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ELEMENTARf 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK M. McMURRY 
 
 Teachers College^ Columbia University 
 
 AND 
 
 A. E. PARKINS 
 
 George Feabody College for Teachers 
 
 Copyright, 1921 
 
 BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
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euc 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The first book in Geography has always been 
 the least interesting Geography text placed in 
 the hands of children. If possible, 
 of ^e prob- however, it should be the most in- 
 lem method teresting, for the permanent atti- 
 in Geography ^^^jg of children toward the subject 
 chUdren ^® largely determined by their first 
 
 study of it. 
 
 How can improvement be effected? A simple 
 and attractive style of presentation, much detail 
 about the customs of people, and interesting pic- 
 tures have all proved helpful; but they are inade- 
 quate. Modern education suggests a change in 
 the selection and organization of subject matter 
 that may be as great an aid as these other means 
 combined. That is the centering of the treatment 
 in other things than such topics as location, sur- 
 face features, climate, etc. These are colorless, 
 so far as young children are concerned; and no 
 treatment organized solely on such a basis can 
 avoid being coldly informational. The proposed 
 substitutes [or them are questions or problems 
 within the field of Geography tnat are suggested 
 by the nature and interests of children. In the 
 one case the child is subordinated to the subject; 
 in the other, the subject is subordinated to the 
 child. The two points of view are as wide apart as 
 the poles, and their varying influence in the prep- 
 aration of a text is constant. 
 
 This text has been prepared from the view- 
 point of the child's interests. Each section deals 
 with questions that are interesting to young 
 people. The fact that it is so directly based on 
 children's interests and experiences gives more 
 than the customary guarantee that it will prove 
 successful. 
 
 Another means for securing greater concrete- 
 ness has been emphasized. A farm in one section 
 may be typical, in appearance and method of cul- 
 tivation, of thousands of other farms in the United 
 States. Likewise one great city closely resem- 
 bles others in general appearance and leading 
 
 occupations; and one despotic government is like 
 
 others that are despotic. General descriptions of 
 
 these are very likely to be abstract 
 
 and uninteresting; but a detailed ^ypg studies 
 
 description of an actual example is in connection 
 
 likely to prove highly interesting, ^**^ these 
 
 and if it is typical, it can clearly 
 
 explain a whole class in the most effective way. 
 
 For these reasons type treatments are niuiier- 
 ous in this book. For instance, note how, imder 
 the problem organization of subject matter. New 
 York City is presented as a tj^e of great cities 
 (p. 67) ; how a farm in central Ohio is described 
 at length as a representative of many others 
 (p. 98); and how the old despotic Russian gov- 
 ernment is given a special amount of space for a 
 similar reason (p. 230) . The vividness of mental 
 pictures thus secured may be regarded as one of 
 the chief merits of the text. 
 
 Any text that is studied closely has a marked 
 
 effect on methods of study. Mere lists of facts 
 
 lead to a more or less thoughtless 
 
 T., . . Influence of 
 
 memorizmg. Narrow questions ^^ ^^^^ ^^ 
 
 with brief answers have the same children's 
 effect. On the other hand, a text methods of 
 whose subject matter is organized 
 into units consisting each of the solution of a 
 problem that is worth while leads children to 
 study by such units. The presence of a question 
 that has value to them influences them to exercise 
 judgment in weighing the relative value of de- 
 tails. At the same time their interest in the ques- 
 tion causes them to assimilate the data offered, 
 as well as to take some initiative in testing and 
 supplementing those data. Thus the principal 
 elements of good thinking are dependent upon 
 the organization of the facts about live problems; 
 and a text that makes this provision tends daily 
 to impress a model of thinking upon the children. 
 The great importance of this matter in a first 
 text in Geography is evident, when it is recalled 
 that children's ba9 habits of study are a constant 
 
 m 
 
 54l2ri5 
 
IV 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 cause of complaint above the fifth grade, and that 
 the habits complained of must have been formed 
 in the grades preceding. 
 
 The first part of this volume is devoted to an 
 introduction to some of the fundamental concep- 
 Th ■ nifi tions of Geography, because actual 
 cance of the observations about the soil, rivers, 
 introductory industries, etc., are the sole final 
 ^ *^ ®^ basis for the comprehension of such 
 
 subjects in distant regions. Almost every locaHty 
 furnishes examples of more than half of all the 
 phenomena that form the subject matter of Geog- 
 raphy; and a careful study of these, by means of 
 excursions and class discussions, will give a great 
 impetus toward vivid picturing of distant con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The text treats such subjects as are common 
 to most localities; and it is supplemented by the 
 suggestions at the end of each section, which sug- 
 gest additional study of local features. Beginning 
 Geography is very lacking unless children are led 
 to form the habit of scouring their home environ- 
 ment in search of geographical material. 
 
 Since children vary greatly in mental capacity, 
 
 a text should be flexible enough to adapt itself to 
 
 Ti,» «,«„;c;^« the full ability of each member of 
 The provision •' 
 
 for the vary- a class. It is not advisable that a 
 ing abilities child who has twice the ability of 
 of children another should race through a book 
 twice as fast. He can better remain with children 
 of his own age and interests and employ his higher 
 ability by pursuing a wider course of study. He can 
 cover all the problems assigned to his classmates, 
 and others in addition. In the suggestions found 
 
 at the end of each chapter provision is made for 
 the exceptional child, who can take up as manyof 
 the questions there proposed as his ability allows. 
 
 The child is not interested, nor is it essential 
 that he should be, in the origin and classification 
 of land forms. The maps should in character of 
 a simple way show culture in rela- maps and 
 tion to latitude, longitude, and alti- iUustrations 
 tude. The physical map is therefore used as the 
 base for the location of countries, states, cities, 
 railroads, and other works of man. Clearness 
 and simplicity should be the chief characteristic of 
 the maps in an elementary text. This ideal has 
 constantly been kept in mind in the preparation of 
 the maps. Economic maps, such as are abundant 
 in the Advanced Geography, have been introduced 
 sparingly. Their over-use would multiply the 
 difficulties of the elementary text and result in 
 a degree of "spiral" treatment that is no longer 
 sanctioned by progressive courses of study. 
 
 The illustrations in an elementary geography 
 should both explain the text and inr part some idea 
 of the variety and beauty of the works of Nature 
 and of Man in that vast world of which most chil- 
 dren are destined to see but I'.ttle and to which this 
 book may possibly be their only introduction. 
 Not only, therefore, have the half-tones been 
 selected with exceptional care for their instruc- 
 tional value: only such photographs have been 
 used as could be reproduced faithfully without 
 disfigurement by the artist's brush. Our ideal 
 has been a moderate number of large, vivid photo- 
 graphic reproductions rather than an excessive 
 number of small, diagrammatic cuts. 
 
 F. M. McMuRRY 
 A. E. Parkins 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 SECTION 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 PART I. WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The Greatest Occupation in the World — 
 Agriculture ..... 
 
 1. The Importance of the Soil 
 
 2. The Use of the Soil for Agriculture 
 
 3. Winds and Rainfall, and their Effect 
 
 upon Farming . . . ' . 
 
 Two Other Great Occupations — Manu- 
 facturing AND Trade .... 
 
 A FoirPTH Great Occupation — Trans- 
 portation ...... 
 
 Government ...... 
 
 Maps ....... 
 
 General Facts about the Earth 
 1. Form and Size of the Earth 
 Daily Motion of the Earth 
 The Zones and the Hemispheres . 
 Latitude and Longitude 
 The Continents and the Oceans . 
 
 PART II. NORTH AMERICA 
 
 I. The Countries of North America 
 
 II. The Northeastern States 
 
 III. The North Central States . 
 
 IV. The Southern States 
 V. The Western States 
 
 VI. Dependencies of the United States 
 VII. Rkview of the United States 
 VIII. Other Countries of North America 
 
 1. Canada and Newfoundland. 
 
 2. Mexico ..... 
 
 3. Central America and the West Indies 
 
 PART III. SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 PART IV. EUROPE 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 27 
 32 
 35 
 35 
 37 
 39 
 47 
 47 
 
 I. General Facts 
 II. Northwestern Europe 
 1. The British Isles 
 
 55 
 67 
 84 
 101 
 120 
 143 
 149 
 156 
 156 
 161 
 168 
 
 177 
 
 195 
 197 
 197 
 
 SECTION 
 
 
 
 PAOB 
 
 
 2. France ..... 
 
 
 210 
 
 
 3. Germany ..... 
 
 
 215 
 
 
 4. Switzerland . , . 
 
 
 219 
 
 
 5. Belgium and the Netherlands 
 
 
 224 
 
 
 6. The Scandinavian Countries 
 
 
 227 
 
 III. 
 
 Eastern Europe .... 
 
 
 230 
 
 IV. 
 
 Countries of the Western Mediterra- 
 
 
 
 nean 
 
 
 237 
 
 
 1. Spain and Portugal . 
 
 
 237 
 
 
 2. Italy 
 
 
 242 
 
 V. 
 
 Countries of the Danube and the 
 
 Bal- 
 
 
 
 kans 
 
 
 247 
 
 PART V. ASIA 
 
 I. General Facts 257 
 
 II. Southwestern Asia ..... 259 
 
 III. Siberia. AND Central Asia . . . 264 
 
 IV. India, Indo-China, and the Malay Penin- 
 
 sula 266 
 
 V. The Far East 269 
 
 1. The Chinese RepubUc . . . 269 
 
 2. The Japanese Empire . . . 276 
 
 PART VI. AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, 
 
 AND THE ISLANDS OF THE 
 
 PACIFIC 
 
 ■ I. Australia ...... 283 
 
 II. New Zealand 286 
 
 III. The East Indies 287 
 
 IV. The Smaller Islands of the Pacific . 288 
 
 PART VII. AFRICA 291 
 
 PART VIII. THE UNITED STATES IN 
 RELATION TO OTHER COUNTRIES 303 
 
 Appendix ........ 310 
 
 Index ......... 314 
 
LIST OF COLORED MAPS 
 
 7^ 
 
 46. The World, in Hemispheres . . . .44,45 
 
 58. North America, Physical Map ... 56 
 
 59. North America, Political Map ... 57 
 61. United States, Physical and Political Map 60, 61 
 63. United States, PoUtical Map . . 64, 65 
 66. Northeastern States, Physical and Political 
 
 Map 68, 69 
 
 86. North Central States, Physical and Political 
 
 Map 88,89 
 
 105. Southern States, Physical and Political 
 
 Map 108, 109 
 
 121. Western States, Physical and PoUtical Map 128, 129 
 
 174. South America, Physical Map . . .180 
 
 175. South America, PoHtical Map . . . 181 
 
 197. Europe, Physical Map . . . .200 
 
 198. Europe, PoUtical Map . . . .201 
 
 201. Northwestern Europe, Physical and Political 
 
 Map 204,205, 
 
 247. Countries of the Western Mediterranean, 
 
 Physical and Political Map . 240 
 
 248. Countries of the' Danube and the Balkans, 
 
 Physical and Political Map . . .241 
 
 267. Asia, Physical Map 260 
 
 268. Asia, PoUtical Map 261 
 
 289. Australia and the Islands of the Pacific, 
 
 Physical Map 280 
 
 290. Australia and the Islands of the Pacific, 
 
 PoUtical Map 281 
 
 302. Africa, Physical Map 292 
 
 303. Africa, Political Map 293 
 
 315. The World, Mercator's Projection, showing 
 
 Transportation Routes . . . 304, 305 
 
 
 
 A^ 
 
 1 
 
 vi 
 
PART I. WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 I. The Greatest Occupation in the World — Agriculture 
 1. The Importance of the Soil 
 
 1. Our need 
 for food 
 
 Everybody has a great many wants. 
 
 Every girl likes to have a doll, every boy 
 
 a top and a ball, and all people 
 
 Three things , . , . , 
 
 that everyone like piCtureS, 
 
 must have story-books, 
 and flowers. 
 Anyone could 
 name dozens of other 
 things that he wants. 
 
 Many of these things 
 are not very important; 
 in fact, no one of us would 
 greatly suffer if he had to 
 do without all the things 
 named above. But there 
 is one thing that everyone 
 must have, and that is 
 food. We eat three times 
 each day; and if even one 
 meal is left out, we begin 
 to feel weak. No one can 
 live many days without 
 food. 
 
 Probably the two most 
 necessary things in all the 
 world are bread and milk. 
 But there are many others 
 that approach them in im- 
 portance. Make a list of 
 the ten kinds of food that you consider 
 most valuable, and compare it with a hst 
 made by someone else. What stores near 
 you sell food, and how do they compare 
 
 2. Our need 
 for clothing 
 and shelter 
 
 in number with other kinds of stores? 
 
 In what way does the use of rooms in 
 
 your house show that food is a very 
 
 necessary thing for your 
 
 family? 
 
 While clothing is not as 
 necessary to life as food, 
 it is still very 
 important. In 
 hot countries 
 less clothing is worn than 
 here; but even the sav- 
 ages there wear some, as is 
 shown in Fig. 1. The bet- 
 ter civilized people there 
 dress much as we do, ex- 
 cept that the materials 
 used are lighter in color 
 and in weight. In our own 
 country people need many 
 kinds of clothing in sum- 
 mer; and without heavy 
 wraps in winter outdoor 
 work in many places would 
 have to stop. Can you 
 give examples? 
 
 Shelter is, possibly, as 
 important as clothing. 
 Even in hot countries peo- 
 ple must have houses of some sort to 
 protect them from the sun and rain. 
 Note the kind shown in Fig. 2. In our 
 country protection against cold is very 
 
WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Where the 
 materials for 
 these three 
 things are 
 found 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
 important, and for this purpose the 
 houses must be tightly built. In addi- 
 tion we must have fuel, such as coal 
 or gas or wood, to keep us warm. Thus 
 everybody must have food, clothing, and 
 shelter. 
 
 Where are the materials for these three 
 things found? For example, take food 
 first. Bread is made out of 
 flour; flour is made out of 
 wheat ; and wheat grows from 
 the soil. Again, milk comes 
 from cows, and the cows pro- 
 duce it by eating grass; but the grass, like 
 the wheat, grows from the soil. In the 
 same way trace back to its beginning each 
 of the foods in your list of ten kinds. 
 Possibly all of them come from the soil. 
 Yet there are some common foods that do 
 not depend on the soil. Can you give 
 examples? 
 
 Next consider clothing. Many dresses 
 are made of cotton, and we know that 
 cotton grows from the ground. Fig. 3 
 shows a cotton field. Much clothing is 
 made of wool, which comes from sheep. 
 
 But, again, the sheep are 
 able to produce it by eating 
 grass, and thus they depend 
 on the soil to grow it. Linen 
 collars and cuffs and hand- 
 kerchiefs are made out of 
 flax, which is' a farm crop, 
 just as wheat is. 
 
 Where does the leather 
 for your shoes come from? 
 Find out, if you do not 
 know. What are ribbons 
 and silk dresses made of, 
 and how is the material pro- 
 duced? Make a list of the 
 different kinds of clothing 
 that you wear, and trace each back to 
 its beginning. Have you named any- 
 thing that does not depend upon the 
 soil? 
 
 Many kinds of material are used for 
 shelter. In Fig. 4 you see an Indian wig- 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SOIL 
 
 warn. Where must the poles have come 
 from that form the frame of the tent? The 
 covering for such wigwams is often made 
 out of the skins of animals. Can you 
 show how the soil has been necessary to 
 produce them? 
 
 Look about your home to see where its 
 many parts have come from. Where 
 were the materials for the 
 floors, tables, and chairs 
 produced? Those for the 
 rugs or carpets? Where was 
 the material for the bricks 
 in the chimney found, and 
 the stone for the founda- 
 tion? 
 
 Of all the different mate- 
 rials that you have named 
 for food, clothing, and shel- 
 ter, how many do not grow 
 from the soil, or depend 
 upon others that grow 
 there? What statement can 
 you make, therefore, about 
 the importance of the soil 
 in supplying materials for food, cloth- 
 ing, and shelter? 
 
 So many things come from the soil that 
 
 a great many persons are employed in 
 
 raising them. Some of these 
 
 The number , -n i 7 
 
 of persons people are called gardeners. 
 tiiatworkm Where have you seen ear- 
 
 the soil 1 o /-. 
 
 deners at work? Can you 
 make a list of things that they raise? 
 Others of these people are called ranch- 
 men, particularly when they raise many 
 cattle and sheep. Some are called dairy- 
 men. Can you tell about their work? 
 But men who till the soil are most com- 
 monly called farmers, and the pieces 
 of land that they cultivate are called 
 farms. 
 
 While cities occupy a large amount 
 of space, it is very small compared with 
 the space occupied by farms. Also, 
 while our cities contain great numbers 
 of people, there are as many more that 
 live in the country. In fact, farm- 
 ing is the greatest occupation in the 
 world. 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 ©Broun Bros. 
 
 Where the 
 soil comes 
 from 
 
 1. What it is 
 made of 
 
 Since the soil is so important, it is worth 
 while to study about it. If you have ever 
 made mud pies, or played in 
 the dirt in other ways, you 
 have, perhaps, wondered what 
 the soil is made of. It has 
 not always been dirt or mud. 
 You know that the wood in your desk 
 has not always been a part of the desk; 
 it used to be a part of a tree, and has a 
 long story to tell about itself before it 
 was brought to your school. So, also, the 
 soil has a long story to tell about itself. 
 Let us see what this story is. 
 
 When mud dries upon your hands, and 
 you rub them together, you can notice 
 an unpleasant, gritty feeling. This is 
 
WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 caused by hard bits of something in the 
 
 soil that scrape together. If you rub 
 
 some of this dirt upon a smooth piece of 
 
 glass, you can perhaps 
 
 hear it scratch the glass. 
 
 This shows that these 
 
 little bits must be very 
 
 hard; for if they were not, 
 
 they could not scratch 
 
 anything so hard as glass. 
 
 They must be even harder 
 
 than a pin, for you cannot 
 
 scratch glass with a pin. 
 
 It will help you to find 
 out what these bits are, if you examine 
 some sandy soil. The grains of sand are 
 tiny bits of rock, large enough to be seen 
 clearly. When they are rubbed against 
 glass, they scratch it, because they are 
 very hard and sharp. 
 
 Sand is made of rock that has been 
 broken up into fine pieces. It is a kind of 
 soil, but its bits are coarser than those in 
 many other kinds. The soil that you have 
 seen, such as that in the 
 school yard or by the side of 
 the walk or in a flower-pot, 
 was once a part of hard rock. 
 
 Soil is made in several 
 ways, which you may learn 
 How soil is about later; but 
 
 made most of it i^ 
 
 formed by the decay of 
 rock. You know that the 
 stumps of trees and the 
 boards in sidewalks, after a 
 long time, become so soft 
 that they fall to pieces. 
 Perhaps you have called it 
 "rotting," but that means 
 the same as decaying. Fig. 5 
 shows such a stump. 
 
 Other things, even harder than wood, 
 decay in much the same way, although 
 perhaps more slowly. Bright and shiny 
 nails decay until they be- 
 come a soft, yellow rust. 
 Tin cans and iron pipes 
 rust until holes appear in 
 them and they leak. 
 
 You may not have 
 thought that stones also 
 decay, but they do. The 
 headstones in old grave- 
 yards are often so crum- 
 bled that the letters can 
 scarcely be read; and sometimes the 
 stones have fallen to pieces. The decay of 
 rock may also be seen in old stone build- 
 ings, bowlders, and rock cliffs. Have 
 you ever noticed this? 
 
 There are several causes for this decay. 
 All rocks have cracks in them 
 (Fig. 6). Usually some of 
 these cracks are so large that 
 they can be plainly seen; but there are 
 
 What causes 
 the decay of 
 rock 
 
 ©KtyUone Vieu Co., Inc. 
 
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SOIL 
 
 many others so small that they cannot be 
 seen without a magnifying glass. When it 
 rains, the water steals into the cracks, and 
 by eating into and rotting the rock, this 
 water very slowly changes it into a powder. 
 
 The water may also freeze in the cracks 
 and pry the stone apart. Perhaps you 
 have seen iron pipes or water pitchers that 
 have been burst by water freezing in them. 
 This shows how much the freezing water 
 expands; it will even break rocks apart. 
 Some of the pieces of rock broken off in 
 this way are very small, others are large 
 (Fig. 6). 
 
 Plants help the water to break up the 
 rock. Their hairlike roots push into the 
 cracks and remain there until they grow 
 so large that they pry off pieces of rock. 
 
 The earthworms that one often sees on 
 a lawn after a heavy rain also help in 
 crumbUng the rock. In order to get food, 
 they take soil into their bodies and bring 
 masses of it to the surface, where it is ex- 
 posed. The holes they make in the 
 ground also allow water and air to reach 
 the soil and rock beneath. 
 
 Rock changes to soil most rapidly near 
 the surface. This is because the rain, 
 roots of plants, and earth- 
 rock is found worms can reach it there most 
 beneath the easily. For this reason the 
 deeper you dig into soil that is 
 formed by the decay of rocks, the less 
 you will find the rock changed (Fig. 7) ; 
 and no matter where you live, if you dig 
 deep enough, you will come to solid rock. 
 
 Sometimes men may dig deep wells 
 without finding rock. But in many 
 Wh the sou P^^^^^ there are only a few 
 is of different inchcs of soil, and in others 
 depths there is not enough even to 
 
 hide the rock. 
 
 One reason why the soil is deeper in 
 one place than in another is that some 
 kinds of rock decay much more easily 
 than other kinds. Another reason is 
 that in some places the rain washes the 
 bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. 
 
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 Fig. 7 
 
 This may leave the rock quite bare in 
 one place, and make very deep soil in 
 places where the water leaves the broken 
 bits. 
 
 Having learned how the soil is made, 
 let us see how the plants make use of it. 
 
 An acorn that has been 
 planted in the soil sprouts HowsoUisof 
 
 . value to 
 
 and sends up a tiny stem, plants 
 This grows taller and taller, i. The use that 
 and sends out one branch g^^^J"*^*"' 
 after another until the little 
 tree becomes a mighty oak. What a lot 
 of material has been used to make such a 
 tree! Where has it all come from? 
 
 Some of it has been taken out of the 
 air by the leaves, and some of it has been 
 taken from the soil by the roots. While 
 the stem, branches, and leaves have been 
 growing above ground, the roots have 
 been growing underground, where we can- 
 not see them. These roots have spread 
 out in all directions and have extended 
 deep into the soil, in search of water 
 and mineral matter needed by the tree. 
 Dig up a weed, in order to see how its 
 
WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 roots have pushed their way in and out 
 through the soil. 
 
 Roots have no eyes, to be sure; but 
 
 they burrow about, and in their own way 
 
 , find what they need. It is 
 
 2. The value of ^ 
 
 the hairlike not the large or old roots, how- 
 ever, that do this. That is 
 the work of the young roots, many of 
 which are not much larger than hairs. 
 
 If you dig up a weed, or any other 
 plant, very carefully, you will see that it 
 has a great many such hairlike roots. It 
 is these that take the materials from the 
 soil, while the older, larger roots merely 
 pass these materials on to the part of the 
 plant above ground. Every tree, every 
 blade of grass, every weed and vege- 
 table, depends upon such tiny roots for 
 its life. 
 
 One of the things that roots seek in the 
 soil is water. Plants need water as much 
 3. What plants as you do; and a plant in a 
 flower-pot will soon wither 
 and die if it is given no water. 
 Try it, to see for yourself. This is the 
 reason we water our lawns during dry 
 weather in summer. Roots take other 
 substances from the soil, called plant food. 
 This plant food is a part of the soil itself, 
 and is as necessary to plants as food is 
 to you. It is carried, in the sap, to all 
 parts of the plant and used to make stems, 
 leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds, as the 
 blood in your body is used to make bone 
 and flesh. Every blade of grass and every 
 limb of a tree contains some of this plant 
 food that was once a part of the rocks. 
 When a piece of wood is burned, some of 
 this rock material is left behind in the 
 ashes. 
 
 Every person, even, has some plant 
 food in his body; your bones and teeth 
 
 take from the 
 soil 
 
 4. The differ- 
 ence between 
 fertile and 
 sterile soil 
 
 are partly made of it. But you did not 
 take it directly from the soil; the plants 
 took it for you, and you received it from 
 them in the flour and other foods that you 
 have eaten. 
 
 In some places the soil has plenty of 
 plant food in it. To raise good crops in 
 such soil, men have to do 
 nothing beyond plowing, 
 planting, and hoeing. Soil of 
 this kind, with plenty of plant 
 food in it, is said to be rich, or fertile. 
 
 There is also much soil that has little 
 plant food in it; this is said to be poor, 
 or sterile. One reason for sterile soil is 
 that the rock from which the soil has 
 come may contain little plant food. On 
 that account one farm may be much more 
 sterile than another next to it. 
 
 Soil that was once fertile may become 
 sterile because plants are always taking 
 some of the plant food out of g how fertile 
 it. They must do this in or- sou may be- 
 
 come sterile 
 
 der to grow. W hen weeds and 
 
 trees fall and decay on the spot where they 
 
 grew, they pay back what they took 
 
 away. But if plants are carried away 
 
 from the spot where they grew, there is 
 
 danger that fertile soil may be made quite 
 
 sterile. 
 
 Now this often happens. Farmers 
 send away their wheat to make flour, and 
 take their corn, hay, and oats to market. 
 Indeed, they have to do this in order to 
 make a living. Some farmers have sent 
 their crops away year after year, without 
 putting anything back in the ground to 
 take the place of what was carried away. 
 The result is that the soil has become 
 really worn out, or sterile, and the 
 farmers are no longer able to support 
 their families on such land. 
 
