and pointing off the product as in multiplication of decimals, we have the length of rafter in feet and a decimal of a foot. The decimal must be multiplied by 12 to reduce it to i-aches. THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 137 Operation 1.16 x 8 = 9.28 feet. 0.28 x 12 =3.36 inches. Thus the length of the common rafter is 9 feet 3.36 inches. The 0.36 is a decimal of an inch, and if great accuracy is desired it may be called ^ inch. The table is made to give the length in full, so that very slight decimals may be disregarded altogether. The corresponding hip or valley may be found as follows: 1.53 x 8 = 12.24 feet. 0.24 x 12 = 2. 88 inches. The decimal o 88 may be called ^ inch. Thus the length of the hip would be 12 feet 2^ inches. If the rafters are placed 16 inches from centers the run of the first jack will be 16 inches. Taking the same figures in the table as those to find the common rafter and multiplying by 16 inches, we have as fol- lows 1.16 x 16 = 18.56 The decimal 0.56 may be called ^ inch. Thus the length of the first jack would be 18)^ inches, the sec- ond twice that, the third three times, and so on till the required number is found. In complicated roofs the table may be used to great advantage in connec- tion with the plan. When used in this way only one diagram showing the runs of the rafters is needed, as the lengths of all the rafters may be very quickly figured and set down on the plan and the required bevels may be taken from the table. Fig. 104 shows the plan of a roof 16 x 24 feet, with wing 12x8 feet. Roof to be 8 inches to the foot pitch and rafters placed 2 feet from centers. The lengths of rafters in this plan figured by the table are as follows : For the common rafter, main part, 1.20 x 8 = 9.60 feet. 0.60 x 12 = 7.20 inches. 138 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. Length of common rafter is therefore 9 feet inches. For the hip rafter, main part, 1.56 x 8 = 12.48 feet. 0.48 x 12 = 5 76 inches. The length of hip rafter is therefore 12 feet 5 inches. For the first jack, main part, 1.20 x 2 = 2.40 feet. 0.40 x 12 = 4.80 inches. Fig. 104. Showing how a Plan of a Ro->f can be used in Connection with Rafter Table. The length of first jack is 2 feet 4^ inches ; the length of the second jack is 4 feet 9^ inches, and the length of the third jack is 7 feet 2^ inches. For the hip rafter on the wing: 1.56 x 6 = 9.36 feet. 0.36 x 12 = 4.32 inches. The length of hip rafter is therefore 9 feet 4^ inches THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 139 Thus we have computed the different lengths of all the rafters necessary to figure in the plan, as all rafters of the same run will be the same length, these being readily seen in the plan. As the latter shows the lengths of the principal different rafters it is un- necessary to represent all those which are of the same length, although it is a good plan in actual practice. By this method one can see at a glance just where every rafter belongs, as well as noting in- stantly all of the same length. It is usually neces- sary to figure the lengths of only a few, as will be seen by referring to the plan. The valley rafter on the left side of the wing should be the same length as the main hip; then it will reach to the main ridge, the only place of support in a self-supporting roof. The jacks which cut from hip to valley on this side will each be the same length, which is 4 feet 9^ inches, the length of the second jack, as shown in the plan. The valley on the right side of the wing will be the same length as the hip on the end of the wing. The common rafter on the wing will be the same length as the third jack on the main part. It is easy to see that the length of any rafter on roofs of equal pitch may be readily found by this method. LAYING OUT RAFTERS. In laying out rafters, it is very important to set off the length on the work line, as deviations from this rule will often lead to mistakes. The lines indicat- ing the run and rise of a rafter are easily traced, but the work line for the length of a rafter is sometimes lost to sight, particularly in cutting jack rafters. The framer must never lose the work line in cutting 140 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. a rafter; if he does, he is like a mariner at sea with- out a compass or a ship without a rudder. The work line is an important part in obtaining the lengths of rafters, as will be shown. In roofs which have a projection of the rafter for the cornice, the back of the rafter rises above the level of the plate whatever thickness may be allowed on the rafter for the support of the cornice. Refer- Fig. 105 Diagram Showing Importance of Work Line in Laying out Rafters. ring to Fig. 105, A B represents the run of a common rafter, B C the rise, and A C the length and work line. Projections for the cornice must be added from the corner of the plate at A. Now suppose we square up from the corner of the plate at A to D, the back of the rafter, and measure the length to E the same as on the line A C. Now if we make the plumb cut at E, as shown by the dotted line, we find our rafter too short, as is plainly shown in the diagram. