UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
WORKS OF DR. H. B. BASHORE 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 JOHN WILEY & SONS. 
 
 The Sanitation of a Country House. 
 
 i2mp, vii -f 102 pages, 16 full-page half-tone illus- 
 trations. Cloth, $i oo. 
 
 Outlines of Practical Sanitation. 
 
 For Students, Physicians, and Sanitarians. i2mo, 
 vi -f- 208 pages, 42 illustrations, many half-tones. 
 Cloth, $1.25 net. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE F. A. DAVIS CO. 
 117 WEST 42o STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
 Outlines of Rural Hygiene. 
 
 For Physicians, Students, and Sanitarians. Illus- 
 trated with 20 engravings, mostly original. 5^2 x 
 7% inches. 84 pages. Bound in extra cloth, 75 
 cents net. 
 
Outlines of 
 
 Practical Sanitation 
 
 For Students, Physicians 
 and Sanitarians 
 
 By 
 
 Dr. Harvey B. Bashore 
 
 Inspector for Pennsylvania Department of Health 
 Author of "Outlines of Rural Hygiene" and "The Sanitation of 
 Country House " 
 
 ; Through the Ages one increasing purpose runs, 
 And the thoughts of men are widened with the 
 process of the Suns." Tennyson. 
 
 With Forty -two Illustrations 
 
 TKE 
 
 First Edition 
 
 First Thousand 
 
 New York 
 
 John Wiley & Sons 
 
 London : Chapman & Hall, Limited 
 1906 
 
SENERAL 
 
 Copyright, 1906 
 
 BY 
 HARVEY B. BASHORE 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK 
 
TO 
 
 2>r, Benjamin !Hee of Pennsylvania, 
 
 WHO FOR TWENTY YEARS, HAMPERED BY LACK OF MEANS 
 
 AND UNWISE LAWS, GUARDED WITH UNTIRING ZEAL 
 
 THE HEALTH OF A GREAT STATE, 
 
 THIS BOOK Is MOST AFFECTIONATELY 
 DEDICATED 
 
PREFACE 
 
 No excuse need be offered for a new work on 
 Sanitation, for the rapid progress that is being made 
 in this science warrants a new book or a revision 
 almost every year. 
 
 In the following work the author has departed from 
 the beaten track of the usual sanitary text-book, and 
 subjects are introduced which are of interest not 
 only to health officials but to the taxpayer and the 
 citizen; for example, the topics of milk- and food- 
 supplies, car sanitation, etc., are subjects which are 
 beginning to excite unusual interest everywhere and 
 anywhere. 
 
 The work has been drawn from many sources and 
 the author has tried to give credit where credit is 
 due, but special reference should be made to the 
 reports of the American Public Health Association. 
 Much obligation does the author owe to his father, 
 Dr. D. W. Bashore, for careful revision of the manu- 
 script and proof, and assistance in many other ways. 
 
 WEST FAIRVIEW, PA. 
 July 23, 1906. 
 
 iii 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 HABITATIONS i 
 
 Construction. Plumbing. Ventilation and Heating. 
 Artificial Illumination. The Back Yard. Hospitals, 
 Prisons, and Asylums. Theatres. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY 30 
 
 Sources of Supply. Quality and Quantity. Storage 
 and Distribution. Purification. The Examination of 
 Water and Water-supplies. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE 56 
 
 Liquid Waste or Sewage Sewerage Systems. The Ul- 
 timate Disposal of Sewage. Solid Waste and its Collec- 
 tion.. Disposal of Garbage. Disposal of Ashes and 
 Street-sweepings. Disposal of Rubbish. Question as to 
 Best Method of Disposal of Solid Waste. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 MILK-SUPPLY 74 
 
 The Cows. The Stable. The Milker and Milking 
 Utensils. The Milk. Transportation and Distribution. 
 The Adulteration of Milk. Bacteriological Examination. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 FOOD-SUPPLIES 85 
 
 Bread. Fruits and Vegetables. Oysters, Fish, and 
 Meat. The Adulteration of Foods. 
 
vi Contents 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 SCHOOL SANITATION 95 
 
 The Building. Seating. Heating and Ventilation. 
 Lighting. Water-supply. Toilet-room and Privy. 
 Work and Play. Medical Inspection. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 CAR SANITATION 109 
 
 Furnishing and Cleaning. Ventilation and Heating. 
 Disposal of Excreta. Drinking-water. Street-cars. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE CAUSE AND PREVENTION OF CONTAGIOUS AND INFEO 
 
 TIOUS DISEASES 119 
 
 Smallpox. Measles. Scarlet Fever. Whooping- 
 cough. Diphtheria. Typhus Fever. Cerebrospinal Fever. 
 Tuberculosis. Typhoid Fever. Cholera. Malarial Fevers. 
 Yellow Fever. The Plague. Hydrophobia. Anthrax. 
 Glanders. Tetanus. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 VITAL STATISTICS 140 
 
 Registration of Births. Registration of Disease. 
 Registration of Deaths. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 MUNICIPAL SANITATION 147 
 
 History. Overcrowding. Street Cleaning. Public 
 Baths. Public Parks and Playgrounds. The Smoke 
 Nuisance. The Spitting Nuisance. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 RURAL AND SUBURBAN SANITATION 166 
 
 General Considerations. Dwellings. Water-supply. 
 Waste Disposal. 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 187 
 
 Heredity. Food. Exercise. Clothing. Bathing. 
 The Simple Life. 
 
Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Habitations 
 
 ONSTRUCTION . The first thing of sanitary 
 importance about any building is to 
 have a proper foundation: a foundation 
 that is impervious to the ground air and 
 ground moisture, or, more popularly speaking, the 
 soil dampness; for a damp soil is always cold and a 
 person living in a damp house lacks free evaporation 
 from the skin and consequently is more liable to 
 "take cold." Phthisis is one of the diseases, too, which 
 especially bears a certain relation to soil dampness, 
 We now know that this disease is caused by a specific 
 germ, yet there is no doubt but that soil dampness is 
 one of the several predisposing factors. Of rheuma- 
 tism, although we are in doubt as to its exact aetiology, 
 we also feel certain that one of the great causes, likely 
 only a predisposing one, is exposure to cold and damp- 
 ness. The complaint known as muscular rheumatism 
 
2 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 is excessively prevalent in localities having damp and 
 illy drained cellars and foundations. Diphtheria is a 
 common disease in houses with wet foundations; 
 easily explained by the experimental fact that diph- 
 theria germs live for a long time on the walls of a 
 damp cellar. 
 
 With these facts in view it is of the first import- 
 ance that we construct foundations impervious to 
 moisture and the ground air, for the air in the soil 
 differs in composition from the atmosphere and is 
 not suitable for breathing purposes. So the cardinal 
 point in foundation building is not a support for the 
 superstructure, but a means to keep soil air and 
 moisture out of the house. 
 
 There are several ways of constructing a foundation 
 so that it fills these requirements: one of the best, 
 perhaps the best plan, is that adopted in New York 
 City. After the cellar has been excavated to the 
 required size and depth, a solid bed of concrete a 
 foot or two thick is put down on the bottom, and 
 over this a damp-proof course of tarred felt and bur- 
 lap is laid in hot pitch. On this as a base the walls 
 are built, and on the outside of the walls a layer 
 of tarred felt is laid in hot pitch, as is shown in Fig. i. 
 A foundation constructed in this way is absolutely 
 proof against any trouble from the soil. 
 
 The material of which a house is built is an economic 
 question rather than a sanitary one. A brick house, 
 especially an unpainted one, allows natural ventila- 
 tion through the walls; on account of the porosity 
 
Habitations 
 
 3 
 
 of the bricks it is a poor conductor of heat, and is 
 consequently warmer in winter and cooler in summer 
 than a wooden one. The construction, whatever the 
 material, and this is really more important than 
 
 FIG. i. A Method of Constructing a Foundation. 
 
 the question of material, should be such as to ad- 
 mit of the greatest amount of sunshine and light 
 in the greatest number of rooms, though on a city 
 lot one is sometimes much hampered by adjoining 
 buildings. 
 
Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 PLUMBING 
 
 With the house properly constructed, the most im- 
 portant point yet remaining is the arrangement for 
 the removal of household waste and this, in the 
 city, is by means of water service, necessitating a 
 system of pipes, closets, baths, and sinks, known as 
 plumbing sanitary plumbing when properly arranged. 
 The principal requirement about plumbing is that 
 it does the work intended the speedy removal of 
 waste and the exclusion of sewer air from the house. 
 In Fig. 2 is shown a diagrammatic section of a house 
 with pipes and fixtures arranged in the proper manner. 
 
 All plumbing work should be thorough smooth, 
 perfect joints and no sharp angles above all else it 
 should be open so that all parts may be freely in- 
 spected if necessary. The vertical pipe, known as 
 the soil-pipe, should always extend and open beyond 
 the roof and the house-drain should always be trapped 
 before its entrance into the sewer; this main inter- 
 cepting or house-trap is generally placed immediately 
 inside the foundation wall, and, although customarily 
 used in cities with the combined system of sewerage, 
 its omission is advised by many when the separate 
 system (see Chapter III) is used, on account of the 
 fact that it obstructs the flow of air into the sewers, 
 which is so necessary for sewage purification. In 
 most cities a fresh-air inlet, extending from the edge 
 of the pavement, opens into the house-drain on the 
 
Habitations 5 
 
 house side of the main trap, thus allowing a free cir- 
 culation of air through the pipes; this plan of having 
 a fresh-air inlet, though theoretically perfect, is rather 
 defectiye^practically^ for the opening of the pipe is 
 quite often stopped up with dirt. 
 
 HcttoTrap 
 
 FIG. 2. Section of a House, showing Plumbing System. 
 
 In order to prevent sewer air from getting into the 
 house from failure of the main trap to work, or in 
 absence of the main trap, every basin, closet, or bath 
 has its individual trap; and right here it may be 
 well to state that ajrap is _ simply ajbend in the pipe 
 
Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 which holds water enough to prevent the gases from 
 passing into the house. There are many forms of 
 traps, the simplest and one of the best being the 
 S-trap shown in the drawing (Fig. 3). 
 
 If a fixture is not much used, sometimes the water 
 evaporates and the seal is broken; this is avoided by 
 having a trap with considerable 
 depth of water-seal; again, the 
 seal is sometimes broken by "sy- 
 phonage" from a rush of water 
 down a near-by soil-pipe from a 
 higher fixture; to prevent this 
 vent-pipes are sometimes used, 
 which are nothing more than 
 ventilating-pipes which open into 
 the top of the traps; the vent- 
 pipe adds additional expense 
 and also favors evaporation of 
 the water-seal, but its good 
 points probably outweigh its defects. 
 
 The house fixtures, water-closets, wash-stands, 
 baths, etc., should be all made with exposed plumb- 
 ing. Formerly any dark corner or closet was used 
 for such purposes, but modern sanitation demands 
 that everything be open for inspection and cleaning. 
 Fig. 4, which shows a picture of a modern bathroom 9 
 gives an idea of what up-to-date plumbing is able 
 to do. Water-closets should combine simplicity with 
 thorough flushing after use and proper refilling. 
 The simplest form is the hopper closet, which con- 
 
 FIG. 3. S-trap. 
 

 
Habitations 9 
 
 sists of a bowl and an ordinary trap. Modifications 
 of this, which are generally used at present, are 
 the wash-down and wash-out closets, both of which 
 
 FIG. 50. Wash-down Closet. 
 
 have the water-seal in the bowl instead of under- 
 neath it. Pictures of these two forms are shown in 
 Figs. 5# and 56. The old-fashioned pan, valve, and 
 
lo Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 plunger closets ar?. only of historic interest and have 
 no place in modern plumbing. It is almost need- 
 less to state that all water-closets should be flushed 
 by a separate cistern. Wash-stands and baths should, 
 of course, all be trapped, but it is a good rule to 
 
 FIG. 56. Wash-out Closet. 
 
 have as few sewerage fixtures as possible in the house 
 simplicity is the watchword in plumbing. 
 
 The Peppermint Test. The tests for plumbing work 
 consists in putting into the pipes some volatile 
 substance, the odor of which, escaping from any 
 defect in the pipes, is readily detected; oil of pepper- 
 mint is the substance generally used. Two to four 
 ounces of peppermint oil are poured into the main 
 
Habitations 1 1 
 
 soil-pipe on the roof the other pipe openings, if 
 there are any, being closed and is followed by a 
 bucket of hot water and the opening of the pipe 
 then plugged up. This work should be done by 
 some person (other than the inspector) who should 
 not come inside the house until the inspection is 
 finished; if the test is carefully made any leak will 
 be detected without difficulty. 
 
 The smoke test is also used to discover plumbing 
 defects. It consists in forcing smoke into the sys- 
 tem of pipes, the ends, of course, being plugged, and 
 the smoke appearing wherever a leak exists. 
 
 VENTILATION AND HEATING 
 
 Ventilation consists in the means of furnishing suf- 
 ficient pure air for breathing purposes. It has been 
 found that we need about 3000 cubic feet of fresh air 
 every hour, in order to prevent an undue diminution 
 of oxygen and an increase of carbon dioxide, and when 
 we do not get sufficient amount we suffer in various 
 ways in lowered vitality and in death, as has been 
 proved by the crowding of a number of people into 
 a small closed room. This lowered vitality, brought 
 about by continued bad ventilation, leads to tubercu- 
 losis the one great disease of defective ventilation. 
 People who have been accustomed to live in the open 
 air are especially prone to this disease when cooped 
 up in houses. Dr. A. N. Bell tells the story of an 
 Indian agent who many years ago built a number 
 
i 2 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 of houses for his wards and persuaded them to occupy 
 them. Not long after he left on a two years' leave 
 of absence; on his return he found the Indians again 
 living in their teepees and his houses used for store- 
 rooms. On inquiry the Indian reply was "Too 
 much house; spit blood." Only a story, but a story 
 with scientific truth behind it. 
 
 This poor physical condition, due to defective ven- 
 tilation, is seen not only in city tenements, but I 
 have noticed it, and others have called attention 
 to the same thing, in the mountain districts of Penn- 
 sylvania, and I suppose the same condition exists in 
 other places. This class of people, breathing natu- 
 rally the purest air in God's country, . show the sallow, 
 sickly appearance of defective light and oxygen. 
 The reason seems to be that during the long winter 
 months they are almost continually cooped up in 
 small houses lounging behind the stove, and at night 
 sleeping in small, low rooms, closed and unventilated, 
 in order to keep out the cold. 
 
 The trouble caused by deficient ventilation is 
 brought about mostly by lack of oxygen and increase 
 of carbon dioxide, although other factors, for example, 
 the organic materials of the expired air, are probably 
 at work to bring about the result. The amount of 
 carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is about .04 per 
 cent and when this gets to .08 per cent the air is 
 totally unfit for breathing, so by this we have a 
 ready means of determining the purity of the air. 
 
 As has been said, an adult needs about 3000 cubic 
 
Habitations 1 3 
 
 feet of fresh air every hour, and to get this and remove 
 the foul air is the aim of ventilation., Inasmuch as 
 the air in a room can be changed about three times 
 an hour, a room of 1000 cubic feet is the amount of 
 air-space needed for one individual. This air-space 
 can, of course, be diminished or increased according 
 to the permanency of occupancy, labor, etc. In an 
 ordinary dwelling 600 to 800 cubic feet of space 
 should be allowed for each occupant, and in public 
 buildings used only for a short time 300 cubic feet 
 or even less is sufficient, considering that the air 
 can be changed very often. 
 
 While in the warmer climate of the South ven- 
 tilation is a factor to be considered alone, in the 
 colder climate of the North ventilation and 'heating 
 go hand-in-hand, and this brings us to the methods 
 of heating which are considered with their ven- 
 tilating effects. In house-warming we endeavor to 
 bring the temperature to about 68 F., which seems 
 to be the normal for most healthy people. There is 
 a great tendency to keep, houses entirely too warm, 
 the result of which is the undue prevalence of chronic 
 catarrhal inflammations of the mucous membranes 
 of the throat and nose. If the heat is moist a much 
 lower temperature will suffice, and for this reason 
 English houses seem cold, and are cold, to Americans 
 coming from a dry climate, where they are accus- 
 tomed to, and where a higher temperature is actually 
 necessary. The various methods of heating are open., 
 fireplaces, stoves, hot-air furnaces, hot water, and steam. 
 
14 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 The Open Fireplace. The open fireplace, which 
 was the primitive mode of heating, has the objection 
 of yielding only a small part of the fuel value as 
 heat, only about ten per cent. As they give out 
 practically only radiant heat they warm only the 
 surface of objects facing the fire; if, however, the 
 fireplaces are faced with iron or steel, or a Franklin 
 stove used, we get some convected heat from the 
 heated iron; or, better still, if the back of the grate 
 is so arranged that a current of air passes behind 
 the fire we may get even twenty-five per cent of 
 the fuel value; this is accomplished by what is known 
 as a vent ilat ing-grate. Open grates are not much 
 used for general heating, but only as an adjunct to 
 other methods; they are, however, of exceeding 
 value as ventilators and should occupy a place in 
 every house. A room which has an open fireplace 
 does not get that peculiar "stuffy" condition during 
 occupancy which it is likely to get without one. 
 
 Stoves. Stoves were the next step in the method 
 of heating and a great step it was too, for stoves fur- 
 nish about seventy-five per cent of the fuel energy 
 as heat, but they do not allow for ventilation, so 
 fresh air has to be supplied in some other way very 
 often it is a neglected way; the air of stove-heated 
 rooms is likely to become superheated and too dry. 
 In a good many of the older houses in some parts 
 of the country there are open fireplaces boarded 
 up since wood has become scarce, and stoves used 
 for heating. Now, in a case of this kind, if the fire- 
 
Habitations 15 
 
 place is left open entirely or partially ventilation 
 takes place, and stove-heating becomes fairly effective. 
 
 Oil- and Gas-stoves. Oil- and gas-stoves are con- 
 siderably used at present and yield a great quantity 
 of heat quickly and at moderate cost. It must not 
 be forgotten, however, that these stoves use the 
 oxygen of a room and give off carbonic-oxide gas; 
 so that when used in closed apartments, there must 
 be means for the introduction of plenty of fresh 
 air. 
 
 Hot-air Heating. The next improvement in 
 house-heating was to put the stove in the cellar, 
 surround it with an envelope of galvanized iron, 
 into which fresh air could enter, and run a number 
 of pipes from the top of the hood to the rooms above; 
 this, then, was the hot-air furnace, which is a very 
 effective method of heating and ventilating if properly 
 arranged. The furnace, of course, must be gas- 
 tight and the cold-air must be taken from the out- 
 side of the house. I heard of a man who had the 
 cold-air shaft open directly into the cellar, for the 
 reason that it would take less coal to heat the already 
 partially heated air of the cellar; he forgot, probably 
 didn't know, that cellar air, or rather ground air, 
 was unfit for breathing. The cold-air pipe should 
 be thoroughly air-tight for its whole length, and the 
 outside opening should be protected with wire netting. 
 With proper construction and care, and with a good 
 furnace placed on the proper side, from which the 
 cold winds generally come and with pipes having 
 
1 6 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 sufficient elevation a hot-air furnace will yield a 
 splendid system for furnishing pure, heated air. 
 
 Hot-water Heating. Hot-water heating consists in 
 circulating hot water in a series of pipes and radi- 
 ators, and depends for its action on the expansive 
 force of heated water. We have both high- and 
 low-pressure systems low where the top of the 
 system is open to the air; in this the temperature 
 of the water reaches only 212 F. In the high- 
 pressure system the top is closed and the water 
 is heated up to about 300 F. Hot-water systems 
 when well put up are very economical, but present 
 the disadvantage of the water freezing in the pipes 
 if the fire should go out; and with the radiators 
 placed directly in the room there is no means of 
 ventilation except from the door, windows, or open 
 fireplaces. The proper method of using hot- water 
 coils will be described under the next subject. 
 
 Steam-heating. Steam-heating consists in circu- 
 lating steam through pipes and radiators placed in 
 the various rooms. In this, as in hot water, there 
 are two systems, high and low pressure. The low 
 pressure only three or four pounds is the one 
 used in private dwellings. When a steam apparatus 
 is put in properly, there is freedom from the noise 
 of the condensing steam, and it is very economical; 
 but with the radiators placed directly in the room, 
 there is no provision for ventilation. Although hot- 
 water and steam systems as commonly used in 
 private houses do not make allowance for ventilation, 
 
Habitations 17 
 
 there are two methods by which the introduction 
 of pure air may be accomplished the direct-indirect 
 and the indirect method. 
 
 FIG. 6. Heating by Direct-indirect Radiation. 
 
 Heating by Indirect or Direct-indirect Radiation. 
 In the latter method (Fig. 6) outside air enters 
 
i 8 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 through a wall opening and passes over the radi- 
 ator and thence into the room; the room being 
 heated by convection and partially by direct radi- 
 
 FIG. 7. Heating by Indirect Radiation. 
 
 ation. In the indirect method (Fig. 7) the coils 
 are placed in the cellar and enclosed in an air-tight 
 box, which communicates with the outside air by a 
 
Habitations 1 9 
 
 flue; flues then lead from the coils to the rooms 
 above just as in a hot-air system. In either of these 
 methods we may use either hot- water, steam-coils 
 or electrical heaters, but the latter are yet too expen- 
 sive for general use. 
 
 In large buildings one or the other or both of these 
 methods of heating are used in conjunction with an 
 electric fan to force heated air through the building. 
 In all of these systems of heating- the foul air is re- 
 moved by specially constructed air-shafts, by open 
 fireplaces, or by windows or doors. Smead has 
 devised a system which generally gives excellent 
 results; in this method the heated air is admitted at 
 the floor level, and after circulating around the room 
 escapes by vents, likewise at the floor level; it then 
 passes under the floor and finally escapes by the 
 chimney. 
 
 There is yet some question as to where the foul- 
 air shafts of a room should be located. If heated 
 air is introduced at the floor level and this is the 
 proper place it is certain that a more equable dis- 
 tribution of heat is obtained and more economically 
 by having the foul-air vents also at the floor level, 
 as has been demonstrated over and over again by 
 the great efficiency of the open fireplace as a means 
 of ventilation; this for ordinary rooms and houses. 
 When it comes to the heating and ventilation of 
 large buildings, using either the forced or exhaust 
 systems, this rule is not so applicable, and the direct, 
 opposite, hot air from above and extraction shafts 
 
2O Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 below, may give better results; in order to get the 
 best results an expert should be employed to study 
 the individual case. 
 
 Examination of Air. In examining the air of a 
 place we want to find out the proportion of carbonic- 
 acid gas; if this is normal we may put it down that 
 the air is fit for breathing purposes. Sometimes it 
 is desirable to have a bacteriological examination, and 
 this is made by drawing the air through sterile glass 
 tubes coated with gelatin, or sterilized gelatin may 
 be exposed in Petri dishes for a short time, then 
 covered and set aside for colonies to develop. 
 
 Test for Carbonic-acid Gas. The simplest test 
 for this gas is Boom's modification of Wolpert's 
 method, the description here given is taken from 
 Egbert's Hygiene. " Make a mark on any test-tube, 
 say one inch from the bottom. Fix the bulb of an 
 atomizer to a small glass capillary tube, sufficiently 
 long to reach to the bottom of the test-tube, and in 
 such a manner that a definite quantity of air is forced 
 from the bulb through the tube at each compression. 
 To use: Fill the test-tube exactly to the mark with 
 a saturated solution of lime-water, take the apparatus 
 into the outside air and find out how many com- 
 pressions of the bulb are needed, driving the air 
 slowly through the lime-water each time to make 
 the lime-water just turbid enough to obscure a pencil 
 mark on white paper placed beneath the test-tube 
 and viewed from above. 
 
 " Then rinse out the test-tube, fill exactly to the 
 
Habitations 2 1 
 
 mark again with lime-water, and repeat the process 
 in the room the air of which is to be examined. We 
 then assume that the outdoor air contains the nor- 
 mal amount of CO 2 , 0.04 per cent (unless we happen 
 to know the actual amount in the atmosphere at 
 the time), and estimate the percentage of CO 2 in 
 the air of the room by the following proportion: 
 
 "The number of compressions of the bulb required 
 in the outer air : the number of compressions required 
 in the room: : % : 0.04; # = the percentage of CO2 
 in the air of the room. If the actual percentage of 
 CO 2 in the outer air is known, substitute this for the 
 0.04 per cent in the formula. Care must be taken 
 in using this device not to draw any of the lime- 
 water up into the bulb." 
 
 ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION 
 
 There are three principal methods of lighting used 
 at present, namely, by oil-lamps, gas, and electricity. 
 
 Oil (kerosene) lamps, when properly made and good 
 oil used, give a serviceable light, but they have the 
 great defect of using up a large quantity of oxygen, 
 and, of course, giving off CO 2 . An ordinary oil-lamp 
 of i6-candle-power vitiates the air of a room equal 
 to that of six or seven adults; consequently the cus- 
 tom of burning a lamp in a bedroom at night is bad, 
 very bad, and sure to be followed by the deleterious 
 effects of deficient ventilation. 
 
22 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 Gas Lighting. Gas furnishes much light and 
 uses about one-half as much air as an equal power 
 oil-lamp. When gas is used with the Welsbach 
 burner, which contains an incandescent mantle of 
 non-combustible salts, it uses up the atmosphere 
 only about one-seventh as much as an oil-lamp 
 and gives a pure white light. 
 
 There are certain dangers connected with illumin- 
 ating-gas, the principal one being due to the carbon- 
 monoxide gas contained in it; in coal-gas this is 
 present to the extent of about eight per cent and 
 in water-gas to the extent of thirty per cent. The 
 inhalation of carbon-monoxide (CO) gas is a very 
 serious matter; its toxic effects being due to its 
 combination with the haemoglobin of the blood, 
 thereby causing a very persistent and fatal asphyxia. 
 In small amounts it causes the languor, nausea, head- 
 ache, and debility frequently seen in those subjected 
 to escaping gas from stoves, furnaces, and leaking 
 gas-burners. 
 
 Purified acetylene gas is being much used and 
 gives a very satisfactory light; it is not as dangerous 
 as either coal- or water-gas, takes less oxygen, and 
 evolves less CO 2 ; the odor is so peculiar that a small 
 leak is readily detected and this is a decided ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 Electric Lighting. Electricity furnishes the ideal 
 light, especially the incandescent-lamp which, evolving 
 no heat, using no oxygen, and eliminating no CO 2 , 
 has no effect whatsoever on the atmosphere of a 
 
Habitations 23 
 
 room. The globes should always be of ground glass, 
 which, although absorbing considerable light, is much 
 easier on the eyes. 
 
 The Cooper-Hewit lamp a vacuum-lamp on the 
 principle of the Crookes tube is beginning to be 
 somewhat used; it is cheap, but it has the dis- 
 advantage of giving everything under its influence 
 a peculiar ghastly hue; it is easy on the eyes and 
 does not impoverish the atmosphere. 
 
 THE BACK YARD 
 
 The back yard is the one remaining point about the 
 house which calls for some attention, for quite often 
 its condition is anything but sanitary; often it is 
 a litter of rubbish, ashes, tin cans, etc., with perhaps 
 a bucket or a barrel partially filled with water, which 
 in a suitable season breeds a million or two of mos- 
 quitoes. That the back yard should be clean goes 
 without saying, and sanitation is only cleanliness. 
 There can be no excuse for making a rubbish-dump 
 of a city back yard, at least, for most cities speedily 
 remove all such material. 
 
 The best condition in which to keep a back yard, 
 especially a city back yard, is to have a closely cropped 
 lawn; it looks clean, is clean, and grass will grow 
 almost anywhere. In streets with high buildings, 
 where the back yards are small and shady, a bed of 
 ferns adds pleasure and purity to such a yard, for 
 ferns will grow where sunlight is scarce and the grow- 
 
24 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 ing plants will keep the soil sweet and fresh where 
 it might otherwise be wet and sodden with filth. 
 
 HOSPITALS 
 
 The construction of hospital buildings does not 
 differ materially from any other, except, in that 
 as we are dealing with the sick, all sanitary rules 
 must be carefully observed, perhaps more carefully 
 than when constructing buildings intended to be 
 inhabited only by the well; one point needs special 
 attention and that is the provision for sufficient air- 
 space for the number of intended patients; it is gen- 
 erally conceded that we should allow 2000 cubic 
 feet per patient and 150 square feet of floor-space; 
 in contagious-disease wards even more is desirable. 
 
 The plan of hospital building at present advocated 
 is that of detached buildings rather than one large 
 building (Fig. 8). Probably one- or two-storied 
 pavilions would be better,, but this is hardly admissible 
 where land is so valuable as it is in some of the great 
 cities; modern sanitary building, too, has so im- 
 proved that a four- or five-storied building may be 
 made to meet all requirements. In the plan shown, 
 which is that of a modern city hospital, some of 
 the pavilions have five stories, with the operating- 
 rooms on the top floor, which is perhaps a dis- 
 tinct advantage. Ventilating and heating is best 
 accomplished by admitting outside air over steam- 
 coils indirect radiation. The modern hospital with 
 
Habitations 
 
2.6 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 its hard-wood floors, smooth walls, large windows 
 devoid of hangings, present a very different picture 
 from the old-time ward. In hospital furnishings 
 the greatest progress has been made; enamelled iron, 
 porcelain, and glass are used for almost everything. 
 For emergency hospitals portable houses are now 
 available which are easily and quickly put up; in 
 warm weather tents, of course, are all that are needed. 
 
 PRISONS AND ASYLUMS 
 
 Before the days of John Howard any building was 
 considered good enough for a prison. Since then 
 humanity has directed some effort to ameliorate the 
 condition of the criminal and the insane, and we now 
 feel that although the State has a right to inflict even 
 the death penalty in the manner prescribed by law 
 upon the properly convicted prisoner, it has no right 
 to kill him with typhoid fever, or tuberculosis, or some 
 other disease of defective sanitation. A prison should 
 be built with just as much care to sanitary details as 
 any other building; not only should there be proper 
 water-supply and means of waste disposal, but a 
 proper amount of exercise and proper food should 
 also be considered in the effort to support the health 
 of the prisoner. 
 