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SOIL 
 
 The wise farmer takes care to put some 
 plant food back upon the soil, to replace 
 6 How this what his crops have taken 
 
 danger can be from it. Then he can con- 
 avoided 
 
 tinue to raise good crops. 
 That which he puts back upon the soil is 
 called a fertilizer, because it keeps the 
 soil fertile. Fig. 8 shows 
 farmers spreading fertihzer 
 on their land. People in the 
 city also often spread ferti- 
 lizer on their lawns, to feed 
 the grass and thus make 
 it grow. 
 
 Millions of dollars are 
 spent in the United States 
 every year for fertilizers. 
 If this were not done, the 
 crops would not be nearly 
 so valuable. Then the 
 farmers would suffer; and 
 since we all depend upon 
 the products which they 
 raise, we should all suffer. Therefore, 
 what is important to the farmer is im- 
 portant to everyone. 
 
 1. Show how important food is for 
 everybody. 2. Compare the importance of 
 clothing and shelter with that Review 
 of food. 3. Prove that nearly questions 
 all our food comes from the soil. 4. Show 
 that the same thing is true of our clothing. 
 5. Is the same thing more or less true of 
 
 Fig. 8 
 
 © Keystone View Co. , Inc. 
 
 In studying this book it is a good plan 
 to note first the question that is suggested 
 About how for a section and then read the 
 to study entire answer without stop- 
 
 ping. For example, on p. 1 Our Need 
 of Food is the question treated, and the 
 importance of food for everybody is ex- 
 plained on that page. That entire sec- 
 tion may well be read without pause, to 
 understand more fully what it is all about. 
 Then a second and even a third more care- 
 ful reading may follow. When this sec- 
 tion has been finished, the next one, tell- 
 ing about our need of clothing and shelter, 
 should be studied in the same way. 
 
 the materials for shelter? 6. State some 
 facts about the number of people that 
 work in the soil. 7. What is the soil made 
 of? 8. How has it been made? 9. What 
 causes the decay of rock? 10. Why is 
 solid rock found beneath the soil? 1 1 . Why 
 is the soil of different depths? 12. What 
 use do plants make of the soil? 13. Explain 
 the value of the hairlike roots. 14. What 
 do plants take from the soil? 15. What is 
 the difference between fertile and sterile 
 soil ? 1 6 . How may fertile soil become ster- 
 ile? 17. How can this danger be avoided? 
 1. Make a list of products that some 
 gardener or farmer near you 
 
 • • • ^ T»/r 1 1- ; p Suggestions 
 
 IS raismg. 2. Make a list oi for study at 
 the many kinds of work that ^o^ie aiid 
 
 ^ , out of doors 
 
 you have seen men doing, and 
 
 find how many on the list have to do 
 
WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 with food, clothing, and shelter. 3. Find 
 a place where men are digging a ditch or 
 a cellar, and see how the dirt looks below 
 the surface. 4. Find a bowlder, cliff, or 
 old stone wall that is crumbling away. 
 5. Collect several different kinds of soil. 
 
 6. Find out what trees and vegetables 
 grow best near your home. 7. Visit a 
 greenhouse to find out what kind of soil is 
 used there, and what is done to keep it 
 fertile. 8. Make a drawing of the roots of 
 some weed that has been carefully dug up. 
 
 2. The Use of the Soil for Agriculture 
 
 The slope of land has much to do with 
 
 its value for farming. If it is very level, 
 
 like a floor, the water after a 
 
 heavy rain will stand upon it 
 
 in a thin sheet. This will 
 
 drown the crops and prove 
 
 unhealthful for both people 
 
 and animals. 
 
 In fields that have no natural slope, 
 
 special arrangements are often made to 
 
 
 The kind of 
 land suitable 
 for farming 
 
 1. The need of 
 slopes to make 
 good farm land 
 
 Fig. 9 
 
 carry off the water. Many a farm has 
 such a field — a low, wet place, called a 
 swamp. Have you seen one? The soil 
 of such a wet place is generally very fer- 
 
 tile, but it is of little worth to the farmer 
 until the water has been drained off. 
 
 This is done by digging ditches with 
 sloping bottoms, that allow the water to 
 run away to a lower point. Sometimes 
 the ditches are left open. More often 
 tiles are laid along the bottom of the 
 ditch, forming a kind of pipe, and then 
 the dirt is thrown back. The water finds 
 its way into these pipes and thus dis- 
 appears. Such drainage is 
 expensive; but the fact that 
 farmers go to such expense 
 shows how very necessary 
 slopes are for farm land. 
 
 The kind of slope is an 
 important matter. Land 
 with steep slopes 
 is not well suited 
 to farming. One reason is 
 that it is difficult to do the 
 work of plowing, planting, 
 and harvesting on a steep 
 hillside. But a more im- 
 portant reason is that the 
 rains wash away much of 
 the soil, often leaving only 
 a rough, thin layer of dirt 
 and sometimes even uncov- 
 ering the rock. The crops, too, are in dan- 
 ger of being washed away by heavy rains. 
 Land with gentle slopes, like that shown 
 in Fig. 9, is, therefore, the better kind for 
 
 2. The kind of 
 slopes wanted 
 
 Courtesy of U. 8. Depl. of Agriculture 
 
THE USE OF THE SOIL FOR AGRICULTURE 
 
 farming. The water runs off from it more 
 slowly without washing away the soil or 
 injuring crops; more of the water soaks 
 into the soil, thus helping the growth of 
 the plants; and the farmer can cultivate 
 the ground more easily. 
 
 Land of this sort, with slopes so gentle 
 that it is nearly level or slightly rolling, 
 , ^. . is called a 
 
 3. The impor- 
 tance of valleys plain. In 
 for farming 
 
 a hilly or 
 mountainous country 
 such plains are usually 
 the lowland between 
 the hills or mountains. 
 Valley is another name 
 given to such lowlands ; 
 but that term really 
 includes the slopes on 
 the two sides as well 
 as the low, level plains between them. 
 
 In any small mountain valley one is 
 likely to see a stream winding its way 
 downward through the plain, carefully 
 cultivated farms occupying the more level 
 land and extending some distance up the 
 slope on either side, and forests and per- 
 haps fields of snow higher up. 
 
 Nearly every valley in the better settled 
 portions of our country has farms in it. 
 Such a valley may not be shut in by moun- 
 tains or even by high hills ; but it is at least 
 shut in by low ridges. Thus there are farms 
 in the Connecticut Valley, in the Ohio Val- 
 ley, and in the Sacramento Valley. If you 
 are living in a valley, what is its name? 
 
 Valleys differ greatly in size. In Fig. 
 
 4. The number ^^ yOU SCC twO HVCrS flowing 
 
 of farms in a into the oceau. On both sides 
 
 valley 
 
 of each is a dotted line run- 
 ning nearly parallel with the river and 
 marked "divide." That means that 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
 water falling on one side of the line flows 
 away in one direction, while that falling 
 on the other side goes in the opposite 
 direction. Thus the rain is parted or 
 divided along that line, just as it is when 
 it falls on a roof. 
 
 The line along which the water is 
 parted is called a divide or watershed, and 
 marks the boundary of 
 the valley on one side. 
 Trace the divides in 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 The distance across 
 a valley from one di- 
 vide to the other may 
 not be more than a half 
 mile, and the stream 
 finding its way along 
 its lowest part may not 
 be a dozen miles long. 
 Such a valley may be very small and con- 
 tain no more than a dozen farms. Many 
 valleys, however, are much smaller than 
 that. There may be some near your 
 school so narrow that you could toss a 
 stone across them. See if you can find 
 one; and, if so, try to trace its boundaries. 
 Other valleys are several miles across, 
 and some are far larger. Indeed, there 
 are some so great that one could not 
 travel their whole length even if one were 
 to spend all day and all night upon a fast 
 train. Of course such valleys contain 
 many thousands of farms. 
 
 It is interesting to know that the land 
 is always undergoing change. People 
 sometimes speak of the " ever- - ., .u , ^ 
 
 '■ 5. How the land 
 
 lasting hills," but they are not is always being 
 everlasting. The hills and 
 valleys that you have seen were not 
 always here, and will not remain forever. 
 They have been slowly made. Let us 
 
I'J 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 see some of the ways in which this has 
 been done. 
 
 When it rains shghtly, the water soaks 
 into the soil and disappears; but when 
 there is a heavy rain, not all the water 
 can sink into the ground. Some flows 
 away. One little stream, perhaps less 
 than an inch wide, begins at one point; 
 another joins it; soon several of them 
 unite; and after a little while a good- 
 sized brook or creek is formed which in 
 turn flows into a larger river. 
 
 Have you not noticed this flowing 
 water in the school yard, in the roads, or 
 on the sides of hills? If you have, you 
 have surely seen that the water did not 
 flow off without taking something with it. 
 It was muddy. This means that soil 
 had become mixed with the water and 
 was being borne away by it. Every heavy 
 rain bears along much soil, cutting little 
 channels, washing out roads, and perhaps 
 even destroying the beds of railways, so 
 that trains must stop running until re- 
 pairs are made. 
 
 During such a rain little channels, or 
 valleys, are carved in the soil, leaving 
 tiny hills and ridges between. No doubt 
 you have seen these formed many times. 
 If not, you can easily make them by 
 pouring water from a sprinkler upon a 
 pile of loose dirt. 
 
 There are many heavy rains every 
 year, and in a lifetime their nuniber is 
 very large. During many hundreds of 
 years, then, the water washes away an 
 enormous amount of soil and rock. This 
 soil the streams and rivers carry away 
 to the sea. It is by such very simple 
 means that many valleys have been 
 formed, . with the hills between them. 
 It has all been done in much the same 
 
 way that the rain water cuts the tiny 
 channels in the soil of the school yard or 
 the sand pile. 
 
 While all this has been going on, the 
 land in some regions has been slowly ris- 
 ing or sinking, so as to cause still greater 
 changes. Some of the largest valleys have 
 been caused partly in this way. 
 
 How different the surface of the earth 
 must look now from what it did thou- 
 sands of years ago! No doubt there 
 were hills and valleys in the very begin- 
 ning; but every year these have been 
 slowly changing, and after many more 
 years they will be very different from 
 what they are now. 
 
 1. Explain the importance of slopes for 
 farm land. 2. What kind of slope is 
 wanted? 3. What is meant Review 
 by plain SLXid by valley? Why questions 
 are farms generally located in valleys? 
 4. Tell about the number of farms that 
 may be found in a single valley. 5. How 
 is the land always being changed? 
 
 1. Find some ground near your home 
 that seems nearly level. In what direc- 
 tion does it really slope? 2. 
 Where is the longest slope in for study at 
 your neighborhood? Would home and out 
 
 •^ ® ^01 doors 
 
 you call it a part of a plain? 
 Why? 3. Find out whether or not there 
 are any swamps near you. If so, tell how 
 you could plan to drain one of them. 4. 
 Why should a farmer use tile arid fill up 
 a ditch, rather than leave it open? 5. 
 Watch the water carrying off soil after 
 a rain. 6. Show that streets and roads 
 are so built that they have a watershed. 
 Why is this done? 7. If you live on a 
 farm, find out how your father prevents 
 the rain from washing away valuable soil. 
 
WINDS AND RAINFALL, AND THEIR EFFECT UPON FARMING 
 
 11 
 
 3. Winds and Rainfall, and their Effect upon Farming 
 
 How water is 
 obtained for 
 farms 
 
 1. The need of 
 water for plants 
 
 Plants, as we have seen, must have 
 water just as people and animals must 
 
 have it; without it they soon 
 
 wither and die. 
 
 One purpose of their roots 
 
 is to search about in the soil 
 
 for water. Some plants in dry 
 countries protect themselves against 
 drouth by sending their roots down 
 twenty feet or more for moisture. 
 
 In the course of a year plants require 
 an enormous amount of water. In most 
 parts of the United States, for example, 
 they cannot thrive with much less than 
 thirty inches of rainfall each year. Thirty 
 inches of rain per year means a layer of 
 water thirty inches deep over the land, 
 if all the rain that fell within twelve 
 months were held. A single acre in that 
 
 case would require many carloads of 
 water; and a few farms would call for 
 more than many a lake contains. 
 
 There is only one place that could sup- 
 ply so much water, and that is the ocean. 
 We can see across most lakes ^ ^^^^^ ^^ 
 and can sail across even the much water 
 
 . comes from 
 
 largest m a day or two; but 
 the ocean is far larger. One could sail 
 upon it, in the same direction, for many 
 days without coming to land (Fig. 11). 
 Indeed, the ocean is so large that it 
 surrounds all the land on which people 
 Uve; no matter in what direction you 
 might travel, if you went far enough, you 
 would come to it. 
 
 If your home is not near the ocean, you 
 might have to make a journey of one or 
 two, or even three or four, days to reach 
 
 Fig. 11 
 
 ■y 
 
12 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 it. It might be necessary to go up hills 
 and across valleys, to pass around lakes, 
 and possibly even to cross great ranges 
 of mountains. You would be surprised to 
 find how much land there is, and how 
 many farms, villages, towns, and cities 
 
 Fig. 12 
 
 © Ewing Oalloway 
 
 there are. Find out how long it would 
 take to reach the ocean from your home. 
 
 Although there is so much land, there 
 is far more water. In fact, there is nearly 
 three times as much water as land upon 
 the surface of the earth. The ocean is so 
 very large that the great rivers in all 
 parts of the earth pour their waters into it. 
 Their mouths may be thousands of miles 
 apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to 
 reach them all. It seems fortunate that 
 the ocean is so large, when we see what a 
 demand plants make for water, nearly all 
 of which comes from the ocean. 
 
 Some of our farms are as much as a 
 thousand miles from the ocean, and it 
 , TT *u would be an enormous task 
 
 3. How the 
 
 water reaches to SUpply eVCn OUC of them 
 
 with water. How, then, are 
 they all supplied? That is the work of 
 the winds. 
 
 We know that winds drive sailing ves- 
 sels through the water, and that they 
 
 turn windmills (Fig. 12). They also carry 
 away smoke, dust, and foul air from 
 crowded cities. 
 
 Far more important than all such work 
 is their task of carrying water. The air 
 takes up water from the ocean in the form 
 of vapor, which we cannot see, and the 
 winds bear it about, sometimes a few 
 miles, sometimes hundreds and even 
 thousands of miles. The winds carry the 
 vapor in all directions, and often hold it 
 for many days before letting it fall. 
 
 It requires an enormous amount of 
 water to keep the soil damp, the lakes full, 
 and the rivers flowing; far, far more is 
 needed than all the wagons, boats, and 
 trains in the whole world could haul. But 
 the winds do this work very easily, and 
 much of the time very quietly. Thus it is 
 by the help of the winds that the rocks are 
 made wet and changed to soil, that plants 
 are able to grow, and that animals and 
 people are furnished with water to drink. 
 
 What causes the air to move, and do 
 such mighty work? Heat has much to 
 
 do with it. If you watch 4. what causes 
 
 smoke in a room where there t^®^"^^^^ 
 is a lighted lamp, you will see that it 
 moves toward the lamp, and then, being 
 heated, rises above it (Fig. 13). In the 
 same manner the air in a room moves 
 toward a hot stove, and then, being 
 heated, rises above it. 
 
 The reason for such movement of the 
 air is, first, that air is made lighter when 
 it is warmed; and second, that the colder 
 air all around, being heavier, crowds in 
 and pushes the warm, lighter air upward. 
 The warm air is forced upward just as 
 a light cork that is sunk in water is forced 
 to the surface by the heavier water all 
 about it. 
 
WINDS AND RAINFALL, AND THEIR EFFECT UPON FARMING 
 
 13 
 
 The movements of the atmosphere that 
 surrounds the earth are quite Hke those 
 of the air of the heated room. If the at- 
 mosphere is warmed in one place, cool, 
 heavier air pushes in and forces it up. 
 That causes the air to move, first toward 
 the warmer place, and then upward. The 
 air moving along on the surface of the 
 earth is called wind. 
 
 For example, people on the seashore 
 often enjoy a cool sea breeze on hot sum- 
 mer days. This is because the hot sun 
 warms the land more than the water; then 
 the cooler air from over the sea blows in 
 toward this warmer place. 
 
 Such differences in the warmth of the 
 air are the main cause of winds every- 
 where. Winds that blow even hundreds 
 of miles in one direction are caused in 
 much the same way as the very gentle 
 draughts about a lamp or a stove. What 
 wonderful results follow from the fact 
 that there are always some places warmer 
 than others! 
 
 Water is always rising from the surface 
 of the ocean. In fact, enough water to 
 _ „ ,. . fill thousands and thousands 
 
 5. How the air 
 
 is able to take of barrels is leaving the ocean 
 every second and floating 
 away in the atmosphere ; and at all times 
 there is enough water in the air to fill 
 many large lakes. What causes so much 
 water to rise into the air? And why can 
 we not see it there? 
 
 You have no doubt watched a kettle 
 of water boil, and have seen that " steam" 
 rises from it. Perhaps you know, too, 
 that if it boils long enough, all the water 
 will boil away, leaving the kettle quite 
 dry. All the water in the kettle has then 
 passed into the air, where it cannot be 
 seen. 
 
 The reason for this is that heat has 
 changed the water, which is a liquid, 
 into a gas, which, like air, has no color 
 and cannot be seen. This gas is called 
 water vapor, and is so light that it 
 
 Fig. 13 
 
 floats about in the air. That explains 
 how the air is able to 'Hake up" water 
 and carry it about without our being able 
 to see it. 
 
 It is not necessary, however, to boil 
 water in order to change it to vapor. All 
 over the earth, wherever there is water, 
 vapor is rising into the air every minute. 
 You can prove this for yourself by noticing 
 that muddy streets and wet clothes soon 
 become dry, even in winter. Or you can 
 place a shallow pan of water on a table 
 and observe, after some days, how much 
 of it has gone. 
 
 People say that -the water has evapo- 
 rated, which means simply that it has 
 changed to vapor. It is in this way that 
 so vast an amount of water is always 
 rising from the ocean into the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
14 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Perhaps after many days, and after 
 traveling hundreds of miles from the 
 * im, . ocean, the air gives back some 
 
 6. What causes _ ' » ^ 
 
 the winds to of Its watcr vapor in the form 
 
 drop their water , ^ . 
 
 of rain. What causes it to 
 act in this manner? 
 
 Have you ever noticed a glass, or a 
 pitcher of ice water, ''sweat" on a hot 
 summer day? The water that 
 collects on the outside of a 
 glass of cold water has not 
 leaked through, for there are 
 no holes in the glass. What 
 has really happened is that 
 the air around the cold glass 
 has been cooled by it, and this 
 has caused the vapor in the 
 air to collect in drops on the 
 cold surface (Fig. 14). Drops 
 would gather, or condense, just 
 the same on any cold glass, 
 even if no water were in it. 
 
 The window panes of a 
 kitchen are often covered with drops of 
 water from vapor, which rises from the 
 kettles ancj is condensed in the same way 
 as when you breathe against a cold win- 
 dow pane. 
 
 From these facts you see that when air 
 loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the 
 vapor is changed back to water. Heat 
 will cause water to change into vapor, and 
 cold will change it back again. 
 
 There are several ways in which winds 
 may be cooled. When air is forced up- 
 ward in going over a mountain or a high- 
 land, it expands as it rises into the rarer 
 air, and in this expansion it is cooled. 
 This proves clearly that mountains are an 
 important help in causing rain. Indeed, 
 the mountains are usually the rainiest 
 parts of any country. 
 
 Vapor may also be condensed into 
 clouds and rain when air is forced upward 
 over a plain. This frequently happens 
 in summer when "bad spells" of weather 
 pass eastward over our country. On hot 
 summer days, the warm air near the earth 
 often becomes so light that it is pushed 
 high above the earth, forming huge bil- 
 lowy clouds. The vapor of 
 these clouds is condensed into 
 raindrops. These are the sum- 
 mer thunder-showers, which 
 often come on hot after- 
 noons. Such days are usually 
 ''muggy"; muggy air is really 
 air with much water vapor 
 in it. 
 
 There are several different 
 forms that the vapor in the 
 air takes when it ^ t,. , 
 
 7. The forms in- 
 
 changes to water, to which vapor 
 
 _, , is condensed 
 
 b or example, when 
 
 you breathe into the air on a 
 cold, frosty morning, your breath forms 
 a little cloud, or fog. The cold air has 
 made the vapor in your breath change 
 to tiny drops of water, so small that you 
 cannot see a single one, though hundreds 
 of them together make a thin mist. You 
 have, no doubt, seen fogs in valleys, 
 on lakes, or over the ocean. These are 
 always made of tiny drops of water con- 
 densed from vapor in the air. 
 
 Most clouds are also made of tiny fog 
 and mist particles. These particles, as 
 described above, are caused by the cooling 
 of the air. When climbing a mountain one 
 may pass through such a cloud, and it then 
 seems to be no more than a fog or a mist. 
 Viewed from below, however, it is seen to 
 be a cloud; and if you go high enough, 
 you may even climb above it. Then, 
 
WINDS AND RAINFALL, AND THEIR EFFECT UPON FARMING 
 
 15 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 looking down on its upper surface, you can 
 see clearly that it is a cloud (Fig. 15). 
 
 The raindrop, which falls from the 
 clouds, of course is another form of con- 
 densed vapor. Raindrops begin as tiny 
 mist or fog particles, but 
 as they grow in size they 
 become so heavy that they 
 can no longer float. They 
 must then fall to the earth. 
 
 We have learned that 
 water may be either a 
 liquid or a gas. We know, 
 too, that it may also be a solid, for ice is 
 the solid form of water. When vapor 
 condenses at a temperature below 32°, or 
 the freezing point, it takes the solid form. 
 Then either snow or hail is formed instead 
 of rain. Have you ever examined the 
 
 beautiful snow crystals, or snowflakes as 
 we call them (Fig. 16)? 
 
 Drops of water often collect at night on 
 the cold ground, on grass, and on leaves. 
 This we call dew. The dew gathers be- 
 cause the ground and 
 plants cool quickly after 
 the sun sets. These in turn 
 chill the air next to them, 
 until some of the vapor in 
 it changes to liquid water. 
 If the temperature is below 
 ^ig- ^^ the freezing point, frost is 
 
 formed instead of dew. 
 
 The farmer watches the winds even 
 more closely than most peo- s. Meaning of 
 pie do; for the direction from rnThowT'^' 
 which they blow tells him keep one 
 much about the kind of weather to expect. 
 
16 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 You would find it interesting to observe 
 this for yourself. If you should keep a 
 record every day of the direction of the 
 wind and the kind of weather it brings, 
 you would soon learn which of your winds 
 cause rain, and which cause fair weather. 
 You may also notice the clouds, and 
 look at the thermometer each day, to see 
 what the temperature is. By this means 
 you can learn something about the 
 weather near your home. A record of this 
 kind, which is called a weather record, 
 may be kept somewhat as follows: 
 
 Date 
 
 Time of Day 
 
 Direction of 
 Wind 
 
 Kind of 
 Weather 
 
 Temp- 
 erature 
 
 March 10 
 March 11 
 
 8:00 A.M. 
 6:00 P.M. 
 
 Southeast 
 Calm 
 
 Cloudy 
 Rain 
 
 55° 
 60° 
 
 In preparing for recitation it is not 
 necessary to try to remember the exact 
 About how words of the book. In fact, 
 
 to study j^ -g ^^^^ ^g^^gj. ^Q ^gii ^]^^^ 
 
 has been learned in one's own words. 
 
 It is a good plan to stop now and then 
 to think over what has been read, and for 
 this purpose some stopping places are 
 better than others. Probably the best 
 place in every page or two is found at the 
 end of the answer to each question that is 
 suggested in the heading at the side of 
 
 the page. At this point, one can look back 
 over what one has just read, or think it 
 through without looking at the book. 
 Occasionally one should review several 
 pages at a time. 
 
 1. In what ways can you prove that 
 plants need water? 2. Where must the 
 water come from? 3. How Review 
 does the water reach the land? questions 
 4. What causes wind? 5. How is the 
 air able to take up water? 6. What 
 causes the winds to drop their water? 
 
 7. Into what forms is vapor condensed? 
 
 8. What is meant by a weather record, 
 and how is one kept? 
 
 11 What might be the effect if there 
 were much more land and much less 
 ocean? 2. In what direction suggestions 
 would you need to go to reach for extra 
 the ocean at the nearest point, ""^^ 
 and how far would you have to travel? 
 
 3. Why does smoke go up chimneys? 
 
 4. Make a drawing showing how a hot 
 stove causes a movement, or circulation, 
 of air in a room. 5. How many examples 
 of evaporation can you observe about 
 you? 6. What examples of the condensing 
 of vapor can you find? 7. What winds 
 usually bring you rain? 8. Where have 
 they probably obtained their vapor? 
 
 II. Two Other Great Occupations — Manufacturing and Trade 
 
 In the cold country far to the north of 
 us live the Eskimos. When they want 
 Theindepend- anything they do not think of 
 ence of some going to a store to buy it, for 
 
 people in sup- i , i • 
 
 plying their such a thing as a store is un- 
 wants known to them. They have 
 
 no money, because they have no use for 
 it; there is nothing that they can buy 
 with it. They have never seen an 
 
 1. The inde- 
 pendence of 
 the Eskimos 
 
 automobile or a railroad train or a 
 city; nor do they know anything about 
 post offices or the telephone 
 or the telegraph. 
 
 How, then, do they live, and 
 how can they supply their wants? The 
 answer is very simple. Each man makes 
 or finds what he has. If he needs a house, 
 he builds it. If he wants food, he catches 
 
MANUFACTURING AND TRADE 
 
 17 
 
 a fish or kills a seal. If he needs clothing, 
 he takes a sealskin and makes it. If he 
 wishes to have a sledge, or a boat, he 
 makes that. Thus, he depends upon 
 himself for his food, clothing, and shelter. 
 Not many hundred years ago there 
 were no stores in our coun- 
 2. Theinde- ^r^' Then, Uke 
 
 pendence of our the EskimO, 
 early settlers , , 
 
 every man had 
 to depend largely or wholly 
 upon himself for his food, 
 clothing, and shelter. 
 