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 141 Thus it will be seen that the work line is an essential point in laying out rafters. We will now trace the work line in a jack rafter from the plate to the top bevel, as this is the place many mechanics are at a loss as to the proper point to which to measure. Referring to Fig. 106, we can easily trace the work line and the lines forming the cut of the jack rafter. The work line is represented by A C, the plumb line or down bevel by D B', and is al- ways the same as the down bevel of the common rafter. To find the bevel across the back of the rafter draw an- other plumb line the thickness of the rafter from the cutting line and measured square from it, as C E. Square across the back of the rafter to F ; connect F with D, and the lines to which to cut are F D B'. The proper point to which to measure on the line A C is from A to the scratch mark half way between the two plumb lines, this being the center of the rafter in thickness. In actual practice this little point need not be con- sidered, and for convenience in measuring the length may be taken from A to C. So slight a deviation in Fig. 106. Diagram Showing Work Line in a Jack Rafter. 142 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. the true length of a jack rafter does not cut anv figure in framing or ever appear noticeable, from the fact that jack rafters can be moved forward or back- ward a little on the plate and hip and if they are all framed by the same rule will be of uniform distance apart. We are instructed by some to deduct half the thickness of the hip or valley rafter in setting off the length of jacks. This is a point which may be disre- garded, especially when hip and valley rafters are only 2 inches thick. It is evident that if we lay out a jack rafter setting off the length on the side which has the long corner of the bevel, it will be a little more than half the thickness of the rafter short when the bevel is cut. Therefore, if jacks are cut according to the work line in Fig. 106, they will be near enough for all practical purposes in the usual order of building anu without making any deduction in length for the thickness of hip and valley rafters. When roofs have a ridge pole deduct half its thickness from the length of the common rafter. Aside from this, it is seldom necessary to make any reduction in the lengths of rafters, as shown on the work lines in the plans. RAISING RAFTERS. It is as important to know how to properly put up the frame work of a roof as it is to know how to lay it off correctly. First see that the plates are straight and the angles true, then set up the deck or ridge on stanchions the proper hight ; next put up all the common rafters which will not interfere with hips and valleys. Many mechanics advocate raising THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. 143 the hips and valleys first, but practical experience will prove that this is a great mistake. Put up first all the common rafters that can be raised conven- iently. There is always a ready way to plumb a pair of common rafters, and if the common rafters are plumb they will square up the roof ready for hips and valleys, which, being on an angle with the plates, are often very bothersome to set to the required angle. They are also troublesome to plumb up, especially when they are the first rafters raised. By raising the common rafters first the deck or ridge is brought into the proper position for the hips and val- leys and the trouble of squaring and plumbing the hips and valleys is much less. After raising the hips and valleys stay them straight and finally put in the jacks, being careful not to spring the hips and valleys when nailing the jacks. THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 144 MITERINQ PLANCEERS, MOLDINGS, &c. As the art of making a common miter joint is uni- versally understood by all mechanics, an explanation of the common miter is unnecessary. We will, there- fore, explain the methods of making some of the most complicated and difficult miters which fre- quently come up in the actual practice of carpentry. Fig. 107 shows the elevation of a roof having three gables, and it is required to miter the level planceer A B with the gable planceer B C. To many this seems like a difficult problem ; yet if one will con- sider the roof plan for a moment, he will see that the proper figures on the square to make the required miter may be taken directly from the roof plan, which gives the bevels for cutting the rafters. To cut the bevel on the planceer A B use the same figures on the square that make the bevel across the top of jacks, but reverse the cut. Thus, if 17 on blade and 12 on tongue cuts the jack rafters, the blade gives the cut of the jack and the tongue the miter line for the planceer. The reason for reversing the cut is because the planceer A B runs in a direc- tion exactly opposite the rafters. THE BUILDF.RS' GUIDE. 