 Modern asylum treatment is a vast improvement 
 over even fifty years ago, but the unfortunate insane 
 are still quite often herded into buildings more like 
 cattle than human beings; overcrowding is the 
 
Habitations 27 
 
 great bane of the asylum, and I doubt if there are 
 many public asylums which are not in a chronic 
 condition of overcrowding. Another point is the 
 food, which should be given careful attention. I 
 have myself seen patients suffering with scurvy in 
 one of our great city asylums. This institution had 
 a splendid set of diet tables gotten up by a man 
 with an international reputation, but the poor con- 
 dition of the food, the poor and filthy cooking, and 
 the poor service made it so repulsive that it did 
 not meet the ends intended. 
 
 THEATRES 
 
 The two great sanitary requirements of the thea- 
 tre is that the building be made as fire-proof as. 
 possible, and that it has an efficient system of 
 ventilation. Improved building methods and the in- 
 troduction of the electric light have greatly lessened 
 the fire danger and have also made possible better 
 means of ventilation. There should be, according to 
 Gerhardt, who has made special study of theatre 
 sanitation, about 1800 cubic feet of fresh air per 
 hour for each individual. In a moderate-sized theatre 
 with a full house this means an enormous quantity 
 of fresh air, which can only be obtained by forced 
 ventilation by means of fans. There are two methods 
 of introducing fresh air: either from the top with 
 foul-air shafts at the bottom, or fresh air at the bottom 
 and foul air at the top; either of the systems are good, 
 
28 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 the selection depending on the details of the building, 
 subdivisions, etc. 
 
 The water-supply should be ample, consisting of 
 two systems, one for plumbing fixtures and a separate 
 
 FIG. 9. A Sanitary Urinal. (From a copyrighted photograph by the 
 J. L. Mott Co.) 
 
 one for fire protection. Above all, it is of primary 
 importance that the city should detail sufficient 
 policemen, thoroughly conversant with the house 
 and its exits, to preserve order and prevent panic 
 in case of an alarm of fire. 
 
Habitations 29 
 
 There is one other point in which a good many 
 public buildings, railway stations, and the like are 
 especially defective, and that is the public urinal; 
 to keep these appliances clean and non-odorous is 
 one of the most difficult problems in sanitation. 
 Slate and marble are unsatisfactory on account of 
 their absorbent properties; what is needed is an 
 absolutely non-absorbent material, made in one piece 
 without joints, and this seems to be met by glazed 
 porcelain such as is shown in Fig. 9. With proper 
 flushing a urinal like this has given marked success, 
 and I believe will tend to revolutionize this hitherto 
 defective point in our sanitary methods. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 NIVERSITY 
 
CHAPTER II 
 Water-supply 
 
 HE necessity of every person using a 
 pure water-supply is no longer a matter 
 of theory, but a fact of the gravest import- 
 ance; for not only are diarrhoeal and 
 digestive troubles caused by impure water, but the 
 two great diseases, cholera and typhoid fever, are 
 generally transmitted by this means. We in this 
 country are paying the price of impure water-sup- 
 plies by the sacrifice, through typhoid fever alone, 
 of 40,000 lives every year precious lives; young 
 men and women stricken in their prime and before 
 their time; sacrificed in many instances to an igno- 
 rance and a carelessness born of graft and greed. 
 There is no longer any excuse for the existence of 
 typhoid fever; every case means some one's ignorance 
 or carelessness, and the day is fast coming when every 
 case will become the subject for rigorous inquiry. 
 Only the other day a town in Pennsylvania, scourged 
 by typhoid, had the audacity to convene a public 
 prayer-meeting for the purpose of calling on the 
 Lord to stay the pestilence, while the town council 
 
 30 
 
Water-supply 3 1 
 
 sat idly by with folded hands. Is it any wonder 
 we have typhoid? 
 
 Considering the grave dangers of polluted water 
 the supply of every community of any size should 
 come under municipal oversight, and all commu- 
 nities should see to it that they obtain a supply 
 which meets all the sanitary standards of purity; 
 it is a duty that the citizens owe to one another. 
 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY 
 
 The various sources from which a water-supply 
 may be obtained depends on local conditions and cir- 
 cumstances; either wells, springs, lakes, and streams 
 or rain-water. 
 
 Wells, although a common source of water in the 
 country, to which reference is made in Chapter XI, 
 are not very much used for a public supply, but in 
 some instances they may furnish the most available 
 source. When desired for a town supply a series 
 of wells are drilled in the place selected, the water 
 pumped to a reservoir, and then distributed. The 
 points in considering the availability of wells as a 
 source of supply are the amount of water needed, 
 and the pollution or likelihood of pollution of the 
 surrounding soil, for the ordinary well-water is simply 
 drawn from the adjacent ground-water, which is 
 good or bad according as the soil is polluted or not. 
 The ground-water, by the way, is that underground 
 sheet of water which fills all the interstices of the 
 
32 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 soil to a certain depth; it has a periodic rise and 
 fall, and is in lateral motion towards the nearest 
 watercourse; such being the case it is evident that 
 pollution may travel for a considerable distance. 
 This is amply proved by the history of well-waters, 
 which are so often contaminated and have caused 
 so many epidemics of typhoid. 
 
 The character of a water depends, therefore, in a 
 great measure on the character of the soil from which 
 it drains. In heavy clay soils there is very slow 
 percolation of the water and what does get through 
 is quite often fairly pure. In gravel beds and loose 
 sand the filtering properties of the soil are soon 
 impaired, and in a region of upturned, broken, and 
 crumpled strata, infection may travel a great dis- 
 tance, readily following the lines of fracture. In 
 Fig. 10 is shown the section of a region where a 
 small public supply is obtained from drilled wells; 
 although this water is fairly pure at present, the 
 probability of future trouble, due to increased build- 
 ing on the hillside and the inclination of the strata 
 from this point to the wells, is very great; in addi- 
 tion a farmhouse and its accompanying outbuild- 
 ings lay directly in the trough of the drainage scarcely 
 a quarter of a mile away. 
 
 In places where they are available, Artesian wells 
 sometimes furnish water of exceptional purity. In 
 order to have a true Artesian well we must have 
 a porous strata underlying an impervious one; this 
 only occurs in regions where the strata are more or 
 
Water-supply 
 
 33 
 
 less horizontal, places which are, in fact, parts of 
 geological basins. Such places are found on the 
 coast regions of the United States, the Upper Missis- 
 sippi Valley, and a small region in Dakota; and in 
 these localities Artesian wells may always be con- 
 sidered as one of the possibly available means of 
 supply. 
 
 Another source of water-supply, frequently used 
 by small towns especially, are springs and small 
 
 F- Farm House P^Eumpiny Station. R =Reservoic - 
 
 FIG. 10. Section representing a Public Water-supply drawn from 
 Wells, and Danger from Contamination. 
 
 streams. A good many people have the idea that 
 any spring-water is good, but the truth is that 
 spring-water, being simply an overflow of the ground- 
 water, is just as good, and no better than its sur- 
 roundings. If the gathering-grounds of the spring 
 are uncultivated and uninhabited uplands, it will 
 likely be good, but to trust a spring because it is a 
 a spring is folly. On the other hand, springs and 
 high upland brooks far from contamination some- 
 
34 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 times yield the purest waters obtainable. John Muir, 
 the great naturalist, tells of the wonderful purity 
 of the springs in the high Sierras. One of them he 
 mentions as "sparkling, exhilarating, and so posi- 
 tively delicious to the taste, that a party of friends I 
 led to it twenty-five years ago still praise it and 
 refer to it as 'that wonderful champagne water." 1 
 Of course the deliciousness of water generally depends 
 on the thirst of the drinker, but no one can doubt 
 the purity of these glacial-fed springs. 
 
 Small upland streams are sometimes used as a 
 source of supply with the same idea of their intrinsic 
 purity; but this is all fallacy; if they come from 
 uninhabited highlands they are unquestionably safe; 
 if their drainage area is inhabited, sooner or later 
 they will show pollution. In Fig. n is shown the 
 photograph of one of these mountain streams, with 
 its gathering-grounds enclosed in a narrow valley; 
 streams like this are frequently used as a public 
 water-supply, though the gathering-grounds are 
 thickly populated; to expect to get good, pure water 
 from such a stream is unreasonable and a company 
 that does furnish such water should be amenable to 
 the law, if typhoid should develop among the con- 
 sumers of the water. 
 
 Another of these upland brooks is shown in Fig. 12, 
 although wild and uninhabited on its lower reaches, 
 as indicated in the photograph, over the drainage 
 of its head waters, a mile away, are five dwellings, 
 in three of which typhoid fever has been a scourge. 
 
Water-supply 37 
 
 No spring, no small stream, can be considered safe 
 as a source of water-supply until its whole drainage 
 area is known. Always be sure to see the other 
 end of any such stream before you judge it suitable 
 for drinking. 
 
 Rivers and lakes are generally used as a source of 
 supply for the larger cities, but the country, east of 
 the Mississippi at least, has become so thickly in- 
 habited, and all the large rivers so polluted (Fig. 
 13), that to use such a water raw, i.e., without 
 nitration or some other means of purification, is 
 sure to invite disease sooner or later. We used to 
 hear a good deal about the self-purification of run- 
 ning water, and it is a fact that flowing streams dp 
 purify themselves due to the process of dilution 
 and sedimentation, aeration and sunlight but Tur- 
 neaure and Russell in their splendid work on "Public 
 Water-supplies" claim "that it is unsafe to use 
 for a water-supply a stream once polluted, so long 
 as any tract of pollution remains; to set a distance 
 limit is impossible." 
 
 The same points apply to lakes and ponds as to 
 streams; the larger, however, the body of water the 
 greater the dilution and the less danger, other things 
 being equal. More or less purification goes on in 
 standing water through the action of sunlight and 
 vertical circulation, and the pollution, of course, 
 diminishes as we leave the shore-line, but the point 
 at which it is safe to obtain a supply has to be deter- 
 mined for each and every individual case. 
 
38 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 QUALITY AND QUANTITY 
 
 Drinking water should be colorless, odorless, soft, 
 and, more important than all these, should be free 
 from animal pollution. In judging the quality of a 
 
 FIG. 12. The Wilderness Brook. (Photograph by the Author.) 
 
 water one must bear in mind that "things are not 
 always w 7 hat they seem." I have known a well-water 
 that was almost, I suppose, as clear and sparkling 
 as the spring-w r ater of the high Sierras, yet it was 
 grossly polluted and filled with the death-dealing 
 germs of typhoid; indeed, we find that quite often 
 
Water-supply 39 
 
 polluted well-water is peculiarly clear and sparkling. 
 
 The hardness of water, that is, the presence of 
 undue amounts of the carbonates, chlorides, sul- 
 phates of lime, and magnesia, is undesirable on account 
 of the great waste of soap and the deposit of the salts 
 in boiler-tubes when the water is used in that capacity. 
 In using a hard water, it takes about eight parts of 
 soap to neutralize one part of carbonate of lime; 
 hence the economy in using a soft water. The hard- 
 ness may be either temporary or permanent. When 
 the lime is present as a bicarbonate, the CO 2 is set 
 free by boiling, the lime is deposited as a white pre- 
 cipitate and the water is softened; this is temporary 
 hardness. If sulphates and chlorides are present, 
 boiling does not affect it, and the condition is then 
 known as permanent hardness. There are various 
 chemical processes for softening waters on a large 
 scale. The Clark process for temporary hardness 
 consists in the addition of a suitable amount of lime 
 Ca(HO) 2 , which forms an insoluble precipitate of cal- 
 cium carbonate, which is removed by subsidence. To 
 remove the hardness caused by sulphates and chlo- 
 rides, sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) is used, which also 
 throws down insoluble precipitates. 
 
 The quantity of water necessary for an individual 
 or a community depends considerably on local con- 
 ditions, as the size of the city, character of the indus- 
 tries, etc. The amount is very variable as reference 
 to the following table, which I have taken from 
 Turneaure and Russell, will show: 
 
40 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 Gallons per Capita Daily. 
 
 Minimum. Maximum, j Average. 
 
 Domestic 
 
 iq 
 
 4O 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 Commercial 
 Public 
 
 5 
 
 "7 
 
 35 
 10 
 
 *j 
 
 20 
 
 5" 
 
 Loss 
 
 jr 
 
 7O 
 
 2 N 
 
 Total 
 
 A J 
 
 ?8 
 
 O w 
 
 lit 
 
 ^J 
 
 *7s 
 
 
 
 
 / J 
 
 The loss of water from a public supply is a grow- 
 ing factor, a grave condition, and one that calls for 
 more attention than it has been receiving. 
 
 STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION 
 
 The storage and distribution of water present some 
 features for the sanitary student. Surface and very 
 filthy waters improve very much by storage, due 
 to sedimentation, which, by the way, carries down 
 many of the bacteria. Filtered water and deep well- 
 waters deteriorate much by exposure in open reser- 
 voirs, due to the growth of algae and various water 
 bacteria, which, while not dangerous to health, give 
 the water a peculiar and disagreeable odor. The 
 proper storage of such waters demands covered reser- 
 voirs, although a method of destroying algae has lately 
 been discovered. 
 
 In the distribution of a water-supply, it is desirable 
 that the pipes have no "dead ends," that is, an end 
 projecting beyond a connection, for this is likely to 
 
Water-supply 41 
 
 cause stagnation of the water; neither should the 
 pipes leak, not only on account of the loss of water, 
 but from the fact, that on the occurrence of a "break- 
 down," causing a diminished pressure in the pipes, 
 there would be an inflow of soil water, which might 
 contaminate the whole system and spread disease 
 far and wide. 
 
 PURIFICATION 
 
 The purification of water, or rather a water-supply, 
 is an absorbing topic at present, for though pure 
 water is better and cheaper than purified water, 
 most of our large cities, indeed even most of the 
 large towns, are unable to obtain a supply of raw 
 water sufficiently pure. Again, municipal filtration 
 has passed the experimental stage and sanitary en- 
 gineers are able to construct works which will fur- 
 nish a pure, wholesome, and almost germ-free water; 
 99.5 per cent of bacteria removed is the record 
 of some filters. Better yet, the efficiency of filtra- 
 tion shows up in the desired reduction of typhoid 
 fever in the districts using the water. At Albany, 
 N. Y., for example, in the ten years' preceding filtra- 
 tion the typhoid death-rate averaged 8.9 per 10,000; 
 in the several years following the introduction of 
 filtered water the typhoid death-rate averaged only 
 1.8 to 2.0 per 10,000. 
 
 It was my good fortune to inspect this plant shortly 
 after its completion and I remarked to the superin- 
 
42 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 tendent that I had understood that typhoid had 
 greatly diminished in Albany. "Yes," said he, "we 
 don't have as many cases now as we had deaths 
 before"; and this, while perhaps slightly exaggerated, 
 is about what one can expect with good municipal 
 
 YIG. 13. How our Streams are Polluted. (Photograph by Penna. 
 State Board of Health.) 
 
 filters. If water was the only factor in the trans- 
 mission of typhoid, and if every one used only the 
 filtered water, much better results could be expected; 
 but some other factors are at work, such as the intro- 
 duction of extraneous cases from the country, the 
 transmission by means of flies, contaminated milk, 
 and oysters. 
 
Water-supply 43 
 
 There are three principal methods of municipal 
 nitration used at present: Continuous Sand-nitration, 
 the somewhat modified form of Intermittent Sand- 
 filtration, and Rapid Sand-filtration. 
 
 Continuous Sand-filtration consists in passing the 
 water slowly through large beds of sand, the filtra- 
 tion removing most of the bacteria and suspended 
 matter. The action of these filters depends not only 
 on the straining properties of the layers of sand, but 
 mostly on biological changes in the sand-bed, which 
 coat the surface of the filter with a gelatinous film 
 composed of numerous bacteria, which not only 
 acts as a strainer, but destroys bacteria and organic 
 matter by their growth. 
 
 Filtration in slow filters should proceed at about the 
 rate of 3,000,000 gallons per acre per day. The 
 filter-beds, planed to the size needed, are made of 
 concrete; on the bottom are the collecting-pipes to 
 carry off the filtered water; the filter-bed itself con- 
 sists of four feet of sand, resting on a bed of gravel 
 (Fig. 14). The raw water is first admitted to a 
 
 Settling .Basin;, Filter Bed. Regulator. Receiver for 
 
 Filtered water. 
 
 Fio. 14. Sketch showing the Relation of the Parts of a 
 Filtration System. 
 
 settling-basin where a large amount of sediment is 
 removed; it is then slowly turned on to the filter. 
 
44 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 After use of several weeks or months, depending 
 on various local conditions, the surface of the filter 
 becomes so clogged that the water fails to pass through; 
 then it becomes necessary to remove the top layer 
 of sand to the depth of about half an inch by scraping; 
 the bed is then refilled with filtered water from below, 
 and is again ready for operation. The sand removed 
 by scraping is piled up, cleaned, and used again. 
 
 Filter-beds should be covered, according to Allen 
 Hazen, when the average January temperature falls 
 to 32 F., this includes the country north of a line 
 passing through Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, 
 and St. Louis. 
 
 The cost of slow sand-filtration beds is from $50,000 
 to $70,000 per acre for covered beds and a little more 
 than half as much for open beds. The total cost of 
 filtration, including maintenance, interest on the 
 money invested, etc., may be estimated at from $7.00 
 to $9.00 per million gallons filtered. (Turneaure and 
 Russell.) 
 
 Intermittent Filtration is a modification of the 
 above, the action of the filter being periodically 
 suspended, and permitting the filter-beds to be ex- 
 posed to the action of the air. Nitrification is greatly 
 increased by this method, w r hich has been wonder- 
 fully satisfactory at Lawrence, Mass., where the first 
 plant of this kind was installed. The operation of 
 an intermittent plant entails considerable care and 
 attention, but when a water-supply contains much 
 organic matter it might give better results than 
 
Water-supply 45 
 
 continuous filtration. A plant of this kind costs 
 somewhat less than a continuous-filtration plant. 
 
 In the American or Rapid-filtration method, the 
 water leaving the sediment-basin is treated with 
 a coagulent, generally alumina sulphate, and then 
 passed rapidly through small sand-beds. The alum 
 throws down considerable sediment, forms a gelat- 
 inous film over and amid the sand-grains much like 
 that which forms in the slow filter-beds. The filters 
 in this method are built of concrete or steel with a 
 system of pipes in the bottom, over which is placed 
 a layer of gravel and sand. After being used for a 
 day or two the filters become clogged; the flow is 
 then reversed, and air and water blown through until 
 the filters are clean; they are then again put into 
 service. 
 
 Rapid sand-filters are able to purify about one 
 hundred million gallons per acre per day and cost 
 only about one-half as much as slow filters. The 
 amount of alum used one-half to one grain per gal- 
 lon is so small that there need be no fear of any 
 deleterious results. At Harrisburg, Pa., where a 
 large rapid sand-filter has just been installed, they 
 tell a story on one of the prominent citizens, who, 
 shortly after the plant had been put in operation, 
 made the remark that the filtered water was splendid, 
 except that there was a slight taste of alum; the 
 man was* rather chagrined when the director assured 
 him that the alum had not yet been used. 
 
 In regard to the efficiency of the slow or rapid 
 
46 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 method, it may be said that both are effective. 
 The slow method has been longer in use and, conse- 
 quently, we have more extended records, all of which 
 point to the great value of the method in removing 
 bacteria and staying typhoid fever. Rapid nitration 
 is valuable for waters that contain much sediment, 
 and perhaps gives a clearer water than the slow 
 method. Both need very efficient supervision; with- 
 out this any filter-plant will be useless, yes, even 
 worse than useless. It is well to bear in mind that 
 the cost of pure water is everlasting, unceasing, and 
 unremitting vigilance. 
 
 The interruption of a filtration service and the 
 flooding of the pipes with raw water is a very serious 
 thing; if a plant should for any reason break down 
 or the filter-beds be put out of service, the public 
 should be immediately notified and directed to boil 
 all water used for drinking. The neglect of such a 
 precaution cost the town of Butler, Pa., 1348 cases 
 of typhoid fever in four months and in deaths. 
 
 The purification of water by domestic filtration, 
 though many so-called filters are on the market, is 
 wholly unreliable, for the efficiency of a filter can 
 only be determined by a biological analysis from 
 day to day, and this, of course, is not practicable 
 in household filtration. If one must use a suspicious 
 water, the only safe and reliable methods of domestic 
 purification are boiling or distilling. 
 
 The purification of water by copper sulphate has 
 lately come into prominence and has elicited con- 
 
Water-supply 47 
 
 siderable attention. Its legitimate line of action, 
 however, seems limited to the destruction of algae. 
 A committee of the American Public Health Asso- 
 ciation last year contended against any use of copper 
 in filtered water, and this same committee refused 
 to recommend its use for the destruction of patho- 
 genic germs in raw water. As an insecticide it has 
 no advantage over kerosene. Its one real value seems 
 to be the destruction of algae in unfiltered water. 
 
 THE EXAMINATION OF WATER AND WATER-SUPPLIES 
 
 The principal ways of examining water or a water- 
 supply are by means of a sanitary survey and by 
 chemical and bacteriological analysis. 
 
 The Sanitary Survey. This consists in obtaining 
 a thorough knowledge of the source whence a 
 water comes, and of the opportunities for pollution 
 to which it may be exposed. (Mason.) The sanitary 
 survey is a very necessary part of a water analysis, 
 for although the chemist may find no pollution, the 
 biologist no germ, there may yet be a source of danger, 
 especially in winter when everything is frozen up. 
 Take as an example the little stream shown in Fig. 12, 
 which looks as though it might have wandered through 
 the "forest primeval"; this stream has yielded pure 
 water to a chemical analysis; a biological examina- 
 tion would likely also give negative results, yet not 
 a mile away over its drainage area there have been 
 real and recent cases of typhoid fever, with, of course, 
 a very possible danger of future pollution. 
 
48 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 Chemical Analysis. Chemistry does not presume 
 to indicate the direct presence of germs, or the 
 real cause of disease, but simply to discover the 
 organic compounds in the water; if these come 
 from fecal pollution there is then the possible or 
 probable danger of the water containing disease 
 germs. To make this analysis we examine the 
 water for chlorine, nitrites, and nitrates, albuminoid 
 and free ammonia. 
 
 Chlorine. All natural waters contain chlorine as 
 sodium chloride, which is either due to salt-bearing 
 strata or to proximity to the ocean. But chlorine 
 is also constantly present in urine and household 
 waste, so that the presence of more than the normal 
 amount of chlorine is indication of such contami- 
 nation. The normal amount of chlorine has been 
 found for many localities and maps have been con- 
 structed showing the isochlors for such regions; in 
 Fig. 15 is shown the chlorine map for New England 
 and New York. In any given locality a water which 
 shows an excess of the normal chlorine should merit 
 attention, although the chlorine may represent only 
 past pollution. 
 
 In the usual method of testing for chlorine we need 
 the following solutions: 
 
 (1) Standard Solution of Silver Nitrate: To i litre 
 of pure distilled water add 4.79 gm. pure silver nitrate: 
 i c.c. = i mg. of chlorine. 
 
 (2) Potassium chromate in crystals or a xo-per- 
 cent solution. 
 
Water-supply 
 
 49 
 
 Process. To 100 c.c. of water to be examined 
 add a few drops of potassium-chromate solution or 
 
 a few crystals of the chromate, and then run in with 
 a graduated pipette the silver solution, drop by 
 
50 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 drop, until a permanent orange-red tint is produced 
 and remains on stirring. The potassium chromate 
 is only used as an indicator; after all the chlorine 
 has combined with the silver, chromate of silver is 
 formed, which gives the orange-red color more readily 
 and distinctly seen than the w r hite precipitate of 
 silver chloride. The number of cubic centimetres of 
 silver solution used indicates the parts of chlorine 
 per 100,000. 
 
 Nitrites. Nitrites represent one of the earlier 
 stages of nitrogenous decomposition and therefore 
 its presence in a w r ater means present pollution; 
 sometimes it is formed by reduction of nitrates by 
 the denitrifying bacteria, and in such instances w r ould 
 have little significance; practically, however, the 
 presence of an excess of chlorine and presence of 
 nitrites w f ould indicate a very suspicious water and 
 one that had recently been contaminated with animal 
 waste. 
 
 Solutions required: 
 
 (1) Solution of sulphanilic acid: Dissolve 0.5 gm. of 
 sulphanilic acid in 150 c.c. of dilute acetic acid. 
 
 (2) Solution of naphthylamine acetate: Boil o.i gm. 
 of solid naphthylamine in 20 c.c. of distilled water; 
 filter through a plug of washed absorbent cotton and 
 mix the filtrate with 180 c.c. of dilute acetic acid. 
 
 Process. To 25 c.c. of the water to be examined 
 add 2 c.c. each of sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine- 
 acetate solutions, using a separate pipette for each; 
 if any color arises in three or four minutes nitrites 
 
Water-supply 5 1 
 
 are present. A quantitative test is hardly necessary, 
 as the mere presence of nitrites indicates nitrogenous 
 decomposition as mentioned above; in some instances 
 a water shows the presence of nitrites and entire 
 absence of chlorine; this, of course, would be inter- 
 preted to mean that the organic matter was of vege- 
 table origin. 
 
 The tests for chlorine and nitrites are so easily 
 and readily performed that they are available for 
 the speedy examination of suspicious waters, and 
 although a positive test might not be sufficient to 
 absolutely condemn a water, without more com- 
 plete analysis, the negative test, that is, water free 
 from nitrites and containing only the normal chlorine 
 of the locality, could be likely passed as safe, for 
 the time being at least, until a more extended exam- 
 ination had been made. In Fig. 16 is shown a small 
 stand which I have constructed for conducting these 
 examinations. On one side are the materials for a 
 chlorine test and on the other the materials for a 
 nitrite test; the stand is painted with white enamel 
 and thus very readily enables one to note the color- 
 changes. With an arrangement like this a series of 
 examinations can be made with great rapidity. 
 
 Albuminoid and Free Ammonia. 'These represent 
 nitrogen in the earlier transition stages and, as they 
 always accompany fecal matter, their prevalence is 
 of much sanitary importance; free ammonia, how- 
 ever, occurs under normal conditions, in certain 
 peat-waters and in rain-water at times. A water 
 
52 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 which yields no albuminoid ammonia L organically 
 pure, even if it contains free ammonia and chlorine; 
 if the albuminoid ammonia reaches 0.15 mg. per 
 litre the water should be condemned. 
 
 titrates represent the final stage into which nitro- 
 gen is changed; as it is very stable, it remains in the 
 
 FIG. 1 6. Apparatus for Water Analysis. (Photegraph by the Author.) 
 
 soil for a long time and may represent only past pollu- 
 tion. For methods of testing water for albuminoid 
 and free ammonia, nitrates, and hardness, the reader 
 is referred to the larger works on sanitary science or 
 chemistry; a complete chemical analysis is a rather 
 complex affair, and it was hardly thought necessary 
 
Water-supply 53 
 
 to introduce it in a work like this, for it can only 
 be undertaken by a competent chemist. It is well 
 to remember that at the best a chemical analysis 
 can only prove the presence of organic matter, which 
 may or may not be a source of disease-producing 
 pollution. 
 
 The Bacteriological Examination of water is mostly 
 centred in the examination for Bacillus coli, because 
 this bacillus has been considered an index of pollution; 
 it occurs as a short rod with rounded ends, in many 
 respects similar to the typhoid bacillus, is a nor- 
 mal inhabitant of the intestine of man and most 
 animals, and lives for several months in ordinary 
 well-water. Although its presence in a water may 
 only denote pollution from the discharges of some 
 passing animal, its persistent presence in large num- 
 bers indicate sewage contamination; for some time 
 it was thought the presence of B. coli in water might 
 possibly be attributed to fish, but Mr. George John- 
 son, who has studied this subject, has conclusively 
 shown that fish could only transmit this bacillus 
 when first taken up from polluted water, i.e., that 
 B. coli was not a natural inhabitant of the fishes' 
 intestine. It is now generally conceded that the 
 detection of B. coli in a large proportion of small 
 samples i c.c. or less of a water-supply is an 
 imperative indication of comparatively recent sewage 
 pollution. 
 
54 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 ICE-SUPPLIES 
 
 The sanitary importance of ice-supplies arises from 
 the fact that it has been proved experimentally that 
 B. typhosus can live with vitality unimpaired for at 
 least three months in a cake of ice, and we know 
 
 FIG. 17. A Pond bordered by Houses often furnishes the Public 
 Ice-supply. (Photograph by the Author.) 
 
 that ice-supplies are often taken from polluted streams 
 and ponds much like that shown in the photograph 
 (Fig. 17). 
 
 Practically, however, freezing is a great water 
 purifier, for almost all the bacteria are removed by 
 this means. On the other hand, when polluted 
 
Water-supply 55 
 
 water is allowed to flow over the top of ice and then 
 again frozen, the danger would, of course, be increased. 
 Another item to consider is that almost all the natural 
 ice used is over three months old, and after that time 
 the vitality of the typhoid bacillus is so much impaired 
 that it is likely of little danger. There have been 
 recorded only one or two cases of typhoid fever which 
 were directly traced to ice, yet the possibility is so 
 likely that the public should demand ice from a 
 source of known purity, or, better, artificial ice 
 frozen from filtered or distilled water. In this con- 
 nection it is also worth remembering that the fearful 
 epidemic of typhoid fever at Plymouth, Pa., was 
 caused by typhoid dejecta thrown out into the snow 
 bordering a mountain stream, which furnished water 
 to a town miles away. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 The Collection and Disposal of Waste 
 
 7~|F there is any one point in which the 
 \i .> 
 
 highly organized civilization of the pres- 
 
 j- 3 *."^-^! 
 
 i.'^jj] ent is especially defective it is in the 
 matter of waste collection and disposal; 
 in fact, there are nowhere any scientific methods 
 used except in the larger cities. To most people 
 and to most cities "out of sight, out of mind" is 
 the only available method with which they are ac- 
 quainted; consequently, contaminated soil and pol- 
 luted water is of very common occurrence. 
 
 LIQUID WASTE OR SEWAGE SEWERAGE SYSTEMS 
 
 The most dangerous waste is that composed of the 
 discharges from the human body, and modern sanita- 
 tion demands that this be removed and rendered 
 harmless as speedily as possible, for it always bears 
 with it the possibility of producing disease. In cities 
 and large houses this removal is best effected by water 
 carriage through a series of pipes known as sewers; 
 
 56 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 57 
 
 and the waste known as sewage is composed not only 
 of excreta and urine but of all liquid from the houses, 
 factories, stables, etc. 
 