 Our first white settlers 
 came from Europe, and 
 made their homes along our 
 a. Location of eastem coast 
 harms because that 
 
 was the first land they came 
 to after crossing the Atlan- 
 ■^;ic Ocean. Soon people 
 called pioneers began to .«ji:^, 
 
 push into the wild country 
 farther west. Often several famiUes set- 
 tled together, many miles away from 
 other people; but sometimes a family 
 went off alone and made a home ten or 
 fifteen miles from the nearest neighbor. 
 Most of the United States was first set- 
 tled by such families as these. 
 
 Usually the first thing they had to do 
 was to cut down trees in order to make 
 h Kind of room for a house and garden. 
 house and fur- The house was built of logs, 
 and mud was used to stop up 
 the cracks (Fig. 17). The house often 
 had no floor except the earth, and only a 
 single room. The beds were made of 
 posts driven into the ground and joined 
 together with cross-pieces. The chairs 
 were three-legged stools, and the table was 
 part of a log supported upon four legs. 
 
 Wheat was raised for bread; and corn, 
 which often took the place of wheat, was 
 made into corn bread. Tea c. Their food 
 was often made from roots ""^^''^^'^ 
 found in the forest, and most of the meat 
 was obtained by shooting wild game. 
 
 .a:*^«-,.rv" 
 
 Fig. 17 
 
 Many families after a time kept sheep, 
 and the wool was made into yarn, blankets, 
 and cloth. If a boy needed a new suit of 
 clothes, his mother wove the cloth, cut it 
 out, and sewed the parts together. Such 
 a suit was called homespun. Or if there 
 were no sheep, the clothing was some- 
 times made out of the skins of animals. 
 Many boys wore trousers made from 
 deerskin, and used moccasins for shoes 
 when they did not go barefoot. 
 
 There were no schools, and whatever 
 the children learned from books was gen- 
 erally taught by the mother. 
 
 rni , . , . » , d. Their schools 
 
 1 here was little time for read- 
 ing during the day, and the only light at 
 night was that which came from the burn- 
 ing wood in the great fireplace. Ink was 
 made from some colored root, such as 
 
18 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 brier root, and pens were cut from the 
 quills of fowls. There were few books, 
 however, and there was little time for 
 reading or writing. 
 
 As a rule, each man raised more of 
 some things, such as wool, wheat, or hogs, 
 
 How people 
 came to de- 
 pend more 
 upon one 
 another 
 
 Fig. 18 
 
 than his own family needed. There 
 c. Necessary Were other articles that he 
 
 journeys j^^^^ ^^ j-^^y^ ^\xc\v aS pOWdcr, 
 
 sugar, salt, and tea. 
 
 Sometimes a pioneer stayed at home 
 and bought nothing, or he waited until 
 some trader came along and then ex- 
 changed skins for the things that he 
 wanted. Oftener, however, he made a 
 journey, once or twice a year, to the 
 nearest town, which was perhaps a 
 hundred miles distant. He then took 
 with him the products of the farm and 
 exchanged them for such articles as he 
 needed. 
 
 These trips had to be few, not only on 
 account of the distance, but because the 
 roads were rough and muddy. It might 
 take several days to haul a load of grain 
 to town and bring back the things he 
 wanted. 
 
 (c) Ewhifi Gailowaij 
 
 Our country was settled so rapidly that 
 each family soon had neighbors. A num- 
 ber of people would build 
 their houses near together, so 
 as to form a little village, 
 and one of them would start 
 a general store. 
 Then the families living 
 some distance away would 
 come to this center to trade, 
 bringing their farm prod- 
 ucts and the skins of ani- 
 mals, and taking back other 
 articles. 
 
 As the number of people 
 in such a place grew larger, 
 each man did fewer kinds 
 of work. Perhaps one of 
 them built a sawmill, and 
 sawed lumber for the others 
 when they needed it. An- 
 other spent part of his time at carpentry 
 work for his neighbors. A third built a 
 grist-mill (Fig. 18), and ground grain 
 into flour. A fourth made shoes a part 
 of the time, or served as a doctor, or 
 taught school, along with other work. 
 
 A few of the men spent all their time 
 at one kind of work. For example, the 
 blacksmith was kept busy shoeing horses 
 and repairing wagons, while the store- 
 keeper did nothing but buy and sell goods. 
 Now and then the storekeeper would make 
 trips to the nearest city, to buy such 
 supplies as he thought his neighbors 
 would require, such as matches, boots, 
 shovels, axes, cloth, and drugs. These he 
 would keep in his store for sale. Some- 
 times he received money for them, but 
 more often he took eggs, meat, wool, and 
 grain for his pay. These he sent to the 
 nearest large town for sale. 
 
MANUFACTURING AND TRADE 
 
 19 
 
 In this way it was no longer necessary 
 for each farmer himself to go to the dis- 
 tant town or city, for he could usually 
 get what he wanted from the store. He 
 could also sell his products to the store- 
 keeper, and with the money received pay 
 the blacksmith, or doctor, or teacher. 
 Thus each man came to do fewer things 
 for himself, and to depend more and 
 more upon others for many things. 
 
 Each year more people came to this 
 
 country, and the villages grew to be 
 
 towns and cities, with many 
 
 Extent of our .., i /• . • rtM. 
 
 dependence miUs and lactories. inen 
 upon one an- people in our couutry began 
 
 other now , . i mi j. • 
 
 to live as we now do. i nat is, 
 not a few men only, but every man began 
 to do only one, or, at most, very few kinds 
 of work. 
 
 At present some men do nothing but 
 farm; others, nothing but dig coal or iron 
 ore from the mines. Some spend all their 
 time at fishing; others spend it in mak- 
 ing cloth, or needles, or shoes. The work 
 that one man does may be of a very 
 simple kind. For example, he may only 
 drive a team, or make screws, or saw 
 shingles, or tie up sacks of flour. 
 
 With the money received for such work 
 he buys the many things he wants. 
 These articles have been made by hun- 
 dreds, perhaps thousands, of other people. 
 Think how many men have had a share 
 in the work of preparing the food that 
 you have on your table each day, or the 
 shoes that you wear, or the house in 
 which you live! How different our ways 
 are from those of the pioneers! 
 
 As more people settled in one place, 
 more kinds of work were undertaken; 
 but two of the most common kinds were 
 manufacturing and storekeeping or trade. 
 
 The factories at first were small, employ- 
 ing possibly less than a dozen men. But 
 in many cities there are now 
 factories that employ thou- 
 sands of workers. Fig. 19 
 shows such a factory. Can 
 you tell about the kind of man- 
 ufacturing carried on in some factory near 
 you, and the number of men employed? 
 
 The stores, too, were at first small, hav- 
 ing only one or two clerks. Many of these 
 also have grown to enormous size, and 
 
 How manu- 
 facturing and 
 trade have 
 helped to 
 develop cities 
 
 Courtesy of the Packard Automobile Co. 
 
 Fig. 19 
 
 employ hundreds of men and women. Our 
 cities owe their growth largely to these two 
 occupations, manufacturing and trade. 
 
 When studying the lesson it is impor- 
 tant to know that the sentences in the 
 text are not all to be remembered ahke, 
 
20 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 for they are not all of the same value. 
 Neither are the paragraphs all of the 
 About how same value, nor the pages. On 
 to study ^j^g contrary, in any text there 
 
 are always some sentences, paragraphs, 
 and pages that are far more important 
 than others, and one of the principal 
 things to do in studying a lesson is to 
 discover what the most important parts 
 are. For example, between pp. 16 and 
 19 several questions are treated, and the 
 most important one is that on p. 19, 
 telling about the extent of our dependence 
 upon one another now. In that section, 
 also, there are two sentences that are of 
 special value. One is the statement that 
 "Not a few men only, but every man be- 
 gan to do only one, or, at most, very few 
 kinds of work." The four sentences mak- 
 ing the next paragraph merely illustrate 
 this statement. The first sentence in the 
 next paragraph, beginning with "With 
 the money received for such work," is 
 the most important one there. Those 
 that follow merely explain it. Thus the 
 principal thoughts in this section are con- 
 tained in these two sentences. 
 
 In all study of this text it is best to 
 find the leading question in a number of 
 
 I pages and the one or two chief state- 
 ments made in answer to each question. 
 It is much more interesting to study in 
 this way, and one remembers better what 
 one reads. Try this plan in your next 
 lesson. 
 
 1 . In what ways must the Eskimo meet 
 his own wants? 2. Describe the habits of 
 our pioneers in the location Review 
 of their homes. 3. What kind questions 
 of houses and furniture did they have? 
 
 4. How did they get food and clothing? 
 
 5. Describe their schools. 6. Describe the 
 journeys they sometimes had to make. 
 7. Explain how people came to depend 
 more upon one another. 8. To what ex- 
 tent are we dependent upon one another 
 now? 9. How have manufacturing and 
 trade helped to develop cities? 
 
 1. What are some of the attractions 
 that you see in pioneer life like that de- 
 scribed in the text? 2. What c„„„^e+;«„o 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 articles would you expect to for extra 
 find in a general store in a ^°^ 
 village or in the country? 3. How are 
 department stores in cities hke such gen- 
 eral stores? 4. Write a story describing 
 an early pioneer's journey to the nearest 
 large town. 
 
 III. A Fourth Great Occupation — Transportation 
 
 There is a fourth great occupation. If 
 
 you will make a list of the kinds of food 
 
 . * you eat, you will find that 
 
 The need of -^ . p ,. ^, 
 
 transportation Only a lew 01 them are pro- 
 °|8oods^and ^j^^ed near you. Try it, to 
 see. And some of them may 
 have come a very long distance. The 
 flour for your bread may have come from 
 Minnesota or Kansas or New York; 
 your meat from states still farther west; 
 
 your sugar from Cuba; and your salt 
 from Michigan. Likewise the dishes on 
 your table, the knives, forks, and spoons, 
 and even the table itself, with the chairs 
 about it, were probably hauled hundreds 
 of miles before reaching you. 
 
 Most of your clothing has come just as 
 far. The cotton of which your dress or 
 shirt is made was probably grown in 
 the South; the wool for your woolen 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 21 
 
 clothing, in Ohio or Montana; and the 
 linen for your collars or handkerchiefs in 
 Ireland. 
 
 Can you suggest where the materials 
 for building j^our home were produced: 
 the brick; the iron and the lead pipes; the 
 lumber, nails, tin, sand, and many other 
 things? The coal, also, for heating your 
 house? Were any of these materials found 
 near you? How many of them probably 
 had to be brought a long distance? 
 
 It is plain that materials for food, 
 clothing, and shelter are being carried in 
 all directions all the time. Nearly every 
 day every farmer is hauling some things 
 to his farm or taking others away. Every 
 factory is receiving quantities of raw mate- 
 rials and shipping away finished products. 
 Every store is constantly receiving and 
 sending out supphes. People, too, hun- 
 dreds of thousands of them, have to be 
 carried from place to place every day. 
 
 The work of hauHng — or transportation 
 as it is called — is, therefore, a fourth 
 great occupation. Milhons of persons 
 are engaged in it, just as other millions 
 are engaged in farming, manufacturing, 
 and trade. 
 
 Any country that has not advanced 
 far usually has very poor roads. Often 
 The first kind they are only paths that have 
 of roads been made by animals or men 
 
 and are hardly more than a foot wide. 
 
 The Indians in our country had only 
 narrow paths, or trails, for roads. They 
 often used the trails made by the buffalo. 
 Wagons could not be drawn over these, 
 and goods could be carried only on the 
 backs of men or of animals. A number of 
 horses carrying packs formed a pack 
 train; these may still be seen in some 
 places (Fig. 20). 
 
 The pioneers at first had only trails, 
 and one of their hardest tasks was to cut 
 roads through the dense forests. Trees had 
 to be cut down, stumps and stones re- 
 moved, steep places leveled, and swampy 
 places filled in. Streams had to be crossed 
 
 Fig. 20 
 
 by wading or fording them in places where 
 the water was shallow (Fig. 21). This 
 was often difficult and even dangerous, 
 especially when the streams were swollen 
 after heavy rains. Bridges were built as 
 soon as the people were able to do so. 
 
 As long as each man depended largely 
 upon himself for the things that he 
 needed, there was not much qut progress 
 hauhng, and it made Httle dif- "i foad 
 ference how poor the roads ^^ 
 were. But when each person did only 
 one kind of work and relied upon others 
 
22 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 for supplying his wants, good roads or 
 highways came to be of great importance. 
 Our dependence upon trucks in recent 
 years for all kinds of hauling has made 
 
 Fig. 21 
 
 good roads still more necessary, for such 
 machines make poor speed on bad roads. 
 It is not surprising, then, that our high- 
 ways have been rapidly improving. There 
 
 muddy for travel. Do you know any 
 such? Every year, however, the num- 
 ber of smooth, hard, and level roads is 
 greatly increasing (Fig. 23). 
 
 Perhaps you have seen 
 some road-building, and can 
 describe how it is done. 
 The most common kind of 
 pavement is called macad- 
 am, after the name of the 
 Scotchman who invented it. 
 It consists of broken stones 
 several inches deep covered 
 over with fine bits of rock; 
 all this material is pressed 
 down very hard by a heavy 
 steam roller. The objection 
 to it is that it wears out too 
 rapidly. Better kinds are 
 now gradually taking its 
 place, in which asphalt or 
 brick or concrete are used. 
 What kinds of pavement 
 are found in your neighborhood, and 
 where is the best section? 
 
 Rivers are often a fine substitute for 
 highways. When the pioneers were set- 
 
 © Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 t) B) uri Bi s 
 
 Fig. 22 
 
 are still many wretched ones (Fig. 22) , in 
 both city and country, roads that are 
 very rough, or steep in places, or too 
 
 Fig. 23 
 
 tling in the Mississippi Basin it was the 
 custom to float their goods down the Ohio 
 and the Mississippi rivers to New Orleans 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 23 
 
 for sale. In many parts of 
 our country the rivers were 
 Tbe value of at that time the 
 rivers for best and almost 
 
 transportation .i i , 
 
 the only routes 
 of travel and transportation. 
 
 A broad, deep river may 
 be one of the best highways 
 in the world. To be sure, no 
 wagons can be drawn upon 
 it, but boats may travel 
 upon it with ease. A large 
 steamboat can carry as 
 much freight as scores of 
 wagons or railroad cars, and 
 many boats can go up and 
 down it at the same time. 
 
 River navigation is, therefore, an impor- 
 tant kind of transportation. Before the 
 time of railways — which is no longer ago 
 than when your great-grandfathers were 
 
 Fig. 25 
 
 ©Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 24. — A Mississippi River steamer 
 
 boys — boats were used for carrying all 
 sorts of articles. In many countries they 
 are still almost the only means of hauling 
 goods long distances, and even in the more 
 advanced countries they are 
 one of the cheapest means 
 of transportation (Fig. 24). 
 If we take a journey from 
 the source of a river to its 
 lower end or 
 mouth, we shall 
 see how large a 
 part of it is use- 
 less for naviga- 
 tion. It may 
 have its begin- 
 ning or source 
 in a small spring in the 
 mountains or in the moun- 
 tain snows, where it is so 
 narrow that one can easily 
 step across it. 
 
 We put a toy boat upon 
 the water and it floats along 
 quietly for a time. Then, 
 
 Difficulties in 
 the way of 
 using rivers 
 for transpor- 
 tation 
 
 1. Why the 
 upper course of 
 many rivers is 
 of no use for 
 this purpose 
 
24 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 coming to a swift part of the current, 
 called a rapid, it is whirled along roughly 
 and upset. We rescue it and set it right 
 again, but soon it comes to a place where 
 the water falls many feet from the top of 
 a ledge (Fig. 25). In tumbling over this 
 waterfall the boat is again upset and 
 dashed against the rocks. 
 
 As the water rushes along, beating it- 
 self into foam, it is here and there joined 
 
 Fig. 26 
 
 by other branches or tributaries, some 
 very small, others nearly as large as the 
 brook itself. Thus the stream gradually 
 grows broader and deeper. 
 
 Often the water must rush around or 
 leap over large bowlders that lie in its 
 path; and often it falls directly down- 
 ward for many feet, with a roar. At last 
 the river leaves the mountains and flows 
 in a broad valley through a hilly country. 
 Some of the slopes are steep and covered 
 with forests; others, more gentle, are 
 cleared of trees and dotted with farms. 
 
 The current is not so swift now, 
 although there are still some rapids and 
 falls; and instead of rocky cUffs, the 
 banks are low. In fact, in some places 
 these are not much higher than the water. 
 Here and there a tributary, itself almost 
 a river, pours its flood into our stream. 
 It has now been many hours since this 
 water left the mountains; and it has 
 become so deep that we can drift along 
 easily in a rowboat, watch- 
 ing the men at work in the 
 fields, and the villages that 
 we pass (Fig. 26). 
 
 At one point, however, 
 the current grows swifter, 
 and finally the water tum- 
 bles in a great fall. We must 
 leave the river at this point 
 and pass around the fall. 
 Here is a large city with 
 many mills and factories. 
 From this point on, the 
 stream is so broad and deep 
 that large steamboats can 
 travel upon it; it has now 
 become a great river and 
 valuable for navigation. 
 Above this point, however, 
 on account of the shallow water, the 
 swift current, and the rapids and falls, it 
 is of no use for transportation. Most 
 rivers in their upper courses suffer from 
 one or more of these difficulties. 
 
 There are other difficulties besides falls 
 in the way of transportation along the 
 rivers. In time of floods, 2. Difficulties 
 caused by heavy rains or the of transporta- 
 
 1 . - . ^ tioninthe 
 
 meltmg of snow, rivers often lower course of 
 break through their banks and 
 change their courses. Then river ves- 
 sels that sink many feet in the water 
 
 © Euirtg Gallouay 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 25 
 
 have great difficulty in finding a safe route. 
 There is another serious difficulty due to 
 the load of mud in river water. Rivers, as 
 you have already learned 
 (p. 10), usually carry quan- 
 tities of soil taken from the 
 valleys through which 
 they flow. They also grind 
 up rock by rolling stones 
 about in the stream bed 
 and carry off the rock bits 
 in the current. All such 
 loose material is called 
 sediment, and the amount of it in any 
 river is generally large. In times of 
 flood it is enormous. Why should it be 
 larger at such times than at others? 
 
 How great the quantity 
 may be is suggested by the 
 amount of land that the 
 rivers build with a small 
 part of it. When the rivers 
 overflow their banks and 
 spread out over the sur- 
 rounding country, their 
 slowly moving waters drop 
 some of this sediment and 
 form a thin layer of mud. 
 Each flood adds another 
 layer, until after many 
 years land is built above 
 the usual level of the river. 
 vSuch land is generally a 
 level plain; and, since it 
 is made by river floods, it 
 is called a flood plain. In 
 the same manner plains are 
 built at the mouths of many rivers; these 
 are called deltas, because their shape of a 
 triangle resembles the shape of a Greek 
 letter a, called delta (Fig. 27). Sometimes 
 such plains are many miles in width. 
 
 Fig. 27 
 
 Fig. 28 
 
 Much of the river sediment, however, 
 is dropped in unexpected places. As the 
 current shifts about, sand bars may be 
 formed from the sediment, 
 so as to block the old 
 river channel here and 
 there. Then the boats run 
 aground, or lose much 
 time in picking out a 
 safer route. On account 
 of such difficulties, trans- 
 portation even on the 
 lower courses of rivers 
 calls for much care and expense. 
 
 Fig. 28 represents a river system; that 
 is, a main river and all the smaller streams 
 or tributaries that flow into it. 
 
 Ai • How small a 
 
 large river part of any 
 
 such as this nver system 
 
 , is valuable for 
 
 one may have transportation 
 
 dozens of trib- 
 utaries, bringing together 
 the rain that falls in places 
 even hundreds of miles 
 apart. Yet while there are 
 many streams, possibly 
 only the lower course of 
 the main one would be of 
 use for transportation. Its 
 upper course and its many 
 tributaries would be too 
 shallow for boats, or their 
 rapids and falls would pre- 
 vent their use. What diffi- 
 culties might boats have to 
 meet even at the delta of 
 this river? 
 Although it is only about 100 years 
 since the first railroads were built, it 
 would be difficult to imagine how we 
 could do without them now. Many of 
 the things we use must be brought 1,000 
 
26 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 miles or more overland. Look about in 
 a grocery or hardware store and make 
 a list of articles that have 
 have iSgeiy probably been hauled at least 
 taken the ^j^g^j^ distance. If there is a 
 
 place of wag- £ j u 
 
 on roads and factory near you, nnd now 
 rivers for £g^j. a^^y gome of its products 
 
 transportation "^ ^ 
 
 are sent. 
 
 Wagon roads cannot well be used for 
 such long-distance hauling; it is slow for 
 all things and altogether too slow for 
 many. For example, fresh fruit, vege- 
 tables, and meat could not be shipped so 
 far by wagon roads; nor would people be 
 satisfied to send their mail or to travel in 
 that way. Transportation by river is 
 somewhat faster; but it is still very slow 
 compared with that by rail. Besides, 
 rivers do not run in the right direction 
 for much of the necessary traffic. For 
 such reasons, railroads have largely taken 
 the place of our rivers for all kinds of 
 transportation, and they have taken the 
 place of our wagon roads for most long- 
 distance hauling. 
 
 Rivers, wagon roads, and railroads 
 generally follow the valleys. Can you ex- 
 plain why the rivers do so? 
 
 Why rivers, r^ • i 
 
 roads, and ^^^i you give some examples 
 raUwaysfoi- of wagon roads and railways 
 leys that keep to the valleys? 
 
 The reason for this is that 
 the bottoms of valleys usually have a 
 gentle slope, and it is easier to build roads 
 and travel over such land than up and 
 down across hills. On that account, when 
 white men first came to this country and 
 settled among the hills, they built their 
 roads in the valleys; and the same thing 
 is still done. 
 
 Trains cannot be drawn up steep slopes; 
 and therefore the railroads must either 
 
 cut througli the hills or follow the val- 
 leys. The latter is much the cheaper 
 plan, so that in a hilly country railroads 
 wind in and out, often making sharp 
 curves in order to keep to the valleys. 
 
 In studying a lesson it is best not to 
 spend all your time with your book in 
 hand. After carefully reading About how 
 the text through two or three *° ^^^^^ 
 times, it is best to select some topic that 
 you think would prove interesting to your 
 mother, or to some of your friends, or that 
 they could tell you more about. Then, 
 at some time when the others pres- 
 ent have nothing special to talk about, 
 bring up this topic. Tell what you have 
 read, and ask some questions about it. 
 Talking over a part of a lesson in such a 
 way is one of the very best ways of study- 
 ing it. 
 
 1. Show how great is the need of trans- 
 portation of goods and people. 2. De- 
 scribe the roads of early times. Review 
 3. What progress have we questions 
 made in road-building? Tell about the 
 different kinds of pavement. 4. Explain 
 the value of rivers for transportation. 5. 
 Why is the upper course of many rivers 
 of little use for this purpose? 6. What 
 difficulties in the way of transportation 
 are met in the lower courses of rivers? 
 7. What is a river system? Show why 
 only a small part of any river system is of 
 value for transportation. 8. Why have 
 our railroads largely taken the place of 
 our wagon roads and rivers for trans- 
 portation? 9. What is meant by the 
 source of a river? Rapids? Tributaries? 
 Falls? Flood plains? Deltas? 
 
 1. The last syllable in the names of 
 many towns and cities is ford, as, for 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 27 
 
 example, Hartford, Stamford, and Rock- 
 ford. What does this suggest to you? 
 Suggestions 2. How cau good roads and 
 for extra waterways help to prevent 
 
 ^^"^^ famines? 3. What is meant 
 
 by the "right bank" of a river? The 
 ''left bank?" River bed? River chan- 
 nel? River basin? 4. Why are the rocks 
 in river beds generally so smooth and 
 
 round? 5. Find a spring. Why are its 
 waters always cool? 6. Find out some of 
 the ways in which rivers are improved 
 for transportation. 7. Make a collec- 
 tion of pictures of rivers, and state as 
 many facts as you can about them. 8. 
 Make a drawing of a river, showing 
 its source, mouth, tributaries, and flood 
 plains. 
 
 IV. Government 
 
 You have studied about the four great- 
 est occupations in the world. But there 
 Our need of ^^^ many hard-working people 
 laws and offi- who are not engaged in farm- 
 ing, manufacturing, trade, or 
 transportation. Your teacher is an ex- 
 ample. Can you give several other 
 examples? 
 
 It is plain that there are many other 
 kinds of employment beside these four. 
 One of the most important of the other's 
 is government. There must be laws about 
 health, the care of streets, the education 
 of children, the raising of taxes, and scores 
 of other matters; and persons must be 
 chosen to make such laws. These laws 
 must also be enforced, which calls for 
 many more men, such, for example, as 
 poUcemen, firemen, judges, and a host 
 of others. Thus there are hundreds of 
 thousands of men and women in the 
 United States who give all their time to 
 the work of carrying on our government. 
 
 Many of these people have to be elected 
 by vote of the people to the offices they 
 How people hold. Do you know what is 
 are elected to meant by voting; and by 
 
 office 1 +• 9 ^ ^ 
 
 elections.'^ 
 Suppose that all the members of your 
 class, or of your school, wished to form a 
 
 club, and to choose one of your number 
 president. How would you go about it? 
 Probably the names of two or three chil- 
 dren who seemed best fitted for the place 
 would first be suggested. Then each of 
 you would write the name of the one you 
 preferred upon a slip of paper, and drop it 
 into a box. After that, all the slips, or 
 votes, would be counted, and the boy or 
 girl who received the greatest number 
 of votes would be elected. 
 