145 The same figures will also miter the sheeting in the valley. Now, the planceer B C which goes up the gable runs parallel with the rafters, hence the same figures which give the cut for the jacks will give the cut for this, which, in the present case, are 17 on the blade and 12 on the tongue, the blade giving the cut. Or, referring to Fig. 107, B G and D G show the position and length of valley rafters, and the bevel at B is the bevel for cutting the planceer A B, while that at J, which is the bevel for jack rafter, is the bevel for cutting the planceer B C, which goes up the gable. The junction of the two . gable planceers C D and E D at D forms another kind of miter joint. In this the planceer on both gables cuts the same, and the cut is the same as the bevel which cuts the jacks, shown at D. This bevel is c ' \/" also the same as the one shown at J. FIR. 108 . Diagr The planceers A B and B C n,ust . necessarily be of different widths, the gable planceer being the narrower. To find the width the gable planceer must be to match the level planceer, draw the width of level plan- ceer A B, representing the pitch of roof, as shown in Fig. 108. Square down from A to C, the rise of planceer, and B C will be the width of gable planceer corresponding to A B. To obtain the miter line for mitering the fascia and crown molding at B, draw two parallel level lines and two parallel pitch lines of the common rafter, keeping both sets of lines the same distance apart, as shown in Fig. 109. Connect the opposite angles where the 146 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. lines cross each other, as shown by A B, and this will give the required miter. The figures for this may be found by placing the blade of the square on the line A C and tongue on A B. The tongue gives the cut If the fascia stands square with the rafters on the line A B, Fig. 107, then a square miter will make the joint which connects the level fascia A B with the gable fascia A F. But now suppose the fascia on line A B stands plumb, as it frequently does, and should on a roof of this kind, then a different cut is required. In this case cut the level fascia on a square miter, but for the gable fascia cut across the edge of the board on the same bevel as for a jack, and cut the plumb line the same as that of the corn- Fig. 109. Method of Obtaining Miter Line mon rafter, for Fascia and Crown Molding. Having shown how to properly miter the planceer and fascia, we will next take the crown molding. The miter for moldings cannot be accurately laid off from the square because it cannot be properly applied to them ; hence the best way to miter moldings is by means of the miter box. As almost every one knows how to make the common miter box I will not go into the details of manufacturing it, but explain the methods of making cuts in it for the purpose of mitering moldings for some of the difficult joints which frequently come up in actual practice. THE BOILDERS GUIDE. 14V To miter the molding in the valley at D, Fig. 107, which is the junction of two gables, take for the cut down the sides of the box the plumb cut of the common rafter, which in this case I will sup- pose to be one-half pitch, which is in accordance with the diagrams. For the cut across the top of box use the same bevel as for cutting the jacks, which is shown at J. Fig. no shows the manner of applying the square to the box for laying off Fig 110. Manner of Applying the Square to the Miter Box for Laying Off the Cuts. the cuts. It will be necessary to put two cuts in the box, right and left, as shown. In connection with this kind of a box it is more convenient to make it with only one side, as shown in Fig. in. The side, however, should be made of a thick piece of lumber, so that it will form a good guide for the saw. As these miter boxes are used only for a special purpose no one wants to spend very much time making them, therefore the box with one side is recommended to answer the purpose, and it is 148 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. the easiest to make, The secret of a good miter box lies in having the sides