 The consideration of a sewage system belongs rather 
 to the domain of the engineer than the sanitarian, 
 although there are several points which are of sani- 
 tary importance; namely, that the flow of sewage 
 should be unobstructed, that the sewers be water- 
 tight and that they have sufficient ventilation. 
 The system should be periodically flushed, preferably 
 through the inlets for street water located at the 
 street corners. 
 
 There are two general sewerage systems: the sepa- 
 rate and the combined. In the separate system only 
 the sewage proper from the dwellings is received into 
 the sewers, the rain- and surface-waters being taken 
 off by a different set of pipes; this system requires 
 only small sewers, as the volume of sewage is com- 
 paratively scant and constant; with this system, too, 
 the ultimate disposal is greatly facilitated. On the 
 other hand, it is more expensive, as it necessitates two 
 systems of conduits. The combined method requires 
 one system of large conduits; it is cheaper and when 
 the sewage is discharged into the sea, as at New 
 York, it is certainly an ideal method from the point 
 of the economist or the sanitarian. 
 
58 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 THE ULTIMATE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 
 
 The ultimate disposal of sewage is one of the great 
 problems of sanitation, for, as mentioned before, sew- 
 age is a constant menace to health until it is properly 
 destroyed or broken up into its component parts. It 
 is a problem, the solution of which is in a rather un- 
 satisfactory state at present, especially in this country, 
 and as yet sanitarians have fixed on no one method 
 as perfect for all places; it is probable that different 
 solutions of the question must be devised to meet 
 the conditions of different localities. 
 
 Dilution. The method of dilution, that is, disposal 
 into the sea, or a large tidal river, is, of course, allow- 
 able. This method, which is the cheapest, simplest, 
 and most primitive, reaches its ideal at Manhattan 
 Island, both sides of which are flushed twice daily 
 by ' strong and swiftly flowing tides. This same 
 plan used in streams above tide level, like the upper 
 Hudson, the Delaware, and the Susquehanna is to 
 be deplored, for if the growth of population con- 
 tinues at the same rate that it has been doing in 
 recent years, there will surely come a time when 
 these streams will become only great open sewers, 
 inimical to the life of fish and destructive to 
 all the smaller animal and vegetable life on their 
 banks. 
 
 Sewage Farming or Broad Irrigation. This is a 
 method which consists in flowing the sewage over 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 59 
 
 cultivated land. The idea being that growing plants 
 will break up and utilize the sewage. This is really 
 done to a limited extent, but plant life is not well 
 adapted for assimilating the organic matter of the 
 sewage until it is first decomposed by bacteria. How- 
 ever, under certain conditions, and for small com- 
 munities, this method seems to do very well. 
 
 The following is a plain description of a plant of 
 this kind which was erected for an institution consist- 
 ing of 1200 population and making about 75,000 gal- 
 lons of sewage daily: "A piece of sandy land, four 
 acres in extent, was selected for the purpose. This 
 was graded perfectly flat and laid out in alternate 
 beds and trenches; the beds being ten feet and the 
 trenches eight feet wide. The whole plot was under- 
 drained, but this was later found unnecessary. The 
 sewage from all parts of the institution is run to an 
 underground tank 80 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 15 
 feet deep. From this tank it is thrown once a day by 
 a centrifugal pump through a six-inch duct into a 
 small well at the northeast angle of the sewage field. 
 This well, after being filled, overflows into a long 
 trough made of two-inch planks spiked together. 
 Opposite each trench there is a short spout made with 
 a similar two-inch planking. Each spout is fitted 
 with a sliding gate, and just beyond each spout the 
 trough is fitted with a similar gate. By means of these 
 gates the sewage is turned into any trench desired. 
 The whole arrangement is exceedingly simple, cheap, 
 and efficient. 
 
60 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 "The centrifugal steam-pump churns up the sewage, 
 so that when it comes to the field it resembles dish- 
 water in appearance, and is so diluted that there is 
 very little odor; within one-half to six hours (accord- 
 ing to season and dryness), after the sewage is turned 
 into the trenches, it has been absorbed by the soil. 
 It is never seen again by us; doubtless it reappears 
 at the surface somewhere as pure spring- water. Only 
 two or four trenches are used each day, so that the 
 soil as used is always ready to absorb the sewage. 
 There is no pollution of the soil; it is as sweet to-day 
 as before it was used at all for the purpose in question. 
 Neither, when the ground is soaked with rain, nor 
 frozen hard, is there any trouble. The sewage always 
 disappears in the soil, the process only somewhat 
 checked by previous soaking, and only slightly checked 
 by frost; for the sewage is always many degrees above 
 the freezing-point, and it thaws the soil sufficiently 
 to make way for itself. For six years now we have 
 cultivated this field to its full capacity, with the re- 
 sult that we grow upon it year by year crops of fruits 
 and vegetables to the value of over $200 per acre." 
 R. M. Bucke. 
 
 From the above it is evident that when much suit- 
 able land is available at a very low price this is a method 
 to be thought of, but generally only for small com- 
 munities, since it requires about one acre to dispose 
 the sewage of 200 people. The sewage farms at Paris, 
 although promising well at first, are not turning out to 
 be the success expected. 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 6 1 
 
 Chemical Precipitation. This plan is not much in 
 vogue at present a plan, too, which is not founded 
 on any scientific principle, for the precipitate is only 
 concentrated filth, which is hard to dispose of. Pre- 
 cipitation could hardly be recommended as a means 
 of disposal. 
 
 Intermittent Filtration. Intermittent filtration is 
 one of the promising methods at present: it depends 
 for its value upon the fact that sewage contains two 
 great groups of bacteria which are necessary for its 
 destruction the anaerobic, which, growing in the 
 absence of air, break up and liquefy the organic mat- 
 ter, and the aerobic, which, only growing in the pres- 
 ence of air, split up the nitrogenous compounds into 
 harmless elements. In order to bring the sewage into 
 proper condition, so that these different classes of 
 bacteria can do the work allotted them, we pass the 
 sewage, with intermissions, through beds of sand. 
 While the liquid sewage covers the sand-bed, air is 
 cut off and the anaerobic bacteria attack the organic 
 matter: as the sewage is drawn off air enters the filter 
 from above, and the aerobes do their portion of the 
 work. 
 
 In Fig. 18 is shown the plan of a plant of this kind. 
 The sewage is first run through a screen to remove 
 extraneous substances, and is then discharged auto- 
 matically by a siphon into the various beds. The 
 sewage is applied to each bed only about six hours 
 out of the twenty-four, thus giving a period of rest. 
 By means of intermittent filters of this kind 60,000 
 
62 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 gallons of sewage per acre per day may be puri- 
 fied. 
 
 At Reading, Pa., a sewage-disposal plant has been 
 erected, consisting of coke strainers and aerated filtra- 
 tion-beds, which is a modification of the above prin- 
 ciples, the sewage being first passed through coke strain- 
 ers where something like forty per cent of the nitrog- 
 enous matter is removed, and the resultant liquid is then 
 passed through sand-filters or aerator-beds. The crude 
 
 FIG. 18. Section of Tank, Siphon, and One Bed of an Intermittent 
 Sewage-filtration Plant. 
 
 sewage, after reaching the tanks at the end of the main 
 sewer, is run over two suspended layers of coke twelve 
 inches thick; every week the sewage is shunted from 
 one receiving-tank to another, and the clogged coke 
 is taken out and burned. The strained sewage then 
 passes to the filter-beds, which, in this case, comprise 
 about half an acre. One-half of this (Fig. 19) is 
 supported by an iron structure, and is about eight 
 feet above the lower bed; the upper one consists of 
 three layers of broken stone and fine sand two feet 
 thick. 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 63 
 
 When the upper filter is flooded with sewage, air 
 is shut off from the upper part of the filter and anaero- 
 bic action is exerted; during the drop of the liquid to 
 the second filter and while passing through the second 
 one, which is of much coarser material, there is ample 
 
 FIG. 19. Sewage-filtration Plant, Reading. 
 
 aeration for the action of the aerobic bacteria: the 
 effluent finally emerges purer, it is said, than the stream 
 into which it flows. One-half of the filter only is gen- 
 erally in operation at a time, the other half being 
 rested and cleaned. 
 
 This plant has treated sewage at the rate of 11,000,- 
 ooo gallons per acre and cost about $160,000. Although 
 
64 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 it gave much promise at first, the cost has been con- 
 siderable, and it is questionable if this method would 
 be entirely satisfactory for very large cities. 
 
 The Septic Tank and Contact-filters. By this plan 
 the anaerobic bacteria are brought to act separately 
 in a tank; after which the liquid sewage is filtered 
 through sand-filters or contact-beds composed of 
 coke, crushed stone, or the like, for action with the 
 aerobic bacteria; by this plan a still much larger 
 amount of sewage may be treated, even five or ten 
 times more, than when disposed of by intermittent 
 filtration-beds. 
 
 The septic tank, as it is called, need not of necessity 
 be covered, for it is found that, if sewage is admitted 
 at the bottom, the anaerobic action goes on unin- 
 terruptedly, sufficiently protected by the thick 
 scum over the surface from the light and air, the 
 presence of which would interfere with the action 
 of the anaerobic bacteria. The septic tank is simply 
 a "workhouse for the anaerobes," as one writer has 
 put it, and its great value depends on the fact that 
 it removes just about one-half of the putrescible 
 substances in the sewage, thereby reducing the area 
 of filter-beds required for further purification. The 
 sewage after "working" for from six to twelve hours 
 in the tank is then turned on the beds, which are 
 composed of any material allowing more or less rapid 
 filtration, the same bed being used only once in the 
 twenty-four hours. The contact-bed is the "work- 
 shop of the aerobes." 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 65 
 
 To sum up the question of sewage disposal we 
 may say that intermittent nitration through beds 
 of sand is probably the best method yet devised, 
 when one can obtain sand cheaply; in other places 
 the septic tank with contact-filters of sand, coke, or 
 cinders which is only a modification of intermittent 
 filtration may be more available. Broad irriga- 
 tion, as mentioned before, can only be used for small 
 communities and where land is very cheap. 
 
 SOLID WASTE AND ITS COLLECTION^ 
 
 After a city or community has disposed of its sew- 
 age there yet remains a great deal of solid waste, such 
 as garbage, rubbish, ashes, etc., which should rightly be 
 taken care of by the municipality; however, in some 
 pretty large cities this is left to the individual house- 
 holder, but individual action, when it comes to the re- 
 moval of waste, is very defective. Although all this 
 kind of waste is not directly dangerous to health, it 
 does create a nuisance which tends indirectly to affect 
 the public health, unless removal and disposal are 
 effected in a sanitary way; for this reason the prob- 
 lem belongs to the domain of the sanitarian. 
 
 The first requisite in the disposal of a city's waste 
 is effectual collection and separation of the waste 
 into its component parts, as was inaugurated by 
 Col. Waring in New York City; -of course if the> 
 refuse is all destroyed by fire, as in some of the English 
 cities, separation is unimportant; otherwise this 
 
66 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 should be carefully attended to and collected as 
 garbage that is, household waste from the kitchen 
 ashes, street-sweepings, and rubbish, the last com- 
 prising everything not included in the other classes. 
 The collection of waste has some objectionable 
 features which are readily remedied; for example, 
 in the collection of ashes, which is nearly always 
 associated with a whirlwind of dust, there should 
 be more care exercised; ashes should always be kept 
 in covered cans, emptied carefully, and removed in 
 covered wagons. Garbage presents a decidedly annoy- 
 ing character unless it is kept in water-tight cans 
 and removed daily in covered metal carts. Street- 
 sweepings should be kept in cans or bags as described 
 in the chapter on Municipal Hygiene, and removed 
 in covered carts the same as the ashes. The col- 
 lection of rubbish may be made at the intervals 
 judged necessary, but should be done likewise with 
 covered wagons. The ultimate disposal of refuse 
 material is best considered by taking up each sub- 
 ject separately. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF GARBAGE 
 
 The subject of garbage disposal is in a more unsat- 
 isfactory state than is sewage disposal; some of the 
 methods in use, though economical, create a nuisance; 
 some others although sanitary are expensive, and so 
 it stands. The various methods worth considering 
 are as follows: 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 67 
 
 Feeding to Swine. This, although not a very 
 scientific precedure, is the method adopted in a good 
 many small cities, and if care is used there is prob- 
 ably no sanitary objection; it is important that it 
 be collected promptly and used before putrefaction 
 begins. 
 
 Dumping as Filling. The public "dump" is one 
 of the objectionable features of so many American 
 cities. Although it may not have very much rela- 
 tion to ill-health, it is certainly a nuisance unless 
 great care is taken; then, again, dumping can hardly 
 be considered a final solution of the problem, for there 
 will always come a time to every city when there 
 will be no land available for a "dump." 
 
 "Sea-dumping," which is in vogue in some of the 
 coast cities, is very objectionable; several years ago 
 when this was practiced at New York the shores 
 of Long Island and New Jersey were strewn with 
 garbage of every description, and the practice called 
 forth much protest from those inhabiting these 
 shores; in fact, dumping garbage into the sea is 
 not at all a method of disposal but rather of trans- 
 ference of carting the waste from your own door 
 to somebody else's, the waves doing the carting 
 cheaply, "without money and without price." 
 
 Burying. Burying into the soil is a thoroughly 
 scientific method for the disposal of garbage, for the 
 organic matter is quickly broken up by nitrification; 
 indeed it is the method recommended for small 
 suburban and village houses and is discussed in this 
 
68 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 connection in Chapter XI, but it cannot be recom- 
 mended for towns or cities of any size on account 
 of the enormous expense entailed. 
 
 Reduction and Utilization. This process consists in 
 trying to recover as much as possible of the contained 
 grease and to turn the residue into fertilizer; it con- 
 sists, in a general way, in cooking the garbage in suit- 
 able tanks and then extracting the fat by means of 
 benzine or naphtha. 
 
 The Arnold process, used in New York and Boston, 
 is the simplest, most successful, and least costly. The 
 description of this process as described by Rudolph 
 Hering, to whom I am much indebted, is as follows: 
 "The garbage, after picking out metals, glass, and 
 other undesirable stuff, is dumped into digesters, hold- 
 ing each about eight tons. In them the garbage is 
 cooked several hours under pressure with live steam. 
 It is then allowed to fall through a valve at the bottom 
 into a continually rolling press which separates the 
 fluid from the tankage. The fluid consists of grease 
 and water, which are subsequently separated by 
 gravity, the water flowing off into a sewer, and the 
 grease into a tank, to be barreled and sold. The re- 
 maining solid matter, or tankage, is dried, and then 
 either ground and sold as a filler for fertilizer, burned, 
 or wasted." Great care must be used in all reduction 
 plants or they are likely to become a nuisance. About 
 twenty of our largest cities are using more or less suc- 
 I cessfully some form of the reduction process, which 
 can only be considered available when a large amount 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 69 
 
 of garbage is to be treated; in Europe, where the peo- 
 ple are not so wasteful, the garbage contains so little 
 grease that reduction would not be thought of. 
 
 Cremation. This is the method used so successfully 
 in Europe and with considerable success in some of 
 our own cities. A good many of the American failures 
 being probably due to the fact that we have been try- 
 ing to burn the garbage alone without other refuse, 
 thereby increasing the cost; and also by our lack of 
 expert supervision. There are a number of different 
 types of furnaces, one of which, the Thackeray Incin- 
 erator, has given fair satisfaction. This furnace con- 
 sists simply of a number of small furnaces built along 
 a horizontal shaft, which is only a prolongation of the 
 chimney; these furnaces are fed by a hopper above, 
 into which the garbage is dumped. A diagrammatic 
 section of one of these furnaces is shown in Fig. 20. 
 
 The Engle Cremator is another available type of 
 furnace that has been more or less successful. It has 
 two fires: the first attacks the garbage directly; the 
 smoke and gases pass through the second and are 
 destroyed. This furnace has been very efficient in 
 many places, but the expense of operating has been 
 considerable. 
 
 While garbage cremation has been a success in 
 Europe, the results in this country have not been what 
 we have had the right to expect. One reason for this, 
 it is claimed, as mentioned above, is that we try to 
 burn only the garbage, and throw away the ashes, 
 which in some cities contain 20 per cent of coal an 
 
jo Ourlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 amount of combustible material which should cer- 
 tainly be utilized. The design of the furnace is another 
 factor. The English furnaces always have sloping 
 grates, which admit of more automatic combustion 
 than is possible with the horizontal grate char- 
 acterizing the American models. Then, again, skilled 
 
 A = Dumping Room 
 B = Furnace 
 C =Ash-Pit 
 s^ D= Smoke-flue 
 
 FIG. 20. Section of Thackery Garbage-furnace. 
 
 * supervision and the expert garbage fireman, factors 
 of the first importance, are generally unknown quan- 
 tities in this country. 
 
 The respective cost of reduction and cremation is 
 interesting. In reduction works the cost to the city 
 per ton has been from eighty cents to one dollar and 
 seventy-one cents, but in the largest cities the amount 
 of fats and oils has paid for the cost of extraction. 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 71 
 
 Cremation costs from less than fifty cents to seventy- 
 five cents per ton, the greatest success economically 
 being when ashes, garbage, and rubbish are burned 
 together, as at Montreal and San Francisco, where 
 the cost has been respectively thirty-seven cents and 
 seventy- five cents. Unless there is combined com- 
 bustion of all the waste, there yet remain ashes, street- 
 sweepings, and rubbish to dispose of. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF ASHES AND STREET-SWEEPINGS 
 
 The usual disposal of ashes is for filling in low lands, 
 for road-making, and as a substitute for sand in making 
 mortar. Ashes are also used for making foundations 
 under pavements, than which there is nothing better. 
 
 The proper method for disposing street-sweepings 
 is by cremation, on account of the fact that this dust 
 very often contains many pathogenic germs. Other 
 means of disposal, practiced in many places, but not 
 to be recommended, are its use as fertilizer on adjoin- 
 ing fields and dumping in low places for filling. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF RUBBISH 
 
 The rubbish of a large city generally contains 
 much valuable waste which can be utilized in vari- 
 ous ways, and consequently all rubbish should be 
 "picked over," and the salable products removed 
 as a source of revenue. In New York the fol- 
 lowing articles are collected and sold: paper, rags, 
 
72 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 carpet, bagging, twine, shoes, hats, bottles, tin cans, 
 copper, brass, zinc, iron, rubber, hair cloth, and curled 
 hair; the remainder of the rubbish, which contains 
 about 80 per cent of combustible material, is best 
 destroyed by fire. The cost of cremating rubbish alone 
 in New York has been about one dollar per ton, while 
 in San Francisco, where they cremate all the waste 
 together, the cost has been less than fifty cents per ton. 
 
 QUESTION AS TO BEST METHOD OF DISPOSAL OF 
 SOLID WASTE 
 
 When the question arises as to what is the best 
 method of disposal of solid waste each community will 
 have to be studied separately; the solution depend- 
 ing on individual conditions, location, and circum- 
 stances. The methods available for garbage disposal 
 will likely be restricted to reduction and cremation; 
 suffice it to state that there is little hope of the 
 reduction methods offering much of a solution, ex- 
 cept in a few of the largest cities; and even there, 
 as the years go by and we become more crowded, 
 consequently more economical, the fat in the gar- 
 bage will hardly pay the cost of extraction, and re- 
 duction will become a method unthought of, as is 
 the case in Europe. If cremation is the method 
 selected, it will have to be decided for this individual 
 city whether it is better to burn everything 'or only 
 the garbage and sweepings. In certain places near 
 the great centers of trade the large revenue to be 
 
The Collection and Disposal of Waste 73 
 
 derived from the salable rubbish is a factor to be 
 considered. In every community where the ashes 
 contain much unconsumed coal the question will 
 arise as to the value of utilizing this part for fuel; 
 in other places where little coal is wasted it may be 
 better to use the ashes for other purposes. To sum 
 up, a plan of disposal which can be conducted with- 
 out creating a nuisance, meeting all sanitary require- 
 ments and performing its work as cheaply as possible, 
 is the goal to be sought. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 Milk-supply 
 
 every one belongs the right to obtain 
 pure and wholesome milk; and although 
 the complaint of the individual may be 
 met with the rebuff, "If you don't like 
 my milk, you needn't buy it," united effort, how- 
 ever, can do much to bring about a reform, which is 
 badly needed. I doubt if many of us would continue 
 to use milk if we could see the whole procedure of 
 furnishing it from beginning to end. 
 
 Not only are the special poisons of typhoid fever, 
 diphtheria, and scarlet fever thus carried, but it is 
 pretty well settled that bovine tuberculosis may be 
 transmitted in this way to human beings, especially 
 to children; and its use under improper sanitary 
 conditions is also responsible for the terrible infant 
 mortality occurring in our great cities every summer. 
 Talk of war! War is nothing, when it comes to increas- 
 ing the death-rate, compared to filthy milk. A gal- 
 lon of milk properly doctored with filth and improperly 
 chilled, carted around by a filthy milk-dealer in filthy 
 bottles, and properly distributed to an East Side 
 
 74 
 
Milk-supply 75 
 
 tenement, can do more real harm than a Catling 
 gun let loose on a Broadway crowd. Yet only a few 
 of the larger cities exercise any control in the matter; 
 to be sure, in many places pure-food laws are active 
 in preventing adulteration, but that is comparatively 
 trifling in a sanitary way. 
 
 A municipality has just as much right to exercise 
 absolute control over its milk-supply as over its 
 water-supply, and it is a question that will have 
 to be taken up before long by all up-to-date cities. 
 To produce pure milk it is necessary to use scrupulous 
 care about the cows, the stable, the milker and his 
 utensils, and lastly the milk itself. 
 
 THE Cows 
 
 In the first place, to run a dairy it is necessary 
 to have cows; this may sound like redundancy, 
 but the fact is that a good many dairymen do 
 buy much of their milk, and although their own 
 supply may be of the right sort, the bought milk 
 may not be. A case illustrating this came to my 
 notice lately. A certain Pennsylvania dairyman 
 who keeps an establishment advertised as a model, 
 with pictures of his workmen in white duck, etc., 
 was found to be selling adulterated milk. Crim- 
 inal proceedings were instituted by the State and 
 the dairyman promptly paid his fine, alleging that 
 the milk had been procured from a neighbor: if water 
 could get into his neighbor's ' milk, it might be pol- 
 
76 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 luted water or perhaps something worse. Conse- 
 quently if a dairyman pretends to sell sanitary milk, 
 it is absolutely necessary for him to produce the 
 milk under his own supervision. 
 
 The cows must be healthy and show no evidence 
 of tuberculosis. Those which do show decided evi- 
 dence of pulmonary tuberculosis and those which 
 show any evidence of tubercular lesion of the udders 
 should be excluded. The animals must be kept 
 thoroughly clean groomed as carefully as a horse 
 and the udders washed and wiped dry with clean towels 
 before milking. 
 
 THE STABLE 
 
 The stable should be made of concrete if pos- 
 sible; at least the floor should be of this material; 
 the ceiling must be dust-proof, especially if the 
 space above is occupied. There should be plenty 
 of sunlight and ample air-space for each animal 
 something like 900 or 1000 cubic feet is probably 
 sufficient; in a good many so-called model stables 
 only 600 or 700 cubic feet are allowed, which is 
 far too little, considering the great predisposition of 
 cattle to tuberculosis. The best way to ventilate a 
 cow-stable is by what is known as the King system, 
 which consists in taking the air from openings on 
 the outside near the ground. It enters the room 
 near the ceiling and passes out near the floor, being 
 taken up and carried away through ducts which con- 
 
Milk-supply 
 
 77 
 
 nect with ventilators in the cupolas. The windows 
 are securely fastened, being used to let light in and 
 keep dust out. 
 
 The stable should be kept thoroughly clean by re- 
 moval of the manure at least twice daily, and the use 
 of some absorbent to prevent odor; the floor, walls, 
 and ceiling should be frequently washed down with a 
 hose, and once a month the stalls should be cleaned 
 
 FIG. 21. The Old-sty h Cow-stable. Damp, dark, and full cf dirt. 
 (From photograph by L. H. Baily in " Country Life.") 
 
 with some antiseptic solution. Sunlight, fresh air, 
 and cleanliness are the sanitary factors needed for 
 the cow-stable. 
 
 On a good many of the older farms, where bank- 
 barns are the fashion, the basement is used for the 
 cow-stable. These barn basements, even in summer, 
 with all the windows and doors open, are damp, dark, 
 and sunless; when cold weather comes, the windows 
 
78 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 are closed with straw, or even boards, and sunlight 
 and oxygen become rare articles during the long and 
 dreary winter (Fig. 21). 
 
 Only a short time ago I visited one of these base- 
 ment stables where five cows were kept; the ventila- 
 tion in this instance was not so bad, but there was no 
 
 FIG. 22. A Modern Cow-stable. (From Report, U. S. DcpL. of Agri- 
 culture.) 
 
 attempt at cleanliness. There was plenty of fresh 
 straw lying around, but I was suspicious of what it 
 covered. On questioning the proprietor, who is a fair 
 example of the successful farmer, I learned that the 
 stable was "cleaned " twice a \veek, but that frosh 
 straw was thrown over the filth every evening; so it 
 
Milk-supply 79 
 
 was nice and dry on top, but wet and polluted under- 
 neath. Yet this is the kind of a stable this Augean- 
 like stable from which most of us, whether we live 
 in town or country, get our milk-supply. 
 
 In Fig. 22 is shown the picture of a model cow-stable, 
 which gives some idea of the lines upon which such a 
 stable should be built. Although iron stalls and con- 
 crete floors are all very fine, ordinary pine stalls, 
 which may be whitewashed every month or two, may 
 be made to answer very well, even with only the hard 
 clay floor of the ordinary barn; the cardinal point is 
 cleanliness. 
 
 THE MILKER AND MILKING UTENSILS 
 The milkers should pay much attention to personal 
 cleanliness. In some dairies the milkers are clad in 
 duck suits which are worn only once before being 
 laundried; this, of course, approaches the ideal, but 
 much can be done by simple cleanliness, even in the 
 absence of white duck; the milker's hands should, 
 above everything else, be clean, almost surgically clean. 
 The homes and families of the milkers or other workmen 
 about the dairy should be inspected from time to time, 
 excluding every one, of course, in whose family in- 
 fectious disease exists. 
 
 The utensils should be thoroughly cleansed with 
 hot water and soda, and then sterilized by boiling 
 water or steam. The custom of rinsing the cans at 
 the farm pump has cost us more than one epidemic of 
 typhoid fever (Fig. 23). 
 
80 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 THE MILK 
 
 Having performed all the details mentioned above 
 we may still furnish an impure milk due to careless- 
 ness in the treatment of the milk itself; this should 
 be strained through new cheese-cloth, which can be 
 discarded after once using. The next step and a very 
 important step it is is chilling, the whole future of 
 the milk depending on this process. The usual method 
 on the ordinary dairy-farm is to place the milk in the 
 spring which adorns almost every farm; but unfortu- 
 nately most springs do not have a temperature below 
 55 deg. F., while to chill milk properly requires a tem- 
 perature at least as low as 45 deg. F., which cannot be 
 obtained usually without ice. The aeration of milk, 
 of which we hear so much quite often painted on the 
 milk-wagon is held to be unnecessary. In addition to 
 cleanliness, chilling is the one principal thing in the 
 treatment of the milk itself. 
 
 The bacteriological content of properly chilled milk 
 is vastly different from that of ordinary milk; the rapid 
 bacteriological growth of insufficiently chilled milk on 
 a hot summer's day causes w f hat is commonly known 
 as " turning." 
 
 TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION 
 
 During transportation milk should be kept between 
 40 and 45 F., preferably in bottles which are sealed 
 at the dairy. When milk is carted around from house 
 
Milk-supply 8 1 
 
 to house another factor enters in, namely, the cleanli- 
 ness of the milkman and his wagon; for example, I have 
 seen a milkman, when he served a measured quantity 
 
 FIG. 23. Why Milk sometimes transmits Typhoid Fever. 
 (From " Country Life in America.") 
 
 of milk, invariably keep his thumb over the edge of 
 the measure, so that every quart of milk he sold in- 
 cluded a number of bacteria from his thumb, which 
 was never very clean. 
 
82 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 
 
 In the managment of a scientific dairy there should 
 be provision made for a bacteriological examination of 
 the milk from time to time, for by this means we have 
 a ready check on the efficiency of the methods carried 
 out. Milk prepared according to the directions given 
 above from good cows, in a clean stable, by clean 
 milkmen and utensils, and properly chilled yields com- 
 paratively few bacterial colonies to the cubic centimeter 
 examined; in some cases milk has been so carefully 
 prepared that it was absolutely free of bacterial 
 growth. This, of course, was in rare instances; more 
 often it yields several thousand; and 30,000 per 
 cubic centimeter has been adopted as a sort of standard 
 for pure milk. In contrast to this it has been found 
 that when cows are milked in ordinary barns in the 
 usual insanitary condition the milk yields something 
 like 100,000 to 200,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, 
 or even two or three times more. Thus it happens 
 that a bacteriologist can tell by examination whether 
 or not milk had been prepared under sanitary con- 
 ditions. A bacteriologist is a necessary adjunct to 
 a successful dairy. 
 
 New York City has made decided progress per- 
 haps it was more needed there than any other place 
 in the pure-milk question; its milk commission has 
 issued rules and regulations for preparing milk, and 
 furnishes certificates to such as comply with its 
 directions. Certificates are issued for two grades 
 
Milk-supply 8 3 
 
 of milk, known as inspected and certified; the latter 
 is produced under all the care suggested by the com- 
 mission and comes up to the standard of purity 
 required; it sells for about twice as much as ordinary 
 milk. 
 
 Another factor enters into the pure-milk question, 
 and that is the education of the people to the point 
 of knowing the value of pure milk and their willing- 
 ness to pay the increased price necessary in the pro- 
 duction. Much has been done lately in this direc- 
 tion, and the sentiment for pure milk is rapidly spread- 
 ing, so that the time is likely not far distant when 
 the public will demand such milk just as they now 
 demand pure water. 
 