 In such a case you would be voting, 
 and having an election at school. When 
 you dropped the name of the one you pre- 
 ferred into the box, you cast a vote; and 
 the election was nothing more than the 
 choice of some one for the position. Quite 
 possibly some of you would become just 
 as much interested in such an election as 
 men do in their elections. 
 
 Men hold their elections in much the 
 same way. Ask your father and mother 
 to tell you exactly how they vote. 
 
 People hold elections and vote on 
 many sorts of questions, but usually when 
 one speaks of voting and of Matters that 
 elections one means the choice elections 
 
 r rn i> j. decide 
 
 01 oincers tor our government. 
 
 We do not hold elections to decide how a 
 
 farmer shall manage his farm, for it is 
 
28 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 best that he should do that about as he 
 pleases. He builds fences, plants certain 
 crops, and sells his grain or feeds it to his 
 stock, as seems to him best. So, also, 
 the miller builds a large or a small mill, 
 uses old or new machinery, grinds much 
 
 Fig. 29. — The legislature of Illinois 
 
 or little corn, and makes repairs as he 
 chooses. In each of these cases one man 
 owns and uses the property. 
 
 There are many things, however, that 
 no one person owns, and in which a large 
 nxmiber of people are about equally in- 
 terested. This is true, for instance, of 
 roads. Many people drive or walk over 
 them, but no one person owns them. 
 The people together have to decide, or 
 vote, where and how they shall be built 
 and repaired, and who shall do the work. 
 That is, they hold elections to make laws 
 about the roads, and choose officers to 
 carry out such laws. 
 
 The schools, hkewise, are not usually 
 owned by any one person, and are of great 
 interest to everybody. 'So questions about 
 the schools are also voted upon at elections. 
 What shall be done with thieves and 
 disorderly persons? This is another ques- 
 tion of great interest to 
 everybody. Laws must be 
 made to control such peo- 
 ple, and officers must be 
 selected to carry out such 
 laws. There are many other 
 questions that interest large 
 numbers of people. Can 
 you name some of them? 
 Ask your father or mother 
 to tell you what will be some 
 of the questions to be voted 
 on at the next election. 
 
 Elections, therefore, deal 
 with matters of general in- 
 terest. They provide for 
 laws on such matters, and 
 for the selection of officers 
 to enforce them. 
 
 Some of the matters that 
 are voted on at elections 
 concern only those persons 
 who live in a small section, as be^voted up°on 
 in a small town or village. For by small 
 instance, the kind of streets peopfe° 
 that you shall have, and the 
 men who shall take care of them, are 
 questions of no special interest to people 
 in other towns or cities, but they interest 
 all the voters in your section. 
 
 It is also very important that you have 
 a good school building, with good teachers. 
 People living at a distance have Uttle 
 interest in your school, but those who live 
 near you are very much interested in it. 
 The people to vote on such a question, 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 29 
 
 therefore, are those who have a special 
 interest in it. 
 
 Thus there are many matters that are 
 of chief interest to the persons Uving in 
 one neighborhood. They are called local 
 questions, and are voted upon only by the 
 few voters in that section. Ask someone 
 to tell you of other local questions. 
 
 There are some matters that are of 
 
 interest to the people in a much larger 
 
 area. For example, a railway 
 
 Matters that . 
 
 concern the Company might charge too 
 people of a much for hauHug passengers 
 
 whole state /. • i x i 
 
 and freight. In such a case, 
 laws may be needed, forcing them to 
 charge lower rates. Since a railway may 
 be hundreds of miles long, the people of a 
 single town or city could do very little 
 with such a company. In that case it 
 would be necessary for men living per- 
 haps hundreds of miles apart to unite in 
 some way to make laws. 
 
 Again, it is important that there be 
 buildings in which bhnd people may be 
 cared for; others in which the deaf and 
 dumb may be educated; and still others 
 in which insane people may be kept. 
 There must also be strong prisons where 
 criminals may be sent. There are not 
 many such persons in any one small dis- 
 trict, and it would prove very expensive 
 and difficult to take proper care of only a 
 few of each kind. Therefore, all the 
 people in a large area, called a state, 
 unite to make proper laws and provide 
 buildings and officers for the care of such 
 people. What is the name of your state? 
 
 The voters of a state cannot, of course, 
 all come together at one place to discuss 
 such matters. Even if all could make the 
 journey at a time agreed upon, there 
 would be so many that it would not be 
 
 possible for all to hear those who spoke, 
 and little business could be done. Be- 
 sides, new laws are needed every year, and 
 the voters would have to spend too much 
 time on such work. 
 
 For these reasons it is the custom for 
 one man to be elected to represent many 
 others in the making of laws. Where 
 there are great numbers of people, he 
 may represent many thousands, and 
 vote in place of them all. Suppose, for 
 instance, that there are a million persons 
 living in one state, and that one man is 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 30. — The capitol at Springfield in Illinois 
 
 elected to represent every ten thousand. 
 One hundred such men would then be 
 chosen, and it would be their duty to 
 come together and make laws for the 
 whole million. 
 
 Such men, being elected to represent 
 others, are called representatives; and be- 
 
80 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 cause they legislate (which means "make 
 laws")? the whole body is called the 
 legislature (Fig. 29). 
 
 The city where the legislature meets is 
 called the capital (which means "head 
 city") of the state. The capital is often 
 located near the center of the state, and it 
 usually has a fine, large building, called 
 the state capital (Fig. 30). It is here that 
 the representatives hold their meetings. 
 
 The chief officer of the state, who is 
 elected to see that the state laws are car- 
 ried out, or enforced, is called the governor. 
 Who is your governor? He is elected by 
 voters in all parts of the state, while each 
 representative is elected by a small sec- 
 tion of the state. There are also other 
 state officers, such as a state treasurer, a 
 state superintendent of schools, and 
 judges. Some of these officers are elected 
 by the people; others are appointed by 
 the governor. 
 
 In cities, laws are made through repre- 
 sentatives, just as in states, and for the 
 same reasons. The represent- 
 madeand^'^^ ativcs chosen to make the 
 officers se- laws in cities are usually called 
 cities aldermen; and the highest 
 
 officer, elected to carry out, or 
 execute, the laws is called the mayor. 
 All these officers are chosen by the voters 
 at elections. If your home is in a city, 
 learn the name of your mayor and that of 
 the alderman from your neighborhood. 
 Find out what some of their duties are. 
 
 The building in which these representa- 
 tives meet, and in which the mayor has 
 his office, is called the city hall. While the 
 city is governed in some matters by its 
 own laws and officers, like any small town, 
 it also forms part of the state and elects 
 representatives to the legislature. 
 
 In our country there are forty-eight 
 states, and there are some questions that 
 no one state can decide alone, 
 because the others are equally 2"fstions 
 
 n v' that concern 
 
 mterested m them. For in- the people of 
 stance, it would be a great stetS"^*'^ 
 hindrance to trade and travel 
 if each state made its own money, for 
 each state might then have different coins. 
 In that case, every time a traveler passed 
 from one state to another, he would be 
 obliged to exchange his money for a new 
 kind. 
 
 Again, in case of war, the country 
 would be weak if each state acted alone. 
 Perhaps you can give some of the reasons 
 why. Mail is another matter that con- 
 cerns all the states. There are many others 
 besides. Can you mention some of them? 
 
 So it is clear that we need a United 
 States government as well as state, city, 
 and town governments. The reason for 
 calHng it the United States government is 
 also plain, for the states have really 
 united, in order to have one central gov- 
 ernment for many important matters. 
 
 If the people in a single city or state 
 cannot meet in a body to make laws, cer- 
 tainly the people of the entire 
 United States cannot do so. ^ade^and"^ 
 Therefore, representatives are officers chosen 
 elected, and sent to one place, sites 
 from all the states of the 
 Union. Here they consider questions of 
 interest to the whole nation. 
 
 The place where they meet is Washing- 
 ton, and this city is called, on that ac- 
 count, the capital of the United States, or the 
 national capital. At Washington there is a 
 magnificent capitol in which the meetings 
 are held (Fig. 77). There are many other 
 fine government buildings there also. 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 31 
 
 Who 
 
 The representatives from the forty- 
 eight states of the Union form what is 
 known as Congress. This corresponds to 
 the legislatures of the state, for the con- 
 gressmen make laws for the nation, as the 
 legislators do for the state. The members 
 of Congress are called sena- 
 tors and representatives. 
 
 The chief executive officer 
 of the United States, corres- 
 ponding to the mayor of a 
 city and the governor of a 
 state, is called the president. 
 He Hves in Washington, and 
 his residence is called the 
 executive mansion, or White 
 House, since it is white in 
 color (Fig. 31). Who is now 
 President of the United States? 
 was the first President? 
 
 Besides these officers, who are elected 
 by the people, there are a great many 
 others who are appointed by the President 
 to carry on the work of government. 
 Many live in Washington, but some, such 
 as postmasters, Uve in other places. 
 
 We have seen that our representatives 
 and other officers are elected by votes 
 Why our gov- that are cast for them. Be- 
 ermnent is cause the people thus have the 
 
 called a ^ ^ • '^ 
 
 democracy power to makQ their own laws, 
 andarepubUc Qyj. government is called a 
 democracy. The first part of this word 
 means "people" and the last part "gov- 
 ernment," so that the whole word means 
 "government by the people." Because 
 the people do not really make the laws 
 themselves, but elect representatives to 
 do this for them, ours is often called a 
 representative government, or a republic. 
 
 is an important occupation. 2. How are 
 people elected to office? 3. What kind 
 of questions do elections decide? 4. 
 Give examples of questions that Review 
 are voted upon by small groups questions 
 of people. 5. Of questions that concern 
 
 © Manufacturers' Aircraft Assn. 
 
 Fig. 31 
 This view of the White House was taken from an airplane. 
 
 1. Show that the work of government 
 
 the people of a whole state. 6. How are 
 laws made for a whole state, and who are 
 some of the officers elected for the state? 
 
 7. How are laws made for cities, and who 
 are some of the officers elected for cities? 
 
 8. Give examples of questions that con- 
 cern the people of the United States. 9. 
 How are laws made, and who are some 
 of the officers chosen, for the United 
 States? 10. Why is our government 
 called a democracy? Why a republic? 
 
 1. Name some officers that you know 
 about, and find out whether they repre- 
 sent the local, state, or ^ 
 
 . ' ' Suggestions 
 
 the national government. 2. for extra 
 What officers look after your "^^^^ 
 school, and how are they chosen? 3. What 
 is the capital of your state, and where is 
 it? 4. In what respect are the town hall, 
 city hall, state capitol, and United States 
 capitol ahke in their use? 5. Why should 
 the capital of a state be near the center 
 of the state, if possible? 6. What does 
 U. S. stand for? 
 
32 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 V. Maps 
 
 It is often important to represent a 
 country upon a map, so as to tell at a 
 glance what its shape is, and where its 
 mountains, rivers, and cities are. Such 
 
 .^r^ 
 
 :j c 
 
 CJ CJ LZJ CJ CZJ im CZD 
 
 czi cn cj cn nj cj nj 
 
 WEST « J'^ CZI □ □ □ CD □ □ 
 
 □□□□□□□ 
 
 HH □ O [^ CZ] CU LZl 
 CD □ □ □ □ CZJ □ 
 
 □ o □ □□□ □ 
 
 SOUTK »^-^ 
 
 ^''11,1,1 I r I t 
 
 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 tS 
 
 SCALE OF feet: 1 INCH — 1 6 FEET 
 OR ^g OF AN INCH =1 FOOT 
 
 Fig. 32 
 
 a drawing can be made of any place, no 
 matter how large or small it may be. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, we desire to 
 make a map, or drawing, of a schoolroom. 
 XT * The room we have chosen is 
 
 How a map of 
 
 a schoolroom thirty-two feet long and thir- 
 
 can be drawn ^^_^^^ f^^^ ^^^ j^ ^^^j^ 
 
 not be easy to find a piece of paper as 
 large as that; but it is not necessary to 
 have so large a piece in order to make the 
 drawing. A small piece will do just as 
 well, if we let one inch on the paper stand 
 for several feet in the room. 
 
 In this case let one inch stand for six- 
 teen feet. Since the room is thirty-two 
 feet on each side, the drawing will be just 
 two inches long and two inches wide. To 
 place the desks and aisles properly, we 
 shall need to use a ruler with the inches 
 divided into sixteenths; for one foot in 
 
 the room represents one sixteenth of an 
 inch on the ruler. 
 
 The ends of the room are on the north 
 and south, and the sides on the east and 
 west. The teacher's desk is three and 
 one half feet in front of the north wall. 
 There is a row of desks about four feet 
 from the west wall. The desks are just 
 two feet long, with eight in a row one and 
 one fourth feet apart. There are seven 
 rows, and the aisles between them are each 
 one and one fourth feet wide. The piano 
 is on the west side of the teacher's desk. 
 
 Here is a map of the schoolroom (Fig. 
 32). Measure each part to see whether it 
 has been drawn correctly, using a foot rule 
 that shows the sixteenth part of an inch. 
 How large istheteacher'sdesk? The piano? 
 
 When a person draws in this way, let- 
 ting a certain distance on the paper stand 
 for a greater distance, he is „ 
 
 . , . , , , Meaning of 
 
 said to use a scale, or to make drawing "ac- 
 a map according to a scale. ^°^*^^ *° ^ 
 In the schoolroom just de- 
 scribed the scale is one inch to sixteen feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 School 
 
 House 
 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o 
 Tree 
 
 
 Tre. 
 
 mik 
 
 O 
 
 Hydrant 
 
 SOUTH 
 105 140 
 
 280 
 
 ■SCALE IN FEET: 1 INCH -1 40 FEET 
 
 Fig. 33 
 
 In the next drawing, that of the school 
 yard (Fig. 33), the number of feet which 
 an inch represents must be still greater, 
 
MAPS 
 
 33 
 
 because the yard is much larger than the 
 room. Here one inch represents 140 
 feet. According to this scale, find out 
 how large the yard and the school building 
 are. Find how far the trees are from each 
 
 Fig. 34 
 
 other; from the nearest fence; from the 
 nearest part of the building. 
 
 All maps are drawn according to a 
 scale, just as these two are. It makes no 
 difference whether they represent a school 
 yard, a state, the United States, or even 
 the entire earth ; all are drawn to a scale. 
 In this book there is a map of North 
 America (Fig. 59); to what scale is it 
 drawn? Look at some other maps in the 
 book to find out their scales. 
 
 Can you not make a map of your own 
 schoolroom? What scale will you use? 
 Maps that you Put in your own desk, but 
 may draw ^^^^ ^^le others. Draw also a 
 map of your school yard. If you prefer 
 to do so, find its size by stepping off, or 
 pacing, the distance, making each of your 
 steps about two feet long. Measure the 
 building in the same way. After having 
 finished these two maps, draw a third 
 one, including in it not only the school 
 yard, but also a few of the streets and 
 houses near by. Let the scale for this 
 third map be one inch for every five hun- 
 dred steps. 
 
 Maps are used a great deal to show the 
 location of places and the direction of 
 
 one place from another. To use them 
 properly, a person must first ways of find- 
 understand what is meant ing directions 
 by north, south, east, and °" ° ^^^^ 
 west. Probably you already know this. 
 
 One of the easiest ways to find the 
 direction is by a compass (Fig. 34). A 
 compass is a piece of steel, called a needle, 
 which swings around easily and always 
 points to the north. This needle is a 
 magnet like the horseshoe magnets that 
 you have seen. It points northward be- 
 cause some force within the earth draws 
 it in that direction. No one knows cer- 
 tainly just what this force is, but it is 
 called magnetism. 
 
 Another way to tell direction is by the 
 stars. When the stars are shining, one 
 can tell which direction is north by the 
 help of the Great Dipper (Fig. 35). The 
 two stars on the edge of the Great Dipper 
 
 Fig. 35.— The Great Dipper 
 
 The stars shown with four points are a little less 
 bright than the others. Polaris means " North Star." 
 
 point toward the North Star. This star, 
 which can easily be found, lies always to 
 the north of us. 
 
34 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 One can also find direction with the help 
 of the sun. At noon it stands exactly south 
 of us; and twice each year, about the 21st 
 of March and the 21st of September, it 
 rises exactly in the east and sets exactly 
 in the west. Where does it rise in winter? 
 In summer? When you face the east, 
 which direction is on your right? Which 
 on your left? Answer the same questions 
 when facing the west; the south. 
 
 Northeast (N. E.) means between north 
 and east; southeast (S. E.), between south 
 and east. What, then, do northwest and 
 southwest mean? 
 
 Point north, east, west, south, south- 
 west, northeast, northwest. What is 
 the direction from your desk to the 
 teacher's desk? To the desk of one of 
 your schoolmates? To the door? What 
 direction is your home from the school- 
 house? From certain other houses? In 
 what directions do some of the roads or 
 streets where you live extend? 
 
 Now let us tell directions on the map. 
 Lay your drawing of the schoolroom 
 Directions upon your desk so that the 
 on a map jjjjg representing the north 
 side of the room is on the north side. Also 
 place yourself so that you face directly 
 north as you look at the map. Now 
 north on the map is also north in the 
 room, and the other directions agree with 
 those in the room. In which direction, 
 on the map, is the door from your desk? 
 From the teacher's desk? Place your 
 map of the school yard in the same posi- 
 tion, and give the directions. 
 
 You see that the north side of this map 
 is the side farthest from you. The east 
 side is on your right, the south side is 
 nearest to you, and the west side is on 
 your left. When a map is lying before us, 
 
 the directions on it are usually the same 
 as these. 
 
 Of course it is not always convenient 
 to have a map lying flat. This is espe- 
 cially true in the schoolroom, where 
 large maps must be hung up, so that the 
 whole class may see them. 
 
 Let us hang up one of these maps, tak- 
 ing particular pains to place it upon the 
 north wall. Which direction on the map 
 is north now? You see, of course, that 
 the north side must be the upper side, 
 east is on the right, south is the lower side, 
 and west is on the left. 
 
 You should drill yourself to understand 
 directions on maps. Give directions from 
 one place to another while the map is 
 hanging up. Put up the map of the school 
 yard, and any others that you may have, 
 and tell the directions from place to place. ^ 
 
 It is clear now what a map is. It is a 
 drawing telling something about a coun- 
 try, just as a letter may tell in writing 
 what a place is like. When you read such 
 a letter, you think of the place and have 
 some idea of how it looks. So, when you 
 look at a map, yoii should think about 
 the country it represents, how it looks, 
 and how far apart the places are. 
 
 1. How can a map of a schoolroom be 
 drawn? 2. What is meant by drawing 
 '^ according to a scale?" 3. Review 
 Tell how you have drawn some questions 
 map of your own. 4. What are some of 
 
 ' To the Teacher: After the children are quite at home 
 in using the map when it is hung on the north wall, hang 
 it on the other sides of the room and have them give the 
 directions. This is very easy work if properly graded; but 
 careless work at this point, in regard to directions on the 
 map, often so confuses children that they never fully re- 
 cover from their confusion. At the proper time, but much 
 later than this, show that toward the top of the map is 
 not always north. (See Fig. 58.) 
 
FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 
 
 35 
 
 the ways of finding directions out of 
 doors? 5. What are the directions on a 
 map? 
 
 1. Examine a compass. 2. Find the 
 Great Dipper and the North Star. 3. 
 Show how you can tell directions by your 
 
 shadow at noon. 4. If you stood at the 
 north pole, what direction would be on 
 your right? What direction Suggestions 
 on your left? Answer this f^^ extra work 
 question by the use of a globe. 5. Answer 
 the same questions for the south pole. 
 
 VI. General Facts about the Earth 
 1. Form and Size of the Earth 
 
 Hundreds of years ago, before America 
 was discovered, men thought that the 
 The form of earth was fiat. It certainly 
 the earth seemed flat to them, just as it 
 does to us. A few learned men, however, 
 believed that the earth was 
 a round ball, and that if 
 a person should travel 
 straight on in one direction, 
 he would, in time, return to 
 the place from which he 
 started. You can see how 
 this would be if you push 
 your finger straight around 
 on the outside of an orange 
 until it comes back to the 
 starting point. 
 
 At that time men were in 
 the habit of going to a land 
 called India for spices, silks, 
 and jewels. To reach India 
 from Spain they traveled 
 thousands of miles eastward. 
 Christopher Columbus was 
 one of the men who be- 
 lieved that the earth was round. So 
 he thought he could reach India just as 
 well by going westward across the ocean. 
 He also thought that the distance would 
 be much less. He therefore went to the 
 king of Spain and asked him for ships 
 and men to make the journey. 
 
 The king refused the request because 
 the plan seemed foolish, but Queen Isa- 
 bella came to Columbus' aid. At last, on 
 August 3, 1492, he sailed westward from 
 Spain out into the open Atlantic Ocean 
 
 Fig. 36. —The fleet of Columbus 
 
 (Fig. 36) . Almost everyone thought that 
 he was going on a voyage from which he 
 would never return; but after a journey 
 of several weeks and many adventures, 
 he discovered land on October 12. The 
 land he discovered is one of the Bahama 
 Islands (Fig. 58). 
 
36 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Thinking he had reached India, Colum- 
 bus called the natives Indians. He did 
 not know that a continent and a large 
 ocean still lay between him and India. 
 
 After Columbus had returned in safety, 
 other men dared to explore the New 
 
 World, as it was 
 called, to distin- 
 guish it from the 
 Old World, where 
 all white men then 
 lived. One of these 
 explorers, named 
 Magellan, started 
 to sail entirely 
 around the earth. 
 He was killed 
 when he reached 
 the Philippine 
 Islands but his 
 
 Fig. 37 
 
 men went on and completed the voyage. 
 That was in the year 1522, and it was the 
 first time that anyone ever sailed around 
 the earth. Since then many people have 
 made the journey, in both directions, 
 and the earth has been studied so care- 
 fully that everyone now knows that it is 
 round. 
 
 The great, round earth is a huge ball, 
 or sphere. The reason why it does not 
 Why the earth appear round to you is that 
 does not seem you See SO little of it at a time. 
 If you see very little of an 
 orange, for example, it will not look 
 round. To prove this, place a piece of 
 paper with a small hole in it upon an 
 orange so that none of the surface of the 
 orange is seen, except that which shows 
 through the hole. You will then observe 
 that this part appears to be flat. 
 
 If we could get far enough away from 
 the earth to see a large part of it at once, 
 
 we could see that it is round (Fig. 46). 
 We know that the moon is round, be- 
 cause we look at it from a great distance. 
 
 Our earth is very large; in fact, it is 
 much larger than the moon. A lofty 
 mountain seems to us very The size of 
 high, but even the highest *^® ®**^ 
 mountains are only a very small part of 
 the great earth; when compared to the 
 whole sphere, they are no larger than a 
 speck of dust compared to an apple. The 
 loftiest mountains are rarely more than 
 three or four miles high, but the diameter 
 of the earth (Fig. 37), or the distance 
 from one side to the other through the 
 center, is nearly 8,000 miles. 
 
 The distance around the earth, on the 
 outside, called the circumference, is about 
 25,000 miles. This distance, as you see, is 
 a little more than three times the diameter. 
 The circumference of any sphere is always 
 a little more than three times its diameter. 
 
 1. What did people formerly think 
 about the form of the earth? 2. What is 
 its form? 3. Tell the story of Review 
 Columbus. 4. Why did he questions 
 call the savages Indians? 5. Why was 
 the land he discovered called the New 
 World? 6. What makes Magellan's voy- 
 age important? 7. Explain why the earth 
 does not appear to us to be a sphere. 
 8. What is meant by the diameter of 
 the earth? By the circumference? 
 
 1. Trace Columbus' voyage on a globe. 
 Find India on a globe and see how one 
 can ffo by water from Europe „ 
 
 ° -^ ^ ^ ^ Suggestions 
 
 to India by saiUng eastward; for extra 
 by sailing westward. 2. Make ^°'^ 
 a sphere in clay. Measure its diameter 
 with a needle, and its circumference with 
 a string. 
 
DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 
 
 37 
 
 2. Daily Motion of the Earth 
 
 It does not seem to us that the earth 
 is moving, but the ground on which you 
 The earth's stand is really moving faster 
 rotation than any passenger train that 
 
 you ever saw. The whole earth is turn- 
 ing around like a top. This motion is 
 called its rotation. Since the earth turns 
 completely around, or makes one com- 
 plete rotation, every twenty-four hours, 
 this motion is called its daily rotation. 
 
 It is this daily rotation that causes day 
 and night. An electric lamp can light 
 How rotation ^uly One half of a ball at a 
 causes day time, as you know (Fig. 38) . 
 an mg rpj^^ ^^^ .^ ^ kind of lamp for 
 
 the earth ball, for all the light of our day 
 comes from the sun. The sun, then, can 
 light only one half of the great earth at 
 a time. 
 
 This being the case, if our globe stood 
 perfectly still, it would always be day on 
 the side facing the sun, and night on 
 the other side. 
 
 Since the earth rotates, the part that 
 is getting the light is always changing. 
 Thus, while the sun is setting for some 
 people, it is rising for others. When it is 
 noon where you live, it is midnight at the 
 point opposite you, on the other side of 
 the earth. 
 
 This is why there is a period of daylight 
 and a period of darkness at the place 
 where you live. These two periods 
 together must last twenty-four hours, 
 because the earth makes one complete 
 rotation in that time. 
 
 The daily rotation also causes sunrise 
 and sunset. Our earth seems to be stand- 
 ing still, while each day the sun seems to 
 rise in the east, to pass over us, and to set 
 
 in the west. Yet we have just seen that 
 the earth is not by any means stand- 
 ing still. Neither does the sun 
 really "rise" or "set." The motion causes 
 reason that the sun seems to sunnseand 
 
 . sunset 
 
 rise m the east is that the 
 earth is always rotating toward the east. 
 We first get the light of the sun from that 
 direction because the earth is turning 
 toward that direction. The sun seems to 
 set in the west because, as the earth con- 
 tinues to rotate, we see the sun last in the 
 west. 
 