stand square with the bottom and of the same hight from end to end If these two points are carefully observed and the cuts made true, good results will follow, no matter how rough the box may be in appearance. To miter the level molding at A, in Fig. 107, with the gable molding A F, cut the level molding A B in a common miter box, using the square mittr, and cut the gable molding A F in the box as described in connection with Fig. no. By this method a fair job \ Fig. 111. Miter Box with One Side can be done, but the moldings will not member exactly. To make a perfect joint the gable molding requires a slightly different profile. Fig. 112 shows the elevation plan of a hip and valley roof drawn to the scale of a third pitch, in which is shown another form of miter joints. A B is the length and position of left end hip rafter, C D the length of common rafter, C E the length and position of left valley rafter, F G the length and position of left hip on front end, and F H the length of common rafter. A B, C E and F G show the miter lines of hips and valleys. There is nothing peculiar or difficult about THE BUILDERS GUIDE. 149 the joints at A, C and E except the mitering of the fascia and crown molding on a square cornice, which means that the ends of the rafters are cut square and that the fascia and crown molding stand square with the roof instead of plumb. To miter the sheeting or the planceer on the hips or in the valley, take the length of common rafter C D on the blade and the run of common rafter D E on the tongue. The figures for a third pitch are 14^2 inches on blade and 12 inches on tongue, the tongue giving the cut, F I Fijr. 112.- Hip and Valley Roof of One-Third Pitch. or the bevel may be taken at C, as shown in the dia- gram. There is also a bevel across the edge of the board, which may be found in the following manner : Take the length of common rafter F H on the b 1 ade and the rise of common rafter I H on the tongue. The figures for a third pitch are 14^ inches on blade and 8 inches on tongue, the tongue giving the cut, or the bevel may be found as follows : Square down on the line F H the rise of common rafter H J and connect J F. The bevel at J will be the bevel for the edge of the board. 150 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. There is practically no difference between a hip and valley cut. The bevel on the edge of board in the valley and on the hip is the same, it being only neces sary to reverse the bevel, as the long point of bevel on hip will be on the face side of board and in the valley it will be on the back side. To miter the fascia at A, C or F when it stands square with the roof proceed as follows : For the bevel across the edge of board take the length of the common rafter on the blade and the run on the tongue, when the tongue will give the cut. Figures on the square are the same as for cutting the face side of sheeting or planceer, or the bevel may be taken, as shown at C. For the cut down the side of fascia take the length of the common rafter on the blade and the rise of common rafter on tongue, and the tongue will give the cut, or take the bevel shown at J. To make the cut on a miter box for mitering the molding on the hips and valleys take the bevel at C for the cut across the top of box, which is 14/^2 inches on blade and 12 inches on tongue. The tongue gives the cut. For the cut down the side of box take the bevel at J, which is 14/^2 inches on the blade and 8 inches on the tongue The tongue gives the cut. The facts when condensed are as follows: Length of common rafter, 14/^2 inches on blade, and run of common rafter, 12 inches on tongue, gives cut for face of planceer or sheeting. The tongue gives the cut. Length of common rafter, 14^ inches on blade, and rise of common rafter, 8 inches on tongue, gives cut for edge of planceer or sheeting. The tongue gives the cut, THE BUILDERS GUIDE. Length of common rafter, 14^ inches on blade, and run of common rafter, 12 inches on tongue, gives cut for edge of fascia. The tongue gives the cut. Length of common rafter, 14^ inches on blade, and rise of common rafter, 8 inches on tongue, gives cut for side of fascia. The tongue gives the cut. MITERING ROOF BOARDS AND PLANCEERS. To miter planceers and roof boards in valleys of two pitches it is only necessary to take the figures Fig. 113. Plan of Valley la a Roof of Two Pitches. on the square which cut the bevels across the top of the jacks on the two pitches and reverse the cut, as the roof boards and planceers run in an opposite direction to the jacks. The bevels may be taken from any plan showing the two pitches and cuts of jacks. Fig. 113 repre- sents the plan of a valley in a roof of two pitches. 