 THE ADULTERATION OF MILK 
 
 The adulteration of milk by the addition of water, 
 extraction of cream, the addition of preservatives, as 
 boracic acid or formaldehyde, does not affect the 
 public health at all in proportion to what is done 
 by insanitary milk; the whole question of adultera- 
 tion is not so much a matter of public hygiene as 
 of public honesty. 
 
 Most States have laws requiring that milk should 
 contain 3 per cent of fat, 12 or 12.5 per cent of total 
 solids, with a specific gravity of 10.29. The 3 per 
 cent of fat is certainly too low, for milk has been 
 produced, by proper feeding of the cows, which con- 
 
84 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 tains 5 per cent, and it is claimed by some dairymen 
 that even 6 per cent can be reached. 
 
 The addition of preservatives should be prohibited 
 by law, for they tend to impair the nutritive value 
 of the milk, and also interfere with its digestive proper- 
 ties; some of the chemicals which are used as pre- 
 servatives, when taken into the system for a long 
 time, tend to produce renal changes which are likely 
 to lead to serious results. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 Food-supplies 
 
 HIS chapter deals with the insanitary and 
 filthy methods used in marketing certain 
 food-supplies. We are not certain but 
 that disease may be transmitted in this 
 way; whether it is or not, lack of cleanliness in food 
 is certainly not conducive to perfect digestion and 
 perfect health. 
 
 BREAD 
 
 The exposure of food to the dust and dirt 
 of city streets a common condition is certainly 
 undesirable. Take, for example, bread, which is 
 quite often carted around in a wagon more or less 
 exposed to the dust of the street; street-dust is filled 
 with bacteria innumerable, as has been demonstrated 
 practically over and over again. The purchaser of 
 the bread is handed, a loaf by the unwashed and 
 ungloved hand of the driver and dangerous filth 
 can very readily be transmitted in this way. 
 
 Bread is also frequently transported into the country 
 
 8s 
 
86 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 from the great cities by railroad and trolley lines; 
 the loaves are generally placed in open crates, ex- 
 posed on all sides. Not long since I saw a crate 
 of such bread awaiting shipment on a suburban 
 trolley; this crate stood on the public street of a 
 certain inland city, while passengers waiting for the 
 cars were going to and fro, and the street all around 
 was spotted with expectoration; indeed I saw one 
 man expectorate who barely missed the bread; 
 dust was blowing too foul city dust and yet that 
 bread was, by and by, placed on some one's table 
 and eaten. It would be interesting to know just 
 how many bacteria were living on a given inch of 
 the crust of that bread. Bread should invariably be 
 wrapped in paper by some one with clean hands 
 before it leaves the bakery. 
 
 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 
 
 Fruits and vegetables in their season are continu- 
 ally exposed to street-dust in front of groceries or in 
 open markets; not only are they open to dust but 
 also to flies, which are known to carry actual disease- 
 germs on their feet. Professor Ehrlich made some ex- 
 periments relative to this question and found that a 
 half-pound of huckleberries, as usually handled, yielded 
 400,000 bacteria; the same amount of peas 800,000; 
 strawberries 2,000,000; raspberries 4,000,000; grapes 
 8,000,000; cherries 12,000,000. While these numbers 
 probably vary much with local conditions, it shows that 
 
Food-supplies 89 
 
 exposed fruits are fairly loaded with bacteria. As 
 these fruits are usually eaten uncooked, it is evi- 
 dent that there is considerable danger. Such fruits, 
 unless they have been properly protected, should be 
 thoroughly washed. The claim is sometimes put 
 forward that they get plenty of dust where they 
 are grown; so they do, but country dust is more or 
 less sterile and is totally different from the dust of a 
 crowded city street. 
 
 All fruits and vegetables which are eaten without 
 cooking should not be exposed on the street except 
 under glass-covered, dust-proof boxes. Sometimes 
 these fruits are covered with mosquito-netting, to 
 give the passer-by the idea of protection from flies; 
 this is all a delusion, for the little fruit flies the 
 very ones which linger around and feed at such a 
 place can get through the finest mesh of the ordi- 
 nary screen, so that nothing but complete covering 
 under glass is sufficient protection for fruit. The 
 California fruit which the "push-cart" men sell on 
 the street-corners of our large cities looks tempting, but 
 would any thoughtful person eat of it after such daily 
 dust exposure? Dr. Bell of Brooklyn, late editor 
 of "The Sanitarian," has called attention to the fact 
 that the intestinal diseases frequently attributed to 
 fresh and presumably wholesome fruit and vegetables 
 may be due to this dust exposure; and it is generally 
 conceded, I believe, that he is right. 
 
90 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 OYSTERS, FISH, AND MEAT 
 
 The marketing of oysters calls for radical changes, 
 for oysters are often eaten raw. In the first place 
 more than one epidemic of typhoid fever has been 
 caused by the eating of oysters "fattened " in sewage- 
 polluted waters; and Massachusetts and Xew Jersey 
 both have laws prohibiting the placing of oysters in 
 waters at all contaminated with sewage. 
 
 In the next place, and probably almost as important, 
 is the filthy method used in opening them; the out- 
 side of the shell should certainly be cleaned before 
 opening, for although the mud and . dirt clinging to 
 a shell may not contain many germs, we do not care 
 to have it served on the table. More important still 
 is it that the hands of the opener be clean: nobody 
 wishes to have the liquor from the opened oyster 
 drip over the dirty hands of the opener; and this 
 is more than mere fancy, for filthy hands are likely 
 to carry myriads of disease-germs. I had once been 
 buying oysters of a certain dealer whom I missed 
 on my next visit; on inquiry I found he had typhoid 
 fever, yet he had been opening oysters on the very 
 day he took to his bed. A serious risk it was for the 
 one who ate those oysters! 
 
 If the man who opened oysters wore rubber gloves 
 and had a clean white apron, I believe the oysters 
 would taste better; they would certainly be cleaner, 
 and I believe a fortune awaits the man who can 
 
Food-supplies 9 1 
 
 open oysters and still look clean and be clean. Oysters 
 should always be opened only immediately before 
 use, for stale oysters are liable to cause ptomaine 
 
 FIG. 25. The "Push-cart" and its Germ-laden Fruit. (Photograph by 
 A. R. Dugmore in " Country Life.") 
 
 poisoning with quite serious results. In a good 
 many cities the public are beginning to insist on 
 having the oysters opened "while you wait" and 
 that is the only proper way to buy this article of food. 
 
92 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 And now a word about fish and meat . Although the 
 marketing of these foods is not performed in the best 
 sanitary manner, it probably carries with it little 
 danger to health, on account of the thorough cooking 
 they undergo before eating. We all admire fish in 
 the water, but somehow the fish at the market does 
 not seem the same you saw in the water. White 
 porcelain-lined trays with water connection, so that 
 they may be flushed frequently with the addition 
 of ice in hot weather, would add greatly in solving 
 the fish-market question. For meat we should have 
 white-enameled racks, porcelain trays, glass cases, 
 and bright tools: perhaps not strictly necessary, 
 they would at least seem clean and make the place 
 more attractive to the consumer. Attention must 
 be called to the custom of storing on ice undrawn 
 poultry, fish, and game; that is, such as contain 
 entrails and other viscera. The retention of these 
 organs favors putrefaction and infection of the sur- 
 rounding flesh. Cold-storage foods should, on the 
 whole, be used with caution, for freezing only limits 
 putrefaction and does not stop it, and when such 
 food is removed to a higher temperature decompo- 
 sition and the production of poisonous ptomaines go 
 on with increased vigor. 
 
 THE ADULTERATION OF FOODS 
 
 The adulteration of foods, like that of milk, is 
 scarcely to be credited to the side of the sanitarian 
 but rather to the economist, for much of the adul- 
 
Food-supplies 93 
 
 teration is harmless; it is simply a matter of not 
 getting what you pay for. One of the most fla- 
 grant adulterations is that of selling oleomargarine, 
 artificially colored, for butter. Oleomargarine is 
 composed of butter mixed with a certain amount 
 of animal fats, and is probably as nutritious as 
 butter, and probably almost as easily digested. 
 Oleomargarine should simply be sold as such, and of 
 course should not be artificially colored. Lard and 
 olive-oil are frequently adulterated with cottonseed- 
 oil, and olive-oil is quite often composed almost 
 entirely of peanut-oil. It is said that cottonseed 
 oil has been shipped to Europe in bulk and then 
 returned to us labeled as pure olive-oil. Coffee, that 
 is the low-priced ground coffee, is often adulterated 
 with ground chickory, peas, beans, and various 
 grains, and even sawdust. Coffee-seeds have also 
 been so successfully imitated as to be difficult of 
 detection by the eye. Tea is often adulterated by 
 the use of exhausted leaves, the introduction of 
 foreign leaves, or the addition of coloring material. 
 Cocoa and chocolate often suffer the extraction of 
 fat and the addition of starch. Jellies and preserves 
 are very often only refuse materials made up with 
 glucose, flavored with essential oils, colored and pre- 
 served with salicylic acid. 
 
 The addition of copper salts for greening vegetables, 
 especially the French products, is probably not as 
 deleterious as generally supposed, because of the 
 small amount used; it has been found "that although 
 
94 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 the last forty years, hundreds of millions of cans of 
 such vegetables have been eaten, there never has 
 been a single well-authenticated instance of poisoning 
 that could be definitely traced to the copper." Alum 
 in bread is a question often considered; it is added 
 to bad flour in order to restrain the conversion of 
 the starch into sugar, which occurs in flour that is 
 old and damp. Although there has been a wide- 
 spread opinion that alum used in this way is harm- 
 ful, the injurious effects are likely much overesti- 
 mated and are probably limited to slight disorders 
 of digestion. The use of salicylic acid a common 
 occurrence as a preservative is to be condemned, 
 for in the quantity used it is a powerful arrestor 
 of digestion, and also a decided gastric irritant. Worse 
 than all or any of the adulterants yet mentioned 
 is that of the addition of sodium sulphite for the 
 preservation of Hamburg steak, bologna, canned 
 asparagus, etc., for this drug, above any other used 
 in cither milk or foods, is believed to cause serious 
 degeneration of the kidneys when taken in small 
 and repeated doses. 
 
 That much still remains to be done by laws, properly 
 enforced, in the line of pure-food products, it is only 
 necessary to refer to the report of the Dairy and 
 Food Commissioner of Pennsylvania. During the 
 year 1904 the Commissioner, Dr. Warren, collected 
 over S53,ooo in fines from those who were violating 
 the law by selling adulterated food and milk: the 
 millennium is not yet very near in the Keystone State, 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 School Sanitation 
 
 T is well for every one who is interested 
 in the welfare of his country to remember 
 that the health of the school children is 
 of paramount importance, for they are 
 the men and women of the next generation, and a 
 race of strong men and women, vigorous and capable 
 to endure a life of work, cannot come from a race 
 of puny, sickly, and badly nourished children. 
 
 THE BUILDING 
 
 First in order of importance in school sanitation 
 is the construction of the building, which should 
 conform to all the sanitary rules so necessary for 
 other buildings a good dry foundation, supporting 
 a building of the proper dimensions, and so placed 
 that there shall be an abundance of fresh air and 
 sunshine. We should calculate about 300 cubic feet 
 of air-space for each pupil and 25 square feet of floor- 
 space, considering that the air may be changed about 
 
 95 
 
96 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 six times an hour. This would allow 1800 cubic feet 
 of fresh air per hour, which is little enough. 
 
 The floor should be of hard wood with no carpets 
 or rugs; the walls and ceiling should be painted some 
 neutral tint, which is much easier on the eyes than 
 white. No room should be more than forty feet long, 
 for beyond this the distance to the blackboard becomes 
 too great for perfect vision. In regard to the number 
 of pupils to one room, all educators and sanitarians 
 are agreed that something like thirty is sufficient, 
 and any increase above this is detrimental to the 
 efficiency of the school and to the health of the 
 children. 
 
 The cleaning of schoolrooms should be done with 
 care; the rooms should be thoroughly swept daily, 
 and mopped once a week with soap and soda-water; 
 the walls, furniture, desks, etc., should be wiped 
 with a damp cloth instead of dusting. 
 
 SEATING 
 
 A point to which much attention is being directed 
 of late is the seating of school children. It is often 
 said that faulty seats furnish one of the factors in 
 bringing about lateral curvature of the spine; while 
 this may not be exactly true, there is no doubt but 
 that faulty seats would certainly aid in producing 
 this disease in a child already overburdened with 
 a weak and undeveloped body. 
 
 We all are familiar with the picture of the old-time 
 
School Sanitation 97 
 
 country schoolroom, with the feet of the smaller 
 children dangling eight or ten inches above the floor. 
 There is no longer any excuse for this condition of 
 things, for adjustable seats are now manufactured 
 at a moderate cost and should be used everywhere. 
 The seat should be regulated to the size of the pupil, 
 and attention paid to the often neglected point of 
 having the distance between the back of the seat 
 and the edge of the desk too great. The desk should 
 be so arranged that the pupil can sit erect on the 
 seat and at the same time read a book leaning on 
 the desk: when the desk is too far away the child 
 slips forward to the edge of the seat, and sits in a 
 stooped and uncomfortable position. Error in seating 
 has also probably much to do with the defects in vision 
 so common in school children. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION 
 
 The heating and ventilation of schoolrooms are im- 
 portant items in the children's health; especially is 
 this true of ventilation. In the city, steam and hot 
 water are generally used for heating; and ventilation 
 should be effected by some method other than opening 
 the windows and doors. The indirect method of heating 
 with steam-coils and the extraction of foul air by vents 
 at the floor-level, using a rotary fan either in the 
 foul-air shaft or in the fresh-air inlet, is an effective 
 plan both for ventilation and for heating. 
 
 In the small country school the best method is 
 
9 8 
 
 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 by the ventilating-stove, which consists of an ordi- 
 nary stove surrounded by a galvanized iron hood, 
 with a fresh-air inlet underneath the floor as shown 
 in Fig. 26; while a foul-air shaft near the floor would 
 
 FIG. 26. Diagram showing Circulation of Air in a Room heated by a 
 Ventilati ng-sto ve . 
 
 aid in keeping the air in better circulation, the 
 windows and doors are generally sufficient for this 
 purpose in the small one- or two-room building. 
 
 Of course a thermometer a reliable one should 
 have a place in every room, for only by this way 
 
School Sanitation 99 
 
 can an equable temperature be maintained. To make 
 a thermometer out of one's own body is folly; the 
 temperature-sense of the body is more fluctuating 
 and unreliable than anything else. 
 
 Fresh air is absolutely necessary for the health 
 and good work of the child. One investigator declares 
 that in a certain school under his observation, where 
 ventilation was defective, the work of the pupils 
 fell off by forty per cent. I can myself recall a cer- 
 tain classroom in a grand old college hoary with 
 age and last-century buildings where almost every 
 student was often half asleep in less than an hour, 
 due to the vitiated air from defective ventilation. 
 
 LIGHTING 
 
 Lighting of the schoolroom is a very necessary 
 factor; quite often it is bad, and is one of the items 
 responsible for many of the ocular troubles which 
 afflict children. The light should always enter on 
 the left side or back of the pupil, if possible. The 
 windows should have an amount of glass equal to 
 one-fourth of the floor-space, and the shades, if there 
 are any, should roll from the centre both up and 
 down, so that the light may be as little obstructed 
 as possible, and be readily diffused by first striking 
 the ceiling. 
 
i oo Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY 
 
 Plenty of fresh water should be one of the req- 
 uisites of every school, but drinking-cups are wholly 
 insanitary and have been the means of transmitting 
 and spreading disease. This antique method of fur- 
 nishing drinking-water should be replaced by the 
 drinking-fountain, which should take the place of 
 cups and other drinking- vessels in all public places. 
 " It consists," to quote a writer in " The Sanitarian," 
 " of a marble, porcelain, or iron pedestal (Fig. 27), 
 about three and a half feet high, capped with a 
 funnel-shaped basin, twelve inches in diameter, con- 
 nected with the water-supply; upon pressure of 
 a lever at the base of the basin, a jet of water 
 shoots up from the centre of the basin and into 
 the mouth when held over it and from this the 
 jet being small and without spatter with very little 
 tact thirst may be abundantly satisfied without the 
 intervention of a drinking-vessel of any kind. It 
 admits of no contact of the lips with the jet-pipe or 
 any other portion of the apparatus the water flows 
 from the supply-pipe through the jet directly into 
 the mouth, and all waste into the bowl immediately 
 flows off by an escape pipe none is allowed to accu- 
 mulate." The drinking-fountain is the most sani- 
 tary drinking appliance yet devised, since the time 
 when our ancestors quenched their thirst in primi- 
 tive style at the wayside spring. It should by all 
 means be adopted in every school and public hall. 
 
/I 
 
 I 
 
 
 FIG. 27. Drinking-fountain. (From copyrighted photograph by the 
 J. L. Mott Co.) 
 
 101 
 
School Sanitation 103 
 
 In country schools where water under pressure is 
 unavailable, the drinking fountain cannot be used; 
 in such cases, the only sanitary way is for each child 
 to have an individual drinking-cup. The origin of 
 water available for country schools the nearest well 
 or spring should be a matter of inquiry to the patrons; 
 the water should only come, of course, from an un- 
 polluted source, and should meet all the require- 
 ments mentioned in Chapter II. 
 
 TOILET-ROOM AND PRIVY 
 
 The toilet- and cloak-rooms should be light and airy, 
 and in the city where water-closets are used there 
 should be up-to-date sanitary plumbing. Towels hung 
 up and used for a week or two are not likely to give 
 children a good idea of cleanliness towels should, 
 of course, be replaced every day. Such things may 
 seem trivial, but the lesson they teach may be of vast 
 importance to the after-life of the child. 
 
 In country schools the privy should be attached 
 to the school building by a covered passageway 
 and there should be privacy. In place of the old- 
 fashioned privy the dry-earth system should be 
 used, made somewhat after the model shown in Fig. 28. 
 A pit is dug about three feet deep, which has its two 
 sides, front, and back lined with brick and cemented, 
 resting on a cemented base; or the entire structure, 
 floor, and sides may be made of concrete. 
 
 In the back an open space is left for a door, and 
 
104 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 an inclined pathway is made from the bottom of 
 the closet to the surface, in order to facilitate removal 
 of contents; the entire foundation should be, must 
 be, absolutely water-tight. The part under the seat 
 is made of galvanized iron, and a flap is attached 
 
 FIG. 28. Dry Closet for Schools. 
 
 to the lower end to prevent an upward draft; this 
 flap may be balanced so as to work automatically. 
 Every few days some sifted-coal ashes or dry earth 
 should be thrown into the closet by the janitor, and 
 when necessary the contents removed and put on 
 
School Sanitation 
 
 an adjoining field for manure. An arrangement 'like 
 this requires very little care and is perfectly sanitary. 
 
 WORK AND PLAY 
 
 The hours of study should be arranged according 
 to the age of the child, for children's power of 
 undivided attention is something very limited. Ac- 
 cording to Edwin Chadwick an authority on the 
 subject a child from five to seven years can only 
 give attention to one subject for about fifteen min- 
 utes; from seven to ten about twenty minutes; from 
 ten. to twelve, twenty-five minutes, and so on. 
 
 Overwork in school is a common complaint and 
 leads very often to nervous troubles, neurasthenia, 
 headaches, dyspepsia, etc., which interferes greatly 
 with the progress of the child; better go slowly and 
 have good health than to go fast and have a broken- 
 down constitution to take up life's battle when school 
 is over. The precocious child who knows Hadley's 
 Greek grammar by heart at fifteen, or something 
 similar, never takes the lead in after-life. Cramming 
 for examination is to be depreciated, and keeping 
 children in after school-hours as a means of making 
 up neglected work is a poor method; some other 
 means of discipline should be devised. 
 
 While I do not depreciate scholarship, I must say 
 that the successful man or woman is rarely the one 
 who stood at the head of his class, for the simple 
 reason that the mental energy necessary to gain 
 
Io6 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 preeminence at school means often a sacrifice of 
 physical energy which should be reserved for later 
 years. My old teacher, the great gynaecologist Goodell 
 (and I believe Egbert quotes the same), used to say 
 in one of his lectures: "So commonly do I find ill- 
 health associated with brilliant scholarship, that one 
 of the first questions I put to a young lady seeking 
 my advice is, 'Did you stand high at school? ' 
 
 - Play is just as necessary as work, and the subject 
 of school playgrounds is beginning to attract a good 
 deal of attention in the cities where, in most places, 
 the only playground is the street. If school lots 
 were always purchased of such a size as to protect 
 the school building from loss of light, air, and sun- 
 shine by adjoining buildings there would always be 
 land available for playgrounds. The bare walls 
 and bare grounds of the ordinary city or town school 
 may be also much improved by judicious planting 
 of grass, vines, and shrubs, which besides improving 
 the appearance of the place give the children much 
 pleasure and education on the line of civic improve- 
 ment. Above all, school playgrounds, even if covered 
 with a lawn, must not be disfigured with the ' 'Keep- 
 off- the-Grass" sign. 
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 
 
 Medical inspection of schools is an innovation that 
 has proved to be of much value, and in a good 
 many of the larger cities daily inspection is now 
 
School Sanitation 107 
 
 practiced somewhat on the following plan: The in- 
 spector makes the rounds every morning, and the 
 teacher fills out printed slips with the name of 
 the pupil and the symptoms or conditions to which 
 it is desired to call his attention. On the arrival 
 of the inspector such children are sent to him, and 
 his advice regarding the child is written on the slip 
 and returned to the teacher, who, of course, acts 
 upon the suggestion of the inspector. 
 
 By this means not only are contagious diseases 
 more quickly discovered and their spread controlled, 
 but minor ailments and defects, which ordinarily 
 pass unnoticed until rrmch damage is done, are cor- 
 rected and the child better fitted to continue school- 
 life. Defects of sight and hearing are noted and 
 remedies suggested; measures are also taken to 
 avoid hysteria, chorea, and other school diseases. 
 On the appearance of certain diseases the children 
 are sent home by the inspector with proper advice 
 to the parents. 
 
 In New York City, in addition to diphtheria, mumps, 
 and the exanthemata, children are excluded for the 
 following diseases a plan which may well be adopted 
 by all cities practicing school inspection: Trachoma, 
 scabies, impetigo, favus, pediculosis, acute conjunc- 
 tivitis, ringworm, and tonsilitis. 
 
 Of these diseases trachoma needs special mention, 
 for it has begun to be quite prevalent in certain sea- 
 board towns, and, in consequence of our great facilities 
 for transportation, it is likely to appear at any place. 
 
io8 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 This disease was imported some years ago by south- 
 and east-Europe emigrants to New York; it is a 
 contagious granulation of the eyelid which often 
 leads to loss of sight; it is often overlooked and mis- 
 taken for simple granulation which is non-contagious. 
 Trachoma is transmitted by soiled towels, the hands, 
 etc., and it is well to caution children, and every one 
 else in fact, against using public towels on the face. 
 From time to time school inspection should also 
 include measurements of height, weight, and other 
 necessary physical data, and accurate records kept 
 for future use. Inspectors should likewise be given 
 authority and held responsible for the entire sanitary 
 condition of the buildings. School inspection has 
 not only limited the spread of disease in the locality 
 where it has been practiced, but it has abolished 
 the necessity for closing schools even in the face of 
 of an approaching epidemic. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 Car Sanitation 
 
 AR sanitation is a new subject for a work 
 on hygiene, yet it is attracting consider- 
 able attention, for the use of cars as a 
 means of travel is getting to be such a 
 necessary factor in our daily lives that the public 
 feel that those corporations having public franchises 
 owe it as a duty to provide for the convenience and 
 health of their patrons. Car sanitation of railway- 
 cars we shall first speak is almost everywhere neg- 
 lected and no provision, or scarcely any, has been 
 made for the health of the travellers. Water turned 
 into a tank from a hose in the station and ice handled 
 by a dirty workman are every-day occurrences. Ven- 
 tilation and heating are things unknown, as is shown 
 by the miserable overheating of nearly all railway- 
 cars indeed these overheated cars are the great 
 trials of an ordinary journey. Excreta are dis- 
 posed of by a method as crude as that of the American 
 
 Indian, even the "method of Moses" is neglected. 
 
 109 
 
no Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 FURNISHING AND CLEANING 
 
 Although the defects are glaring there is no com- 
 plicated system necessary for getting cars up to a 
 sanitary standard, for car sanitation, as the Com- 
 mittee of the American Public Health Association has 
 put it, is "simply car cleanliness; cleanliness of the 
 car itself and its contents, including the furnishings, 
 its air, and its supply of water and food." 
 
 In regard to the construction of the cars a good 
 deal might be said: the principal thing, from the 
 sanitary viewpoint, is that the interior finish should 
 be of hard and polished wood, as this affords less 
 chance for the collection of dust and dirt. The fur- 
 nishings should be, if possible, of some non-absorbent 
 material which is readily removed so as to be more 
 easily cleaned. 
 
 In sleeping-cars the utmost cleanliness should be 
 observed with the bedding. The use of blankets 
 which are washed only once in six months, a fact 
 admitted by a certain railroad official, is most insani- 
 tary. Blankets should be discarded for some more 
 washable material. 
 
 Cleaning of the cars is an important factor; this 
 should be done frequently and thoroughly with plenty 
 of soap and water, and the whole car should be dis- 
 infected at intervals with formaldehyde gas or some 
 other standard sterilizing agent. Much of the present- 
 day car disinfection is about as efficient in preventing 
 
Car Sanitation 1 1 1 
 
 disease as the protection afforded by wearing amu- 
 lets around the neck. 
 
 Fouling the cars by expectoration should, of course, 
 be absolutely prohibited. It is hardly necessary to 
 have cuspidors in the ordinary coaches. The smoker 
 and the spitter perhaps have a right to defile their 
 own houses, but they have no right to force their 
 filthy habits on the public; this should, at least, be 
 confined to the smoking-car. 
 
 VENTILATION AND HEATING 
 
 Ventilation and heating are probably the most de- 
 fective sanitary arrangements met with in car travel; 
 it is claimed, perhaps justly, that there has been much 
 difficulty in getting a system which will meet the nec- 
 essary' requirements; but Dr. Dudley, chemist to the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, has devised a 
 method which bids fair to be a great improvement 
 over the old-time cars. Each passenger-coach is 
 made to seat sixty people, and the method devised 
 by Dr. Dudley undertakes to furnish 60,000 cubic 
 feet per hour of fresh-heated air, that is 1000 cubic 
 feet per hour for each passenger. 
 
 The method is very simple, and is described by 
 the originator as follows: "It consists in taking air 
 from the outside in through two hoods A (Fig. 29) 
 at diagonally opposite corners of the car, thence 
 through down-takes B underneath the hoods to the 
 spaces C, one on each side underneath the car floor, 
 
1 1 2 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 bounded by the floor, the false bottom, the outside 
 sill, and nearest intermediate sill. These spaces, 
 which are in section about 14 X 7^ inches, extend 
 
 FIG. 29. Cross-section of a Car, showing Method of Heating and Ven- 
 tilation. (From a drawing by Dr. Dudley.) 
 
 the whole length of the car. From these spaces the 
 air passes up through the floor by means of proper 
 apparatus over the heating system E, thence out 
 into the car, and finally escapes from the car through 
 
Car Sanitation 113 
 
 ventilators X situated on the centre line of the upper 
 deck. 
 
 "The heating system consists of pipe-radiators N. 
 The pipes extend nearly the whole length of the car, 
 and are enclosed in a continuous boxing. The heat- 
 ing substance is steam from the locomotive, and is 
 supplied to the radiators at the middle of the car; 
 the condensed water is returned to the middle of 
 the car and from there allowed to flow through 
 proper traps to the track. It will thus be seen 
 that the cold air coming up through the floor into 
 the heater boxes E divides and passes in contact 
 with the heater pipes each way to the tubes under 
 the seats F, which carry it to the aisle. The tubes 
 under the seats serve in some measure as a foot- 
 warmer." 
 
 The whole system of ventilation is controlled by 
 opening or closing the ventilators on the roof. The 
 system has been a success experimentally and prac- 
 tically, in regard to both the heating and the 
 amount of fresh air introduced; and is now applied 
 to all new cars being built for the Pennsylvania 
 lines. 
 
 DISPOSAL OF EXCRETA 
 
 The prevalent method of disposing of excreta 
 the most primitive to be imagined in scattering it 
 over the road-bed is dangerous to a high degree, 
 and there seems to be no reason why disease should 
 
1 1 4 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 not be (perhaps it has been) transmitted in this 
 way; there is no doubt but that many people travel 
 
 FIG. 30. Section of Dry Closet to be used in Railway-cars. 
 
 who are in the incipient stages of typhoid fever, 
 and the discharges from such, falling into the drain- 
 
Car Sanitation 115 
 
 age area of small streams, which may be some 
 one's water-supply, would be a positive source of 
 danger. 
 
 Some form of dry closet seems to me to furnish 
 the best method of disposal. Fig. 30 shows a device 
 of this kind, which the author offers as meeting all 
 sanitary requirements and as being readily available. 
 The seat and fixtures in the car are the same as used 
 at present, but underneath the floor of the car is 
 attached a box containing a galvanized pail; in this 
 is put sifted-coal ashes or some fine dry earth to the 
 depth of four or five inches; this would be sufficient 
 deodorant and absorbent without any additional 
 treatment until the end of the run, when the pail 
 should be removed through a door on the outside 
 of the box, emptied, aired, and perhaps repainted. 
 The contents removed could be stored in covered 
 bins and sold for fertilizer. 
 
 DRINKING WATER 
 
 The drinking water furnished in railway-cars is, 
 of course, taken from the tap in the various cities 
 from which they start or through which they pass; 
 unfortunately in some cities the water-supply is very 
 bad, and it hardly seems right to subject the 
 travelling public to dangers so easily avoided. It 
 is probable, too, that transportation companies, 
 owning privileges granted by the general public, 
 
1 1 6 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 owe more to their patrons than a city owes to its 
 citizens. 
 
 In regard to ice much more care should be used 
 than is commonly done; although the ice itself may 
 be pure, the contact with soiled hands is a possible 
 source of danger. I have learned that recently the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad Company has issued orders 
 for the men who handle ice to wear white cotton 
 gloves; such sanitation seems unworthy the usual 
 progressiveness of a great railroad. The only way, 
 only sanitary way, to handle ice is with tongs and 
 with these alone. The drinking- fountain is hardly 
 available for cars, but the public should be advised 
 to bring their own drinking-cups. 
 