 Although men speak of the sun rising 
 in the east and setting in the west, they 
 really know better. They express their 
 thoughts in that way simply because it 
 is the easiest way. It would be difficult 
 to think of any better way. Can you? 
 
 Fig. 38 
 
 Hundreds of years ago, however, all 
 people thought that the sun really 
 rose, and that after moving across the 
 heavens, it really set in the west. Our 
 use of the words sunrise and sunset has 
 come down to us from that time. 
 
38 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Since the earth is rotating with so great 
 speed, why can we not notice it? The 
 answer is simple. Everything on the 
 earth is moving with it, including our- 
 selves. We therefore do not rush past 
 other objects as we do on a moving 
 train; yet the only way of seeing that 
 we are moving would be to observe that 
 we were passing the objects about us. 
 
 Why are we not all hurled away from 
 the earth? When the string breaks by 
 Why rotation which a stone is 
 does not hurl being whirled 
 
 us away j , i 
 
 around, the 
 stone flies off. Why, then, 
 do not we and other ob- 
 jects, such as the water in 
 the ocean, fly away into 
 space? 
 
 The reason is that the 
 earth draws everything to- 
 ward it, and holds it there. 
 If you push a book from 
 your desk, it falls to the 
 floor; and when you spring 
 upward into the air you 
 quickly return to the 
 ground. All objects are 
 drawn downward because the earth is 
 pulling upon them. This force, which 
 draws all objects to the earth, is called 
 gravity, and you see how very important 
 it is. 
 
 You have perhaps watched a wheel 
 spin about on a rod or pin, the rod or 
 Meaning of P^^^ holding it in place and 
 axis and poles carrying its weight. The 
 
 of the earth < i • i • i 
 
 earth spins around m much 
 the same way; but no rod is necessary 
 to hold it in place. What a mighty rod 
 it would have to be, if there were one! 
 A spinning top does not turn around a 
 
 North Pole 
 
 Fig. 39 
 
 rod, either. It turns around a line run- 
 ning through its center, which is called 
 its axis. The earth also rotates around 
 its axis. 
 
 The axis of the earth is really nothing 
 that you can see. It can be represented, 
 however, by a straight line that runs 
 through the center of the earth and ex- 
 tends to the surface in both directions. 
 Such a line is called the axis of the earth 
 (Fig. 39), and the two ends of the line are 
 called the poles. One end of 
 the axis is the the north pole, 
 and the other the south 
 pole. 
 
 You can understand this 
 better by running a long, 
 slender stick, or needle, 
 through the center of an 
 apple. The stick represents 
 the axis, and the places 
 where its two ends appear 
 at the surface represent the 
 two poles of the earth. You 
 can then spin the apple 
 very much as the earth 
 spins around on the line 
 called its axis (Fig. 38). 
 If you were to go far northward from 
 the place where you live, you would pass 
 through the land of the Eskimos; and if 
 you could go on, you would, in time, come 
 to the north pole. Or, if you should go 
 south, and went far enough, you would 
 come to the south pole. 
 
 Many men have tried to cross the icy 
 seas that surround the north pole (Fig. 
 40) ; but, until 1909, no one had been able 
 to get quite so far as the pole. In that 
 year Admiral Peary, after many trials, at 
 last reached the north pole ; and Captain 
 Amundsen reached the south pole in 1911. 
 
 South Pole 
 
THE ZONES AND THE HEMISPHERES 
 
 39 
 
 Of course, Commander Peary did not find 
 anything at the north pole to mark the 
 place. He was able to tell that he was 
 there by the position of the sun. If he 
 had been there during the night, he would 
 have found the North Star, toward which 
 the earth's axis points, almost directly 
 over his head. 
 
 Midway between the poles we think of 
 another line, drawn around the earth on 
 Meaning of the outsidc (Fig. 41). This is 
 equator called the equator, because all 
 
 parts of it are equally distant from each 
 of the poles. The distance around the 
 earth was given on p. 36. What, then, is 
 the length of the equator? 
 
 As the earth turns on its axis, all points 
 on the surface must go with it, just as every 
 part of the skin of an apple turns with the 
 apple. Since the earth makes one com- 
 plete turn each day, a man at the equator 
 travels 25,000 miles in twenty-four hours. 
 This is at the rate of over 1,000 miles an 
 hour, while the fastest trains travel little 
 more than sixty miles an hour! 
 
 1. Describe the daily motion of the 
 earth. What is this motion called? 2. 
 How does this motion cause day and 
 night? 3. How does it cause sunrise and 
 
 sunset? 4. Why can we not observe that 
 the earth is rotating? 5. Why is not every 
 loose object hurled from the Review 
 earth by this rapid motion? questions 
 6. What is meant by the axis of the 
 earth? By the poles? 7. Point toward 
 
 Fig. 40 
 
 each of the poles. 8. What is meant by 
 the equator? How long is it? 
 
 1. Locate the poles on such a sphere; 
 and also represent the equator. 2. Use 
 a horseshoe magnet to see ^ 
 
 . ° Suggestions 
 
 how it attracts iron. 3. With for extra 
 a globe or an apple, and an ^^^^ 
 electric light, show how it is day on one 
 side of the earth while it is night on the 
 other side. Show also why the sun ap- 
 pears to rise in the east. 4. Where did 
 people, long ago, suppose that the sun 
 went at night? 
 
 3. The Zones and the Hemispheres 
 
 The hottest part of the earth is near 
 the equator. The reason for this is that 
 
 the sun, at midday, is directly 
 ahotbeit^*^ ovcr the heads of the people 
 around the who live in that region. You 
 oTthe earth know that the sun's rays feel 
 
 warmer at noon than in the 
 early evening, because the sun is more 
 nearly overhead at noon. At the equator. 
 
 however, and for many miles to the north 
 and south of it, the sun is high in the 
 heavens both in summer and winter. 
 Thus there is a wide belt, extending all 
 the way around the earth, that never has 
 any winter; it is warm every day in the 
 year, as it is in summer where we live. 
 
 The northern boundary of this hot belt 
 is called the tropic of Cancer (Fig. 41); 
 
40 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 it is a line about 1,500 miles north of 
 the equator. The southern boundary, 
 The bound- which is about 1,500 miles 
 bSrandUs south from the equator, is 
 name called the tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 In all the vast space between these two 
 lines, or tropics j the sun is straight over- 
 head during a part of the year; and it is 
 never very far from overhead at noon. 
 
 Point out these two lines on Fig. 41. 
 How many miles wide does this belt seem 
 to be? Over all this 
 vast region on the 
 lowlands the weather 
 is hot, or torrid, and 
 for that reason this 
 is called the torrid 
 zone. It is also called 
 the tropical zone, be- 
 cause it is bounded 
 by the two tropics. 
 
 It makes a great 
 difference on the earth 
 whether the sun is 
 nearly overhead or 
 not. For example, the 
 warm weather during 
 every day of the year 
 
 SouthToie 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
 Effects of 
 the heat on 
 life there 
 
 in the tropics causes the vege- 
 tation there to be very differ- 
 ent from ours. In sections 
 1. Its effects on where there is much rain, 
 plants grow very rapidly. You 
 have, perhaps, noticed how grass and 
 other plants thrive on warm, damp days. 
 Where there is such weather all the time, 
 plants grow in great numbers and very 
 rapidly. Many kinds of trees are found 
 in the forests, and the vines, trees, and 
 other plants grow so close together that 
 one cannot get through them without 
 cutting a path. 
 
 The negroes of Central Africa live in 
 the tropics, and the effects of the heat 
 upon them are seen in many 2. its effects 
 ways. For example, they do "^^ the people 
 not have to work hard to get food. Fruits 
 can be picked from the trees and bushes 
 at any time of the year; and if beans, 
 potatoes, and corn are wanted, they can 
 be made to grow very easily. The need 
 of clothing makes little trouble, partly 
 because not much of it is wanted. Fig. 
 42 shows how little 
 may be worn. Some- 
 times skins of animals 
 are used; but a com- 
 mon material is cloth 
 made from the bark 
 and fiber of trees and 
 other plants that grow 
 there. 
 
 Shelter, likewise, 
 is easily provided. 
 Sometimes the people 
 live in trees, or in 
 caves, as the Swiss 
 Family Robinson 
 lived for a time. 
 Sometimes they stick 
 branches of trees into the ground in the 
 form of a circle, fasten the upper ends 
 together, and then cover the sides and 
 top with such materials as brush, mud, 
 grass, and straw (Fig. 42) . Their huts are 
 always very simple ; they usually have no 
 windows, and are only one story high. A 
 savage negro, when he first saw one of 
 our houses, cried out, ''This is not a hut; 
 it is a mountain with many caves in it!" 
 You can see that such people do not have 
 to work hard for food, clothing, or shelter. 
 Are they fortunate to have the sun so 
 directly over their heads? 
 
THE ZONES AND THE HEMISPHERES 
 
 41 
 
 Why there are 
 cooler belts 
 both north 
 and south of 
 the torrid 
 zone 
 
 North of the torrid zone, the sun, even 
 
 at noon, never stands directly overhead; 
 and the greater the distance 
 from the equator, the greater 
 is the slant at which the sun's 
 rays shine upon the earth. 
 Our country is in this belt, 
 
 and here at noon you al- 
 ways find your shadow 
 
 pointing north ; for the sun 
 
 is south of you. Notice the 
 
 direction and length of your 
 
 shadow at midday, and the 
 
 position of the sun at that 
 
 time. 
 
 South of the torrid zone, 
 
 also, the sun never stands 
 
 directly overhead. But the 
 
 people living there find their 
 
 shadows pointing south at 
 
 noon, because the sun is 
 
 north of them. 
 
 Since the sun's rays strike 
 
 the earth at a slant in both 
 
 of these belts, it is much cooler in them 
 
 than in the torrid zone. 
 
 There is a belt, then, on each side of 
 
 the broad torrid zone, where it is neither 
 very hot nor very cold. The 
 climate there is called temper- 
 ate, and in these belts the sum- 
 mers are warm and the winters 
 cold. The belt north of the 
 
 torrid zone is called the north temperate 
 
 zone. It extends around the earth all 
 
 the way from the tropic of Cancer to 
 
 the Arctic circle (Fig. 41). How much 
 
 of the United States lies within this 
 
 zone? 
 
 The belt south of the torrid zone is 
 
 called the south temperate zone, as you 
 
 might expect. It extends around the 
 
 earth from the tropic of Capricorn to the 
 Antarctic circle. 
 
 Near the poles the rays of the sun 
 reach the earth at a still greater slant, 
 much as they do with us early in the 
 morning or late in the afternoon. Even 
 in the middle of the day the sun lies low 
 
 Fig. 42 
 
 Brown Bros. 
 
 The names of 
 these cooler 
 belts, and 
 their bound- 
 aries 
 
 in the sky, near the horizon, and the 
 shadows are very long. Therefore, the 
 climate there is very cold, or „^ ^ 
 
 , Why there 
 
 frigid; the ground never are two cold 
 thaws out ; and the ice never zones, and 
 
 ; their names 
 
 entirely disappears from the 
 
 sea (Fig. 40). Indeed, there is never 
 
 any warm summer near the poles, just 
 
 as there is never any winter near the 
 
 equator. 
 
 The two regions around the poles are 
 called the frigid zones. That about the 
 north pole is called the north frigid zone, 
 the other the south frigid zone. Since 
 they surround the poles, they are also 
 sometimes called the polar zones. The 
 north frigid zone is the home of the 
 Eskimos (Fig. 44). But. there are no 
 
42 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 people living in the south frigid zone, 
 although a large body of land is there 
 (Fig. 46). 
 
 The effects of the cold on life in the 
 frigid zone are as striking as those of the 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 43. — Eskimos in northern Greenland 
 
 This is their summer home. In winter what kind is used (Fig. 45)? 
 These people frequently ]trade with the whites. What shows that? Can you 
 see why this land could not be cultivated even though the temperatures 
 permitted? 
 
 heat on life in the tropics. For example, 
 no trees can grow in such a country. No 
 Effects of the ^oubt many Eskimos have 
 cold on never seen a tree of any kind. 
 
 life there -r . , , , 
 
 In summer the men go hunt- 
 
 1. Its effects on . . ■,-, ■, , 
 
 plants and lug m Small cauocs or kayaks; 
 
 animals 
 
 these canoes and sleds are not made of 
 
 wood Uke ours. The reason is that wood 
 
 does not grow there. The only wood that 
 
 the Eskimos have is that which drifts 
 
 ashore from other lands or from the 
 
 wrecks of vessels. There is 
 
 so little of this, that pieces 
 
 of wood are highly prized. 
 
 An Eskimo, therefore, will 
 
 gladly exchange valuable 
 
 furs for a small amount of 
 
 wood. 
 
 Only small plants grow in 
 so cold a country, such as 
 mosses, grasses, and very 
 low bushes; and the wild 
 plants furnish no food ex- 
 cept a few small berries. 
 With so little vegetation 
 there can be few wild ani- 
 mals on the land, for they 
 would have nothing to eat. 
 There are a few reindeer, 
 foxes, and wolves, but 
 scarcely any other land 
 animals. 
 
 What, then, can the Eski- 
 mos themselves find to eat? 
 Not very many , ^^s effects on 
 
 things, to be the people 
 
 sure. They have «• on their food 
 
 - and clothing 
 
 to go to the sea. 
 
 and in winter they go on long 
 and dangerous journeys over the ice on 
 sleds or . sledges drawn by dogs. But 
 
 not to the land, for their 
 food. From one year's end to another, 
 they are engaged in fishing, and in 
 hunting the seal and walrus; and now 
 and then they catch sea-birds and the 
 polar bear. They have very httle food 
 except the flesh of these animals. Even 
 that is difficult to get, especially in 
 winter when the sea is frozen over with 
 thick ice. 
 
THE ZONES AND THE HEMISPHERES 
 
 43 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 These sea animals supply oil for cook- 
 ing as well as for heat and light in the 
 long, dark winter. The seals have a 
 layer of fat under the skin 
 which helps to keep them 
 warm in winter. This seal 
 fat, or blubber, is burned in 
 small lamps. But the Es- 
 kimos do not do much 
 cooking. They are fond of 
 raw meat and like to eat it 
 even when it is frozen! 
 
 Parts of the bodies of 
 animals take the place of 
 wood in supplying the men 
 with tools and weapons for 
 obtaining food. The bones 
 of the animals are used to 
 build the framework of the 
 canoes and sledges, and 
 their skins are stretched 
 over these frames in place of boards. 
 Bones are also used to make spears, fish- 
 hooks, pipes, and even needles ; and skins 
 are made into harness for 
 the dogs. 
 
 The Eskimos need the 
 warmest kind of clothing 
 (Fig. 44). Their boots are 
 made of the skins of ani- 
 mals, with the fur left on. 
 Their clothes are also made 
 of fur; and in that cold land 
 they need to wear these furs 
 both in summer and in win- 
 ter. How different this is 
 from the clothing worn 
 by the negroes of central 
 Africa (Figs. 1 and 42) ! 
 
 The Eskimo houses seem even stranger 
 than their clothing. Although there is 
 plenty of stone for building, it hardly pays 
 
 b. On their 
 plans for shel- 
 ter 
 
 to build stone houses, because the Eski- 
 mos must move from place to place in 
 order to find food. Very often 
 whole villages 
 must be moved 
 many miles on this ac- 
 count. 
 
 In summer, therefore, 
 the Eskimos live in tents 
 made of skins (Fig. 43), 
 which are easily taken 
 down and carried about. 
 In winter they live in huts 
 made of snow. There is 
 always plenty of snow at 
 hand, no matter where the 
 people happen to be; and 
 in an hour or two they can 
 build an igloo, as the Eski- 
 mo snow hut is called. 
 Fig. 45 is a picture of 
 one of these igloos. It is about forty feet 
 around the outside, and is made of blocks 
 of snow piled one on another, until it is 
 
 © Brovm Bros. 
 
 An Eskimo and his sled 
 
 © Brorn 
 
 Fig. 45. — An igloo 
 
 high enough inside for a man to stand 
 up. The entrance is through a snow 
 tunnel about ten feet long, so low that 
 
Fig. 46 
 
Fig. 46 
 
46 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the Eskimos have to crawl through it on 
 their hands and knees. The purpose of 
 this tunnel is to keep the cold winds out 
 of the hut ; and when all the persons are 
 inside, the tunnel is tightly closed, so that 
 no wind can enter. 
 
 A stand, made of snow, is used for the 
 lamp. Low benches of snow, covered 
 with furs, are used for beds. A whole 
 family, and sometimes two families, live 
 in a single hut that is no more than ten 
 or fifteen feet across. 
 
 If a family decides to remain in one 
 place a second winter, a new hut must be 
 built, because the old one melts down dur- 
 ing the summer. No wonder that the 
 huts are small! 
 
 Thus the nearly vertical rays of the sun 
 in the tropical belt cause food, clothing, 
 and shelter to be provided in one way. 
 The great slant of the sun's rays in the 
 frigid zone causes these necessities to be 
 provided in a very different way. In the 
 temperate zone, where we live, the mod- 
 erate slant of the rays causes them to be 
 provided in a third way. In which of 
 these zones do you think it is best to 
 live? Why? 
 
 Since the equator is midway between 
 the poles, it divides the earth, or sphere. 
 The different into two equal parts, called 
 hemispheres hemispheres ihemi means half) . 
 The half of the earth north of the equator 
 is called the northern hemisphere, and that 
 south of it the southern hemisphere. In 
 which of these is the United States? 
 
 The earth may also be divided into 
 halves by a circle running north and south 
 through both poles. The western half, 
 in which the New World lies, is called 
 the western hemisphere. The eastern half, 
 or the Old World, is called the eastern 
 
 hemisphere. You will find these two 
 hemispheres represented in Fig. 46. 
 
 Although these two hemispheres seem 
 to touch each other in only one spot, they 
 are really the halves of a sphere, and their 
 edges touch each other all the way around. 
 Cut an old rubber ball in two and place 
 the halves side by side to see how this 
 statement is true. 
 
 1. Why is there a hot belt around the 
 central part of the earth? 2. Give the 
 boundaries of this belt, and Review 
 its name. 3. State the effects questions 
 of the heat there on vegetation. 4. Its 
 effects on the people. 5. Why is there a 
 cooler belt north and south of the tor- 
 rid zone? 6. Give the names of these 
 cooler belts and their boundaries. 7. 
 Why are there two cold zones, and what 
 are their names? 8. State the effects 
 of the cold on plants and animals there. 
 9. Its effects on the food and clothing of 
 the people. 10. Its effects on their plans 
 for shelter. 11. What is meant by hemi- 
 spheres? What is meant by the northern 
 hemisphere? By the southern hemi- 
 sphere? By the eastern and western 
 hemispheres? 
 
 1. Write a story telling the kinds of 
 clothing you would need in each zone in 
 going from the north to the „ 
 
 * ^ ^ Suggestions 
 
 south pole. 2. In passing for extra 
 
 southward on such a journey, ^°^^ 
 in what different directions would you 
 look at noon to see the sun? 3. Read the 
 story of Nannook, an Eskimo boy, in 
 Child Life in Other Lands, by Avis Perdue. 
 4. Do you think that life in the tem- 
 perate zones is more or less healthful 
 than life in the tropical zone or the Arctic 
 zone? Give reasons for your answer. 
 
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 
 
 47 
 
 4. Latitude and Longitude 
 
 If we learn that a certain place is in 
 the torrid zone, or in one of the other 
 zones we know something about its loca- 
 tion; yet we do not know very much 
 about it, because each zone is so large. 
 
 To help locate places more exactly, 
 other circles than those already men- 
 „ , tioned are used upon maps 
 
 How places ^ ^ 
 
 are located in and globes. Some of these 
 south direct circlcs extend east and west, 
 tion on the on each side of the equator, as 
 you can see in Fig. 46. The 
 distance between them is measured, not 
 by miles, but by degrees, each of which 
 is equal to about seventy miles. How 
 many degrees are there from one of these 
 circles to the next in Fig. 46? About 
 how many miles is that? We can thus 
 quickly learn how far any place on or 
 near one of these circles is from the 
 equator. For example, how far north 
 of the equator is New York City (Fig. 
 59)? Chicago? 
 
 Instead, however, of saying that a place 
 is a certain number of degrees north or 
 Meaning of south of the equator, we say 
 latitude ^jjg^^ j^ -g -j^ gQ Y^g^Yiy degrees 
 
 north or south latitude. Latitude means 
 simply the distance north or south of the 
 
 equator. Places north of the equator are 
 in north latitude, and those south of it, in 
 south latitude. The circles running east 
 and west, which are drawn to show the 
 latitude of places, are called circles of lati- 
 tude. With their help, find the latitude 
 of New Orleans; of Boston (Fig. 61). 
 
 Other circles, extending north and 
 south from pole to pole, help to locate 
 places in an east and west 
 direction. 
 
 . ,. ,1 i How places 
 
 A line that ex- are located in 
 
 tends through England is ^^ ®f ^*. ^^^. 
 
 west Qll*6Ct!10tl 
 
 agreed upon as the starting 
 point in measuring. Places east of this 
 line are said to be in so many degrees 
 east longitude; places west of it, in so 
 many degrees west longitude. 
 
 Longitude, as you see, means simply the 
 distance east or west of this principal line; 
 and these circles are called Meaning of 
 circles of longitude. In what longitude 
 longitude is New York City (Fig. 59)? 
 
 L How are places located in a north 
 and south direction on the earth? 2. 
 State the meaning of the word Review 
 latitude. 3. How are places questions 
 located in an east and west direction? 
 4. What is meant by longitude? 
 
 5. The Continents and the Oceans 
 
 The left half of Fig. 46 shows how our 
 half of the earth looks, the New World 
 Theconti- that Columbus discovered. 
 New worw, ^^^ ^^^^ ^i^^le dots that you 
 and their See represent islands; but 
 there are two masses of land 
 
 shape 
 
 so large that they are called continents. 
 Find their names, if you do not already 
 
 know them. Perhaps you can point to 
 the part of North America in which you 
 live. 
 
 Notice the form of our continent. It 
 is broad in the north, but tapers almost to 
 a point where it joins South America, 
 giving it the shape of a triangle. South 
 America is very similar to it in form. 
 
48 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Draw its outline by using only three 
 straight lines. 
 
 You have learned that there is about 
 three times as much water upon the sur- 
 face of the earth as land; but more than 
 three fourths of the western hemisphere 
 
 'V 
 
 The oceans 
 of the New 
 World 
 
 J Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 47. — An ocean liner 
 Compare the great ship in size with the tug that is towing it about 
 the harbor. 
 
 is water. On which side of the conti- 
 nents is the largest ocean^ and what is 
 
 its name? What ocean is east 
 
 of the two continents? Find 
 
 two other oceans on this map. 
 Why are they of much less importance 
 to us than the Pacific and the Atlantic? 
 The right half of Fig. 46 shows the other 
 half of the earth, the Old World. There 
 Thecontinents j^ much more land there than 
 and oceans of in our hemisphere, and there 
 
 the Old World j. a.- . ttti . 
 
 are tour continents. What are 
 their names? The largest of all is Asia, 
 and the smallest is Australia. The most 
 important one to us, however, is Europe. 
 Can you tell why? 
 
 One other continent appears far to the 
 south both in the eastern and the west- 
 ern hemispheres. This is the Antarctic 
 continent, which is too cold to be inhab- 
 ited (p. 42). 
 
 Four of the oceans in the Old World are 
 parts of the four found on our half of the 
 
 earth. Give their names. There is a fifth 
 one, called the Indian Ocean. What 
 continents largely surround it? 
 
 Fig. 315 is a different kind of map, show- 
 ing all the continents and oceans to- 
 gether. Name the continents shown there, 
 and point out each. Name 
 the oceans, and point out 
 each. Which ocean would 
 one cross in going from the 
 United States to Europe? 
 From the United States to 
 Asia? Which of the five 
 oceans is most important 
 to us? 
 
 The water in the ocean 
 occupies vast low plains on 
 
 the surface of The depth of 
 
 the earth. The ^^ ^^^^'^ 
 depth of this water varies greatly, though 
 it is a Httle over two miles deep on the 
 
 Fig. 48. — An ocean vessel in dry-dock 
 The water has been pumped out from aroxmd the ship 
 in this dry-dock, which shows you how far it must sink 
 into the water. 
 
 average. In many places, however, the 
 ocean is more than four miles deep; and 
 in one place, in the Pacific Ocean, the 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND THE OCEANS 
 
 49 
 
 depth is nearly six miles. If the highest 
 mountain in the world could be placed in 
 the water at this point, its peak would 
 not rise above the level of the sea. 
 
 The oceans are of great value for 
 transportation as well as for water for 
 Value of the ^^in. They are broad high- 
 oceans for ways upon which thousands 
 
 transportation <• i • i ^ t 
 
 01 ships are always traveling, 
 carrying people, food, iron and steel 
 goods, mail, and many other things. 
 A single large steamship, such as that 
 shown in Fig. 47, may employ 500 or 
 600 men and carry several thousand 
 passengers, besides a large quantity of 
 freight. 
 
 One of the five oceans is far more im- 
 portant than any of the others. Can you, 
 by examining Fig. 315, suggest which it is, 
 and the reason? One of the most impor- 
 tant ocean routes in the world is that 
 between New York and Liverpool. Trace 
 it on that map. Many other great coast 
 cities of Europe trade extensively with 
 New York. Name some of these cities, 
 as shown in Fig. 315. The fastest steamers 
 need only five or six days for the voyage 
 across the Atlantic. 
 