152 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE. The dotted lines D B and B F are the lines plumb under the ridge. A B shows the run of the valley, C D the length of common rafter on left gable, and E F the length of common rafter on front gable. Transfer the length of common rafter C D to C G and draw the ridge line G H, which extends to the center of front gable. Transfer the length of com- mon rafter E F to E I and draw the ridge line I J, which extends to the center of left gable. Connect A H and A J, which shows the position of valley for finding the bevels of the jacks, roof boards and plan- ceers on both sides of the hip. The bevels at K and L are the jack rafter bevels. The bevels at M and N are the bevels for mitering the roof boards or plan- ceers. The bevels at H and J are also the same as M and N, and show very plainly that they are the re- verse of the jack rafter bevels. It is only necessary to have the planceers of a different width in order to have them member exactly, as will be seen by the boards in the diagram. If this plan is followed there will be no twisting of planceers in cornicing when joining roofs of different pitches. BEVEL FOR HIP OR VALLEY. A question in roof framing which sometimes comes up in actual practice is how to cut the bevel on the lower end of a hip or valley corresponding to a square cut of the common rafter. This is only used in cutting the ends of hip and valley rafters prepara- tory to nailing on the fascia and crown molding. Every carpenter knows that a square cut on a hip or valley will not correspond with a square cut on the common rafter. This cut may be obtained in the following manner: THE BUILDERS' GCJIDE. 153 Take 17 inches on the blade of a square and one half the rise of the common rafter to a foot run on the tongue, and the tongue gives the cut. For example, suppose I have a roof of one-third pitch. This being a rise of 8 inches to the foot run, 8 and 12 will make the common rafter cuts and 17 and Fig. 114 Manner of Applying the Steel Square to Obtain Bevel for Hip or Valley Rafter. 4 the cut on the end of the hip or valley correspond- ing to a square cut of the common rafter. Fig. 114 shows the manner of applying the square for the purpose of obtaining the bevel on the lower end of a hip or valley rafter. An Important Point 114 Area of a Gable, Finding the 20 Area of a Triangle, Finding the 21 Art of Roof Framing 80 Backing Hip Rafters 83 Base, Mitering and Coping 68 Bathrooms 51 Bay Windows, To Prevent Leaks in '... 77 Bevel for Hip or Valley 152 Bevel of Jack Rafters 82 Binding Sliding Doors 71 Blocks, Corner 67 Building Out of Square, Hips on End of 96 Carpentry Work, Estimating Labor for 38 Casings, Estimating Corner 15 Chimneys, Foundations and 55 Circle, The 30 Circle from a Segment, To Find the Radius of a 31 Circle of Jack Rafters, Great 86 Circle Through Three Points, To Draw a 31 Complicated Roof Framing Made Easy 90 Construction, Practical Methods of 64 Contract, Form of 62 Coping Base, Mitering and 68 Corner Blocks 67 Corner Casings, Estimating 15 Corners, Making 64 Cornice, Estimating 14 Cornices 46 Cubic Measure 5 Curved or Molded Roofs 121 Different Pitches, Gables of 100 Divisions in Estimating, Principal 54 Door Frames 49 Doors, Binding Sliding 7 i 155 156 INDEX TO BUILDERS' GUIDE. Doors, Folding 51 Doors, Sliding 50 Double Floors 44 Draw a Circle Through Three Points, To 31 Drawings, Roof Framing Without 134 Estimate, Form for an 54 Estimating Corner Casings 15 Estimating Cornice 14 Estimating Floor Joists 13 Estimating Hardware, List of Items for 60 Estimating Labor, Points on 41 Estimating Labor by the Piece, Table of Prices for 43 Estimating Labor by the Square, Table of Prices for 42 Estimating Labor for Carpentry Work 38 Estimating Lumber, List of Items for 17 Estimating Nails, Table for 61 Estimating, Points on 3 Estimating, Principal Divisions in 54 Estimating, Practical Rules for 7 Estimating Sheeting. 7 Estimating Shingles 8 Estimating, Short Cut in 53 Estimating Siding 7 Estimating Studding 9 Estimating Window Frames 49 Example and Solution 55 Excavations 54 Finding the Area of a Gable 20 Finding the Area of a Triangle 21 Floors, Double 44 Floor Joists, Estimating 13 Folding Doors 51 Form for an Estimate 54 Form of Contract 62 Foundations and Chimneys 55 Frames, Door 49 Frames, Estimating Window 49 Framing, Art of Roof 8 Framing by the Steel Square, Roof 129 Framing Made Easy, Complicated Roof 90 Framing Without Drawings, Roof 134 INDEX TO BUILDERS' GUIDE. 