 STREET-CARS 
 
 Trolley- and street-cars require a word in sanitary 
 affairs. Most lines, especially suburban lines, are 
 poorly equipped with rolling stock, and as a result 
 the open summer car is used more often and longer 
 than it should be; it is undoubtedly the source of the 
 many colds which affect the patrons of such lines in 
 late summer. In most places these cars should prob- 
 ably not be used more than two months in the 
 whole year, and in a great many places in the north- 
 ern parts of the country they are undesirable at any 
 season. The only good word that can be said for 
 the open car is that the ventilation is good, but 
 
Car Sanitation 1 1 7 
 
 often it is too good. In wet weather, open cars 
 should always be replaced by closed ones. 
 
 The closed car presents the usual defects of insuffi- 
 cient ventilation and with it insufficient heating 
 in cold weather. While the railway-car is almost 
 invariably overheated, the street-car is almost 
 always underheated, and to these cold cars have 
 been attributed the undue prevalence of pneumonia 
 occurring in some of the larger cities during certain 
 periods of the year; of course it must not be forgotten 
 that street-cars need not be kept as warm as railway- 
 cars, for passengers in street-cars are always clad 
 for outdoor weather a temperature of 60 F. would 
 probably be sufficient. 
 
 A good many street-cars are heated with stoves, 
 yet nothing more defective could be imagined, for 
 the upper part of the car gets fairly warm, while a 
 stratum of cold air settles down around one's feet. 
 Electric heaters placed under the seats appear to 
 give better results, but in very cold weather they 
 seem to be of inadequate size; the proper way would 
 be to have electric heaters of sufficient capacity with a 
 fresh-air inlet on the outside of the car, so that fresh- 
 heated air could be furnished at the same time; and 
 fresh air is sometimes sadly needed. 
 
 With the great overcrowding of street-cars, which 
 is a daily occurrence on many suburban lines, proper 
 ventilation is almost impossible by any method or 
 system. Street-car companies should be forbidden 
 by law to carry more than the seating capacity of 
 
1 1 8 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 the car, as is done in many European cities; to be 
 sure, this belongs to the domain of the legislator, 
 but it is one of the first steps in the sanitation of 
 street-cars. 
 
 Another important point in the heating and ven- 
 tilation is that the ends of the cars should be closed 
 by glass windows and doors; by this means a draft 
 of cold air does not rush through the car every time 
 the door is opened. Then, too, the open-end car is 
 cruel and unjust to the employees, in that they are 
 exposed to all states of weather; indeed, it is even 
 dangerous, for a man facing a cold wind at zero tem- 
 perature is likely to get so benumbed that he has 
 not proper control of the car, and accidents may 
 result not from the carelessness of the motorman, 
 but from the negligence and penuriousness of the 
 company. 
 
 The cleaning and disinfection of street-cars should 
 be attended to thoroughly and carefully, for with 
 the increase of travel, following the advent of elec- 
 trical power, there is increased danger from the 
 spreading of contagious diseases. Expectoration in 
 street-cars should, of course, be absolutely forbidden; 
 it is illegal in most places and its abolishment rests 
 simply with the transportation companies. It is 
 strange that with our enlightened and progressive 
 civilization we have to have anti-spitting signs defacing 
 our streets, our public halls, and our public con- 
 veyances. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 The Cause and Prevention of Contagious 
 and Infectious Diseases 
 
 HIS is a class of diseases generally known 
 as preventable, in contrast to those 
 diseases caused by the wear and tear 
 of the machinery of the human body 
 which are inevitable, sooner or later. There is no 
 real reason why any one should ever have smallpox, 
 typhoid fever, and the like, for we know exactly 
 how to prevent these and certain other diseases, 
 but when it comes to do it we often fail and 
 have to admit that our theories are away ahead 
 of our practice; very often this failure is due to the 
 lack of understanding and education of the public 
 about the subject. Some of these diseases are trans- 
 mitted directly from the person having the disease, 
 others by food and drink contaminated with the dis- 
 charges of the sick, and still others by inoculation 
 through wounds or by the bite of certain animals 
 and insects. 
 
1 20 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 SMALLPOX 
 
 The cause of smallpox is not definitely known, 
 except that it is likely a bacterium residing in the 
 skin of the person having the disease. The method 
 of preventing smallpox is by vaccination and revac- 
 cination, isolation of the sick, quarantine of the 
 exposed, and disinfection of the surroundings and 
 belongings of the patient after recovery or death. 
 
 As to the value of vaccination there can no longer 
 be any question; although one or two vaccinations 
 protect most persons more or less through life, it is 
 well to remember that a person has contracted small- 
 pox who has been recently and successfully vaccinated. 
 The fact is that as long as a person is susceptible 
 to vaccination, just so long is he susceptible to small- 
 pox, and such a person should be revaccinated as 
 often as vaccination "takes." We may put it down 
 as an undeniable fact and I here quote Dr. Lee 
 that, "next to the rising of the sun, nothing is more 
 absolutely certain than the fact that successful vac- 
 cination with reliable lymph, repeated with sufficient 
 frequency, is a sure preventive against smallpox." 
 
 Any one who wishes to know what smallpox was 
 in the years gone by, especially when introduced into 
 virgin soil, should read George Catlin's account of 
 the extinction of the Mandan Indians in the summer 
 of 1838. The disease was so virulent that many died 
 in a few hours after becoming infected, and in a few 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 121 
 
 weeks the whole tribe was extinct; the disease then 
 spread to the surrounding tribes, and within four 
 or five months it is supposed that at least 25,000 
 Indians perished. 
 
 As the period of infection in smallpox extends 
 from the beginning of the disease until all scabs have 
 become detached and desquamation has ceased, the 
 sick should be isolated for that length of time. All 
 communities should have sanitary hospitals for the 
 isolation of such cases, for domiciliary quarantine 
 quarantining the sick with the well is a very unsat- 
 isfactory procedure. After the removal of the sick, 
 the persons exposed should be quarantined fourteen 
 days, and if no case then develops they are likely 
 safe. 
 
 The disinfection of a room occupied by a person 
 sick with smallpox should be carried out as follows: 
 The ceiling, walls, and floor should be washed with 
 a solution of corrosive sublimate (i to 1000), and the 
 paper or paint scraped off. All the furniture should 
 likewise be washed and all bed-linen soaked in cor- 
 rosive-sublimate solution, and then boiled or carried 
 to a steam-disinfecting plant. Woollen goods and 
 books must be opened up as much as possible and 
 exposed to formalin gas. Mattresses should be 
 moistened with a solution of formalin or bichloride, 
 and then exposed to gaseous disinfection or removed 
 to a steam disinfector, if one is available. If a mat- 
 tress is badly soiled and no steam disinfection possible, 
 it should be destroyed by fire. 
 
122 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 The gaseous disinfection of a room is now generally 
 done by formaldehyde gas; the room is closed and 
 all cracks and openings sealed with gummed-paper 
 strips, and the formaldehyde then set free, in the 
 proportion of 20 ounces of a reliable preparation to 
 1000 cubic feet of air-space. There are many differ- 
 ent methods and appliances for liberating this gas 
 and many of them are inefficient. The simplest 
 method, and one which has given very effective results, 
 is the method of Breslau. The apparatus consists of 
 a kettle, a tripod, and a vessel for alcohol; the kettle 
 is partially filled with hot water and the alcohol 
 in the vessel underneath ignited. As soon as the 
 water boils formaldehyde is poured into the kettle 
 in sufficient quantity, and the room left closed for 
 twenty-four hours; it is then thrown open and thor- 
 oughly aired. The formaldehyde candles offered for 
 sale and for which much is claimed are wholly unreli- 
 able. 
 
 MEASLES 
 
 The exact cause of measles is unknown; the con- 
 tagious principle is probably contained in the skin 
 and discharges from the mouth and nose. The infec- 
 tious period extends from the beginning of the earliest 
 symptoms to the end of the catarrhal and desqua- 
 mative stages. The only preventive is isolation of 
 the sick, and disinfection of the infected places and 
 things. 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 123 
 
 SCARLET FEVER 
 
 Scarlet fever is an acute contagious disease, the 
 contagion of which has great tenacity of life, although 
 limited in range; it is probably spread by exhalations 
 from the skin and discharges from the nose and 
 throat. It has been spread by contaminated milk 
 and by exposed clothing a year old. The only pre- 
 ventive is isolation of the sick, for at least a week 
 after complete recovery, and disinfection. 
 
 WHOOPING-COUGH 
 
 Whooping-cough is a contagious disease caused by 
 the bacillus of Afanassieff, which, in spite of its name, 
 has no great resisting power. The infectious period 
 .lasts at least until the end of the spasmodic cough; 
 and the only means of prophylaxis is isolation 
 slight isolation is sufficient for exemption and dis- 
 infection. 
 
 DIPHTHERIA 
 
 Diphtheria is caused by the bacillus of Loeffler, 
 which is supposed to live in polluted soil; the bac_ 
 teria find lodgment in the upper air-passages of those 
 exposed, and cause not only a local inflammation but 
 a general infection. While the contagion is limited 
 to a few feet it has great strength of life. Diphtheria 
 
I 24 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 affects domestic animals, especially cats, and this may 
 be one of the ways of transmitting the disease. The 
 writer has seen at least one case in which the disease 
 apparently followed sore throat in the family cat. 
 The disease has also been transmitted by infected 
 food-supplies such as milk. 
 
 The period of infection extends from the onset of 
 the symptoms until virulent bacteria have disappeared 
 from the throat. In cases where bacterial exam- 
 ination is not available, the patient should be iso- 
 lated until all the symptoms of the disease have dis- 
 appeared. The prophylaxis of diphtheria consists 
 in the sanitary measures relative to household hygiene: 
 clean, dry houses and cellars and clean back yards, 
 for it has been found that this disease quite often 
 appears in dark, damp houses with filthy surround- 
 ings. The other means of prevention are isolation 
 of the sick, the use of antitoxin, quarantine of ex- 
 posed persons, and disinfection. 
 
 Of the value of antitoxin as a preventive and 
 curative agent it is hardly necessary to say a word. 
 The author has personally seen the most astonishing 
 results following sufficient dosage of this remedy; it 
 seems, as manufactured at present, to be absolutely 
 devoid of danger. The only danger consists, if I may 
 quote a certain chemist, "in not giving enough of 
 the remedy.'* In some persons an exanthematous 
 rash simulating scarlet fever follows its use, but this 
 is of trifling import. 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 125 
 
 TYPHUS FEVER 
 
 Typhus fever is an exceedingly contagious disease 
 which infects the area surrounding the sick with great 
 intensity, and spreads with great rapidity. The cause 
 is likely some specific germ not yet isolated. The sole 
 measures of prevention are those which relate to 
 overcrowding and filth, prompt isolation of the sick 
 with plenty of fresh air, quarantine of exposed per- 
 sons for fourteen days, and disinfection. The author 
 happened to be resident physician on Blackwell's Island 
 during the last appearance of this disease in New York 
 harbor. The cases which occurred on the Island were 
 quickly isolated in tents and rigid quarantine main- 
 tained, with the result of the speedy disappearance 
 of the diseases. 
 
 CEREBROSPINAL FEVER 
 
 Cerebrospinal fever is an infectious and commu- 
 nicable disease caused by the diplococcus intercellu- 
 laris meningititis. The germ is of feeble growth, but 
 resists considerable drying; it has been isolated from 
 the nasal discharges, the cerebrospinal fluid, and 
 from soiled handkerchiefs weeks after infection. 
 
 In order to limit the spread of this disease it is 
 necessary to exercise general cleanliness about the 
 premises, and, above all, cleanliness in the sick-room, 
 the destruction of clothing soiled by discharges from 
 
126 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 the nose, and the careful disinfection of all towels, 
 clothing, and bedding used by the sick; isolation, and 
 finally the disinfection of the room occupied by the 
 patient. 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 Tuberculosis, the dread disease which kills one- 
 seventh of the human race which kills 100,000 every 
 
 FIG. 31. Mt. Alto Tuberculosis Camp. (From photograph by 
 Dr. J. W. Rothrock.) 
 
 year in the United States is the price that humanity 
 has paid for civilization, for the savage in his natural 
 state is exempt from the ravages of what has aptly 
 been called the Great White Plague. Tuberculosis 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 127 
 
 is caused by that resisting germ the bacillus tuber- 
 culosis which, although dried, still lives and floats 
 in the atmosphere everywhere and anywhere until 
 a fertile spot is reached upon some devitalized or 
 overcivilized mortal. 
 
 The disease is generally spread by the expectoration 
 
 Fio. 32. A Tuberculosis Camp in the Adirondacks. (From photo- 
 graph by Review of Reviews Co. ) 
 
 of those having pulmonary tuberculosis; diseased 
 meat and milk of animals are also factors in causing 
 the disease, which is more prone to develop in those 
 who have a certain predisposing weakness, in which 
 heredity seems to play an important part. 
 
 The method of prevention, as outlined by the 
 Committee on Tuberculosis of the American Public 
 
128 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 Health Association, which represents the prevailing 
 opinion at present, is as follows: 
 
 (i) Notification and registration by health authori- 
 ties of all cases. (2) The thorough disinfection of all 
 houses in which tuberculosis has occurred. (3) The 
 establishment of special hospitals for the treatment 
 of the disease. (4) Inspection of dairies and slaughter- 
 houses and the destruction of tuberculosis dairy- 
 cattle. (5) Enforcement of laws against public spit- 
 ting. (6) Compulsory disinfection of hotel rooms, 
 sleep'ng-car berths, and steamboat cabins which have 
 bsen occupied by consumptives. 
 
 Of the open-air treatment of the early stages of 
 consumption too much cannot be .said; there are 
 various camps and sanitoria in many places in this 
 country and they are doing a good work. This treat- 
 ment is simply a return of humanity to its primal 
 condition, and while one's back yard may be sufficient, 
 most patients will do better with the air and invig- 
 orating influences of mountain woodland. The accom- 
 panying photograph (Fig. 31) shows a tuberculosis 
 camp on the State Forestry reservation at Mt. Alto, 
 Pa. This camp, under the able management of Dr. 
 Rothrock, has simply done wonders. 
 
 Out on the banks of the Missouri the converse of 
 this picture is presented. The predatory Sioux the 
 descendants of the wild raiders of the past have 
 passed from the teepee to the house, from aboriginal 
 life to civilization without the sanitary influences of 
 the latter. Most of their houses (?) 18 X 24 feet are pro- 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 129 
 
 vided with but one-half of a window and a door; here 
 the family from five to twenty sleep nightly, and 
 the result? From 50 to 75 per cent die of "the sick- 
 ness," as an old chieftain, John Grass, who had lost 
 his seven sons, called it. 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 The cause of typhoid fever is the bacillus typhosus, 
 which unfortunately possesses unusual strength of 
 life; living for some years in polluted soil, growing 
 and thriving in filthy water and milk, finally frozen 
 up in a cake of ice for two or three months, and in 
 the end thawing out and still possessing energy enough, 
 perhaps, to make trouble for some one such is the 
 vitality of the bacillus typhosus. 
 
 The poison of typhoid leaves the body by way of 
 the feces and urine; the bacilli are more prevalent 
 in the feces during the height of the disease, but the 
 reverse is true of the urine which contains the greater 
 number during convalescence and this continues for 
 some weeks after recovery. 
 
 The poison is usually transmitted by infected water 
 or milk. It has also been found that flies are dis- 
 seminators of the disease, on account of their breeding 
 on fecal matter and feeding in neighboring kitchens; 
 this was especially observed in the camps of the 
 Spanish War, where the terrible epidemics of typhoid 
 were directly traceable to this source. Experiments 
 also have demonstrated that typhoid bacilli will 
 
I 3 o 
 
 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 develop in the tracks of flies which have been allowed 
 to settle on typhoid discharges and then made to 
 walk over suitable culture medium (Fig. 33). Not 
 
 FlG. 33. Foot-prints of a House fly. Every white spot means thou- 
 sands of bacteria. (From photograph by X. Y. Underwood in 
 u Country Life.") 
 
 only are typhoid bacilli carried on the feet of flies, 
 but Celli has recovered virulent germs from their feces, 
 and a number of other observers have shown that 
 the cholera vibrio, the anthrax bacillus, styphylococci, 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases i 3 i 
 
 and streptococci can also pass uninjured through the 
 bodies of flies. 
 
 Of all the numerous flies which breed in or fre- 
 quent human feces only certain ones are frequenters 
 of houses and kitchens. After extended investiga- 
 tion L. O. Howard, U. S. entomologist, found that 
 the following are the ones most likely to transmit 
 the disease: the house-fly, the little house-fly, the 
 fruit-fly, the stable-fly, the green-bottle fly, the blue- 
 bottle fly, and the Sarcophagi. All these are rather 
 distinct species and can readily be recognized by a 
 little study. 
 
 The means of preventing typhoid fever consists in 
 obtaining uncontaminated water and food, especially 
 in the way of milk and raw oysters; the screening of 
 the house to keep flies out and the thorough disinfec- 
 tion of all typhoid discharges (feces and urine) by a 
 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, a 10 per cent 
 solution of chloride of zinc, a solution of bichloride of 
 mercury (i to 1000), or a solution of chloride of lime 
 made in the proportion of 4 ounces to i gallon of 
 water. As a corollary cleanliness of one's habitation by 
 means of the rapid disposal of manure and putrescible 
 material, and the keeping of all such material out of 
 the reach of flies, is desirable. 
 
132 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 CHOLERA 
 
 Cholera is caused by a specific organism the comma 
 bacillus which gets into the body by way of the 
 gastro-intestinal tract from infected water or food. 
 It is readily destroyed by drying and by heat, and 
 fails to thrive in an acid medium, but is not destroyed 
 by freezing. Cholera, like typhoid, has also been 
 transmitted by flies. The infectious period lasts until 
 complete recovery. The method of prevention con 
 sists in the use of pure water and uncontaminated 
 food, the isolation of the patient, and the thorough 
 disinfection of all discharges. 
 
 MALARIAL FEVERS 
 
 The malarial germ is a protozoan which inhabits 
 the red blood-cells of those affected and is trans- 
 mitted to man by the bite of the various species of 
 Anopheles. The mosquito only acts as a carrier of 
 the poison, and can only infect a person after having 
 bitten one having the disease or at least having the 
 protozoan in the blood; the time required for the 
 parasite to develop in the cells until ready to be dis- 
 charged into another subject is ten days (according 
 to Theobald Smith), and, as the incubation period is 
 ten days, about twenty days would elapse before 
 another case could develop. The infectious period 
 lasts for man)/ years, and it is said that the mosquito 
 may become infected from those old cases, even when 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 133 
 
 the parasite cannot be found in the blood. It is 
 interesting to note that Dr. Koch has recently made 
 the brilliant discovery that " apparently healthy 
 negro children in the pestilential districts of Africa 
 constantly carry large numbers of malarial parasites 
 in their blood." 
 
 The means of preventing the spread of malarial 
 fevers consist in the elimination of the mosquito by 
 drainage of the breeding-places, or treatment with 
 kerosene, screening of the house and patients, and 
 the use of quinine, which is, of course, an antidote 
 for the disease. 
 
 Mosquito warfare has developed into a science of 
 late, and much is being done in this respect to render 
 certain places habitable which have hitherto been 
 unfit for dwellings. The family of Anopheles is rep- 
 resented in the United States by three species 
 A. quadrimaculatus, A. punctipennis, and A. crucians. 
 I have found the two former species rather abundant 
 in certain places and at certain times, in my own 
 locality in Southeastern Pennsylvania, but only once 
 have I found the third species, which seems to be 
 rare. 
 
 The malarial mosquito frequents ponds and rock- 
 pools in wayside brooks (Fig. 34); it is in fact a 
 country species compared with the culex the ordi- 
 nary mosquito which breeds in rain-barrels, cess- 
 pools, or any stagnant water about the house. The 
 entire life-history of the mosquito covers a period of 
 from one to three weeks, depending on the state of 
 
i 34 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 the weather, a fact which must be taken into account 
 in the kerosene treatment of pools. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that small fish, almost all 
 varieties, are great destroyers of mosquito larva. The 
 
 YiG. 34. Where the Malarial Mosquito Breeds. 
 (Photograph by the Author.) 
 
 author made an experiment on this line last summer, 
 by introducing several small catfish into a bucket 
 swarming with mosquito larva; the next morning 
 the water was perfectly free of larva. As the malarial 
 mosquito does not stray very far from home, local 
 action counts for much. 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 135 
 
 YELLOW FEVER 
 
 Yellow fever is an acute disease transmitted to 
 man by the bite of a certain mosquito the Stegomyia 
 fasciata which has become infected by biting a 
 former case, and is caused by this means alone. The 
 discovery of the method of the transmission of yellow 
 fever, and the adoption of preventive methods based 
 on this discovery, is the grandest achievement in 
 sanitary science since the days of the immortal Jenner. 
 This mosquito is a Southern variety and does not 
 often occur north of Philadelphia; it is also a domestic 
 variety and rarely strays far from home. 
 
 The period during which the mosquito can take up 
 the infection lasts only for the first three days of 
 the disease; it then takes about twelve days for the 
 mosquito to become capable of transmitting the disease 
 which lasts during her (only the female can bite) life- 
 time, or at least for several months. The period of 
 observation should be five days, and the means recom- 
 mended for preventing the spread of the disease are 
 those which were so successfully adopted during 
 the American occupation of Cuba: 
 
 (1) The immediate screening of the patient to keep 
 him from the mosquito. 
 
 (2) Destruction of all mosquitoes and their breed- 
 ing-places; and, as the Stegomyia breeds about houses 
 in rain-barrels, etc., much may be done to eliminate 
 
136 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 it by the proper screening of all household receptacles 
 holding water. 
 
 (3) The destruction by fumigation of all possibly 
 infected mosquitoes on the premises of the sick, by 
 pyrethrum powder or by sulphur. Last year another 
 culicide was used in New Orleans which approaches 
 more the ideal, in that it injures nothing but the 
 insects. This culicide is composed of equal quanti- 
 ties by weight of carbolic acid and gum camphor, 
 and the resultant liquid is evaporated slowly in the 
 room about three ounces being used for a thousand 
 cubic feet of air-space. 
 
 By the three measures mentioned above, and by 
 these alone, the pest-ridden city of Havana was freed 
 from yellow fever for the first time in 140 years; 
 patients were even treated in the wards of an ordi- 
 nary hospital only they were thoroughly screened. 
 The old method of shot-gun quarantine in the light 
 of these discoveries partakes of the methods of the 
 Middle Ages, and should not be used. In Panama 
 the officials have recently taken up the plan of offer- 
 ing a prize of $100 for every case of yellow fever 
 reported to them, hoping by this means to prevent 
 the secreteing of cases, which always leads to such 
 bad results. 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 137 
 
 THE PLAGUE 
 
 The plague is caused by the bacillus pestis (Kitasito), 
 a rather frail germ which, although it dies speedily 
 when dried, can live for months in water or milk, 
 and can endure a great amount of cold. Infection 
 takes place through the lungs, from clothing and 
 bedding which may harbor the poison for a long 
 time; it also takes place through the digestive tract 
 by food and drink, and in some instances the poison 
 is transmitted by inoculation. The period of obser- 
 vation should be fifteen days, and the patient is a 
 source of infection as long as bacilli may be found 
 in the buboes, the blood, and urine. 
 
 The methods of prevention are isolation of the sick, 
 quarantine of the exposed for fifteen days, the use 
 of Haffkine's or Yersin's serum, general sanitary 
 cleanliness, including the destruction of rats, which 
 seem somehow or other to be a factor in transmitting 
 the poison, and thorough fumigation with sulphur. 
 
 Some interesting experiments have been made 
 which tend to show that the plague may possibly be 
 transmitted by fleas from infected rats, but the great 
 difficulty in the chain of evidence is that the flea 
 inhabiting plague-infected rodents has not yet been 
 made to bite human beings. 
 
 Every one interested in sanitary science should 
 read De Foe's "History of the Plague in London"; 
 although not exactly history, for De Foe was only 
 
138 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 four years old at the time, it nevertheless gives a most 
 interesting, and likely a faithful, portrayal of the 
 sanitary affairs in England at the time. 
 
 HYDROPHOBIA 
 
 Hydrophobia is a virulent infection of the nervous 
 system, produced by inoculation from one of the 
 lower animals having the disease: the dog, fox, wolf, 
 or cat. It is principally contracted by the bite of a 
 rabid dog, and may be communicated any time during 
 the illness or incubation period, which sometimes 
 extends to 240 days. 
 
 The method of prevention is the enforced use of 
 the muzzle and the extermination of the army of 
 worthless curs which crowd every community, the 
 thorough cauterization of suspected wounds with 
 silver nitrate, and the institution of the Pasteur treat- 
 ment; this consists, in a general way, of the injection 
 of a solution of progressive strengths, made from 
 the dried medulla of an infected animal. 
 
 ANTHRAX 
 
 Anthrax is an acute infectious disease of the lower 
 animals, chiefly sheep and cattle, and is transmitted to 
 man by contact, by the inhalation of dust from 
 diseased hides, or by the ingestion of infected flesh. 
 The preventive measures consist in isolation of the 
 sick, inoculation with protective serum, the thorough 
 destruction by cremation of animals dead of anthrax, 
 
Contagious and Infectious Diseases 139 
 
 and the distribution of quicklime in large quantities 
 over the infected land. 
 
 GLANDERS 
 
 Glanders is an infectious disease of the horse, 
 and generally transmitted to man through the nasal 
 mucous membrane during contact with a horse sick 
 with the disease; inhalation through the nose or 
 mouth of the secretions from the nose of another case 
 seems sufficient to cause the disease. Prevention 
 consists in isolation, destruction by fire of dead 
 animals, and the disinfection of stables which con- 
 tained those sick of the disease. 
 
 TETANUS 
 
 Tetanus is a specific disease caused by the tetanus 
 bacillus, which is, fortunately, an anaerobic germ; 
 that is, it is likely only to grow in deep punctured 
 wounds shut off from free oxygen. The germ is 
 widely distributed in the soil, although seemingly 
 more prevalent in some places than others. Pre- 
 vention consists in the scrupulous cleaning and dis- 
 infection of all wounds, however trifling they may 
 seem, even to the point of an operation if necessary, 
 the destruction of all dressings used on tetanus wounds, 
 and the isolation of the patient from the surgical cases. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 Vital Statistics 
 
 IITAL statistics are the life- records of a com- 
 munity the records of birth, marriage, 
 disease, and death; they are valuable as an 
 index of the prevalence of certain diseases, 
 an indicator of the general health, and a criterion of 
 the sanitary progress that is being made from time 
 to time. The value of knowing these facts is illustrated 
 by the following: Some years ago, in order to com- 
 pare the health of a certain rural district with a given 
 urban district, statistics were carefully collected for 
 a stated period, and among other facts discovered 
 was the surprising one that this rural district one 
 of the garden-spots of Pennsylvania, a region of fine 
 farms and picturesque villages, of picnic groves and 
 summer residences had an alarming amount of 
 typhoid fever, just as much as the great city district 
 with which it was compared. As is often the case in 
 rural localities the disease being scattered here and 
 there no one suspected the real state of affairs until 
 perception was sharpened by actual figures. 
 
 140 
 
Vital Statistics 141 
 
 Statistical records to be of any value must be 
 exact, the diagnosis of disease must be correct, and, 
 in estimating the health condition of a place from 
 the death- records, due allowance must be made for 
 cases which really belong elsewhere, if such is the 
 fact. Some time since in a lecture on hygiene at a 
 Farmers' Institute, I was calling attention to the 
 poor sanitary condition of a certain place, as shown 
 by its great number of deaths, when I was inter- 
 rupted with the retort that the locality in question 
 was so popular that people went there to die; which, 
 of course, was not quite true. It is a fact, however, 
 that certain places containing health resorts and 
 sanitariums aid in distorting the vital statistics unless 
 due account is taken of them. 
 
 In regard to careful diagnosis the following is worth 
 repeating: I had inquired for the typhoid death- 
 rates of a certain third-class city; it was promptly 
 and kindly forwarded by the health department with 
 the added note that "seven of the deaths reported 
 were not due to typhoid fever but to other compli- 
 cations, such as cardiac asthenia, general peritonitis, 
 intestinal perforation, etc." Any one can readily see 
 that the vital statistics of that city would hardly have 
 much real value, and the worst part of it is that the 
 physicians who made out the death-certificates were 
 really the ones who were negligent. 
 
142 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS 
 
 The registration of births is of great value, if cor- 
 rectly kept, for comparison with the death-rate of a 
 country in indicating the amount of "race suicide." 
 A great many irrelevant questions are sometimes 
 asked on birth-certificates; for sanitary purposes all 
 that is required is the date and place of birth, sex, 
 color, legitimacy, and perhaps age, nativity, and 
 occupation of both parents. 
 
 REGISTRATION OF DISEASE 
 
 The registration of diseases by the health authori- 
 ties is of vast importance, especially diseases of 
 an infectious or contagious nature, which are more 
 or less preventible. The record of a disease like 
 typhoid, as pointed out above, is a most valuable 
 index of the sanitary condition of the water- and 
 milk-supply of a place, and the utmost attention 
 should be paid to these statistics. 
 
 The registration returns should indicate if possible 
 the location from which infection was derived, for 
 the first question the sanitary executive wants to 
 ask about any of these diseases is "Where did it 
 come from?" The recently organized Pennsylvania 
 Department of Health require the reporting of the 
 following diseases: Actinomycosis, anthrax, plague, 
 cerebrospinal meningitis, chicken-pox, cholera, diph- 
 
Vital Statistics 143 
 
 theria, dysentery, erysipelas, German measles, glanders, 
 hydrophobia, leprosy, malarial fever, measles, mumps, 
 pneumonia, puerperal fever, relapsing fever, scarlet 
 fever, smallpox, tetanus, trachoma, trichiniasis, tuber- 
 culosis, typhoid fever, typhus fever, whooping-cough, 
 and yellow fever. 
 