 One of the greatest difficulties in their 
 way is that of loading and unloading 
 ^.^ , . freight. Wagons can be driven 
 
 Difficulties i • i -i 
 
 and dangers alongside a railway car and 
 in ocean quickly filled or emptied. But 
 
 transportation . . 
 
 a large ship may sink thirty 
 or more feet into the water (Fig. 48), so 
 that it is difficult to find a place where 
 it can come close to shore. Besides this, 
 it cannot load or unload where there 
 are large waves, such as are caused by 
 storms. 
 
 Again, ships meet with many dangers 
 upon the ocean. Storms are often severe, 
 
 and the waves are so high that some- 
 times they sweep over, and for a moment 
 almost cover up, even very large ves- 
 sels. When far out from land, large, well- 
 built ships are not in serious danger in 
 such weather, but smaller vessels, espe- 
 cially those that are old or poorly built, 
 may be destroyed. 
 
 When approaching land, however, sail- 
 ors of all vessels must be careful. The 
 
 Fig. 49. — A reef 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 shores of large lakes and the ocean are 
 often very irregular, and the depth of 
 the water may change quickly. In some 
 places there are dangerous shallows, in 
 others hidden rocks, or reefs, that lie near 
 the surface (Fig. 49). 
 
 There are also currents that may float 
 a vessel out of its course; and fogs are 
 often so dense that a person can see only 
 a short distance ahead. It is then very 
 easy to lose one's way at sea. In addition 
 to all this, strong winds and high waves 
 may drive a ship in the wrong direction, 
 in spite of all that can be done to pre- 
 vent it. 
 
 Not all these difficulties and dangers 
 can be overcome, but much is done to 
 make shipping both easy and safe. The 
 
50 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 irregular shape of the coast itself helps 
 toward this end. Very often the land 
 partly surrounds a body of water, as in 
 
 X^^JWCX^ <i» 
 
 ««*»»'i<*S^^^'«*'»**l 
 
 ■i'i-*am<iie^itlfgksx' 'M i ii i i i iSil' i^fcte, 
 
 dangers are 
 met 
 
 1. How safe 
 harbors are 
 obtained 
 
 Fig. 50 
 
 Find here and describe a harbor; a bay; a point; a cape; a penin 
 sula; an island; an isthmus; a strait. 
 
 Fig. 50, forming what is called a hay. 
 
 Some of these bays are very large, being 
 
 , ... even hundreds of miles long, 
 
 How such dif- , ' 
 
 Acuities and but many more are quite 
 
 small. Many of the small 
 
 bays have an 
 
 opening large 
 
 enough for ves- 
 sels to enter easily, but small 
 enough to shut out most 
 of the fierce waves. If the 
 water is deep, as is often 
 the case, such a small bay 
 makes a fine harbor (Fig. 
 50); that is, a place where 
 vessels may enter and be 
 protected from storms and 
 waves. 
 
 For the purpose of load- 
 ing and unloading ships, 
 piers of wood or stone, called 
 wharves, are built from the 
 shores of the harbor out 
 into the deep water. Even 
 
 large vessels can be firmly fastened, or 
 moored, to these wharves, and trucks or 
 railway cars can be drawn out on them 
 close to the sides of the ves- 
 sels. Thus a convenient and 
 safe way is found for handling 
 goods that are carried on 
 vessels. 
 
 Harbors are so important 
 that they are sometimes made 
 on coasts where there are no 
 good natural harbors. This is 
 very expensive work, but it 
 pays. Walls of rock are built 
 in such a way as nearly to in- 
 close a body of water, much 
 as the water of a bay is in- 
 closed by land. Such a wall is 
 called a breakwater (Fig. 52), because it 
 breaks the force of the waves and prevents 
 them from entering the space behind. 
 
 It often happens that harbors are not 
 as deep as they need to be. The vessels 
 
 iVy Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 51 
 The wharves in this picture were photographed from an airplane. Find 
 two ocean vessels in this picture; five wharves; lighters; warehouses; 
 freight cars. 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND THE OCEANS 
 
 51 
 
 now used are much larger and sink more 
 deeply into the water than those formerly 
 used. On that account many harbors 
 
 Fig. 52 
 
 © Bro-wn Bros. 
 
 that were once deep enough are now too 
 shallow. All the time, too, the waves 
 and tides are bringing sediment that set- 
 tles in the harbors, slowly filUng them up. 
 
 Vast sums of money have to be spent, 
 therefore, in deepening harbors. The 
 loose sand and mud are dug out by 
 dredges; but when the bottom is soUd 
 rock, it has to be blasted out. This work 
 is of so great importance to so many 
 people that the United States govern- 
 ment spends millions of dollars every year 
 in doing it (Fig. 53). 
 
 So long as a ship lies in a good harbor, 
 it is safe from most dangers. But when 
 2. How ships i^ is outside, on its way from 
 are guided one harbor to another, dan- 
 
 along the coast 
 
 gers are ever present. Did 
 you ever stop to think how a vessel 
 finds its way on the great ocean? 
 
 While a ship is out of sight of land, its 
 officers must guide it by the position of 
 
 the sun or of certain stars, using the com- 
 pass and other instruments. But during 
 storms and foggy weather, the winds and 
 currents may cause even a large steam- 
 ship to drift out of its course. Then, as a 
 ship approaches land, the chief help is 
 from lighthouses (Fig. 54) , which are built 
 in many places along the coast. 
 
 Often the land extends out into the 
 water, forming what is called a point or a 
 cape, or if large and almost surrounded 
 by water, a peninsula (Fig. 50). Light- 
 houses are placed far out on such points 
 or capes or peninsulas, or on islands near 
 the mainland, so that their Ughts may be 
 seen a long distance over the water. They 
 are also built elsewhere, wherever the 
 danger requires. 
 
 In some places there are dangerous 
 shallows, or shoals, where it is impossible 
 
 © Brown Brc 
 
 Fig. 53. — Deepening New York harbor 
 
52 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 to build a lighthouse. In that case, ships 
 with lights on their masts, called light- 
 ships (Fig. 55), are securely anchored 
 near by to give warning to sailors. 
 
 Fig. 54 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 When the captain sees the light of a 
 lighthouse or lightship, he knows that he 
 is nearing land and must be very careful. 
 How can he tell which light he sees when 
 there are so many lighthouses? This is 
 not difficult, for the lights are not alike. 
 Some are white, others red; some give a 
 steady light, others turn around and, as 
 they turn, send out flash after flash. There 
 are many different kinds, and the maps, 
 or charts, that all ships carry, tell the cap- 
 tain where each is placed. He also knows 
 the special kind of lighthouse to be found 
 at the entrance to the harbor for which he 
 is bound. 
 
 In case of heavy fog, when the lights 
 cannot be seen, powerful horns and 
 whistles are blown for a warning. The 
 lighthouses and lightships are well pro- 
 vided with these; they are blown every 
 few seconds, or minutes, according to 
 the need. When sailors approach the 
 coast during foggy weather, they always 
 
 listen for the sound of the foghorn. 
 
 By such helps as these a vessel finds 
 its way to the entrance of the port to 
 which it is going. What a lonesome life 
 the people who live in the lighthouses 
 and lightships must lead, attending to 
 the lamps and giving warning in the 
 fogs! But how important their work is 
 in saving ships from destruction on the 
 wave-beaten coasts! 
 
 The entrance, or channel, to a harbor 
 is often narrow, and sometimes on each 
 side there are reefs and shoals 3. The use 
 on which a vessel might be °»«d« «« i>"oys 
 wrecked. It is necessary, therefore, that 
 the channel be clearly marked. This is 
 done by placing hollow iron buoys here 
 and there. These float on the surface, 
 but are anchored firmly in their places. 
 They are guide-posts to the sailor, point- 
 ing out the way. 
 
 Fig. 55 
 
 Dangerous rocks and shoals are also 
 marked by buoys; and many of these 
 are so made that they send out a shrill 
 whistle or ring a bell every time they are 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND THE OCEANS 
 
 53 
 
 >^ 
 
 moved by the waves. On this account 
 they are called whistling buoys or hell 
 
 Fig. 56 
 At times old buoys have to be replaced with new ones 
 
 buoys (Fig. 56) . Have you ever seen any 
 of these bobbing about on the water? 
 
 It is so important that no 
 mistake be made in enter- 
 4. The work iug a harbor 
 '' P"°^ that men called 
 
 pilots make a business of 
 guiding or piloting ships 
 into harbors; They go out 
 in small boats, often out of 
 sight of land, to watch for 
 an approaching vessel. 
 When they see one, they sail 
 toward it as fast as they 
 can. In stormy weather it 
 is exciting to see a pilot 
 come up in his little boat, 
 tossed about by the huge 
 waves, and clamber up the side of the 
 ship. It seems a wonder that he is not 
 washed into the sea, and that his small 
 
 boat is not dashed to pieces against the 
 
 side of the big vessel. 
 
 In spite of all the care 
 that is taken to guide ships 
 safely into har- s.^heworkof 
 
 bors, one is We-savlng 
 . . stations 
 
 now and then 
 wrecked on the coast (Fig. 
 57), especially in foggy and 
 stormy weather. Then, of 
 course, the lives of sailors 
 and passengers are in dan- 
 ger. Hence it is important 
 that some means be 
 provided for saving ship- 
 wrecked people. This is 
 done through life-saving 
 stations. Here and there 
 along the coast such sta- 
 tions are found, where 
 several men spend their 
 time in keeping a sharp lookout for ship- 
 wrecks, and in going to the rescue. At 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 57 
 
 such times they boldly launch their life- 
 boats through the surf and perform 
 many acts of bravery. 
 
54 
 
 WORLD GEOGRAPHY 
 
 1. Name the continents in the New 
 World, and tell their shape. 2. Name 
 Review ^^d locate the oceans in the 
 
 questions ^ew World. 3. Name and 
 locate the continents of the Old World; 
 the oceans. 4. What can you tell about 
 the depth of the ocean? 5. Explain the 
 value of the ocean for transportation. 6. 
 Mention some of the difficulties and dan- 
 gers ocean vessels must meet. 7. What is 
 meant by a harbor, and how are safe har- 
 bors obtained? 8. How are ships guided 
 along the coast? 9. What are buoys, and 
 how are they of value? 10. Explain the 
 work of pilots. 11. Of life-saving stations. 
 
 1. Compare the amount of land in the 
 eastern hemisphere with the amount in 
 the western (Fig. 46). 2. On maps of the 
 northern and southern hemispheres how 
 would the amounts of land compare? 3. 
 
 Leaving out the islands, how many land 
 bodies can you find? 4. Which body of 
 land extends farthest north? 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 5. Which farthest south? 6. for extra 
 
 work 
 
 Which grand division has 
 the most regular coast line? 7. Which 
 the most irregular? 8. Which grand 
 divisions are crossed by the equator? 
 9. Name the grand divisions that lie in 
 three zones. 10. Name those that lie 
 in but two. 11. TeU which land body is 
 not inhabited and why. 12. What is the 
 largest island in the world? 13. Where is 
 it? 14. Name and locate three other large 
 islands. 15. What direction is North 
 America from South America? 16. Lo- 
 cate Cape Horn; Cape of Good Hope; 
 Cape Guardafui. 17. Locate eight seas 
 on the eastern hemisphere and two on the 
 western. 18. Which of these seas are in- 
 land bodies of water? 
 
PART II. NORTH AMERICA 
 
 I. The Countries of North America 
 
 If you look at the map of North 
 
 America (Fig. 59), you will see that the 
 
 continent is divided into sev- 
 
 The principal . x +U + 
 
 divisions of era! countries. In the center, 
 North extending from ocean to ocean, 
 
 America 
 
 is the United States. North 
 of our country is Canada, and northwest 
 of that is Alaska. South of us lies Mex- 
 ico, and southeast of that is Central 
 America. Make a simple drawing of 
 North America, and upon it mark off 
 each of these sections. 
 
 You remember that Spain was the 
 nation that helped Columbus to make his 
 The countries discovcry of America. After 
 in which his voyages, many Spaniards 
 
 principal Tan-^ Came over and settled in the 
 guage, and the southern part of the continent. 
 They occupied the parts now 
 called Mexico and Central America. All 
 this section, and some of the land to the 
 north of it, now a part, of the United 
 States, was for many years owned by 
 Spain. Indeed, at one time it all bore 
 the name of New Spain; but the govern- 
 ment by Spain was so bad that the people 
 rebelled against it, and, by war, secured 
 their independence. 
 
 Although the Spanish language is still 
 spoken in all this section, it is now 
 divided into several independent coun- 
 tries. The larger part of it, called 
 Mexico, is now under one government; 
 Central America is divided into several 
 
 small nations. It is called Central Amer- 
 ica because of its position between two 
 continents. There is really no country of 
 that name, but a union of the countries 
 of Central America is being planned. 
 
 The small country of Panama occu- 
 pies the narrow Isthmus of Panama, 
 which joins Central America with South 
 America. That is where the Panama 
 Canal is located, connecting the Atlan- 
 tic and Pacific oceans (p. 148). 
 
 Other nations besides Spain sent ex- 
 plorers to America and made settlements. 
 Chief among these were the why English 
 English and French. The ^^ the princi- 
 English settlers at first made in our country, 
 their homes along the east- and why 
 
 . ^ French is 
 
 ern coast, as in Massachu- spoken in 
 setts and Virginia. The some places 
 French chose the basins of the St. Law- 
 rence and Mississippi rivers. Find these 
 rivers on Fig. 58. As the result of war, 
 the English obtained control of the 
 French territory, and EngUsh became the 
 principal language of all the continent 
 north of Mexico. 
 
 Even now, however, one is reminded 
 of the old French rule. French is still 
 heard in New Orleans, near the mouth 
 of the Mississippi River, and is the com- 
 mon language in the cities of Montreal 
 and Quebec, on the St. Lawrence River. 
 Point out these cities on Fig. 61. The 
 names of many places in the Mississippi 
 
 55 
 
110 Longitude Wcsi 100 fro 
 
 Fig. 58 
 
Fig. 59 
 
58 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 and St. Lawrence basins, such as New 
 Orleans, St. Louis, and Montreal, are 
 French. They were given when these 
 places belonged to France. 
 
 For many years the colonies in Amer- 
 ica were governed by England; but finally 
 many of the colonists became 
 United States dissatisfied with English rule, 
 came to be a As a result, a war for inde- 
 
 separate i i i . i • i 
 
 country pendence broke out, which 
 
 lasted several years. The 
 leader of the colonies in this war was Gen- 
 eral George Washington. The colonists 
 declared themselves independent on July 
 4, 1776, a date whose anniversary you 
 celebrate every year. How old, then, is 
 our country? Independence was not 
 gained, however, until later, after several 
 years of hard fighting and much suffering. 
 
 Our ancestors who fought in this war 
 formed a government of their own which 
 they called the United States. At first 
 there were only thirteen small states in 
 the Union, all on the Atlantic coast. 
 These were New Hampshire, Massachu- 
 setts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New 
 York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
 ware, Maryland, Virginia, North CaroHna. 
 South Carolina, and Georgia. Find each 
 of them on Fig. 63. What a small part 
 of the United States they now form ! 
 
 Gradually other states and territories 
 were added, until our country now ex- 
 tends across the continent, as you see. 
 It even includes Alaska (p. 143) and 
 important groups of islands in the Pacific 
 and Atlantic oceans (p. 147). 
 
 Our flag still has its thirteen red and 
 white stripes, to remind us of these 
 thirteen original states. At first there 
 were only thirteen stars in the blue field 
 of the flag. But a star has been added 
 
 for each new state, until now there are 
 many more. Count the stars in the flag 
 to see how many states there are now. 
 
 England was able to keep a large part 
 of the continent, which is called the 
 Dominion of Canada. This The parts of 
 country, which is still a *^.!,l'*'',!!'\!"* 
 
 ■^ ^ , still held by 
 
 British colony, is a union of England 
 states, or provinces, like our United 
 States. 
 
 You observe, on Fig. 59, the large 
 island of Newfoundland, off the extreme 
 eastern coast of the continent. This also 
 was kept by England and is still a British 
 colony; but it has never joined the 
 Dominion of Canada and has, therefore, 
 a separate government. 
 
 Of course, where two countries lie side 
 by side, as do Canada and the United 
 States, there must be some How the 
 line showino; where one boundaries of 
 
 " these coun- 
 
 country ends and the other tries are 
 begins. Such a line is called ^^^^^ 
 a boundary. The boundary lines be- 
 tween the different nations are shown on 
 Fig. 59 by broken lines. Point them out. 
 
 In some parts you will see that a 
 natural boundary, such as a river or a 
 mountain range, has been chosen to sepa 
 rate neighboring countries. In other 
 places the boundary does not follow any 
 natural line, but is a straight line, cutting 
 across rivers, lakes, and mountains. Ex- 
 amine the boundary of the United States 
 to see how much of it is natural. 
 
 Fig. 59 is a map of North America 
 showing the boundaries of the different 
 countries, and the location of ^he purpose 
 the largest rivers and cities, of political 
 Such a map is called a ^^^^ 
 political map. Trace the Mississippi River. 
 Locate New York; San Francisco ; Chicago. 
 

 PROFILE OF NORTH AMERICA ALONGTHEPARALLEL 45° N. 
 
 tid-iXw^i:::::^ 
 
 -D — " — T r — -^ ir 
 
 _, ,. J T ' tj". ^' 
 
 C»tl*OA 
 
 Fig. 60 
 
Fig. 61 
 
i<lg. «1 
 
"? 
 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 RELIEF MAP 
 
 Scale of statute milei 
 y) ago ^jo 4^ 
 
 II.O' (RELLC, N. y. 
 
 ■ -i— ,; 
 
 Fig. 62 
 
/■^' \ 
 
 V \ 
 
 Olark Plateau 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 J^ Cumberland ABPOlaohlan Highland 
 Basin / n aL e a u ^_^^..^<,.^j'Ud„oni Plat 
 
 -V- 
 
 teaa Atlantic Coastal Plain \. 
 
 N.CAROUNA 
 
 Fig. 62 
 
 PROFILE OF U. a. ALONG 
 THE PARALLEL 36° N. 
 
 Atlantic Oetmn 
 
Fig. 63 
 
^i^o^-m; 
 
 
 'Jk. 
 
 ^ "u -o A,w, 
 
 
 ''< 
 
 /4(gsfflcmt>fc-^v^ T> 
 
 |#^ 
 
 'y^^y^Zy/T 
 
 in*ha . ,,_\« -^^^^^^C^ 
 
 # /*^ 
 
 ^>iS-f-JX^'f J 
 
 ^-^~^^^ 
 
 % 
 
 4^'prk 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^^'''^''.MV.uU^'.C-^^' 
 
 
 -Jew 
 
 
 a 
 
 u > 1/ 
 
 
 A' -. 
 
 
 Little Rod 
 
 lI§SlS»l^"%J?ySllontSttl 
 
 i)g.cka)L.'.n\ J^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 A 
 
 ville 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 GULF 
 
 i^ 
 
 o r 
 
 ■^ W- 
 ^ /TV 
 
 C.Canau^''''' 
 
 U 12 -Y 
 
 I W 
 
 O 
 
 Nl ^ 
 
 c.Sfibl*; 
 
 i 
 
 Fig. 63 
 
 
66 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Fig. 58, a physical map, is very dif- 
 ferent from Fig. 59. Its purpose is to 
 The purpose ^^^^ ^he height of the land, 
 of physical or the high and low parts of the 
 ™^^^ continent by means of colors. 
 
 Compare this map with Fig. 60, which 
 will help you to understand the meaning 
 of the different colors. Fig. 60 is called a 
 relief map. It shows how the continent 
 would look if the mountains were a great 
 deal higher than they really are. 
 
 What great mountain system, or high- 
 land, do you find in the western part of 
 North America? What great highland 
 in the east? In what direction does each 
 of these highlands extend? Which is the 
 broader? Which is the higher? Trace, 
 as nearly as you can, the boundaries 
 of each. 
 
 Where is the lowest land between these 
 two highlands? Show the length and 
 width of the Mississippi Basin. Notice 
 the slope east of the Appalachian High- 
 land. Is it longer or shorter than that 
 
 Fig. 64.— New York City 
 
 west of the western highlands? What 
 are the main slopes in North America? 
 Upon which of these slopes or highlands 
 do you live? 
 
 If you look at Fig. 59 you will see that 
 its scale is about 675 miles to the inch. 
 
 Knowing this fact, find how The extent of 
 
 many miles it is across our the United 
 country from north to south, 
 measuring from our northern boundary 
 to the mouth of the Rio Grande. Find 
 the width of our country in an east-west 
 direction, from New York to San Fran- 
 cisco. The United States is not quite so 
 large as Canada. How does it compare 
 with Mexico in size? 
 
 On Fig. 61, point out the highlands and 
 slopes that are shown also on Fig. 58. 
 Notice that this map is on a larger scale. 
 Fig. 61 is both a physical and a political 
 map, for it shows both the height of land 
 and the boundaries of the states. What 
 facts about our country are shown on 
 Fig. 61 that are not shown on Fig. 63? 
 Note how Fig. 62, a relief map of the 
 United States, helps you to understand 
 what the colors of Fig. 61 mean. Notice 
 especially by comparing Figs. 61 and 62 
 that, except where there are mountains, 
 highlands and lowlands shade into each 
 other gradually. On the other hand, 
 what other facts are shown by Fig. 63 
 but not by Fig. 61? 
 
 Physical maps do not show countries 
 or states or cities. Political maps do not 
 show the height of the land. Physical 
 and political maps, however, show both. 
 
 In studying physical maps, or physical 
 and political maps, you should pay care- 
 ful attention to the key, to see which 
 colors represent lowlands and which 
 represent highlands. 
 
THE COUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 67 
 
 1. Name the principal countries of 
 North America. Write their names. 
 
 Review 2. In which country is Span- 
 
 questions jgj^ ^^Q principal language? 
 Why? 3. Why is English the principal 
 language in our country? Why is some 
 French still spoken in North America? 
 4. How did the United States come to be 
 
 formed? What parts of the contuient does 
 it include? 5. What parts of the conti- 
 nent are still held by England? 6. How 
 are the boundaries of these countries 
 formed? 7. Explain the purpose of poHt- 
 ical maps. 8. Of physical maps. 9. Of 
 relief maps. 10. State some facts showing 
 the extent of the United States. 
 
 II. The Northeastern States 
 
 Things that 
 would interest 
 a stranger in 
 New York 
 City 
 
 1. The number 
 of people 
 
 In Fig. 66 find New York City. Fig. 64 
 represents this city on a larger scale. Note 
 how much land it includes, and, by using 
 the scale of the map, estimate the length 
 of the city north and south. 
 
 One of the first things that would in- 
 terest a stranger there is the great num- 
 ber of people. If he enters 
 the city from the north, 
 he soon sees long streets 
 thronged with them. If he 
 travels southward through 
 it, he finds people every- 
 where, and at many points 
 the crowds are as dense as those at a 
 county fair. Likewise, if he crosses the 
 East River and passes through the part 
 of the city called Brooklyn, he finds 
 just as many people there. By thus 
 traveling about in all directions, he be- 
 gins to understand what is meant by 
 the statement that New York has 
 nearly 6,000,000 inhabitants, and is 
 the largest city in the world. 
 
 The great buildings are among the 
 wonders of the world. Fig. 67 suggests 
 2. The size of how much larger many of 
 
 the buildings ^j^gj^ ^j.g ^^^^ ^j^Qg^ .j^ 
 
 small towns. Most of those in the pic- 
 ture are office buildings, used for busi- 
 ness. The tallest one is the Woolworth 
 
 Building; it is fifty-five stories high. Fig. 
 65 shows the number and the size of the 
 office rooms in one of the lower floors. 
 Such a floor can accommodate about 200 
 persons. The higher floors are reached 
 by express elevators that do not stop be- 
 low the 27th floor. All together several 
 thousand persons occupy this building. 
 
 Fig. 65. — A plan of one of the fifty-five floors of the 
 Woolworth Building 
 
andy Hook 
 %** ^''■'c:"*''TvL^"B Branch 
 
 •4*, NEW . 
 
 ">^ !' ■ .' Asbury Park 
 
 -^ 
 
 ^^^Pf Atlantic City 
 
 W~ — 
 
 Cape May 
 
 i 
 
 NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 AND SOUTHEASTERN CANADA 
 
 POLITICAL AND PHYSICAL MAP 
 
 Scale of statute miles 
 25 50 75 100 150 
 
 National capitals @ 
 Important highwaya«„_„ 
 
 ® State capitals 
 Railroads 
 
 V 
 
 Cities with over 600,000 
 
 Cities with 500,000 to tiOO.OOO- 
 Cities with 100,000 to 500,000.. 
 Other cities 
 
 ! New York 
 
 -Pittsburgh 
 
 Newark 
 
 Portland 
 
 ,.-,,.., Canals 
 HEIGHTS IN FEET 
 Vir~" Over 5000 
 
 ; 2000 to 5000 
 ' "" 1000 to 2000 
 %^^ 500 to 1000 
 
 Sea level to 500 
 
 n'esl 73° /Torn 
 
 Fig. 66 
 
70 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Some of the most important banks in 
 the world are located in the southern 
 part of Manhattan Island, a section of 
 which is shown in Fig. 67. One such 
 bank employs more than 2,500 persons; 
 and there are others that employ nearly 
 as many. The largest stores are found a 
 little farther north on the island, and are 
 usually from ten to twenty stories high. 
 
 only a part of one floor, called an apart- 
 ment or a flat. Other families may live 
 above and below, as well as on each side; 
 they are separated from one another 
 only by walls or partitions. There is 
 usually little or no space between such 
 buildings, and in the more crowded sec- 
 tions of the city a single block sometimes 
 contains as many as 4,000 persons. 
 
 Fig. 67. — Manhattan Idand from New York harbor 
 
 Photoyraphic Art Corporation 
 
 One of them employs more than 5,000 
 persons; and many employ 2,000 or more. 
 The buildings in which the people live 
 are not usually separate houses; for a 
 whole house for one family 
 takes up too much room and 
 is too expensive. Generally, many fami- 
 lies live in a single building, called an 
 apartment house or a tenement, which is 
 so arranged that each family occupies 
 
 3. The kinds 
 of homes 
 
 What objections do you see to such 
 homes? 
 