157 Gable, Finding the Area of a 20 Gables of Different Pitches 100 Gables Diagonally, Joining 118 Gable Roofs, Plain 22 Geometrical Measurement of Roofs 19 Great Circle of Jack Rafters 86 Gutters 4 6 Hardware 60 Hardware, List of Items for Estimating 60 Hip Roofs 23 Hip and Jack Rafters, Octagon 116 Hip and Valley Roofs 26, 107 Hip or Valley, Bevel for 152 Hip Rafters, Backing 83 Hip Roofs of Unequal Pitches 84 Hips and Valleys, Shingling 77 Hips on End of Building Out of Square 96 Important Point, An 114 Items and Quantities 6 Items and Quantities Required, List of 6 Items for Estimating Hardware, List of 60 Items for Estimating Lumber, List of 17 Jack Rafters, Bevel of 82 Jack Rafters, Great Circle of 86 Jack Rafters, Octagon Hip and 116 Joining Gables Diagonally 118 Labor, Points on Estimating 41 Labor by the Piece, Table of Prices for Estimating 43 Labor by the Square, Table of Prices for Estimating 42 Labor for Carpentry Work, Estimating 38 Lathing and Plastering 56 Laying Out Rafters 139 Leaks in Bay Windows, To Prevent 77 Linear Measure 4 List of Items and Quantities Required 6 List of Items for Estimating Hardware 60 List of Items for Estimating Lumber 17 Making Corners 64 158 INDEX TO BUILDERS' GUIDE. Measure, Cubic . 5 Measure, Linear 4 Measure, Square 4 Measurement of Roofs, Geometrical 19 Methods of Construction, Practical 64 Mistakes from Omissions 16 Mitering and Coping Base 68 Mitering Planceers, Moldings, &c 144 Mitering Roof Boards and Planceers 151 Molded Roofs, Curved or 121 Moldings, &c., Mitering Planceers 144 Nails, Table for Estimating 61 Nails to the Pound, Number of 61 Octagon Hip and Jack Rafters 116 Omissions, Mistakes from 16 Painting 56 Pantries 51 Pitches, Gables of Different 100 Pitches, Hip Roofs of Unequal 84 Plain Gable Roofs 22 Planceers, Moldings, &c., Mitering 144 Planceers, Mitering Roof Boards and 151 Plastering, Lathing and 56 Point, An Important 114 Points on Estimating 3 Points on Estimating Labor 41 Polygons 32 Porches 48 Practical Methods of Construction 64 Practical Rules for Estimating 7 Prices for Estimating Labor by the Piece, Table of 43 Prices for Estimating Labor by the Square, Table of 42 Principal Divisions in Estimating 54 Quantities, Items and 6 Quantities Required, List of Items and 6 Radius of a Circle from a Segment, To Find the 31 Rafter Table I35 INDEX TO BUILDERS' GUIDE. 159 Rafters, Backing Hip 83 Rafters, Bevel of Jack 82 Rafters, Great Circle of Jack 86 Rafters, Laying Out 139 Rafters, Octagon Hip and Jack 116 Rafters, Raising 142 Recapitulation 52 Roof Boards and Planceers, Mitering 151 Roof Framing, Art of 80 Roof Framing by the Steel Square 129 Roof Framing Made Easy, Complicated 90 Roof Framing Without Drawings 134 Roofs, Curved or Molded 121 Roofs. Geometrical Measurement of 19 Roofs, Hip 23 Roofs, Hip and Valley 26, 102 Roofs, Plain Gable 27 Roofs of Unequal Pitches, Hip 84 Rules for Estimating 7 Segment, To Find the Radius of a Circle from a 31 Sheeting, Estimating 7 Shingles, Estimating 8 Shingling, Hip and Valley 77 Short Cut in Estimating 53 Siding, Estimating 7 Sinks 51 Sliding Doors 50 Sliding Doors, Binding 71 Spacing Studding 65 Square Measure 4 Stairs 52 Steel Square, Roof Framing by the 129 Studding, Estimating 9 Studding, Spacing 65 Table, Rafter 135 Table for Estimating Nails 61 Table of Prices for Estimating Labor by the Piece 43 Table of Prices for Estimating Labor by the Square 42 Three Points, To Draw a Circle Through 31 To Prevent Leaks in Bay Windows 77 Triangle, Finding the Area of a 21 160 INDEX TO BUILDERS' GUIDE. Unequal Pitches, Hip Roofs of. Valley, Bevel for Hip or 152 Valley Roofs, Hip and 26, 107 Valleys, Shingling Hips and 77 Wainscoting 51 Window Frames, Estimating 49 NEW YORK. A Progressive Monthly of the Building Trades. A'Practical Magazine for Architects, Builders and Mechanics, profusely and appropriately illustrated. 24 pages of text (exclusive of adver- tisements), with Supplemental Plate. In paper, printing and engraving CARPENTRY AND BUILDING is first class, and in all respects a handsome publication, at a price so low as to put it within the reach of all. It is eminently practical, treating only of those subjects which interest the trades addressed, and giving information which every one con- nected with the building industries can make useful in his daily work. Every Carpenter, Builder, Architect, Cabinet Maker or other person engaged in any branch of the building trade should be a subscriber. It is so good, so interesting and so cheap that all practical men are pleased with it. The subjects discussed in- clude Carpentry and Joinery, Framing and Construction, Masonry, Plastering, Roofs and Cornices, Heating and Ventila- tion, Plumbing, Cabinet Work, Painting and Decorating, Archi- tectural Design and Drafting. ONE DOLLAR A YEAR. Remit by Postal Order, Registered Letter or Bank Draft to order of DAVID WILLIAMS, PUBLISHER, 96-102 Reade Street, N ew York. THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. mini 3 1205 00190 6260