 City health boards should also require the registra- 
 tion of summer diarrhoeas of children and the parasitic 
 skin diseases. It is needless to state that the report- 
 ing of disease should be made promptly, at least 
 within twenty-four hours after discovery by the 
 physician. Such diseases as smallpox, typhus fever, 
 yellow fever, and the plague should be reported 
 immediately, as every minute is of value in staying 
 an epidemic. 
 
 REGISTRATION OF DEATHS 
 
 A death-record should comprise the cause, date, 
 place, sex, color, occupation, and age of the decedent. 
 The annual death-rate, which varies from 13 to 15 
 per 1000 in the rural districts to 21 to 23 per 1000 
 in the larger cities, is found by dividing the number 
 of deaths per year by the number of population and 
 multiplying by 1000. 
 
 The value of death-records as an aid to sanitary 
 science was made apparent recently in a study of 
 rural and municipal death-rates in several States 
 where records happen to be fairly well kept. As is 
 
144 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 well known, the general death-rate in all civilized 
 communities has been steadily decreasing during the 
 last century, but in the States where the obser- 
 vations were made it was shown that the decline 
 had been most marked in the city districts. In 
 Connecticut, in the city districts (that is, towns of 
 5000 population and over) the death-rates had 
 dropped during the last ten years from 20 to 17 
 per 1000, but in the rural districts from 17 to 16. In 
 Massachusetts the urban rate had dropped from 
 19 to 17, but the rural only from 17.2 to 17.1. In 
 New York the urban dropped from 23 to 21, but the 
 rural had actually increased from 13 to 15 per 1000. 
 
 From these records it is apparent that there is 
 something wrong in some of the country districts, 
 either in the means of preventing or in the methods 
 of treating diseases. If we had a complete record of 
 the diseases we could likely tell at a glance where 
 the trouble lay. 
 
 It has happened that in the final summing up of 
 statistics the death-rate of particular diseases, notably 
 typhoid fever, has been accepted as the criterion of 
 the sanitary improvement that is being made. This 
 seems to the author to be a serious mistake, for 
 the death-rate of any disease is a very changeable 
 factor, due rather to better treatment than to better 
 sanitation; especially has this been true in regard 
 to typhoid fever, consequently, while the amount of 
 typhoid fever in a place might be as great as ever, 
 the death-rate might be, as it is, gradually lessening, 
 
Vital Statistics 
 
 145 
 
 and this improvement should certainly not be credited 
 to the side of sanitary progress. 
 
 I have arranged the following tables in order to 
 show the great variation that may sometimes occur 
 between the typhoid sick-rate and death-rate. 
 
 RATE PER 10,000 
 
 Table 
 
 I 
 
 Table 
 
 II 
 
 Death-rate 
 
 Sick-rate 
 
 Death-rate 
 
 Sick-rate 
 
 1.4 
 
 18 
 
 3- 
 
 IO 
 
 1.4 
 
 3 
 
 3.0 
 
 20 
 
 1.4 
 
 7 
 
 3- 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 3-o 
 
 7 
 
 Table 
 
 III 
 
 Table 
 
 IV 
 
 Death-rate 
 
 Sick-rate 
 
 Death-rate 
 
 Sick-rate 
 
 5- 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 5-o 
 
 45 
 
 IO 
 
 100 
 
 Table V 
 
 Death-rate 
 
 18.0 
 18.0 
 
 Sick-rate 
 
 2OO 
 
 4 2 
 
 Take, for example, a city which has a death-rate 
 of only 1.4 per 10,000; all sanitarians would judge 
 this to be a place supplied with fair drinking water, 
 yet one of these cities, as is shown by Table I, might 
 have just six times as much typhoid fever as the 
 other. Now take a city where the death-rate is 5: 
 this would be considered to be in poor sanitary con- 
 dition, yet if its sick-rate is only 5 it is in vastly 
 better condition than the city with the lower death- 
 rate of 1.4 and a sick-rate of 18. By referring to 
 
1 46 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 the tables many such discrepancies will be seen; 
 for instance in Table III, although the death-rates 
 are the same, the real difference in the amount of 
 typhoid is 40 cases per 10,000, and in Table V, with 
 the death-rate of 18, one city had five times as much 
 typhoid as the other, and one of them had even less 
 than a city with the much lower death-rate of 5. 
 
 With such and even greater differences occurring 
 in actual records, it must be evident that the death- 
 rate cannot have the same relative sanitary import- 
 ance as the sick -rate; the death-rate stands for the 
 treatment and the character of the disease, while the 
 number sick is the real point with the sanitarian. 
 Of what value as an indicator of sanitary gain would 
 be the death-rate of diphtheria to-day compared with 
 what is was twenty years ago? As an indicator of 
 improved treatment it would be, however, of immense 
 value. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 Municipal Sanitation 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 UNICIPAL sanitation is not of very ancient 
 origin; although as soon as men banded 
 together into towns, they discovered that 
 certain precautions had to be taken for 
 the preservation of their health; these means did not 
 come under communal direction but were generally 
 limited to each man taking care of himself, as is 
 done to-day in the small village. By and by the first 
 steps in municipal organization were instituted, which 
 consisted only in getting a public water-supply and 
 some method of waste disposal crude, although very 
 crude were the methods in use. 
 
 While Greek and Roman cities were being adorned 
 with those magnificent palaces and temples of marble, 
 the ruins of which still excite our admiration, the 
 very streets by the side of these buildings were so 
 filthy that on a hot day the stench was almost unbear- 
 able, so a contemporary writer states. Later, in the 
 Middle Ages, the little progress that had been made 
 
 147 
 
148 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 was forgotten, and sanitation, like everything else 
 good and wise, was hidden away in the monkish 
 cloisters of Europe. Stables and houses were close 
 together and human filth was simply thrown into the 
 street, presumably to be removed by a scavenger. 
 Pestilence after pestilence swept over the land, and 
 in 1348 Venice appointed three public health officers 
 and attempted municipal direction of public health, 
 for the first time in the world's history. 
 
 Henceforth, a better condition of affairs began to 
 exist, although improvement was slow, very slow. 
 Here is a little note which has come down to us about 
 Str at ford-on- A von in the sixteenth century: "The 
 streets were full of evil-smelling pools, in which pigs 
 and geese freely disported themselves, and dung- 
 hills skirted the highway. The first thing we learn 
 about Shakespeare's father is that in April, 1552, he 
 was fined twelvepence for having formed a great 
 midden outside his house in Henley Street a cir- 
 cumstance which, on the one hand, proves that he 
 kept sheep and cattle, and, on the other, indicates 
 his scant care for cleanliness, since the common dung- 
 hill lay only a stone's throw from his house. Again, in 
 1558, he, along with some other citizens, is fined 
 fourpence for the same misdemeanor." 
 
 In London a hundred years later much the same 
 condition existed. Macaulay says: "Saint James's 
 Square was a receptacle for all the offal and cinders, 
 for all dead cats and dead dogs of Westminster. At 
 one time an impudent squatter settled himself there, 
 
Municipal Sanitation 149 
 
 and built a shed for rubbish under the windows of 
 the gilded saloons in which the first magnates of the 
 realm Norfolk, Ormond, Kent, and Pembroke gave 
 banquets and balls. It was not till these nuisances 
 had lasted through a whole generation, and till much 
 had been written about them, that the inhabitants 
 applied to Parliament for permission to plant trees. 
 
 " When such was the state of the region inhabited 
 by the most luxurious portion of society, we may 
 easily believe that the great body of the population 
 suffered what would now be considered insupportable 
 grievances. The pavement was detestable, and the 
 drainage was so bad that in rainy weather the gutters 
 soon became torrents. Several facetious poets have 
 commemorated the fury with which these black 
 rivulets roared down Snow Hill and Ludgate Hill, 
 bearing to Fleet Ditch a vast tribute of animal and 
 vegetable filth from the stalls of butchers and green- 
 grocers." 
 
 Gradually, as the knowledge of better means of 
 preventing disease spread abroad, greater demands 
 were made on municipalities, and municipal sanita- 
 tion developed and enlarged into the position it holds 
 to-day. Filthy water, dirty streets, crime-lurking and 
 pest-breeding tenements are no longer tolerated; food- 
 and milk-supply, supervision of schools and transpor- 
 tation lines, the proper construction of buildings and 
 the collection of vital statistics also come, or should 
 come, under municipal supervision; in fact, in the 
 larger cities, the sanitary authorities generally are* 
 
150 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 and rightly should be, clothed with the power to use 
 almost any means to preserve the public health. All 
 of these subjects have been discussed in the foregoing 
 chapters, and a few remaining, perhaps minor ones, 
 are treated in the following: 
 
 OVERCROWDING 
 
 Crowding, that is, overcrowding, is one of the sani- 
 tary defects which seems inevitable in the rapidly 
 growing cities of the present although it is not a 
 thing alone of the present. As far back as the 
 times of Charles I. we find a law prohibiting "the 
 subdivision of any building into tenements . . . and 
 the receiving of more families than one into a single 
 building." The scarcer and dearer the land the 
 higher go the buildings, until some city streets are 
 practically tunnels with the roof left off. Such a con- 
 dition, when the streets are narrow, keeps out sun- 
 light from many rooms the greater part of the day 
 and favors dampness. 
 
 Of course, high buildings, in a business section like 
 lower Broadway, where the rooms are only occupied 
 for office purposes, probably do not have any far- 
 reaching effect; at least nothing in proportion to the 
 harm done when such buildings are used for continual 
 residence. This crowding has reached its pinnacle 
 on Manhattan Island, where in one section on the 
 East Side nearly 2000 persons dwell on a single 
 acre the thickest, blackest mass of humanity in the 
 
Municipal Sanitation 151 
 
 whole world; and the death-rate is simply appalling, 
 especially among the infants during a hot summer; 
 even if the tenement child does survive his infant 
 days, he has still a battle to fight for life, for tuber- 
 culosis is the dread monster that saps the strength 
 of the overcrowded. Other diseases fall into insig- 
 nificance when compared to the Great White Plague; 
 indeed it is claimed by some authorities that fully 
 one-half of the whole tenement population of New 
 York is more or less tubercular, and every other 
 city where similar conditions exist may expect similar 
 results. 
 
 Here is a little record taken from "The Battle 
 with the Slum," by Jacob A. Riis, which shows the 
 terrible conditions brought on by overcrowding, 
 and is well worth the reading to every sanitarian 
 and public-spirited citizen. "Twenty cases of typhoid 
 fever from a single house in one year was the record 
 that had gone unconsidered. Bedrooms in tenements 
 were dark closets, literally without ventilation. There 
 couldn't be any. The houses were built like huge, 
 square boxes, covering nearly the whole of the lot. 
 Some light came in at the ends, but the middle was 
 always black. 
 
 "Forty thousand windows, cut by order of the 
 Health Board that first year, gave us a daylight view 
 of the slum 'damp and rotten and dark, walls 
 and banisters sticky with constant moisture/ 
 Think of living babies in such hell-holes and make 
 a note of it, you in the young cities who can still 
 
152 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 head off the slums where we have to wrestle with it 
 for our sins! 
 
 " Put a brand upon the murderer who would smother 
 babies in dark holes and bedrooms! He is nothing 
 else. Forbid the putting up of a house five stories 
 high, or six, on a twenty-five-foot lot, unless at least 
 thirty-five per cent of the lot be reserved for sun- 
 light and air. Forbid it absolutely, if you can. It 
 is the devil's job, and you will have to pay his dues 
 in the end, depend on it." 
 
 All municipalities should carefully note the first 
 symptom of the disease of overcrowding, for it creeps 
 on gradually, very gradually, and prevention is vastly 
 better than cure. The height of all buildings should 
 be strictly limited, depending, of course, on the width 
 of the street and the size of the lot. Some cities 
 have regulations permitting the height to equal one 
 and one-half times the width of the street; perhaps 
 that is about right. Equally important is it that 
 sufficient room be left on every lot for air-space. On 
 a corner-lot something like twenty-five per cent should 
 be reserved for this purpose, and on an inside lot 
 probably forty per cent should be left unoccupied. 
 The tendency to occupy the greater part of a lot 
 with a building in a residence district is an early 
 symptom of overcrowding; when the rear tenement 
 goes up the disease is thoroughly developed and 
 needs active treatment. 
 
 The plan and form of tenements are not within 
 the scope of this work, yet suffice it to say that 
 
Municipal Sanitation 153 
 
 every room should have plenty of light sunlight 
 and the number of people per building should be 
 limited. The question of baths in tenements is yet 
 open. Tubs are not very satisfactory, it is likely 
 that some form of shower-bath would be much better. 
 
 Tenements have been recently built in New York 
 and Brooklyn especially, which conform to all sani- 
 tary requirements, and are models of their kind; 
 six stories high and of brick, with hallways "airy 
 and sunshiny," and divided into two-, three-, and 
 four-room apartments, the entire building being as 
 fireproof as modern science can make it. 
 
 The apartments are heated by steam, and hot 
 water is furnished all the year round from a central 
 boiler-room. In all the kitchens there are gas-ranges, 
 and the average fuel and light bill has been less than 
 three dollars per month. In the basement there are 
 free shower- and tub-baths and each suite of rooms 
 has a private toilet. There are no rooms without 
 windows and there is a dust-chute on every floor. 
 The cleanliness of these buildings show a marked 
 contrast to the old tenement and the cheapness of 
 the rent put them in the way of the poorer class, the 
 very class for which they were intended, and the 
 strangest thing of all is that, although they were 
 not built with the idea of profit, they are paying 
 four per cent on the investment. 
 
 In all our work of municipal and sanitary reform 
 we are apt to forget that the alleys and the tene- 
 ments are more needful of attention for the public 
 
1 54 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 health than the avenues and the brownstone fronts. 
 The following lines, written by an unknown poet, 
 have a meaning that is worthy some thought: 
 
 "From slums, where foul diseases hide, 
 The free wind travels far and wide, 
 
 "The rich man, living on the square, 
 Throws wide his windows for the air, 
 
 "His petted child with every breath 
 Drinks in the viewless seeds of death. 
 
 "The rich man loaded down with his woe 
 Wonders why God should send the blow. 
 
 "The pastor wonders, too, and prays 
 And talks of God's mysterious ways. 
 
 "But know, O man of high estate, 
 You're bound up with the poor man's fate, 
 
 "The winds that enter at your door 
 Have crept across his attic floor. 
 
 "If you would have 'all well' with you 
 Then you must seek his welfare too. 
 
 "If even selfishness were wise, 
 It would no other life despise." 
 
 STREET CLEANING 
 
 Another factor in municipal sanitary housekeeping 
 is street cleaning. In the Middle Ages and even 
 later, as mentioned previously, the public streets were 
 the receptacles for all sorts of filth and waste. For 
 example, one of the city ordinances of Muhlberg, in 
 1367, ordered that manure deposited by householders 
 
Municipal Sanitation 155 
 
 on the market-place must not be allowed to remain 
 longer than fourteen days a record, though small, 
 which tells a pretty big tale. 
 
 In all the larger cities the public now demand 
 clean streets as one of the requirements of health. 
 The late Col. Waring, during his administration in 
 New York, used to point to the improved health 
 statistics as an evidence of the value of clean streets; 
 such statistics are slightly misleading, for during 
 this period there was likewise renewed activity on 
 all lines of health administration; however, no one 
 doubts but that clean streets are an important item 
 in municipal health, for streets, dirty and filthy with 
 dust, wafted hither and thither with every wind, 
 cause various eye, throat, and bronchial diseases; 
 and streets wet and slushy with snow and ice cause 
 wet feet and the consequent colds and pneumonic 
 troubles. Then, again, clean streets tend to make 
 clean back yards, for each and every step in progress 
 helps on to a next. 
 
 In street cleaning the principal points are the 
 sweeping, scraping, and flushing of the streets, the 
 removal of snow, and the prevention of the scattering 
 of household rubbish and ashes. Col. Waring brought 
 street cleaning in this country up to a standard 
 hitherto unattained; his method, described by him- 
 self, was somewhat as follows: "Each sweeper, clad 
 in white duck, is supplied with a little two-wheeled 
 truck which supports an open bag or can to receive 
 sweepings (Fig. 35). On this truck he transports his 
 
156 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 tools: a broom with a scraper at the back, a water- 
 ing-can, a short shovel (or a shovel-like arrangement 
 fastened to the truck), and for asphalt, a broad, long- 
 handled scraper. The sweepings are put in the bag 
 (or can) as fast as collected. When full, the bag is 
 tied and placed on the curb. 
 
 " Householders are allowed to put nothing on the 
 sidewalk. All receptacles must stand within the 
 
 FIG. 35. A Sweeper at Work. (From McClure's Magazine.) 
 
 'stoop-line.' Garbage is kept separate, and is set 
 out in a proper vessel within half an hour of the 
 scheduled arrival of the cart on its early-morning 
 rounds. Ashes are kept within the house in cans, 
 from which they are transferred to bags by a depart- 
 ment man. These bags are tied and set on the curb 
 to be taken away by the cart that collects the bags 
 of sweepings." 
 
Municipal Sanitation 157 
 
 By this method Col. Waring cleaned the streets of 
 New York better than they had ever been cleaned 
 before, but this was not all; the greatest thing prob- 
 ably was, according to Col. Waring himself, that "a 
 man instead of a voter had been put at the other 
 end of the broom-handle." 
 
 For snow removal the only effective method is man, 
 shovel, and cart; the cost depends on the price of 
 local labor and is always expensive, but snow removal 
 is very desirable, especially in climates where there 
 is much thawing and freezing. 
 
 PUBLIC BATHS 
 
 The introduction of baths for public use is an old 
 institution, and valuable from the point of sanita- 
 tion and morality, for there can be no question but 
 that "cleanliness is next to godliness." Municipali- 
 ties are beginning to recognize these facts, and public 
 baths are becoming more and more a popular insti- 
 tution. In the great cities where ninety to ninety- 
 nine per cent of the poorer classes have no bathing 
 facilities, the public bath becomes a real sanitary 
 necessity. 
 
 We all know the story of the Roman baths inter- 
 esting and instructive it is how, although instituted 
 at first for the poor and the public, they soon degen- 
 erated into lounging-places for the luxurious and 
 indolent nobility, who, with enervated and clouded 
 brain, forgot that they lived in a work-day world. 
 
158 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 In the "Last Days of Pompeii" Lord Lytton gives 
 a splendid description of the bath during the period 
 of Roman greatness. "By Hercules!" said Diomed, 
 opening his eyes, "Why it would take a man's whole 
 life to bathe." "At Rome, it often does," replied 
 Galucus, gravely. "There are many who live only 
 at the baths. They repair there the first hour in 
 which the doors are opened, and remain until that 
 in which the doors are closed. They seem as if they 
 knew nothing of the rest of Rome, as if they despised 
 all other existence." 
 
 "By Pollux! you amaze me. ... Even those who 
 bathe only thrice a day contrive to consume their 
 lives in this occupation." 
 
 The "only" is the meaningful word in this sentence, 
 for it is recorded that many bathed habitually seven 
 times a day. Here is plainly a case of mistaking the 
 means for the end, and the trouble was not with the 
 bath but with the people; it will indeed be well for 
 modern cities to study the story of this Roman mis- 
 take. 
 
 There is no need to have costly marble palaces 
 for public baths; durability is the needful thing in 
 the building, and a speedy method for bathing, a 
 thorough and speedy removal of the soiled water, 
 are the needful things in the bathing arrangements; 
 and this seems to be accomplished more readily by 
 the rain- or shower-bath than by any other means. 
 
 A rain-bath takes "only about one-tenth of the 
 water and is vastly more cleanly. In a space 68 X 25 
 
Municipal Sanitation 
 
 159 
 
 feet there have been placed facilities for bathing by 
 rain-bath, 400 persons daily. To construct even a 
 pool to bathe this many people would require one 
 hundred times the space. 
 
 FIG. 36. Section of a Rain-bath. (From the "Sanitarian.") 
 
 Fig. 36 shows the working of the rain-bath: the 
 applicant first turns "on the water, soaps himself 
 thoroughly, then again turns on the shower, and in 
 five or six minutes is as clean, as soap and water can 
 make him. By this method of bathing, cleanliness 
 of the bathoom is more easily attained, and the 
 
160 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 danger of transmitting contagious diseases reduced 
 to a minimum or rather abolished a real danger in 
 public tub-bathing unless the utmost care is observed 
 and a great amount of labor expended. 
 I 
 
 PUBLIC PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 
 
 Public parks and playgrounds for the city is another 
 sanitary benefit quite often overlooked by the city 
 "fathers," especially in rapidly growing cities. Parks 
 bring the freshness of the country, the fields and the 
 woods, to the overcivilized denizens of the crowded 
 districts, breathing-spots to the thousands who are 
 cooped up amid endless walls of brick and mortar. 
 Recreation and relaxation are just as necessary to a 
 healthy life as food and drink; good, healthy out- 
 door life for children makes better men and women, 
 better able to meet and to overcome the labor and 
 exactions of adult life. 
 
 Any one who has seen Central Park on an afternoon 
 when the green stretches are "common," when 
 hundreds of children are romping and playing and 
 picnicing with their parents and elders, must realize 
 that the greatest good that a great city can dc for 
 its people has here been done. 
 
 William the Conquerer tearing down villages to 
 make hunting-parks for Norman nobles is rightly 
 maligned by his contemporaries. A thousand years 
 later we tear down city blocks to make parks and 
 playgrounds, not for a ruling class but rather for 
 
Municipal Sanitation 161 
 
 the unprivileged mass; better still we should say 
 for the good of all so much has humanity progressed. 
 
 After considerable study experts have decided that 
 about one-twentieth of a city's area should be re- 
 served for parks and squares. That young cities 
 should see to this in time and set apart sufficient 
 space is only an evidence of economy. Mulberry 
 Bend Park, and it doesn't seem much of a park to 
 the rural visitor, nevertheless cost New York over 
 $2,000,000; neglected sanitation sometimes conies 
 high. 
 
 In one of the larger towns of Central Pennsylvania 
 this taking time by the forelock has been done. On 
 the borders of this city there are 400 acres of waste 
 land, of swamp and meadow and hillside, covered 
 with trees and grass and flowers. A real natural 
 park sculptured out and filled up by an ancient river 
 a park without the aid of the landscape-gardener. 
 After considerable agitation this city has taken means 
 to appropriate this as a public park probably the 
 wisest and most far-sighted policy ever displayed by 
 any city. 
 
 THE SMOKE NUISANCE 
 
 The smoke question is beginning to be agitated in 
 almost all cities, not perhaps so much on account of 
 the sanitary as the aesthetic side. But it has a sani- 
 tary side, too, for the black, heavy smoke, especially 
 resulting from soft-coal combustion, composed of 
 
162 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 particles of carbon, hanging like a black cloud over 
 many a city, blots out sunshine and light; not only 
 this, but carbon particles in the atmosphere help to 
 make fogs, and fog and smoke together is still worse 
 It has been calculated that some of the large cities 
 lose about one-sixth of their sunshine from this 
 cause and about an equal amount of light; this for 
 summer. In winter the loss is estimated at fully 
 one-half, and no one will deny but that the loss of 
 sunlight of so much sunlight is an insanitary con- 
 dition. 
 
 A great part of the smoke is due to domestic fires, 
 that is when soft coal is burned exclusively; each 
 house, it is estimated, pours out something like five 
 tons of smoky air every day. In other places where 
 soft coal is only used for factories the domestic fire 
 does not enter into the calculation. In Fig. 37 is 
 shown a photograph of a city of this kind: the heavy 
 cloud of smoke from the factories in the east end 
 of the city, forming a dark background for the build- 
 ing in white, helps to make a fine photograph, but 
 a dirty city. 
 
 The atmosphere, by the way, does not annihilate 
 or consume the smoke or render it harmless, as it 
 does disease-germs; it simply carries it from one 
 place to another and then drops it earthward. In 
 some cities which happen to be great railroad centres 
 the contributions from this source are enormous, and 
 in most of our large cities the smoke problem has 
 risen to such a point that it calls for repressive 
 
Municipal Sanitation 165 
 
 measures. The whole subject, however, is simply a 
 matter of legislation, since smoke-consuming devices 
 are able to give us a smokeless chimney. 
 
 The rapid advance of electrical power generated 
 by water is beginning to be felt in certain favored 
 places and the chimneyless factory is one of the hopes 
 of the future. 
 
 THE SPITTING NUISANCE 
 
 The habit of public spitting on the sidewalks, 
 street-cars, etc., has gotten to be not only a public 
 nuisance, but a real menace to the public health, 
 especially when it happens that a person with tuber- 
 culosis may be doing the spitting. Dried tubercu- 
 losis sputum retains its vitality for many months in 
 favorable places and is not affected by cold, so that cold, 
 damp, and dark rooms and unclean cars, once infected, 
 may remain a source of danger to future occupants. 
 Such sputum dried on the street, carried everywhere 
 by the winds, becomes a menace to every one. A 
 good many cities have laws against public spitting, 
 and there seems to be no reason why anti-spitting 
 laws should not be enforced, although it is likely 
 that the education of the public to the dangers arising 
 from this cause would have a greater and more far- 
 reaching effect. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 Rural and Suburban Sanitation 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 URAL sanitation differs radically from 
 municipal sanitation in that, in a city, 
 the municipality assumes charge of, and 
 responsibility for, almost all sanitary con- 
 ditions, while in the country, for the most part, the 
 individual is himself responsible for the sanitary or 
 insanitary conditions surrounding his residence; it 
 rests with him alone, very often, whether typhoid 
 fever or some other preventable disease shall invade 
 his home. 
 
 Rural hygiene never received very much attention, 
 for the country was always considered a healthy 
 place; in the years gone by, when cities were in the 
 plight described in a former chapter, the country 
 then was, in comparison, a very healthy place; thinly 
 settled, watered by wholesome springs, and covered 
 with a virgin soil which rapidly disposed of all organic 
 waste, it was indeed pure and sanitary. With the 
 increase of population and it is the same in all 
 
 1 66 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 167 
 
 lands and all times as generation after generation 
 resided in the same place, the soil surrounding such 
 habitations became polluted and overburdened with 
 organic filth; springs and wells became polluted and 
 finally infected, and the isolated country-place, orig- 
 inally healthy, became scourged with disease. 
 
 While the cities have been making wonderful sani- 
 tary progress in recent years, the country has still 
 kept to its old-fashioned ways, trusting in Providence 
 and the "Old Oaken Bucket"; the sanitary aspect 
 of many a village to-day is the exact counterpart of 
 many a town or city in the days of Shakespeare. Con- 
 sequently, as a result of this rural neglect born of 
 conservatism, the healthfulness of these localities is 
 not what it should be. As was shown in a former 
 chapter, the general death-rate has not been lowered 
 in many rural districts in the same proportion that 
 has taken place in the urban districts, and it is evi- 
 dent that much more attention should be paid to 
 the sanitation of these outlying districts, not only 
 for their own sake but also for the advantage reaped 
 by the adjoining municipalities, and eventually by 
 the whole state. 
 
 DWELLINGS 
 
 First in importance in the country as in the city 
 is the question of dwelling; in the city the construc- 
 tion of buildings is under the rules and regulations 
 of the city government, which make it possible for 
 
1 68 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 all buildings to conform to a certain standard. The 
 city dweller buys a lot and builds thereon his house, 
 facing the street whether it is east or west, north or 
 south; over the surrounding buildings he has no con- 
 trol they may overtop his and keep out the sun, 
 and they may prevent him from having a fine view 
 across a neighboring river or lake, but for this there 
 is no remedy; he must confine himself to his own 
 narrow lot. 
 
 In the country and suburbs it is different, and the 
 prospective builder may choose a site that conforms 
 more to sanitary requirements and individual taste; 
 he may have a lot large enough for the sun to shine 
 into the house during the whole day. He may build 
 on a hill or he may build in the valley. When it 
 comes to the house-building proper one is not bound 
 by any rules, but if he wishes a dwelling that is to be 
 healthy it is necessary to follow sanitary principles; 
 and there are three things: ground-moisture, ground- 
 water, and ground-air which must be considered 
 before a stone is laid. 
 
 The ground-moisture is that moisture in the upper 
 layers of the soil, derived from the ground-water 
 below by capillary attraction, and from the perco- 
 lation of surface-waters from above. As the amount 
 of moisture is directly proportional to the absorptive 
 power of the soil, it is evident that by increasing the 
 permeability of the soil, we can diminish this damp- 
 ness; to do this in any given place we fill trenches 
 with broken stone, or we lay drain- tiles; the water 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 169 
 
 percolating through the soil will collect in these drains 
 and flow off, and the soil will become dry. 
 
 This dampness of the soil, especially when excessive, 
 is no doubt a factor in certain diseases; the prevalence 
 of rheumatic complaints in rural localities is a well- 
 known fact, strikingly different from its occurrence 
 in a well-drained city. There seems to be a relation, 
 too, between dampness and phthisis; according to 
 the English sanitarians there has been a great lower- 
 ing of the mortality from this disease following sub- 
 soil drainage in certain districts. The elimination of 
 malaria, which always follows improved drainage, we 
 now know to be due to the destruction of the breed- 
 ing-places of the mosquito. Diphtheria, too, seems 
 to spread much more rapidly in houses with dark, 
 damp cellars. 
 
 Ground-water, another soil factor of considerable 
 interest, is that underground sheet of water which 
 completely fills all the interstices of the soil; its height 
 is readily told by the height of the water in the neigh- 
 boring wells. This sheet of ground-water is in con- 
 stant motion to the nearest watercourse and cannot 
 usually be lowered except by lowering the adjoining 
 streams; but, unless the ground-water is very near 
 the surface, it is not of very much consequence to the 
 house-builder, except that it furnishes some moisture 
 to the upper layers of the soil. I know of a town 
 where the ground-water is generally twenty-five or 
 thirty feet below the surface, yet almost every house 
 is damp and unhealthy, because faulty construction 
 
170 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 has permitted ground-moisture and surface-water 
 to enter the foundations. The relationship between 
 ground-water and typhoid fever, which has been 
 shown to be present in many places, does not exist 
 in the absence of wells or springs which are used for 
 a supply of drinking water. 
 