 To escape such crowding, tens of 
 thousands of persons live outside the 
 city, ten to forty miles from 
 their places of business. Even 
 those whose homes are in the city gener- 
 ally live a long way from their places of 
 work. Hundreds of thousands, there- 
 fore, spend from one to three hours 
 
 4. Modes of 
 travel 
 
I 
 
 THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 71 
 
 traveling every day. Many ride upon 
 street cars, busses, ferryboats, and steam 
 railroads. Some use the elevated rail- 
 roads, built in the street two, three, or 
 more stories above the ground, and sup- 
 ported by steel columns. Others travel 
 by underground railroads called subways, 
 or pass through tunnels under the East 
 River to Long Island, or under the 
 Hudson River to New Jersey. 
 
 At about five o'clock in the afternoon 
 the thousands of business places begin to 
 pour their throngs into the streets; and 
 for the next hour every street car, train, 
 bus, and ferry is jammed with people. 
 In the subway and elevated trains it is 
 hard to get even standing room. Every 
 morning there are similar crowds. Thus 
 day after day the people 'travel to and 
 fro. The crowding at these rush hours 
 in New York City probably surpasses any- 
 thing of the kind elsewhere in the world. 
 
 The scenes in the harbor 
 are as interesting as those 
 
 5. Scenes in OU land. HUU- 
 the harbor ^j.g^g ^f gj^'pg 
 
 from all parts of the world 
 can be seen there at any 
 time. Some are just reach- 
 ing the city after weeks of 
 travel from China, South 
 America, and other distant 
 lands; some are loading or 
 unloading their freight and 
 passengers at the piers; and 
 others are just leaving on 
 their way to foreign coun- 
 tries. Powerful tugboats 
 are towing the large vessels 
 to and from the docks, and 
 many ferryboats are pass- 
 ing back and forth. 
 
 The principal business section of the 
 city is on Manhattan Island, which is thir- 
 teen and one half miles long and two and 
 one quarter miles wide at its widest part. 
 The largest buildings are in its southern 
 portion, and one gets some of the best 
 views of the city by saiUng around the 
 island. Fig. 67 is a picture of the 
 southern section as seen from the water. 
 Mention some of the things of interest 
 that you see in it. 
 
 How do so many people make a 
 living? They do many different things. 
 For example, more than 200 
 
 , ., , How so many 
 
 daily newspapers are pub- people make a 
 Ushed in the city and more ^^°s 
 than 1,000 weekly papers, i. The great 
 Think of the number of persons ^^ **^ 
 kept busy gathering the news, 
 printing it, distributing the papers, and 
 attending to other parts of such a busi- 
 ness! There are as many as 250 hotels. 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 68. — A few of the ships in New York harbor 
 The small boat in the center of the picture is a lighter, which carries 
 freight to and from the ships and thus saves the trouble of moving the large 
 ships to many docks. 
 
72 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 some of which have over 2,000 rooms and 
 employ as many as 2,000 persons. There 
 are about 22,000 teachers and not less 
 than 1,000,000 young people going to 
 school and college. Think how many 
 grocery stores, drug stores, moving pic- 
 ture theaters, and restaurants there must 
 be! Most of the kinds of work that are 
 done elsewhere are going on here also. 
 Can you name a dozen kinds that have 
 not been mentioned? 
 
 While there are so many occupations, 
 there are two that are especially impor- 
 2 Why trans- taut. One is transportation, 
 portation is one xhe streets are so filled with 
 
 of the leading . . „ 
 
 occupations trucks lu many sections oi 
 a. Importance of the city that it is difficult to 
 
 transportation ,-i i.i.i_ t j.t_ 
 
 pass through them, in the 
 harbor you may see whole freight trains 
 containing goods being towed on flat 
 boats, called lighters. On the docks 
 many thousands of men, called longshore- 
 men, are kept busy loading and unload- 
 ing ships. Trains filled with freight from 
 all parts of the earth are coming or going 
 at all hours. More than 1,300 carloads 
 of food alone are brought into the city 
 every day. In all, probably not less than 
 200,000 men and women are employed in 
 the city in the transportation of goods 
 and passengers. 
 
 One reason for so large a number is the 
 excellent location of New York on the 
 , ,j , - Atlantic coast. The Atlan- 
 
 0. Advantage of ^ ^ 
 
 the location of tic is the busiest ocean in the 
 world; for in Fig. 315 you see 
 that to the east of it is Europe with its 
 enormous population of 455 millions. 
 Westward from New York our own coun- 
 try stretches out for 3,000 miles, with its 
 many millions of people. In Fig. 63 
 read the names of the states that one 
 
 would cross in going directly west from 
 New York to the Pacific coast. Name 
 some of the cities one would pass through. 
 Thus New York hes directly between 
 great numbers of persons who trade with 
 one another. 
 
 The excellent harbor is another reason 
 for the importance of transportation in 
 New York. Many coasts are c. Excellence of 
 so straight that there are no ^^^^""^^^ 
 good natural harbors; but it is not so 
 here. The Upper Bay, which you see in 
 Fig. 64, is six miles long and five miles 
 wide; this is large enough to shelter hun- 
 dreds of vessels at a time from storms. 
 The Lower Bay is larger still, and there 
 are many other places within New York 
 harbor where ocean vessels can anchor 
 safely. Point' out some of them. 
 
 The piers and docks are on just as 
 grand a scale. On many coasts the 
 waters are so shallow near the land that 
 ships cannot come close to it; they must 
 anchor a mile or more out at sea, where 
 they are met by smaller boats that come 
 to load or unload them. At New York, 
 however, the largest vessels, which sink 
 thirty or more feet into the water, can 
 come directly to the piers along the 
 shore, where they are met by trucks and 
 wagons. Fig. 51 shows many ships rest- 
 ing at the piers in the Hudson River. 
 The piers here extend along the shore in 
 an almost unbroken line for several miles, 
 and there are many more in other parts 
 of the city. 
 
 How is the city connected with the 
 country on its west? Fig. 62 shows many 
 mountain ridges between New d. Ease of 
 York and the Mississippi ':£,^'JUe 
 Basin. What are they called? ^««^ 
 Across what states do they extend? In 
 
THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 73 
 
 the early days they were Uke walls in 
 stopping the westward movement of set- 
 tlers. Yet there was one easy route which 
 soon became very important; that was 
 the one leading up the Hudson River 
 to Troy, and then westward between the 
 Catskills and the Adirondacks. Locate 
 these two mountainous regions. Be- 
 tween them the Mohawk River flows 
 eastward into the Hudson. No point 
 along this route is more than 500 feet 
 above sea level, and it crosses no moun- 
 tains whatever. It is so nearly level 
 that a canal covering the whole distance 
 from Troy to Buffalo, and known as the 
 Erie Canal, was completed as early as 
 1825. The building of it was an im- 
 portant event for New York City, for 
 it made it possible for freight to be 
 carried by boat up the Hudson to Troy; 
 then through the canal to Buffalo; then 
 to any point on the Great Lakes as far 
 west as Duluth. Trace this route in 
 Fig. 61 and estimate the distance from 
 New York to Duluth. Since it was much 
 cheaper to haul goods by water than in 
 any other way, the city gained an ad- 
 vantage for trade with the West that no 
 other Atlantic port has ever had. Later 
 the New York Central Railroad was 
 built along the same route to Buffalo. 
 Many other roads now run from New 
 York northwest, west, and southwest; 
 these do not avoid the mountains but 
 cross them by means of steep grades and 
 tunnels. 
 
 New York City is, therefore, the prin- 
 cipal gateway between countries across 
 the Atlantic and the United States. 
 Nearly half of all goods brought into the 
 United States enter at this gate ; and more 
 than a third of all that we send abroad 
 
 go out the same way. In fact. New York 
 is the greatest port in the world. 
 
 All the goods that come or go must 
 be transferred at this point from ocean 
 vessels to smaller boats or trains; or from 
 all these to warehouses and stores in the 
 city itself. It is largely because this 
 work keeps so many persons busy that 
 transportation is one of the chief occu- 
 pations in the city. 
 
 The other occupation that is especially 
 prominent is manufacturing. Any place 
 that enjoys great advantages 
 for transportation of freight is 
 likely to be an important 
 manufact^uring center, be- 
 cause manufacturing depends so much 
 
 3. Why manu- 
 facturing is 
 especially im- 
 portant 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 69. — A lock in the New York Barge Canal 
 This canal follows in general the route of the old Erie 
 Canal, which was completed in 1825. On the right is one 
 of the small locks of the Erie Canal. Trace the route of the 
 Barge Canal across New York state (Fig. 66). 
 
74 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 upon the ease with which the materials 
 that are to be made over into manu- 
 factured articles can be collected and 
 finished articles can be shipped away. 
 
 The amount of manufacturing depends 
 also upon the supply of workmen. . New 
 York is very fortunate in this respect. 
 Most of the hundreds of thousands of 
 people who come from other countries 
 to the United States each year enter by 
 way of New York. At Ellis Island, in 
 the harbor, the new arrivals, called 
 immigrants, land and are examined by 
 government officers to see whether they 
 shall be permitted to remain in this 
 country. Fig. 70 shows a group of such 
 immigrants. Many, instead of proceed- 
 ing farther, remain in the city; in fact, 
 about two fifths of all the inhabitants 
 of the city were born abroad. These 
 foreigners have helped greatly to supply 
 the factories with workmen. 
 
 New York, therefore, manufactures 
 thousands of different kinds of articles, 
 from ink for newspapers to steam engines 
 
 © Keystone View Co., Inc 
 
 Fig. 70. — Polish immigrants at Ellis Island 
 
 and steel ships. The value of its manu- 
 factures is about one tenth of the total 
 value of those of the United States. 
 Among the immigrants in the factories 
 are a great number who specialize in 
 the making of clothing. Partly for this 
 reason, the manufacture of ready-made 
 clothing is the largest manufacturing 
 industry. Probably not less than 200,000 
 persons are engaged in it, and nearly 
 one half of all the ready-made clothing 
 for both men and women in the United 
 States is made in this city. 
 
 In New Jersey, just across the river 
 from New York, is another vast popu- 
 lation. Newark (Fig. 66) con- jj^^ ^.^^^ 
 tains more than 400,000 in- about New 
 habitants, and Jersey City othtrs^outh- 
 over 300,000. There are five west of it 
 
 ji_ •, • u i. xT_ I. T_ compare with 
 
 other cities about the harbor ^^ in advan- 
 in New Jersey that average *fses for 
 more than 50,000 each. 
 Within fifteen miles of Manhattan Island 
 are more than 7,000,000 persons. What 
 portion of the entire population of the 
 United States does this 
 number make (p. 311)? All 
 these cities use the same 
 harbor and therefore enjoy 
 much the same advantages 
 for transportation as New 
 York; in fact, they are 
 practically a part of that 
 city. Make a drawing of 
 New York harbor showing 
 all the large cities upon it. 
 Only ninety miles south- 
 west of New York is Phila- 
 delphia (Fig. 66), the third 
 city in size in the United 
 States. With its neighboring 
 cities of Camden, Trenton, 
 
 transportation 
 
THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 75 
 
 and Wilmington, it contains a population 
 of more than 2,000,000. Locate these 
 places. The secret of their growth is 
 seen partly in the fine harbor formed by 
 
 © Evring OdUoway 
 
 Fig. 71. — Independence Hall, Philadelphia 
 This is the birthplace of our country. Can you tell why? 
 
 the Delaware River. Trace its course 
 from the Catskill Mountains. Do you 
 see any reason why it is not likely to 
 equal the Hudson River in importance 
 for the transportation of goods? 
 
 About ninety miles southwest from 
 Philadelphia is Baltimore (Fig. 66), the 
 eighth city in size in our country. Its 
 location so far inland brings it many 
 miles nearer the states west of the Appa- 
 lachian Highland than Philadelphia or 
 New York; and since it owes its impor- 
 
 tance partly to trade with the West, this 
 is a great advantage. 
 
 In Fig. 150 you can see that many of 
 the same railroads that connect New 
 York with the West and Southwest pass 
 through Philadelphia and Baltimore; but 
 they lack the water connection with the 
 Great Lakes, and their trains going west 
 must climb 2,000 feet to get over the 
 mountains. How are these facts serious 
 disadvantages? 
 
 215 miles northeast of New York is 
 Boston (Fig. 66) It is itself the seventh 
 city of the United States in How Boston 
 size, but with Cambridge and 
 other cities close by has a 
 population of more than a 
 milUon. Here also, the fine 
 harbor partly explains so large 
 a number of inhabitants. For a long time, 
 high hills in western Massachusetts 
 
 and the cities 
 about it com- 
 pare with 
 New York in 
 advantages 
 for transpor- 
 tation 
 
 ©Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 72.— The Old North Church, Boston 
 
76 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 blocked their trade with the West, just 
 as the Alleghenies (Fig. 66) blocked it 
 for Philadelphia and Baltimore. Name 
 the highland found there (Fig. 66). 
 Railroads were finally built across it, and 
 
 Courtesy of Keystone Coal and Coke Co. 
 
 Fig. 73. — Mining coal by modem methods 
 Notice that machinery is used to loosen the coal. This 
 miner carries his light with him, on his cap. 
 
 Boston is now connected by rail with 
 Albany. Estimate the distance to Albany. 
 Thus Boston gets some benefit from the 
 Mohawk route. Can you show how? 
 
 Just as the great Atlantic ports are the 
 
 principal gateways between Europe and 
 
 , . the United States, two other 
 
 The relation . . , ^t ^ 
 
 of Buffalo and cities in the Northeastern 
 S^^At^ntic*** States are gateways between 
 coast cities in those ports and portions of our 
 ^Uoodr*'"'' country lying farther west. 
 These are Buffalo and Pitts- 
 burgh (Fig. 66), which are also among 
 our largest cities (p. 311). 
 
 Buffalo is on the route from New York 
 
 City westward at the point where goods 
 going east or west by water must be 
 transferred from one kind of boat to 
 another. It is the point, also, at which 
 many goods are transferred from rail to 
 boat, or from boat to rail. That gives its 
 harbor great importance. 
 
 In Fig. 66 you see that Pittsburgh is 
 located in western Pennsylvania at the 
 point where the Allegheny and Mononga- 
 hela rivers unite to form the Ohio River. 
 Since the Ohio flows into the Mississippi, 
 this location connects Pittsburgh by 
 water with all parts of the Mississippi 
 Basin. In Fig. 61, show some of the more 
 distant places that can be reached from 
 Pittsburgh by boat. 
 
 These two cities are also on the routes 
 of the principal railroads running from 
 the Atlantic coast to Chicago, St. Louis, 
 and other points in the North Central 
 and Western states. Therefore, most of 
 the freight bound from the Atlantic 
 coast to these western sections, or from 
 them to the Atlantic coast, passes through 
 one of these cities. 
 
 While the many cities that have been 
 named differ greatly in size, and while all 
 the others taken together have 
 a smaller population than that 
 around New York harbor 
 alone, they all resemble New 
 York in two very important 
 respects. In every one of them trans- 
 portation of goods and manufacturing 
 are the leading industries. Indeed, the 
 Northeastern States, in spite of their 
 small area, are the principal manufac- 
 turing section of the United States; 
 they make nearly one half of all the 
 manufactured goods that our country 
 produces. 
 
 Two ways 
 in which all 
 these cities 
 resemble 
 New York 
 
THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 77 
 
 The influence 
 of Pennsyl- 
 vania coal 
 
 1. Signs of coal 
 seen by 
 the traveler 
 
 Why do the Northeastern States manu- 
 facture so much? It is largely because 
 
 of the coal in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Let us see how this can be 
 
 true. 
 The traveler in that state 
 
 sees many signs of coal. In 
 
 numerous cities there are 
 great numbers of coal miners in the streets 
 at certain hours of the day. They can be 
 recognized by the coal dust upon them, 
 and by the dinner pails that they carry. 
 In certain sections one sees by the road- 
 side in the hills and mountains openings 
 that are tunnels leading to coal mines. 
 Now and then thin layers of coal show in 
 steep hillsides or cliffs, and occasionally 
 a small coal mine for private use is found 
 on a farm or even in a back yard. 
 
 Many mine openings that extend di- 
 rectly downward into the earth are sur- 
 rounded by ugly mounds of waste coal and 
 rock, called culm, that have been thrown 
 there because there was no better place 
 for them, and that serve as 
 reminders of what is going 
 on underneath. Many cars 
 filled wdth coal are included 
 in almost every freight 
 train. In weight, the coal 
 from Pennsylvania makes 
 about half of all the freight 
 hauled by railroads in that 
 state. 
 
 Two kinds of coal are 
 mined extensively. One is 
 
 anthracite, or 
 
 hard coal, which 
 
 is found in the 
 eastern part of the state 
 about Scranton and Wilkes- 
 Barre. These are called Fig. 74. 
 
 coal cities because their principal interest 
 is in coal. About 90,000,000 tons of 
 anthracite are mined in eastern Penn- 
 sylvania each year, which makes that 
 region the greatest center for anthracite 
 coal in the world. 
 
 In the western part of the state, south 
 of Pittsburgh, bituminous, or soft coal, is 
 mined. Nearly twice as much bitumi- 
 nous as anthracite is produced each year 
 in Pennsylvania, or 160,000,000 tons. All 
 together, not less than 300,000 men 
 are employed underground in Pennsyl- 
 vania, and that one state mines about as 
 much coal as all our other coal-producing 
 states combined. 
 
 Without this coal, neither transporta- 
 tion nor manufacturing could flourish as 
 they do; for it suppUes the 3. how this coai 
 heat that produces steam, and compares with 
 
 ^ ' other fuel and 
 
 steam is what turns the wheels water power 
 
 » , , , . , - in importance 
 
 01 most locomotives and fac- 
 tories. Oil and gas, both of them 
 obtained from underground, take the 
 
 2. Kinds and 
 quantity of coal 
 mined 
 
 © Press Illustrating Service 
 
 -Horseshoe Falls, a portion of Niagara Falls 
 
78 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 place of coal to some extent; Penn- 
 sylvania and New York produce a good 
 deal of each. Water power, also, can 
 take the place of coal. Niagara Falls, 
 for example, furnishes power for cars 
 
 Courtesy of National Tube Co, 
 
 Fig. 75. — A steel mill in Pennsylvania 
 
 and factories more than a hundred 
 miles distant from the falls themselves. 
 Yet coal is the principal source of power 
 for running machinery; and on that ac- 
 count it is largely the Pennsylvania coal 
 that leads these states to manufacture 
 so extensively. 
 
 While Pennsylvania, New York, New 
 Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware make 
 almost every kind of manu- 
 factured goods, by far the 
 most prominent manufacture 
 is that of heavy articles made 
 ,oi iron and steel, such, for 
 example, as steel ships, engines of all 
 sorts, rails, stoves and furnaces, eleva- 
 tors, cars, bridges, automobiles, heavy 
 machinery, steel beams for large build- 
 
 The differ- 
 ences among 
 the states in 
 manufacture 
 of iron and 
 steel goods 
 
 ings, and heavy cannon. Most of the 
 great cities in these states are distin- 
 guished for the manufacture , v- ^ .. 
 
 " 1. Kinds of iron 
 
 of one or more kinds of such and steei manu- 
 
 . f actures in 
 
 heavy articles, Pittsburgh Pennsylvania 
 , P 11 and states near 
 
 most of all. it, with the ex- 
 One cause for pi^^^t^o^^ 
 this is the fact that a great 
 abundance of coal is near 
 at hand. Another is that 
 iron ore, from which iron 
 and steel are made, can be 
 obtained easily. A little of 
 it is mined in New York 
 and Pennsylvania, but 
 most of it comes by way 
 of the Great Lakes from 
 Minnesota. This is a long 
 distance, but the fact that 
 it is brought most of the 
 way by water makes the 
 transportation cheap. 
 
 The group of six states 
 to the east of New York 
 State, called New England, 
 
 . ' i-iv / 2. The kinds 
 
 carries on a very dinerent of metai goods 
 kind of metal manufacture. 
 This region is noted for its 
 tools, knives and forks, fire- 
 arms, locks, screws, needles and pins, 
 clocks, watches, jewelry, and other light 
 articles made of metal. Perhaps you 
 see one reason for the difference. These 
 states produce neither iron nor coal, and 
 since it is expensive to transport both 
 materials so far, articles are manufac- 
 tured that require very small quantities 
 of coal or metal. 
 
 New England is noted for other manu- 
 factures, also. While it mines no coal, 
 grows no cotton, and raises few sheep or 
 beef cattle, it is the most important region 
 
 made in New 
 England, and 
 one reason for 
 the difference 
 
THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 79 
 
 in the United States for the manufacture 
 of goods made of cotton, wool, and leather. 
 The other states in this group 
 roln'TrTd have some factories for the 
 leather goods making of textiles, or cloth 
 
 are especially , • j j -r» j. 
 
 important in goods) indeed, Paterson m 
 
 New England New Jersey is the leading cen- 
 
 1. Where these ^cr for sllk manufacture in our 
 manufactmes countrv, and Philadelphia is 
 
 are earned on '^ ' ^ 
 
 noted for rugs and carpets; 
 but these more western states work very 
 little with textiles compared with south- 
 eastern New England. Most of the 
 cities in the latter region are engaged 
 in the cotton, woolen, or leather industry. 
 They produce such articles as thread, 
 muslin, calico, cloth for men 's and wom- 
 en's suits, stockings, underwear, shoes, 
 pocketbooks, leather bags, and harness. 
 Many of them are engaged in two of 
 these industries, and some in all three. 
 This is true of all the larger cities in 
 southeastern New Hampshire, eastern 
 Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. Name 
 and locate some of them (Fig. 66). 
 
 How did they come to undertake such 
 
 manufacturing when they lack fuel and 
 
 even the raw materials for 
 
 2. How these e i o mi 
 
 industries got mauuiacture .'^ ihe answer is 
 Ne^nSand ^^^^^ P^^ly in the history of 
 the people. The early settlers 
 of New England, being a long way from 
 Europe, and having no one else to depend 
 upon, had to make most of the things they 
 used, such, for example, as clothing and 
 shoes. In that way they became skilled 
 workmen. Later, when other parts of the 
 country also needed such articles, they be- 
 gan to build factories, making use of their 
 abundant water power to run them. Then 
 new immigrants from Europe went into 
 these factories, rather than to the farms; 
 
 thus a large supply of skilled labor was 
 obtained. In this way New England got 
 an early start in these kinds of manu- 
 facturing. There are, to be sure, many 
 natural disadvantages. The inhabitants 
 must depend more upon coal than upon 
 water for power, since the rivers are 
 irregular in their supply; and the raw 
 cotton and most of the wool and leather 
 must be brought long distances. Yet 
 they have been able to hold their own. 
 Their one great advantage is their large 
 number of workmen highly skilled in the 
 manufacture of such products. 
 
 On what river is Washington located 
 (Fig. 66)? Perhaps some day you will 
 
 visit that city. What would Attractions of 
 
 you expect to see there? It is ^^ "ty of 
 
 „ ,, i. ii. i- Washington 
 
 one 01 the most attractive 
 
 of all our large cities. Since it is the 
 
 © Brown Bros, 
 
 Fig. 76. — A New England clock factory 
 
 capital of our country (p. 30) and there- 
 fore interested mainly in government, 
 it does not have the many factories, the 
 
«0 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 © Manujactuitrs Aircraft Assn 
 
 Fig. 77. — The Capitol at Washington 
 
 factory workmen, or the street traffic 
 that other large cities have. Also, the 
 principal buildings are not places of busi- 
 ness but government buildings. The 
 most important is the Capitol (Fig. 77), 
 in which our Congress meets. Another of 
 special interest is the White House (Fig. 
 31), in which the President lives. There 
 are dozens of others also, 
 because the work of carry- 
 ing on the government re- 
 quires offices for a great 
 many men and women. 
 
 Most large cities have 
 followed no definite plan 
 as they have grown; but 
 the arrangement of the 
 streets and buildings in 
 Washington was planned 
 from the beginning. Its 
 site furnishes some mag- 
 nificent views across the 
 Potomac River; its streets 
 are especially broad, parks 
 and monuments are very 
 
 far more common than in 
 any other large American 
 city. 
 
 While more people in the 
 world are engaged in farm- 
 ing than in any ^.^,^,^^^ 
 
 other single OC- of farming in 
 
 cupation, farm- *^^^" ^*^*"^ 
 ing is not carried on in 
 these states on as large a 
 scale as in the other sec- 
 tions of the country. In 
 fact, only one person in four 
 here lives in the country. 
 There is plenty of rain 
 for agriculture, and the 
 temperature is mild enough, but much 
 of the land is hilly or mountainous. In 
 Fig. 66 locate the principal mountain 
 groups and ridges. In what directions 
 do the highlands extend? What are 
 the names of the principal ranges in 
 Pennsylvania? In New York? In New 
 England? 
 
 © Brawn Bros. 
 
 numerous, and trees are 
 
 Fig. 78. — An apple orchard in blossom in New York State 
 
THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 81 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Point out the more level 
 sections. Even in sections 
 where there are no moun- 
 tains, however, some of 
 the land is so hilly and 
 rocky that it cannot be 
 cultivated. 
 
 In spite of these difficul- 
 ties, farming is an impor- 
 The principal tant industry in 
 kinds of some parts of 
 
 amung these states. 
 
 Fruit is extensively culti- 
 vated in several sections. 
 For example, apples (Fig. 
 78), peaches, pears, plums, 
 and grapes are grown in 
 western New York and Pennsylvania 
 and in southern New Jersey and Mary- 
 land, where the climate is made mild by 
 the waters near by. Tobacco, also, flour- 
 ishes in the lower Connecticut Valley, 
 in Massachusetts, and in Connecticut. 
 But there are two kinds of farming that 
 are especially prominent. One of these 
 is truck farming. 
 