 The ground-air is interesting to the sanitary house- 
 builder in two phases, namely, its composition and 
 movement. It is made up partly of gases arising 
 from decomposition and putrefaction, processes which 
 are continually going on in the soil, especially in 
 that which is contaminated with organic waste; 
 and the resultant gases diffuse rapidly through the 
 surrounding locality. Carbon dioxide, w r hich is one 
 of the gases formed, is always greater in ground-air 
 than in the atmosphere, while oxygen, on the other 
 hand, is decreased, and nitrogen remains about the 
 same. In addition to these gases there are certain 
 amounts of ammonia, hydrogen, ammonium sulphide, 
 and marsh-gas which go to make up ground-air; thus 
 differing greatly in composition from the atmosphere 
 it is surely not suitable for breathing purposes. In 
 addition, too, it may contain at times certain disease- 
 germs. 
 
 The second disturbing factor of the ground-air its 
 movement is of considerable importance. It has 
 been found that the wind blowing against the surface- 
 soil sets this underground air in motion; likewise, 
 too, any change in the ground-water level will occa- 
 sion fluctuations in the air above. During a heavy 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 171 
 
 rain, for example, the surface-waters flowing down- 
 ward upon the ground-air compress it. Underneath 
 a dwelling, if the cellar is not properly protected, 
 there is an area of diminished pressure, and, conse- 
 quently, the ground-air pours into the cellar and 
 then into the house above. In winter, during heavy 
 Irost, similar conditions exist, when the frozen ground 
 is more or less impervious; and then the warm, 
 unfrozen, and porous part underneath the house 
 readily facilitates the ascent of the air below. 
 
 So with the understanding of these soil factors 
 ground-water, ground-air, and ground-moisture we 
 try to construct a foundation which will eliminate 
 these dangers. In the first place, the surrounding 
 area should be thoroughly drained, unless it happens 
 to be very dry from natural drainage. A trench, 
 filled with broken stones or laid with tiles, and having 
 an outlet in some lower ground, should surround the 
 foundation-wall; the trench being somewhat deeper 
 than the bottom of the foundation. After the exca- 
 vation has been made the required size, the bottom 
 should be laid with concrete (Fig. i), and this covered 
 with a layer of hot pitch; the walls should then be 
 built upon this, and the outside of the wall also 
 coated with hot pitch. The cellar floor may then 
 be finished w r ith a coat of concrete or cement. A 
 foundation made in this or some similar way insures 
 the occupants against all trouble from the soil. 
 
 The direction to which a house should face will 
 depend on circumstances, but it should be so arranged, 
 
172 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 if possible, that sunlight can enter every room some 
 time during the day. The common method of having 
 the front of the house, with its most used and fre- 
 quented rooms facing the road or street in whatever 
 direction it may happen to be, is bad, for it some- 
 times gives the least possible amount of sunshine 
 and light to the principal rooms in the house. A 
 better way, and one that is generally feasible, is to 
 put the house in such a position that the principal 
 living-rooms will have a southerly exposure, irre- 
 spective of the street, and then by making a lawn 
 of the back yard and planting shrubbery it will matter 
 little if the front of the house does face the rear of 
 the lot. 
 
 The material of which a house is built is generally, 
 as indicated in Chapter I, an economic question; brick 
 and stone, are, of course, preferable to wood, less 
 exposed to currents of air and changes of tempera- 
 ture, and in some localities do not cost much more. 
 Just at present, in most of the Eastern cities, brick 
 is as cheap, if not cheaper, than wood, and, in the 
 future, the increasing scarcity of wood will necessitate 
 the use of these other materials, or perhaps the use 
 of concrete, which is coming into favor. Brick and 
 stone houses are likely to become damp, unless the 
 walls are double; that is, the plaster must never be 
 put directly on the wall, but an air-space must be 
 left by "furring" (as the builders say) the lath away 
 from the wall by strips of wood which leave a small 
 interval between the lath and wall. 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 173 
 
 Shade-trees about a country or suburban house 
 are important, but the great tendency in the country 
 is to have the trees too thick and close; in villages 
 and small towns this fault is almost universal, on 
 account of the narrow pavement and streets. A tree 
 should be no nearer the house than fifteen feet and 
 should be trimmed "high"; cutting off the top, as 
 is so often done, makes the evil worse by growing 
 a denser shade, for every branch loped throws out 
 two or three new ones. Nature always trims a tree 
 from below. 
 
 WATER-SUPPLY 
 
 Another important thing for the rural dweller, 
 and probably the most important, is the question 
 of water-supply; not only important to the perma- 
 nent country dweller but even to the occasional city 
 visitor, for since cities have improved their water- 
 supplies, it has been found that the country districts 
 are the remaining fountainheads of typhoid fever. 
 New York City, last year, made the alarming dis- 
 covery that twenty-five per cent of all its typhoid 
 cases were directly traceable to the country certain- 
 ly alarming when we remember that this city has 
 been spending millions for pure water to aver, this 
 very disease. The rural population is not so insig- 
 nificant either, as we are accustomed to think, for just 
 about seventy per cent of the nation, varying from 
 twenty per cent in some of the New England States 
 to ninety-five per cent in some of the Western States, 
 
174 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 live in the country and smaller towns, where no 
 scientific forethought is given to the subject of drink- 
 ing water; in other words, something like 40,000,000 
 of people in the United States simply use the water 
 most available in an economic way, ignoring com- 
 pletely the sanitary efficiency. 
 
 Although these rural water-supplies come from 
 many different sources individual w r ells, springs, and 
 small streams scattered through the country it has 
 been found that they are very similar in one respect, 
 namely, their utter unreliability for furnishing a 
 suitable drinking water. Whether in Canada or in 
 Florida, in Pennsylvania or in California, this unfit- 
 ness of the rural drinking water is a striking feature. 
 
 Of the various sources of rural supply the well 
 stands first and foremost; and too much cannot be 
 said against the ordinary shallow well, especially 
 when in town or village; the "town" pump is espe- 
 cially to be avoided (Fig. 38). The deep-drilled 
 well in a good many districts is no better than the 
 shallow one; in fact, I have known a deep well the 
 deepest in a small town which \vas the most polluted 
 in the whole locality, for the simple reason that it 
 pierced a region of loose shale which facilitated drain- 
 age, and where, in consequence of this fact, the deeper 
 the well the greater was the area of pollution. 
 
 In considering wells one should remember that 
 the geological characters of the strata have much 
 to do with the purity of the water. Some strata 
 being exceedingly pervious, while others, for example, 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 175 
 
 the thick, heavy clay of some of our river-bottoms, 
 are almost as impervious to water as concrete. In 
 a region of upturned strata, like the Appalachian of 
 Pennsylvania, and in a limestone region with its 
 numerous caverns and underground passages, exceed- 
 
 FIG. 38. The Town Pump a thing to be avoided. 
 (Photograph by the Author.) 
 
 ing care must be exercised, for in such localities 
 infection may follow from some distant source. 
 Only a careful study of a place will give positive 
 results as to the reliability of a well-water. Better it 
 is to study the locality thoroughly at first than to 
 
176 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 carelessly sink money in the ground and perhaps 
 harvest a crop of typhoid fever later. 
 
 Springs, which so often furnish drinking water, 
 are just as good as their environment. If they 
 are situated on an uncultivated and uninhabited 
 upland they will very likely yield a pure water. 
 Since springs are only overflows of the ground-water, 
 their condition is dependent on the geological 
 character of the strata through which the water 
 passes. In a region of upturned rock-layers there 
 may be, as in the case of wells, seepage of pollution 
 from places little suspected, unless one is thoroughly 
 conversant with the place. Lakes, rivers, and small 
 streams are sources that must be carefully studied 
 before resorting to them. The small brook especially 
 must be carefully examined before use. It is only 
 when such a brook comes from an uninhabited upland 
 that it is safe and pure. 
 
 WASTE DISPOSAL 
 
 Waste disposal is another item it is the item in 
 rural sanitation, for if all waste was properly disposed of 
 there would be no water- nor air-pollution. In places 
 where water-service is available, sewage and the dis- 
 posal of sewage becomes a question. Unfortunately, 
 however, water-service always precedes sewerage-ser- 
 vice which is just the opposite of what it should be. 
 It is the old story of the cart before the horse, and, 
 as a consequence of this inverted arrangement, there 
 
1* 
 
 C C/3 
 In 
 
 O - 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 179 
 
 comes about the growth of the cesspool the leaking, 
 soil-poisoning cesspool the growth and development 
 of which is an interesting story. The prosperous 
 rural dweller has been to the city and recognizes the 
 convenience of the water-closet and bathtub and, 
 deciding to have one of his own, engages the service 
 of a plumber. The fixtures are put up, and then 
 arises the question about the disposal of the sewage, 
 for sewage it will be. The householder, perhaps, 
 says that he will do as his city friends and run it 
 into the sewer, forgetting that there are no sewers; 
 but the wise plumber, who has been in such places 
 before, helps him out of the difficulty by running 
 the soil-pipe into the old privy, and tells him, if it 
 gets filled, to have it emptied. In the majority of 
 cases it will never get full, for the simple reason 
 that most of the water will leak into the surrounding 
 soil incidentally perhaps into some one's well or 
 water-pipes. 
 
 The only way to dispose of sewage from an isolated 
 house is by some method of surface or subsoil drainage: 
 First permitting the sewage to flow into a settling- 
 tank where the solid particles are broken up and 
 decomposed by bacterial action, and th,n discharging 
 the resultant liquid by an automatic siphon over 
 cultivated land or into the tiles of a subsoil-drainage 
 system. 
 
 Where water-service is not available the right way 
 to dispose of excreta is by means of what is known 
 as the "dry" closet. This calls for the use of a 
 
180 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 galvanized-iron pail and a seat exactly like that of 
 an ordinary water-closet (Fig. 39). At the side of 
 the seat is a box for holding the absorbent, which 
 consists of sifted-coal ashes or dry earth. After use, 
 a little of the absorbent is scattered in the pail, and 
 
 FIG. 40. The Typhoid-breeder in the Country. "Man's Back Yard 
 and the Devil's Cesspcol (Privy)." Osier. (Photo, by the Author.) 
 
 when the pail is filled it is emptied on cultivated 
 land a field or a garden-bed. If the pail is emptied 
 near the house, a little earth should be raked over 
 the pile, and in a short time a week or two in sum- 
 mer, with a corresponding increase in cold weather 
 all evidence of filth will have disappeared. Thus 
 
<U C 
 
 CO C 
 
FIG. 42. Showing Iron Rack supporting Flour-sack for Use as a 
 Waste Receptacle. (Photograph by the Author.) 
 
Rural and Suburban Sanitation 185 
 
 simple is the dry closet an arrangement which, if 
 taken proper care of, is perfectly cleanly, inodorous, 
 and sanitary. The old country privy should not be 
 used under any consideration. Dr. Osier is authority 
 for saying that the cause of so much rural typhoid is 
 "God's country, man's back yard, and the devil's cess- 
 pool (privy)" (Fig. 40). When the dry method is 
 used we will have certain waste-waters from the 
 bath and kitchen-sink to dispose of, and this is best 
 done by some form of surface-drain suspended over 
 the garden-bed. The one shown in the photograph 
 (Fig. 41 ) is made of a six-inch galvanized-roof gutter, 
 pierced every twelve inches by one-fourth-inch holes. 
 This allows the filthy water to be distributed evenly 
 over the ground without forming puddles and mud- 
 holes. The solid refuse about country and village 
 houses generally adorns the ash-pile or the alley. The 
 disposal of these products becomes easy, if the various 
 kinds are collected and kept separate. A good way is 
 to have a series of receptacles for the different mate- 
 rials and a certain place for each one, or, perhaps, 
 better have all these receptacles arranged together in 
 a large box near the kitchen door. In one receptacle, 
 which might be a flour-sack supported by an iron rack 
 as shown in Fig. 42, we would collect the rags, paper, 
 etc. In another, tin cans, bottles, and such rubbish; 
 then in a suitable can the ashes, and in another the 
 garbage that is, the solid waste from the kitchen. 
 Now as to the ultimate disposal of this solid waste: 
 the garbage is best disposed of by earth burial 
 
i 86 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 simply put into a shallow furrow in a field and covered 
 with a little earth. If the garden-bed is near the 
 kitchen a good way is to have a hole in the bed 
 and practice daily disposal of the garbage. Every 
 evening it should be covered with earth, and, in addi- 
 tion, a tight board-lid should cover the hole during 
 the summer months, else the place may become 
 a breeding-place for flies and degenerate into a nui- 
 sance. The non-combustible part of the rubbish, 
 such as bottles, tin cans, scraps of metal, etc., can 
 usually be sold to the junk-dealer, and the combus- 
 tible part rags and paper if not salable, should be 
 destroyed by fire. Ashes can be used in almost any 
 place for filling, making paths, and for foundations 
 under pavements. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 Personal Hygiene 
 
 HEREDITY 
 
 NE might live under the best sanitary con- 
 ditions described in the preceding pages, 
 drinking pure water, eating pure food, 
 and breathing pure air, yet he might be 
 doomed to a life of sickness and an early death, for 
 lack of knowledge of how to care for that delicately, 
 although strongly, made machine known as the 
 human body. Unfortunately, this machine, though 
 "fresh from the hand of the Maker," is often defec- 
 tive in many respects, and this brings up the important 
 question of heredity; important, vastly important it 
 is, for "blood" does tell. I do not mean the "blue 
 blood" of a tainted and worn-out aristocracy, but the 
 good red blood of health, derived from healthy ances- 
 tors who lived their days in sobriety and uprightness, 
 and bequeathed to their descendants good strong 
 hearts, elastic and healthy arteries and organs, and 
 a constitution able to resist the inroads of disease; 
 this is the kind of blood that does tell, and the 
 
 187 
 
i 88 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 child that has this kind is highly favored among his 
 fellows. 
 
 A certain young lady known to the author while 
 out camping developed a catarrhal pneumonia; for 
 a whole summer she was ill, but finally overcame 
 the disease. To that young lady ancestry was of 
 vital importance, for every doctor knows the course 
 of such a disease when it attacks those who are 
 born with a low-grade constitution, especially those 
 prone to that terrible disease tuberculosis. 
 
 Yet even if one is burdened with ancestral weak- 
 ness much may be done to make life healthy and 
 useful, by special care to the little details of right 
 living. And a life begun with the best of hereditary 
 factors may be embarrassed by ailments brought on 
 by careless living. 
 
 FOOD 
 
 In order to keep the body in effectual working order 
 we need a certain amount of food. To understand 
 properly this question we must have a clear knowledge 
 of the composition of food, the nutrient parts of 
 which are divided into four principal classes: protein, 
 fats, carbohydrates, and mineral matter or salts; 
 water, of course, while necessary for the human 
 machinery, is simply a diluent and is not transposed 
 into anything else. 
 
 The proteins, consisting of the albumin of eggs, 
 the casein of milk, lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc., 
 help to form tissue and are also broken up and used 
 
Personal Hygiene 
 
 as fuel. The fats, composed of various animal and 
 vegetable fat, are stored up in the body as fat and 
 are also burnt up as fuel. The carbohydrates include 
 the various sugars and starches; they are transformed 
 into fats and are stored up in the liver as glycogen. 
 The mineral matters are made up of the various 
 salts, chlorides, phosphates, etc. I have included 
 below a table of a few of the more common foods, 
 showing the proportions of the various nutrient 
 ingredients. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT FOODS 
 
 Food Materials. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Fuel Value, 
 i Pound. 
 
 Sirloin 
 
 Per Cent. 
 48 3 
 
 Per Cent. 
 1C 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 16 4 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Calories. 
 O7O 
 
 Ham 
 
 f- 1 j 
 
 36 8 
 
 14 
 
 ^6 
 
 
 I7^c 
 
 Eggfs. . 
 
 44- 6 
 
 1C 
 
 I .2 
 
 
 33O 
 
 Chicken 
 
 6^.1 
 
 12. I 
 
 IO. 2 
 
 
 6cc 
 
 Shad 
 
 2C 
 
 Q. 2 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 37C 
 
 Codfish 
 
 4O 
 
 16 
 
 O 4 
 
 
 3IC. 
 
 Oysters .... 
 
 1C. .4 
 
 I . I 
 
 O. 2 
 
 0.6 
 
 40 
 
 Milk 
 
 8? 
 
 ? 6 
 
 4 O 
 
 4 7 
 
 ?2C. 
 
 Butter 
 
 w / 
 
 10 c. 
 
 o w 
 1 .0 
 
 8c 
 
 O. C. 
 
 o^J 
 
 "?6ic, 
 
 Wheat flour 
 Oatmeal .... 
 
 12 
 
 7 6 
 
 II 
 
 1C . I 
 
 I . I 
 
 7. 1 
 
 75 
 68.2 
 
 1645 
 
 i8e,o 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 ic 
 
 Q. 2 
 
 3-8 
 
 7o 
 
 164=; 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 7O 
 
 2. I 
 
 O. I 
 
 18 
 
 37^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In the above table the fuel-value is the only other 
 item that requires explanation. The food consumed 
 in the body develops energy and this, in the form of 
 heat, is measured by means of an apparatus called 
 the calorimeter. "The unit used is called the caloric, 
 and is the amount of heat which would raise the tern- 
 
190 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 perature of a pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit." 
 (Atwater. ) The amount of salts in the various foods 
 has been omitted from the table as unnecessary to 
 an elementary understanding of the subject. 
 
 Now in furnishing food that is fuel to the human 
 body it has been found that these food-ingredients 
 must be mixed in a certain proportion to bring about 
 the best results; that is, one's diet must contain a 
 certain amount of proteid, fat, carbohydrate, and 
 salts in the proper proportion, or else the- body 
 suffers in one way or another. It has been found, 
 after numerous experiments, that a daily diet com- 
 posed of 0.28 of a pound of proteid, 0.28 of a pound 
 of fat, and 0.99 of a pound of carbohydrates, yielding 
 a fuel-value of about 3500 calories, furnishes a suit- 
 able amount of daily nourishment for a man doing 
 light muscular work; and to get this it is necessary 
 to eat a certain quantity of meat and vegetables; for 
 example, 12 ounces of sirloin steak, 3 ounces of but- 
 ter, 28 ounces of milk, 12 ounces of potatoes, and 
 12 ounces of flour, (see table) yield just about the 
 amount required and could be considered a standard 
 
 Food. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 Proteid. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Calories. 
 
 Sirloin 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 12 
 
 Pounds. 
 O 12 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 O 1 3 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 72C 
 
 Butter 
 
 9 
 
 
 o 16 
 
 
 680 
 
 Milk. . . 
 
 28 
 
 o 06 
 
 o 08 
 
 o 08 
 
 C7O 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 12 
 
 O OI 
 
 
 
 0/ u 
 
 
 12 
 
 o 08 
 
 O OI 
 
 
 TO ? e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A ^oo 
 
 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.38 
 
 o-75 
 
 345 
 
Personal Hygiene 191 
 
 daily diet for a person doing an average day's work. 
 Thus, by knowing the amount of each food eaten 
 and getting the nutrient values from the table, we 
 can readily discover if any given diet is yielding 
 sufficient nourishment. 
 
 There are other factors entering into such calcu- 
 lations which must be considered. I once, as noted 
 on page 27, computed the diet tables of a certain 
 municipal institution, with the result of showing (on 
 paper) that the inmates were getting an ample amount 
 of nourishment, but somewhere something was wrong, 
 for the hospital wards held a number of cases of scurvy, 
 and defective nutrition was marked on many a face. 
 Investigation resulted in the discovery that the food 
 was so badly prepared and carelessly served that it 
 failed utterly in giving the nourishment intended. 
 
 A one-sided diet, for instance, one defective in pro- 
 teids, does not sufficiently nourish the body; espe- 
 cially the diet of potatoes and cabbage which is so 
 common among the poorer classes during a period of 
 "hard times." Although such food does give a feeling 
 of sufficiency, it does not yield nutriment enough, 
 and the subject living on such a diet really suffers 
 from chronic starvation, and is unable to withstand 
 the violence of disease with anything like the power 
 of a well-fed person. On the other hand, excessive 
 eating is deleterious, especially excessive meat eating 
 (which is one of our national vices), for proteid waste 
 leaves the body by way of the kidneys and conse- 
 quently an excessive meat diet tends to overtax 
 
192 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 these organs, and leads, sooner or later, to degenerative 
 changes. 
 
 The beverages, tea and coffee, while not exactly 
 foods are valuable adjuncts which warm the stomach, 
 produce local excitement, and consequently aid 
 digestion; while the excessive use of either tea or 
 coffee is to be deplored, the moderate use of either 
 or both is without injury to most people. Children, 
 to be sure, should not use either; the custom preva- 
 lent among certain classes of people of giving babies 
 "coffee soup" is bad, very bad. 
 
 The use of alcohol, which is to a certain degree 
 burnt up in the system as food, is not to be counten- 
 anced except on medical advice. Although the ordi- 
 nary "drunk" makes a worse impression and gives 
 a better moral lesson, the habitual daily drinker, the 
 one who never gets drunk, is the one who suffers 
 most and does his system vastly more harm, for it 
 has been found that the daily use of even small doses 
 of alcohol continued through the years is sure to 
 bring on various degenerative changes which even- 
 tually lead to irreparable disease. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Exercise is necessary for the healthy action of 
 the human body, and lack of exercise brings about 
 lack of nutrition, wasting, and degeneration of the 
 tissues. Exercise makes the muscles large and strong, 
 increases the strength and power of the heart and 
 
Personal Hygiene 193 
 
 respiration; causes elimination of the waste carbon 
 from the body; increases the appetite, because more 
 food is needed by the muscles, and also brings about 
 a more perfect digestion of food; it increases the 
 amount of perspiration and causes a demand for more 
 water. 
 
 How much exercise one should take daily is a very 
 variable thing. A walk of 8 or 9 miles per day, or 
 its equivalent, has been considered, from the labora- 
 tory point of view, to be sufficient. The exercise 
 which goes with outdoor camping, tramping, hunt- 
 ing, and fishing is hardly likely to be overdone. 
 Walking is probably the best routine exercise; it 
 has the advantage of being the cheapest. Bicycle 
 riding is splendid and exhilarating, but there is con- 
 siderable likelihood of overtaxing the heart, especially 
 in hill-climbing. Boating, swimming, skating, and 
 horseback riding all yield healthy exercise. All exer- 
 cise, however, should be indulged in with moderation; 
 the object being to stop short of the point of fatigue; 
 every one has experienced the restless night when 
 he was "too tired to sleep," brought about by excessive 
 physical exercise. 
 
 When we come to take up the study of athletics 
 there is another tale to tell, for athletic exercise quite 
 often means physical overexertion ; this, with the 
 muscular fatigue following it, interferes with the 
 healthy nutrition of the various organs. With the 
 increase of muscular development following exercise 
 there follows also an increased development of the heart 
 
1 94 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 muscle, known as cardiac hypertrophy, which is so 
 common among those indulging in excessive exercise 
 that it has been named "athlete's heart." Hyper- 
 trophied heart tissue, like any other, is prone to 
 degenerate; consequently the college athlete, in fact 
 any athlete, unless the exercise is continued in late 
 life, is very liable to suffer from degenerative heart 
 changes. About football there is also a word to say 
 football has had a bad record. Dr. Coughlin of 
 Brooklyn recently kept a count of football casualties, 
 and found that during one year there were 35 deaths, 
 500 severe injuries, and 16 cases of spinal injuries, 
 followed by paralysis, to be attributed to this one 
 sport. When we remember that the cardinal object 
 in all athletics is improvement of the general health, 
 it would seem that there should be some change in 
 the method of playing a game which yields such a 
 mortality rate. 
 
 CLOTHING 
 
 Our prehistoric ancestors invented clothing to pro- 
 tect the body from cold and heat and rain, and although 
 it is a long way from the apron of fig-leaves to the 
 present, modern garments are still made for the 
 same purpose the cut, shape, etc., being subsidiary 
 points. In protecting the body from cold we have 
 found that what is needed is not only something to 
 keep the cold out but to keep the heat in, and for 
 this reason we wear woollen garments, for wool, being 
 
Personal Hygiene 195 
 
 woven with a large mesh which contains great quan- 
 tities of air is a splendid non-conductor of heat; it 
 is also a good absorbent of moisture, hence prevents 
 too rapid evaporation and consequent sudden chilling 
 of the body. The only disadvantages of wool are its 
 irritating properties and its shrinking in washing. 
 A garment of 75 per cent wool, unless very carefully 
 washed, will shrink to about one-half its original size ; 
 fame and fortune will surely be the lot of the man 
 who can make an all-wool garment that does not 
 shrink. Silk is about as good a non-conductor as 
 wool, is soft and light, but has the disadvantage of 
 being costly. 
 
 Cotton and linen, on the other hand, are good con- 
 ductors of heat and lack the absorbent properties 
 of wool and silk, hence they furnish the material 
 for garments used in warm weather and in tropical 
 climates. Linen is more durable but more expensive 
 than cotton. When one is exposed to sudden changes 
 of temperature or to much exercise cotton should 
 not be worn next the skin, unless it is changed imme- 
 diately after exercise, otherwise there is too rapid 
 cooling of the body and danger of "taking cold"; 
 cotton can take the place of wool in a certain degree 
 if woven like wool with a very large mesh; such a 
 garment, containing much air-space, acts more or 
 less as a non-conductor of heat. 
 
196 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 BATHING 
 
 There was probably a time when humanity took 
 no baths, as is said to be the fact to-day among the 
 hairy Ainu a savage tribe of Japan "who never 
 wash themselves from birth till death." But for 
 civilized man, or rather to be civilized, it is necessary 
 to bathe at frequent intervals, not only for the sake 
 of cleanliness, but in order to keep the pores of the 
 skin open and their action unobstructed, for when 
 the skin fails to do its work of elimination more 
 work is thrown on the kidneys. 
 
 There are several rules to be observed by those 
 who go in bathing or swimming, if they would do 
 themselves no harm. For example, no one should 
 remain in the water after he begins to feel chilly. 
 This feeling of cold, of chattering teeth and blue 
 lips is a sign of internal congestion, to continue which 
 is a serious risk; nor should one jump into cold water 
 feet first, for this brings on a sudden increase of blood 
 pressure in the head, which may lead to partial 
 unconsciousness and drowning; perhaps a good 
 many cases of drowning caused by "cramp" may be 
 due to this cause, or to the nausea and faintness caused 
 by going in the water soon after eating. 
 
 The Turkish bath, which requires only brief men- 
 tion, consists of a dry hot-air bath at the tempera- 
 ture of 120 to 170 F. for ten or fifteen minutes; 
 after this a hot shower-bath, followed by a thorough 
 
Personal Hygiene 197 
 
 scrubbing with soap, and a warm shower gradually 
 changing to a cold one. The Russian bath is much 
 the same except that moist air (steam) at 150 F. 
 is used for the first bath instead of dry air. Both of 
 these baths cause excessive perspiration and thorough 
 action of the skin, and are of much value as a means 
 of cleanliness, but should not be indulged in too fre- 
 quently nor too long at a time. 
 
 It is interesting to note in this connection that 
 many of the wild Indian tribes of North America 
 used the hot steam-bath as a remedial measure. 
 Heckewelder says that "the sweat-lodge is the first 
 thing an Indian has recourse to when he feels indis- 
 posed." Overburdened with rheumatic complaints, 
 as we know they were, it is no wonder they had 
 great faith in this bath. Though only consisting of 
 a closed lodge, some hot stones, and a dish of water, 
 with perhaps a hot decoction of some native roots, 
 it answered well the needs of a primitive and exposed 
 life. 
 
 THE SIMPLE LIFE 
 
 The essential part of a good deal of personal hygiene 
 may be summed up in the "simple life," as depicted 
 by Pastor Wagner, John Burroughs, John Muir, and 
 a host of other writers and thinkers. The strenuous 
 life of a frontier sheriff, the political turmoil of the 
 giddy office-seeker, the wild scramble and greed for 
 gold, all these exhaust and wear out an overtaxed 
 
198 Outlines of Practical Sanitation 
 
 nervous system, react on digestion, and may finally 
 shorten a useful life. 
 
 The rush and the hurry and the bustle of Broadway 
 at noon I do love to see sometimes, but it is, neverthe- 
 less, the "pace that kills." We can keep it up for a 
 time, but rest must come rest and relaxation if we 
 expect the human machinery to continue. It is easier 
 to do twelve months' work in eleven months than to 
 do twelve months' work in twelve months, some one 
 has aptly said. The overworked man or woman would 
 do well to read, and ponder over, that delightful book 
 " A Journey to Nature," by J. P. Mowbray. 
 
 The continual excitement and nervous strain of 
 excessive social pleasures: late dinners, later to bed, 
 luxurious ease, and a listless life; Colonial Dames 
 and King's Daughters; living on the small talk of the 
 world instead of good bread and butter; this, too, is 
 the "pace that kills" kills motherhood, the glory 
 of woman. 
 
 THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 1 
 
 OF 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Actinomycosis 142 
 
 Air, examination of 20 
 
 sewer 5 
 
 Air-space 13 
 
 Albany filter-plant 41 
 
 Alcohol, use of 192 
 
 Algae, copper treatment of 47 
 
 Alto, Mt 128 
 
 Altoona, Pa in 
 
 American Public Health Association, quoted 47, 127 
 
 Ammonia, albuminoid 51 
 
 free 51 
 
 Anthrax 138, 142 
 
 Arnold process 68 
 
 Artesian wells 32 
 
 Ashes, disposal of 71, 186 
 
 Asylums 26 
 
 Athletics 193 
 
 Bacillus coli 53 
 
 tuberculosis 127 
 
 typhosus . 54, 129 
 
 Back yard, the 23 
 
 Bacteria, aerobic 61,64 
 
 anaerobic 6 1 , 64 
 
 Bath, Russian 197 
 
 Turkish 196 
 
 Bathing 1 96 
 
 199 
 
2oo Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bathroom, a model 6 
 
 Baths, public 157 
 
 Roman 157 
 
 Bell, Dr., quoted n, 12, 89 
 
 Births, registration of 142 
 
 Boom's test. . ."" 20 
 
 Boston 68 
 
 Bread 85 
 
 alum in 94 
 
 Breslau, method of 122 
 
 Brooklyn 153 
 
 Bucke, R. M., quoted 60 
 
 Burroughs, John, quoted 197 
 
 Butler, Pa 46 
 
 California 174 
 
 Canada 174 
 
 Car sanitation 109 
 
 Carbon dioxide , 12, 20, 21 
 
 Cars, cleaning of no 
 
 furnishing of 1 1 
 
 heating of in 
 
 ventilation of 111,112 
 
 Catlin, George, quoted 120 
 
 Celli, quoted 130 
 
 Cerebrospinal fever 125 
 
 Chadwick, Edwin, quoted 105 
 
 Chicken-pox 142 
 
 Chocolate 93 
 
 Cholera 132, 142 
 
 Cincinnati 44 
 
 Clark process . 39 
 
 Clothing 194 
 
 Cocoa. 93 
 
 Coffee, use of 192 
 
 Comma bacillus 132 
 
 Connecticut, death-rate in 144 
 
 Contact-filters .' 4 
 
 Cottonseed-oil 93 
 
 Coughlin, Dr., quoted 194 
 
 Cows, the 75, 76 
 
Index 20 1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cow-stable, a model 79 
 
 Cremator, Engle 69 
 
 Dakota 33 
 
 Death-rate 144 
 
 typhoid 145 
 
 Deaths, registration of. . 143 
 
 De Foe, quoted 137 
 
 Delaware River 58 
 
 Diet, a standard 190 
 
 Diphtheria 2, 74, 123, 142 
 
 antitoxin in 124 
 
 Diseases, contagious and infectious 119 
 
 registration of 142 
 
 Disinfection, gaseous 122 
 
 Drinking- fountain 100 
 
 Drinking-water 115 
 
 Dry closet, the 179 
 
 construction of 180 
 
 disposal of contents of 180 
 
 for cars 115 
 
 for schools 103, 104 
 
 Dudley, Dr., quoted in 
 
 Dwellings, rural 167 
 
 Dysentery 143 
 
 Egbert, quoted 20, 106 
 
 Ehrlich, Prof., quoted 86 
 
 Erysipelas 143 
 
 Excreta, disposal of 113 
 
 Exercise 192 
 
 amount of 193 
 
 Expectoration, public 1 18, 165 
 
 Filter-beds, covered 44 
 
 Filters, contact 64, 65 
 
 Filtration, American 45 
 
 continuous 43 
 
 domestic 46 
 
 intermittent 44, 6 1, 65 
 
 rapid 45 
 
2O2 Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fish 90 
 
 Flies 131 
 
 Florida 174 
 
 Foods, adulteration of 92 
 
 cold-storage 92 
 
 composition of 1 88, 189 
 
 Food-supplies 85 
 
 Foundations 2 
 
 construction of 2 , 1 7 1 
 
 Fruit, California 89 
 
 Fruits 86 
 
 Garbage, burying of 67 
 
 cremation of 69, 72 
 
 disposal of 66, 185 
 
 dumping of 67 
 
 feeding of 67 
 
 reduction of 68, 72 
 
 Glanders 139, 143 
 
 Goodell, quoted 106 
 
 Grass, John, quoted 129 
 
 Ground-air 170 
 
 composition of 170 
 
 movement of 170 
 
 Ground-moisture '. 168 
 
 and rheumatism 169 
 
 and phthisis 169 
 
 Ground-water 169 
 
 and typhoid fever 170 
 
 Habitations i 
 
 construction of i 
 
 Haffkine, serum of 137 
 
 Harrisburg 45 
 
 Havana 136 
 
 Hazen, Allen, quoted 44 
 
 Heating, by direct-indirect radiation 17 
 
 by indirect radiation 17 
 
 hot-air 15 
 
 hot-water 16 
 
 of large buildings 19 
 
 steam. . 16 
 
Index 203 
 
 Heckewelder, quoted 197 
 
 Heredity 187 
 
 Hering, Rudolph, quoted 68 
 
 Hospitals 24 
 
 House-drain 4 
 
 House-trap 4 
 
 Howard, John 26 
 
 Howard, L. O., quoted 131 
 
 Hydrophobia 138, 143 
 
 treatment of 138 
 
 Hygiene, personal 187 
 
 Ice, handling of 1 16 
 
 Ice-supplies 54 
 
 Illumination, artificial 21 
 
 Incinerator, Thackeray 69 
 
 Irrigation, broad 58, 65 
 
 Island, Manhattan 1 50 
 
 Lakes 37 
 
 Lard 93 
 
 Lawrence, Mass 44 
 
 Lee, Dr., quoted 120 
 
 Leprosy 143 
 
 Life, the simple 197 
 
 Loeffler, bacillus of 123 
 
 Lytton, Lord, quoted 158 
 
 Macaulay, quoted 148 
 
 Malarial fever 132, 143 
 
 Mason, quoted 47 
 
 Massachusetts, death-rate in 144 
 
 Measles 122, 143 
 
 German 143 
 
 Meat 90 
 
 Milk 80 
 
 adulteration of 83 
 
 aeration of 80 
 
 bacteriological examination of 82 
 
 chilling of 80 
 
 distribution of 80 
 
 transportation of 80 
 
204 Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Milkers, the 79 
 
 Milk-supply. 74 
 
 Mississippi River, the 37 
 
 Montreal 71 
 
 Mosquito warfare 133 
 
 Mosquitoes, malarial 134 
 
 Mowbray, J. P . . . . 198 
 
 Muir, John, quoted 34, 197 
 
 Mumps 143 
 
 New Jersey. 67 
 
 New Orleans 136 
 
 New York City. .. 2, 67, 68, 71, 72, 82, 107, 153, 161, 173 
 
 New York, death-rate in 144 
 
 Nuisance, the smoke 161 
 
 the spitting 165 
 
 Oleomargarine 93 
 
 Olive-oil 93 
 
 Open fireplace. 14 
 
 Osier, Dr., quoted . . 185 
 
 Overcrowding .......'... 150 
 
 Oysters 90 
 
 opening of . . . . . . 90, 91 
 
 Panama 136 
 
 Parks, public. 160 
 
 Pasteur treatment 138 
 
 Pennsylvania 30, 75, 94, 140, 174 
 
 Department of Health, quoted 142 
 
 Philadelphia 44 
 
 Phthisis i 
 
 Pittsburg 44 
 
 Plague, the 137, 142 
 
 the Great White 151 
 
 Playgrounds 160 
 
 Plumbing 4 
 
 peppermint test for 10 
 
 sanitary 4 
 
 Plymouth, Pa 55 
 
 Pneumonia 143 
 
Index 205 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Precipitation, chemical 6 1 
 
 Preservative, salicylic acid as a 94 
 
 sodium sulphite as a 94 
 
 Prisons 26 
 
 Privy, the country 185 
 
 " Public Water-supplies," quoted 37 
 
 Puerperal fever 143 
 
 Pump, the "town" 174 
 
 Push-cart, the 89, 91 
 
 Rain-bath, the 158 
 
 Reading, sewage filtration at 62 
 
 Relapsing fever 143 
 
 Rheumatism i 
 
 muscular i 
 
 Riis, Jacob A., quoted 151 
 
 Rivers 37 
 
 Room, disinfection of a 121 
 
 Rothrock, Dr 128 
 
 Rubbish, disposal of . 71, 185 
 
 Sand filtration. See Filtration. 
 
 "Sanitarian," quoted 89, 100 
 
 Sanitation, car 109 
 
 municipal 147 
 
 rural 166 
 
 school 95 
 
 suburban 166 
 
 San Francisco 7 J > 7 2 
 
 Scarlet fever 74, 123, 143 
 
 School children, seating of 96 
 
 Scholarship 105 
 
 Schools, medical inspection of 106 
 
 overwork in 105 
 
 playgrounds for 106 
 
 privy for 103 
 
 water-supply for 100 
 
 Schoolrooms, heating of 97 
 
 lighting of 99 
 
 ventilation of 97, 98 
 
 Sewage 56 
 
206 Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sewage, chemical precipitation of 6 1 
 
 dilution of 58 
 
 disposal of 58 
 
 farming 58 
 
 intermittent filtration of 61 
 
 Sewerage systems 56 57 
 
 Shade-trees 173 
 
 Shakespeare 148, 167 
 
 Smallpox 120, 143 
 
 among the Indians 120 
 
 Smith, Theobald, quoted 132 
 
 Soil-pipe 4 
 
 Springs 33, 176 
 
 Stable, the 76 
 
 air-space of 76 
 
 cleaning of 77 
 
 ventilation of 76 
 
 Stoves 14 
 
 oil- and gas- 15 
 
 Statistics, vital 140 
 
 Steam-bath among Indians 197 
 
 St. Louis 44 
 
 Stratford-on-Avon 148 
 
 Streams 33. 34 
 
 Street-cars 1 1 6 
 
 cleaning of 1 1 8 
 
 disinfection of 1 18 
 
 heating of 117 
 
 overcrowding of 117 
 
 ventilation of. 1 1 8 
 
 Street cleaning 154 
 
 Street-sweepings, disposal of 71 
 
 Susquehanna River 58 
 
 Tank, septic 64, 65 
 
 Tea 93 
 
 use of 192 
 
 Tetanus 139, 143 
 
 Theatres 27 
 
 Trachoma 107, 143 
 
 Trichiniasis 143 
 
Index 207 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tuberculosis 74, 126, 143 
 
 among Sioux Indians 128 
 
 camps 126, 127 
 
 Turneaure and Russell, quoted 37, 39, 40, 44 
 
 Typhoid fever 30, 34, 47, 55, 74, 129 
 
 death-rate of 41, 145 
 
 flies as disseminators of 130 
 
 sick-rate of 145 
 
 Typhus fever 125 
 
 Urinal, a sanitary 28,29 
 
 Utensils, milking 79 
 
 Vaccination 120 
 
 Vegetables 86 
 
 greening of 93 
 
 Venice 148 
 
 Ventilating pipe 6 
 
 Ventilation 1 1 
 
 King system of 76 
 
 Vents, foul-air 19 
 
 Wagner, Pastor 197 
 
 Waste, collection of 65, 66 
 
 disposal of 56 
 
 liquid 56 
 
 solid 65 
 
 Water, bacteriological analysis of 53 
 
 character of 32 
 
 chemical analysis of , 48 
 
 hardness of 39 
 
 purification of 41 
 
 quality of 38 
 
 quantity of 38, 39, 40 
 
 storage of 40 
 
 Water-closets 10, 103 
 
 pan 9 
 
 plunger 10 
 
 valve 9 
 
 wash-down 9 
 
 wash-out 10 
 
208 Index 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wash-stand 6 
 
 Water-supplies 30 
 
 rural 174 
 
 sanitary survey of . 47 
 
 source of 31 
 
 Waring, Col., quoted 65, 155, 157 
 
 Warren, Dr 94 
 
 Wells 31,174 
 
 Artesian 32 
 
 drilled 32 
 
 Whooping-cough 123, 143 
 
 Wolpert's method 20 
 
 Yellow fever 135, 143 
 
 and mosquitoes 135 
 
 Yersin, serum of 137 
 
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 Hamilton's The Gunner's Catechism iSmo, i oo 
 
 * Hoff's Elementary Naval Tactics Svo, i 50 
 
 Ingalls's Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire Svo, 4 oo 
 
 * "* Ballistic Tables Svo, i 50 
 
 * Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and H. .Svo, each, 6 oo 
 
 * Mahan's Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.) Svo, half morocco, 7 50 
 
 Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 * Mercur's Attack of Fortified Places i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 * Elements of the Art of War Svo, 4 oo 
 
 Metcalf's Cost of Manufactures And the Administration of Workshops. .Svo, 5 oo 
 
 * Ordnance and Gunnery. 2 vols 1 2mo, 5 oo 
 
 Murray's Infantry Drill Regulations iSmo, paper, 10 
 
 Nixon's Adjutants' Manual. 24mo, i oo 
 
 Peabody's Naval Architecture Svo, 7 50 
 
* .fhelps's Practical Marine Surveying 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Powell's Army Officer's Examiner i2mo, 4 oo 
 
 Sharpe's Art of Subsisting Armies in War i8mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 * Wheeler's Siege Operations and Military Mining 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law i2tno, 2 50 
 
 Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50 
 
 Young's Simple Elements of Navigation i6mo, morocco, i oo 
 
 Second Edition, Enlarged and Revised i6mo, morocco, 2 oo 
 
 ASSAYING. 
 Fletcher's Practical Instructions iu Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe. 
 
 i2mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. . . .8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Miller's Jlanual of Assaying I2mo, i oo 
 
 O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo, i 50 
 
 Chlorination Process i2mo, i 50 
 
 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Craig's Azimuth 4to, 3 50 
 
 Doolittle's Treatise on Practical Astronomy 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Michie and Har low's Practical Astronomy 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * White's Elements of Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 Davenport's Statistical Methods, with Special Reference to Biological Variation. 
 
 i6mo, morocco, i 25 
 
 Thome' and Bennett's Structural and Physiological Botany i6mo, 2 25 
 
 Westermaier's Compendium of General Botany. (Schneider.) 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Adriance's Laboratory Calculations .and Specific Gravity Tables i2mo, i 25 
 
 Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry. (Mandel.) Small 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Austen's Notes for Chemical Students i2mo, i 50 
 
 Bernadou's Smokeless Powder. Nitro-cellulose, and Theory of the Cellulose 
 
 Molecule i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Bolton's Quantitative Analysis 8vo. i 50 
 
 * Browning's Introduction to the Rarer Elements 8vo, i 50 
 
 Brush and Penfield's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy 8vo, 4 oo> 
 
 Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.). .8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Tests and Reagents 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Crafts's Short Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Schaeffer.). . .i2mo, i 50 
 Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von 
 
 Ende.) i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.) I2mo, i 25 
 
 Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Eff rent's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.) i2mo, i 25 
 
 3 
 
Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe. 
 
 I2mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive. (Wells.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 System of Instruction in Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) 
 
 2 vols gvo, 12 50 
 
 Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 
 
 Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * Getman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry i2mo! 2 oo 
 
 Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo, i 25 
 
 Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) i2mo! 2 oo 
 
 Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.) i2mo, i 50 
 
 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Hind's Inorganic Chemistry 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 , * Laboratory Manual for Students i2mo, 75 
 
 Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Laboratory Manual of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .8vo, i 25 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Ladd's Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis i2mo, i oo 
 
 Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * Langworthy and Austen. The Occurrence of Aluminium in Vegetable 
 
 Products, Animal Products, and Natural Waters 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in Organic 
 
 Chemistry. (Tingle.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 
 
 Control. 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz. ).i2mo, i oo 
 Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. .. .8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory i2mo, i 50 
 
 * Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe . . i2mo, 60 
 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 
 
 3d Edition, Rewritten. 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) i2mo, i 25 
 
 Matthew's The Textile Fibres 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.). .i2mo, i oo 
 
 Miller's Manual of Assaying i2mo, i oo 
 
 Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry i2mo, i 50 
 
 Morgan's Outline of Theory of Solution and its Results 121,10, i oo 
 
 Elements of Physical Chemistry i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds. 
 
 Vol. I Large 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 O'Brine's Laboratory Guide in Chemical Analysis 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 O'DriscolTs Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.) i2mo, i 50 
 
 Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part Two. (Turnbull.). (In Press.) 
 
 * Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 
 
 8vo, paper, 50 
 
 Pictet's The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) I2mo, i 50 
 
 Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- 
 ence to Sanitary Water Analysis i2tno, i 25 
 
 4 
 
* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing. . . - 8vo, 25 oo 
 
 Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Richards's Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo, i oo 
 
 Cost of Food, a Study in Dietaries i2mo, i oo 
 
 * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50 
 
 Ricketts and Russell's Skeleton Notes upon inorganic Chemistry. (Part I. 
 
 Non-metallic Elements.) 8vo, morocco, 75 
 
 Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Disinfection and the Preservation of Food 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Rigg's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory 8vo, i 25 
 
 Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Essentials of Volumetric Analysis i2mo, i 25 
 
 Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. . i6mo, morocco, 2 oo 
 
 Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Descriptive General Chemistry 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis. (Hall.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Quantitative Analysis. (Hall.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies .8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.) i2mo, i 50 
 
 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Wassermann's Immune Sera : Haemolysins, Cytotoxins, and Precipitins. (Bol- 
 duan.) i2mo, i oo 
 
 Well's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, i 50 
 
 Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering 
 
 Students i2mo, i 50 
 
 Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic. (In press.) 
 
 Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Wilson's Cyanide Processes i2mo, i 50 
 
 Chlorination Process. i2mo, i 50 
 
 Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical, and Medical 
 
 Chemistry izmo, 2 oo 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING. 
 
 BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 
 
 Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Bixby's Graphical Computing Table Paper 10^X24! inches. 25 
 
 ** Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal. (Postage, 
 
 27 cents additional.) 8vo, 3 5<> 
 
 Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo, i oo 
 
 Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage i2mo, i 50 
 
 Practical Farm Drainage i2mo, i oo 
 
 Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (In press.) 
 
 FolwelPs Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 3 50 
 
 French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Goodhue's Municipal Improvements I2mo, i 75 
 
 Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy vo, 3 oo 
 
 Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 5 
 
Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth i2mo, i 25 
 
 Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice of Surveying Small 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, oo 
 
 Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . i2mo, oo 
 
 Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.) 8vo, oo 
 
 * Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 50 
 
 Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 50 
 
 Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, oo 
 
 Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors i6mo, morocco, oo 
 
 Nugent's Plane Surveying 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo half leather, 7 50 
 
 Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 oo 
 
 RideaPs Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, i 50 
 
 Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches. 
 
 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Sheep, 6 50 
 
 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
 tecture 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Sheep, 5 50 
 
 Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Warren's Stereotomy Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 
 
 i6mo, morocco, i 25 
 
 * Wheeler s Elementary Course of Civil Engineering 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Wilson's Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 
 
 BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 
 
 Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. .8vo, 2 oo 
 
 * Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 oo 
 
 Burr's Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and 
 
 Suspension Bridges 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Burr and Talk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations. . . .8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Ihi Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Small 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Greene's Roof Trusses 8vo, i 25 
 
 Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Howe's Treatise on Arches 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Design of Simple Roof -trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 
 
 Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges : 
 
 Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part n. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part HI. Bridge Design 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Morison's Memphis Bridge .^ 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Waddell's De Pontlbus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Specifications for Steel Bridges . . i2mo, i 25 
 
 "Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs . . 8vo, 2 c^ 
 Wright's Designing of Draw-spans: 
 
 Part I. Plate-girder Draws 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Part n. Riveted-truss and Pin-connected Long-span Draws 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50 
 
 6 
 
HYDRALLICS. 
 
 Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from 
 
 an Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels paper, i 50 
 
 Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Folwell's Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Frizell's Water-power 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50 
 
 Water-filtration Works: i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in 
 
 Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trau vine.) 8vo 4 oo 
 
 Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supply 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 
 
 Conduits 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.) 
 
 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
 supply Large 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 ** Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers. (Post., 440. additional. ).4to, 6 oo 
 
 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Wilson's Irrigation Engineering . Small 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover , 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's Turbines , 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Elements of Analytical Mechanics , 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 
 
 Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction <. - , . . 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Roads and Pavements , . 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to 5 oo 
 
 Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 
 
 i6mo, 3 oo 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. VoL I Small 4to, 7 50 
 
 Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Marten's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Strength of Materials i2mo, i oo 
 
 Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations .. -8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction ibrno, mor., 4 oo 
 
 Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France i2mo, i 25 
 
 7 
 
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Materials of Machines i2mo, i oo 
 
 Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book on Roads and Pavements ". . I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts 8vo, 8 oo 
 
 Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 
 
 Constituents 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Thurston's Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Waddell's De Pontibus. ( A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.). i6mo, mor., 3 oo 
 
 Specifications for Stc i Bridges i2mo, i 25 
 
 Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on 
 
 the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 
 
 SteeL 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 
 
 Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3x5 inches, morocco, i 25 
 
 Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Crandall's Transition Curve i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, i 50 
 
 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. ,i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) Paper, 5 oo 
 
 * Drinker's Tunnelling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills. 4to, half mor., 25 oo 
 
 Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25 
 
 Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . . i6mo, mor., 2 50 
 
 Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 
 bankments 8vo, i oo 
 
 Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i oo 
 
 Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 oo 
 
 Railroad Spiral i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents of Excavations and 
 
 Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 00 
 
 The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads. 
 
 I2mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Cross-section Sheet Paper, 23 
 
 Webb's Railroad Construction i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 
 
 Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper i oo 
 
 Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
 neers Oblong 4to, 2 50 
 
 Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo. 2 50 
 
 8 
 
Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Jones's Machine Design : 
 
 Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo 
 
 Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, i 50 
 
 Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Moyer's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 oo 
 
 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. i2mo, oo 
 
 25 
 5 
 
 Drafting Instruments and Operations 
 
 Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing i2mo, 
 
 Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and 
 
 Shadow I2mo, oo 
 
 Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry I2mo, 25 
 
 Primary Geometry I2mo, 75 
 
 Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 3 50 
 
 General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and Klein)8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Ait of Letter Engraving. ...... i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective .8vo, 2 50 
 
 Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering 8vo, i oo 
 
 Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. 
 
 Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) Small 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements I2mo, i oo 
 
 Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Voltaic Cell 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von 
 
 Ende.) i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.). . 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power I2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, a 50 
 
 Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained i2mo, i oo 
 
 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large 8vo, 75 
 
 Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-Current Machines 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Le Chatelien's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess.) I2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo, i ot> 
 
-* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. 8vo, each, 6 oo 
 
 * Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback.) lamo, 2 50 
 
 * Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee Kinzbrunner.). . .8vo, i 50 
 
 Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL 1 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50 
 
 Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 LAW. 
 
 * Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 oo 
 
 Sheep, 7 50 
 
 Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Sheep, 6 50 
 
 Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi- 
 tecture 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Sheep, 5 50 
 
 Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law I2mo, 2 50 
 
 MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Bernadou's Smokeless Powder Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose 
 
 Molecule i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Holland's Iron Founder I2mo, 2 50 
 
 " The Iron Founder," Supplement i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the 
 
 Practice of Moulding I2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i2mo, i oo 
 
 Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo 
 
 Hopkin's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 
 
 Control. Large 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Matthews's The Textile Fibres 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures And the Administration of Workshops. 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, i 50 
 
 * Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 oo 
 
 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses. ... i6mo, morocco, 3 on 
 
 Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. . i6mo, morocco, 2 oo 
 
 Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera- 
 tion 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Ware's Manufacture of Sugar. (In press.) 
 
 West's American Foundry Practice I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Moulder's Text-book i2mo, 2 50 
 
 10 
 
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. .8vo, 4 oo 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, i 50 
 
 * Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus i2mo, 4 oo 
 
 Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry i2mo, ioo 
 
 Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations i2mo, 
 
 Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, 
 
 * Dickson's College Algebra Large i2mo, 
 
 * Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large i2mo, 
 
 Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo, 
 
 Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo, 
 
 Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo, 
 
 50 
 So 
 50 
 25 
 50 
 75 
 50 
 
 Rational Geometry i2mo, 7S 
 
 ^Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size. paper, 15 
 
 100 copies for 5 oo 
 
 * Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8X 10 inches, 25 
 
 10 copies for 2 oo 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus. .Smah 8vo, ^ oo 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus. Small 8vo, i 50 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates i2mo, i oo 
 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. 
 
 Small 8vo, 3 50 
 Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares. i2mo, i 50 
 
 * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 .Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 * Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other 
 
 Tables 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 oo 
 
 * Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, i oo 
 
 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8v . , 4 oo 
 
 Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics. 8yo, 5 oo 
 
 Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus. . Sm. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
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 Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical 12010, i oo 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 
 
 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 
 
 Bacon's Forge Practice i2mo, i 50 
 
 Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 
 
 * Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 * " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 
 
 Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
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 Gary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous Coal. (In Prepara- 
 tion.) 
 
 Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Small 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, i oo 
 
 Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En- 
 gineers. . . . , Oblong 4to, 2 50 
 
 11 
 
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo, i 50 
 
 Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, i 50 
 
 Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power. i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 ^ Rope Driving i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo, i 25 
 
 Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, i oo 
 
 Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Button's The Gas Engine 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Jamison's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Jones's Machine Design: 
 
 Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods. (In press.) 
 
 Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.) (In press.) 
 
 MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo 
 
 Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50 
 
 Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oe 
 
 Richard's Compressed Air i2mo, i 50 
 
 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill 
 
 Work 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics . i2mo, i oo 
 
 Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann 
 
 Klein.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein.). .8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wolff' s Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 
 
 Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition. 
 
 Reset 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Strength of Materials I2mo, i oo 
 
 Metcalf's Steel. A manual for Steel-users I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo 
 
 IThurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols., 8vo, 8 oo 
 
 Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 So 
 
 Part IH. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 
 
 Constituents 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 ot 
 
 12 
 
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on 
 
 the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 food's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 
 
 Steel. 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 
 
 Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram I2mo, i 25 
 
 Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) i2mo, i 50 
 
 Dawson's " Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . .x6mo, mor., 5 oo 
 
 Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo 
 
 Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Button's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Heat and Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Kent's Steam boiler Economy 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, i so 
 
 MacCord's Slide-valves 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator i2mo. i 50 
 
 Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, i oo 
 
 Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers , 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors. 
 
 (Osterberg.) i2mo, i 25 
 
 Reagan's Locomotives: Simple Compound, and Electric i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management 121110, 2 oo 
 
 Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice i2mo, 2 50 
 
 %iow's Steam-boiler Practice 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Spangler's Valve-gears 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Notes on Thermodynamics i2mo, i oo 
 
 Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Thurston's Handy Tables 8vo, i 50 
 
 Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., 8vo, 10 oo 
 
 Part I. History, Structure, and Theory '. 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Part H. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and 
 
 the Prony Brake 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice i2mo, i 50 
 
 Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Weisbach's Heat s Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.) i6mo, 2 50 
 
 Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .8vo, 4 oo 
 
 MECHANICS AND MACHINERY. 
 
 Bart's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Chase's The Art of Pattern-making I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo 
 
 13 
 
Church's Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working i2mo, 50 
 
 Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe i2mo, 50 
 
 Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo, 50 
 
 Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, 50 
 
 Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools. . i2mo, 50 
 
 Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making i2mo, oo 
 
 Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's 
 
 Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to half morocco, 5 oo 
 
 Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics: 
 
 VoL I. Kinematics 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Vol. II. Statics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 VoL III. Kinetics 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50 
 
 VoL II Small 4to, 10 oo 
 
 Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo, i oo 
 
 Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power. 12 mo, 3 oo 
 
 Rope Driving i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, i oo 
 
 Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo, 75 
 
 James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. Sm.8vo,2 oo 
 
 * Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Jones's Machine Design : 
 
 Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50 
 
 Part n. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Lanza's Applied Mechanics. 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, -and Methods. (In press.) 
 
 lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.) (In press.) 
 
 MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Velocity Diagrams. 8vo, i 50 
 
 Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 * Elements of Mechanics i2mo, i oo 
 
 * Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric I2H1O, 2 50 
 
 Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Richards's Compressed Air i2mo, i 50 
 
 Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL 1 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Smith's (0.) Press-working of Metals. 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines i2mo, i oo 
 
 Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill 
 
 Work 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. 
 
 i2mo, i oo 
 
 Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. ( Herrmann Klein. ) . 8vo , 5 oo 
 
 Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein. ).8vo, 5 oo 
 
 Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Principles of Elementary Mechanics i2mo, i 25 
 
 Turbines 8vo, 2 50 
 
 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4*0, i oo 
 
 14 
 
METALLURGY. 
 
 Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury: 
 
 Vol. I. Silver 8vo> 750 
 
 Vol. II. Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50 
 
 ** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage 9 cents additional.) I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 go 
 
 Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe ' 8vo, i go 
 
 Le Chatelier's High- temperature Measuremepts. (Boudouard Burgess.)i2mo, 3 oo 
 
 Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users- , I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Smith's Materials of Machines 12010, i oo 
 
 Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 oo 
 
 Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 
 
 Constituents 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MINERALOGY. 
 
 Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50 
 
 Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo. 3 oo 
 
 Map of Southwest Virignia Pocket-book form. 2 oo 
 
 Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper, i oo 
 
 Cloth, i 25 
 
 Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50 
 
 First Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy.'* Large 8vo, i oo 
 
 Text-book of Mineralogy 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Minerals and How to Study Them I2mo, i 50 
 
 Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, i oo 
 
 Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography i2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects i2mo, i oo 
 
 Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, i 25 
 
 Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 2 50 
 
 Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.). Small 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 * Pwifield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests. 
 
 8vo, paper, o 50 
 Rosettbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals. 
 
 (Iddings.) 8vo. 5 oo 
 
 * Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo . 2 oo 
 
 Williftxns's Manual of Lithology 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 MINING. 
 
 fceard's Ventilation of Mines -. lamo, 2 50 
 
 Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Mep of Southwest Virginia Pocket book form, 2 oo 
 
 Douglao's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects I2mo. i oo 
 
 * Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills. ,4to,hf. mor., 25 oo 
 
 Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses 12010 2 oo 
 
 Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States i2mo, 2 50 
 
 Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo. 5 oo 
 
 ** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage QC. additionaL) I2mo, 2 50 
 
 Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, i 50 
 
 O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 * Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Wilson's Cyanide Processes izmo, i 50 
 
 Chiosination Process I2mo, i 50 
 
 15 
 
Wilson's HydrauL*, and Placer Mining I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation 12 mo, i 25 
 
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 Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance) 8vo, 
 
 Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 
 
 Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, 
 
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 Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, 
 
 Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Town's Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50 
 
 Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 oo 
 
 Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State 
 
 Control 8vo, 7 50 
 
 Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) 8vo, 4 oo 
 
 Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) i2mo, i 25 
 
 Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 Ogden's Sewer Design I2mo, 2 oo 
 
 Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- 
 ence to Sanitary Water Analysis I2mo, i 25 
 
 * Price's Handbook on Sanitation I2mo, i 50 
 
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 Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitaiy Science i2mo, i oo 
 
 Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand- 
 point 8vo, 2 oo 
 
 * Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 
 
 Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 
 
 Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 
 
 Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, 
 
 Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 
 
 Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.). . . .Large i2mo, 2 
 Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the 
 
 International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, i 
 
 Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo. 
 
 Haines's American Railway Management i2mo, 
 
 Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart, i 
 
 Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo, 
 
 Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. .Small 8vo, 
 
 Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, 
 
 Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament Large 8vo, 
 
 Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 
 
 Totten's Important Question in Metrology 8vo, 2 
 
 The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4*0, 
 
 Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, 
 
 Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy i2mo, i 
 
 Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance; 
 
 Suggestions for Hospital Architecture : Plans for Small Hospital . i2mo, i 
 
 HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar I2mo, i 
 
 Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 
 
 Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon te the Old Testament Scriptures. 
 
 (Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 
 
 Lettesis's Hebrew Bible 8vo > 2 
 
AaXV 
 
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