 In so rough a country farming on a 
 large scale is impossible; the land is cut 
 up into small fields, with 
 of truck farm- patches of woodlaud here and 
 "^ there. Many of these fields, 
 
 however, are very fertile, and the most 
 common products are those fruits and 
 vegetables that find a ready market in 
 the nearby cities. Some of these are 
 tomatoes, potatoes, lettuce, onions, beans, 
 peas, corn, cabbages, and berries; grow- 
 ing such food is called truck farming. 
 Can you tell how the farmer raises some 
 of these things? 
 
 Where there are so many great cities, 
 an immense quantity of milk is wanted; 
 
 '!&ii-i**,t*t^ti'.': i^ ^yWS^ i i 
 
 -.-i^e-'iih: v\ ' «•>! i\a,t it^(^ 
 
 © Keystone View Co. , Inc. 
 
 79. — A dairy farm in New York State 
 
 for everyone uses milk in some form. 
 Much of the land is so rocky and 
 rough that it cannot be plowed, and 
 can therefore be used only to raise grass 
 for cattle. For such reasons, dairying is a 
 very great industry in these states. It 
 occupies much more of the land than 
 truck farming. 
 
 Anyone who travels through these 
 states finds dairy farms on every hand. 
 The surest sign of a dairy 2. Extent of 
 country is a number of cattle ^^^ farming 
 grazing on a hillside or drink- a. Meaning of 
 
 c 1 1 J .1 o dairy farm 
 
 mg from a brook; and they 
 afford one of the prettiest sights that one 
 gets from a train. Most of the cattle 
 look well kept and clean, for they are 
 regularly washed and brushed. Can you 
 tell why they receive so much care? 
 
 Fig. 79 shows some of the buildings 
 that are necessary. Tell what you see 
 there. These buildings are very neat 
 indeed; they must be ventilated and 
 kept almost as clean as a house. 
 
 Besides grass and hay, the farmer 
 
82 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 usually grows corn and some turnips or 
 other vegetables for his herd. There is so 
 little hot weather here in summer that it 
 is difficult to ripen the corn as fully as 
 it ripens in states farther west. Yet the 
 
 / .^^ 
 
 
 
 © Press Illustrating Service 
 
 Fig. 80. — Oyster boats at the wharf, Baltimore 
 
 green stalks make excellent feed for the 
 cattle when cut up into bits and stored 
 in the round building, called a silo, Uke 
 the one shown in Fig. 79. 
 
 Entire trains of milk are a common 
 sight at village railroad stations in 
 6. What is done thcse statcs. This milk may 
 with the milk i^g hauled 200 or even 300 
 
 miles before reaching the city for which 
 it is intended. There it is deUvered to 
 the houses, the milkmen beginning their 
 rounds as early as two or three o'clock 
 in the morning. Can you imagine some 
 of the suffering that would follow in the 
 cities if a milk train were wrecked, or 
 if snowstorms should block all trains 
 for two or three days at a time? In hot 
 weather, what prevents the milk from 
 souring before it can be delivered? 
 
 While the land in these states supplies 
 only a small part of the food needed, the 
 ocean furnishes a very large , 
 
 Importance of 
 amount of food, bome OI the sea food and 
 
 most common kinds are cod, t^e methods 
 
 , ,., , , ofgettmgit 
 
 halibut, mack- 
 erel, herring, bluefish, oy- 
 sters, clams, lobsters, and 
 crabs. 
 
 Fish used to be abundant 
 close to shore; but so many 
 have been caught there that 
 fishermen now have to go 
 far out to sea to catch cod, 
 hahbut, and mackerel. The 
 vessels used are powerboats, 
 driven by gasoline, or sail- 
 ing vessels called schooners; 
 hundreds sail from Glou- 
 cester in Massachusetts 
 every year, and they are 
 often gone for weeks at a 
 time. Can you imagine 
 some of the dangers the men meet? Also 
 some of the conversation in their families 
 during a heavy storm on the New England 
 coast? 
 
 One of the most interesting industries 
 along the coast is the production of 
 oysters. They are found all along this 
 coast; but Cheaspeake Bay produces 
 more than any other section in the world. 
 Baltimore is the center of the oyster trade, 
 just as Boston is one of the chief fish 
 markets of the world. 
 
 About one half of the oysters obtained 
 in Chesapeake Bay come from oyster 
 farms that are cultivated with as much 
 care as farms on land, although in a very 
 different way. It seems strange to speak 
 of cultivating farms that are entirely 
 under water; but there are thousands 
 
THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 
 
 83 
 
 of such farms along our eastern coast; 
 and many of the words used in connection 
 with their cultivation remind one very 
 much of ordinary farming. The young 
 oysters are planted, they have to be 
 fattened, the harvest is spoken of as the 
 crop, and they are sold by the bushel. 
 The oyster farmer starts out to work, 
 however, . in 'a boat, and there are many 
 other differences from farming on land. 
 Can you suggest some of them? 
 
 1. How would you make clear to a 
 stranger what a vast number of people 
 Review there are in New York City? 
 
 questions 2. State facts showing the 
 size of some of the buildings. 3. Explain 
 what kind of homes the people have. 
 4. What are some of the difficulties of 
 travel? 5. Describe scenes in New York 
 harbor. 6. Give an idea of the variety 
 of work, and the importance of each kind. 
 
 7. Show how extensive transportation 
 is in the streets and about the harbor. 
 
 8. Explain the advantage of the location 
 of New York. 9. The excellence of the 
 harbor. 10. The ease of traffic with 
 the country on the west. 11. Why is 
 manufacturing especially important? 12. 
 Name large cities west and southwest 
 of New York, and compare them with 
 that city in advantages for transportation. 
 13. How does Boston compare with New 
 York in such advantages? .14. Locate 
 two large cities in the interior and explain 
 their importance for transportation. 
 15. How do these great cities all re- 
 semble New York? 16. What signs of 
 coal in Pennsylvania are seen by the 
 traveler? 17. What kinds of coal are 
 mined there, and how do they compare 
 in quantity? 18. How does the coal 
 compare with other fuel and water power 
 
 in importance? 19. State the principal 
 kinds of iron and steel goods manufac- 
 tured in Pennsylvania and the states near 
 it, and give the reason. 20. How are the 
 iron and steel manufactures of New Eng- 
 land different from those of Pennsyl- 
 vania? Why? 21. Why are cotton, 
 woolen, and leather manufactures es- 
 pecially important in New England? 
 22. Mention some of the attractions of 
 Washington. 23. Explain the difficulties 
 in the way of farming in the Northeastern 
 States. Describe the surface of this sec- 
 tion. 24. State the importance of truck 
 farming. 25. The extent of the dairy 
 industry. 26. Describe a dairy farm as 
 fully as you can. 27. What is done 
 with the milk? 28. Show the impor- 
 tance of fishing in these states. 
 
 1. Many visitors go to the top of the 
 Woolworth Building. Describe some of 
 the views that you think you suggestions 
 would have there. 2. Make 
 a drawing of this part of the 
 Atlantic coast, showing the principal 
 harbors and the leading cities upon them. 
 3. How can a canal be kept full of water 
 where the land is not level? 4. Make a 
 drawing of the Erie Barge Canal and 
 include the principal cities upon it. 5. 
 Visit a fish market, to see some of the 
 kinds of fish mentioned in the text. 6. 
 Make a list of the names on the map that 
 begin with New. How can you explain 
 such frequent use of this word? 7. Write 
 the abbreviation for each of the states in 
 this group. 8. Try this game: With 
 scissors cut out pieces of paper — ^without 
 looking at the map — as nearly the shape 
 of each state as possible; then see if other 
 persons can recognize the state each 
 time intended. 
 
 for extra 
 work 
 
84 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 III. The North Central States 
 
 © Ewing GaUovoay 
 
 Fig. 81. — Great Lakes steamers at Cleveland 
 
 Some of the finest steamers in the world 
 are found on the Great Lakes (Fig. 86). 
 Aiakevoy- '^^^^^ starting point for the 
 
 age from Buf- 
 falo to Duluth 
 or Chicago 
 
 1. What one 
 may see in 
 Buffalo harbor 
 
 Lake Erie. 
 
 westward voyage is Buffalo. 
 Possibly they would start at 
 Oswego or at some other port 
 on Lake Ontario, if that lake 
 were not so much lower than 
 But the waters of the Niagara 
 River descend 327 feet in passing from one 
 lake to the other; and no vessel could 
 possibly pass through the rapids of that 
 short river, to say nothing of the Niagara 
 Falls themselves. 
 
 While Fig. 86 shows that the Welland 
 Canal connects the two lakes, its locks 
 are too small for large vessels. Buffalo, 
 therefore, marks the end of the lake voy- 
 age toward the east, and goods reaching 
 that city by water from the North Central 
 and the Western states must there be 
 transferred from lake vessels to trains or 
 canal boats for their further journey. 
 On the other hand, many goods bound 
 
 from the Northeastern 
 States for sections farther 
 west by lake steamers are 
 transferred to lake vessels 
 at Buffalo. Many rail- 
 roads (Fig. 150) also carry 
 even more goods and people 
 between the East and the 
 Great Lakes region than 
 do the waterways. 
 
 Thus the harbor of Buf- 
 falo is a very busy place. 
 Some vessels are loading 
 coal from Pennsylvania and 
 manufactured goods of 
 many sorts. Others are un- 
 loading iron ore for the great iron and 
 steel plants, or lumber to be used in East- 
 ern cities. Still others are standing beside 
 tall grain elevators, where hundreds of 
 small buckets attached to belts lift their 
 wheat or corn or oats or rye or barley 
 to enormous bins, from which it is later 
 dropped into railroad cars or canal boats. 
 On our voyage westward we shall find 
 where these products have come from. 
 
 The voyage to Cleveland takes seven 
 or eight hours. There again many boats 
 are seen; and many more are 
 
 ' . "^ 2. What one 
 
 unloading iron ore than at may see at 
 Buffalo. The blast furnaces at *^*^ 
 Youngstown, Pittsburgh, and other iron 
 and steel centers in eastern Ohio and 
 in Pennsylvania obtain most of their ore 
 by way of Cleveland and other ports near 
 it. A half dozen electric hoists maybe 
 working at one time, lifting the ore out so 
 rapidly that an enormous boat carrying 
 from 10,000 to 12,000 tons is emptied in 
 from ten to fifteen hours (Fig. 82). 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 85 
 
 Near by are coal docks where coal from 
 Pennsylvania or Ohio or West Virginia 
 is being loaded into boats to be carried 
 westward. Many kinds of machines are 
 used for handling the coal. One of them 
 unloads a whole carload in about a 
 minute. It hfts the car thirty or more 
 feet and turns it over, dumping the coal 
 into a chute which leads into the boat. 
 What reasons do you see for so much 
 speed? 
 
 During some portions of the voyage 
 we may lose sight of land; but before 
 ,-.,,. Detroit is reached the vessel 
 
 3. Facts of in- 
 
 terestabout eutcrs the Dctroit River, 
 which is only a half mile wide. 
 This is one of the busiest streams in the 
 world, one boat on the average passing 
 along here every few minutes, day and 
 
 lud and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 82. — Unloading iron ore at Cleveland 
 
 In the foreground an out-of-date method is being used. 
 In the background a large modern unloading machine is 
 emptying a large lake vessel. The extensive use of such 
 great machines for handling iron ore and coal is one 
 reason why the United States is the leading iron and steel 
 producing coimtry in the world. 
 
 'iirtesy of Packard Automobile Co. 
 
 Fig. 83. —Assembling an engine at a Detroit 
 automobile factory 
 
 In this well-lighted room the engines that are being 
 assembled are moved along a track and each workman 
 adds the part for which he is responsible. In this way 
 all the engines are made exactly alike. 
 
 night, during the season of navigation 
 from May to November. The portion 
 of Canada just north of Lake Erie is 
 densely populated, and important rail- 
 ways between Toronto and Chicago cross 
 the river at Detroit. 
 
 If one has time to visit the lake cities, 
 one can see what becomes of the iron ore 
 that comes down the lakes. Cleveland, 
 the fifth city in size in the country, 
 and Youngstown, Uke Pittsburgh, con- 
 sume vast quantities of iron in the manu- 
 facture of machinery, pipe, automo- 
 biles, and a great variety of other things. 
 Detroit is noted for the manufacture of 
 automobiles (Fig. 83). Chiefly because 
 of this industry, it is now the fourth 
 largest city in the United States. 
 
86 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 On the voyage north you have Bay 
 City and Saginaw, at the head of Saginaw 
 Bay, on your left, and you 
 finally pass Alpena. Not 
 many years ago this part of 
 Michigan was thickly wooded, 
 and these towns were noted centers 
 for lumber. The numerous rivers that 
 
 4. How the 
 country west of 
 Lake Huron has 
 changed in re- 
 cent years 
 
 A. The lower grate is here swung: aside, and tlie boat is enterinsr the chamber, 
 
 Water Level below Lock 
 
 The lower gate is here closed and water is enterinsr the chamber and lifting: 
 the boat. 
 
 Water Level above Lock 
 
 Sc5 
 
 J^ 
 
 -^_ 
 
 
 ?€^^?€3^s€:F£bGfc.6fe.w.6.e»i3i^€^;^3€:? 
 
 C. The water in the chamber is now on the same level as the water above the 
 lock. The upper gate has been swung aside, and the boat can move out of 
 the chamber. 
 
 Fig. 84 
 
 empty into Saginaw Bay brought down 
 logs to scores of sawmills there; if you 
 could have gone there at that time, you 
 might have witnessed many exciting 
 scenes in the woods and on the rivers. 
 Can you describe some of them? 
 
 Lumber was shipped from this region 
 to many Eastern cities; and many in- 
 dustries dependent upon lumber sprang 
 up here. For example, southwest of 
 Saginaw is Grand Rapids, which became 
 the greatest center for the manufacture 
 of furniture in the United States, and 
 still holds that rank. Grand Rapids 
 
 furniture is sold extensively in New 
 York as well as Chicago, and even in 
 Europe and South America. The indus- 
 try was started when hardwood forests 
 near by were extensive and has continued 
 to grow because of this early start, 
 although now a large part of the lumber 
 must be brought from other regions. 
 
 While there is still valu- 
 able maple, beech, and birch 
 timber in Michigan, the 
 greatest forests have been 
 destroyed. In some sec- 
 tions dead trees and stumps 
 are the most prominent 
 objects. The houses, made 
 of logs or of rough boards 
 covered with tar paper, 
 stand in little clearings 
 surrounded by these sad 
 reminders of the past. 
 Here are the beginnings of 
 farming; potatoes and 
 other vegetables, some 
 grain, and a few animals are 
 raised on each farm. In such 
 places life is lonely; schools 
 are far apart ; and not many 
 of us would like such surroundings. Yet 
 the grandparents of many of our boys and 
 girls settled in just such a region when 
 they "went West." 
 
 Fig. 86 shows that Lake Huron is 
 twenty- three feet lower than Lake Su- 
 perior. St. Mary's River, 
 which connects the two lakes, 
 is very shallow in places, es- 
 pecially at St. Mary's Falls. Canals are 
 the only means by which our large steamer 
 can get past the falls; and the traffic 
 is so great that there are now four 
 canals on the American side and one on 
 
 Water Level below Lock 
 
 5. What one 
 may see at the 
 Soo Canals 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 87 
 
 the Canadian, the five together being 
 known as the Soo Canals. They are kept 
 busy, day and night, from early spring to 
 late fall. 
 
 A day spent in watching the vessels go 
 through the canals is full of interest. 
 One soon learns how the locks lift the 
 boats on their way "up lake," or lower 
 them on their way " down lake" (Fig. 84). 
 The ease with which they work is won- 
 derful; the turn of a wheel or the move- 
 ment of a lever controls the electricity 
 by which the gates are moved and the 
 water that raises or lowers the vessels is 
 let in or out. 
 
 Perhaps of more interest are the boats 
 themselves and the freight they carry. 
 The ''down lake" boats contain mainly 
 iron ore, grain, lumber, and copper. The 
 ''up lake" boats are loaded with coal, 
 dry goods, groceries, house furnishings, 
 clothing, machinery, automobiles, and 
 other manufactured articles. Notice that 
 there is a much greater variety of goods 
 going west than east. Can 
 you see the reason for this? 
 
 Now we can begin to 
 discover where some of the 
 
 6. Locationof thlngs havc 
 the iron and come from that 
 
 we have been 
 
 passing all along 
 the route from Buffalo. 
 Some of the iron ore is 
 shipped from Marquette, 
 which you can find in Fig. 
 86. Beyond this city we 
 come to a peninsula that is 
 noted for copper. In what 
 state is this peninsula, and 
 what is its name (Fig. 86)? 
 A waterway, partly natural 
 
 and partly a canal, allows our steamer 
 to cross it instead of going around; and 
 this is the more interesting route, for at 
 some of the stopping places one is likely 
 to see great piles of copper bars upon the 
 piers ready for shipment eastward. Can 
 you tell some of the uses of copper? 
 What towns do you find on the penin- 
 sula (Fig. 86)? They are noted mining 
 centers for copper. 
 
 The end of the voyage is reached at 
 Duluth or Superior. The two cities are 
 so near together that they 
 might well be one, were they 
 not in separate states. Name 
 the states. 
 
 Here is where most of the boats 
 were loaded that we have passed day 
 after day on this westward trip. There 
 is still much lumber west of the lake 
 and there are several sawmills in these 
 cities. Still farther west the chief product 
 is wheat ; these two cities are the nearest 
 points for shipping it east by water. The 
 
 7. What a visi- 
 tor would see 
 in and about 
 Duluth and 
 Superior 
 
 copper nunes 
 south of Lake 
 Superior 
 
 Fig. 85. — An open pit iron mine in Minnesota 
 
 The railroad tracks that you see are moved from time to time as the 
 sides of the pit are cut away. 
 
Fig. 86 
 
Fig. 86 
 
90 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 elevators should be visited, for they are 
 among the largest in the world. 
 
 The thing of greatest interest, however, 
 is the iron ore. Most of this ore, which is 
 so important for the manufactures of the 
 
 Fig. 87. — One of the many coal docks at Duluth 
 Coal is brought by lake vessels from Lake Erie ports to 
 Duluth. Here it is unloaded by means of the "clam 
 shells" shown in the picture, each of which can scoop up 
 five tons or more of coal at a load. Railroads carry the 
 coal from these docks to the various parts of Minnesota 
 and the Dakotas. 
 
 Northeastern and North Central states, 
 comes from about Lake Superior ; and the 
 most valuable mines of all are northwest 
 of Duluth near Hibbing and Virginia. 
 They are even more important than those 
 near Marquette. 
 
 Much of the ore comes from open pits 
 where enormous scoops lift five to ten 
 tons at a time into cars that carry it to 
 Duluth, Superior, or Two Harbors for 
 shipment (Fig. 86). The trains run out 
 on high trestles and drop their ore into 
 great bins or pockets, from which large 
 pipes or chutes let it fall into the holds 
 of vessels. How extensive would be the 
 suffering in the East if the iron mines 
 about Lake Superior stopped producing 
 ore? What city w^ould suffer most? 
 
 The many articles brought west are 
 unloaded in these two cities, the mosi 
 important being coal. No coal is mined 
 within hundreds of miles of these cities; 
 yet, as the winters are severe, a vast 
 amount is needed. The coal docks are 
 as interesting to visit as the ore docks. 
 Can you imagine w^hat becomes of the 
 furniture, clothing, and hundreds of other 
 things that are unloaded here? 
 
 The distance from the Soo Canals to 
 Chicago is about the same as that to 
 Duluth, but the things that g The voyage 
 interest one on the way are southward 
 
 " from the Soo 
 
 very different. If we travel canaisto 
 southward near the east shore *^^° 
 of Lake Michigan, we see thousands of 
 houses built on sand hills from 100 to 
 400 feet high, called sand dunes. These 
 dunes have been formed by the winds 
 blowing sand up from the beach. They 
 make cool places for summer homes. 
 
 In the ports along the east shore great 
 quantities of fruit are found any day 
 during summer and fall; there are ber- 
 ries, peaches, apples, and grapes, the kind 
 varying with the season. One is likely 
 to see, also, some of the Grand Rapids 
 furniture which, like the fruit, is on its 
 way to Chicago. 
 
 Along the west shore there are few^ 
 dunes or summer resorts, and little fruit 
 is grown. The direction of the winds 
 across the lake is the chief reason for this 
 difference. Can you explain how winds 
 can have so much influence? 
 
 When we have come as far as Milwau- 
 kee, we see large boats traveling east or 
 west across the lake carrying freight cars. 
 The east-bound cars are likely to be filled 
 with corn, oats, flour, and farm machin- 
 ery, which are taken across the lake tor 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 91 
 
 their further trip by rail. The west- 
 bound cars are likely to be filled with 
 manufactured goods from the East. What 
 reasons can you see why such goods 
 should take these routes? Why are they 
 carried across the lake in freight cars 
 rather than in vessels in the usual way? 
 
 Long before the harbor of Chicago is 
 reached, the buildings of the city can be 
 seen. The city extends for nearly thirty 
 miles along the shore, and smaller towns 
 to the north and south increase the 
 stretch of buildings to fifty miles. 
 
 We have seen several large cities on this 
 voyage. What are their names? Locate 
 Why Chicago ^ach. Chicago is nearly as 
 is the largest large as all of them together; 
 North Central and as we approach the city 
 states y^Q wonder why so many more 
 
 people have collected here 
 than in any of the other 
 places. 
 
 Each of these cities en- 
 joys transportation on the 
 1. Advantages Great Lakes, 
 ?»;»S^«- but Chicago has 
 *«»" great advan- 
 
 tages over them all. Fig. 
 61 shows that Lake Mich- 
 igan extends far south 
 toward the heart of the 
 United States. East and 
 northeast of the southern 
 end of the lake are many 
 states, including nearly all 
 of New England and New 
 York, a part of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and much of Mich- 
 igan. West and northwest 
 of the lake is about one 
 fifth of the entire area of 
 the United States. Name 
 
 the states there. Both people and freight 
 going by land from one of these sections 
 to the other must pass around the head 
 of the lake ; and as these two parts of our 
 country contain a good share of our popu- 
 lation and wealth, a large number of rail- 
 roads must follow this route. Thus you 
 can see that there is reason for a large 
 city somewhere in this neighborhood. 
 
 The Chicago River, a little to the north- 
 west of the southern tip of the lake, fixes 
 the exact location, because its mouth 
 forms a small but good harbor (Fig. 88). 
 That is where Chicago began, and it 
 has kept growing as more and more rail- 
 roads have reached it. There are now 
 thirty-four of them; and their total mile- 
 age is one half that of all the railroads 
 in the United States. Anyone traveling 
 
 © Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 88. — Halsted Street Bridge, Chicago 
 Where bridges are built across navigable rivers, some arrangement must 
 be made for the passage of boats. Some bridges have spans that turn, others 
 are lifted up at one end and are called jackknif e bridges. In this bridge the 
 center span is lifted. 
 
92 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 from one of our coasts to the other may 
 go by way of St. Louis or New Orleans; 
 but he is more Ukely to go by way of 
 Chicago. Chicago is, indeed, the great- 
 est railway center in the world; trans- 
 
 © International Film Service, Inc. 
 
 Fig. 89. — Michigan Avenue, Chicago 
 Along this avenue are some of the tallest buildings of 
 Chicago, though the busiest streets are a little to the west. 
 In this picture you are looking southward. On the left is 
 Grant Park. Lake Michigan lies beyond it, outside the 
 limits of the picture. 
 
 portation is, therefore, one of the great 
 occupations of the city. 
 
 It enjoys another peculiar advantage 
 for transportation; for every one of these 
 roads has its terminal here. Distances in 
 our country are so great that a break in 
 transportation seems to be necessary 
 somewhere, and since Chicago is so near 
 the center of the densely populated part 
 of the country, the break takes place at 
 this point. At any rate, whether one is 
 traveling east or west or north or south 
 by way of Chicago, one changes cars in 
 
 order to continue one's journey. On this 
 account, transportation of passengers, 
 baggage, and freight is an especially 
 important occupation within the city. 
 
 These remarkable advantages for trans- 
 portation naturally make Chicago a large 
 manufacturing center. But 2. Advantages 
 there are other reasons for of its location 
 
 for iron and 
 
 manufacturing here. We have steei manu- 
 seen that there are valuable 
 copper mines and some of the richest iron 
 mines in the world about Lake Superior; 
 and the lakes make it possible to trans- 
 port these products at small cost to 
 Chicago and vicinity. 
 
 Coal is the next thing to consider. 
 There are extensive beds of soft coal in 
 this region, near Chicago. Some coal 
 reaches Chicago from Pennsylvania by 
 water and rail, but most of it comes from 
 the mines in IlUnois. 
 
 Although an enormous amount of iron 
 and steel is made about Chicago, little 
 of this work is done in the city itself. 
 Looking southeast from the harbor on a 
 dark night one can see a great glow as if 
 a volcano were in eruption. The light 
 is caused by the steel mills at South 
 Chicago and at Gary in Indiana, the 
 latter city being thirty miles away. 
 Great quantities of iron and steel are 
 used in manufactures in Chicago itself; 
 the Pullman passenger and sleeping cars 
 are manufactured there, and a large 
 share of the agricultural implements of 
 the world, as well as many other 
 kinds of metal objects. 
 
 Another reason for the wonderful 
 growth of Chicago is its location in the 
 midst of one of the most extensive and 
 fertile farming regions in the world. 
 Grain is the leading product. The city 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 03 
 
 3. Advantages 
 of its location 
 for manufactur- 
 ing and ship- 
 ping farm prod- 
 ucts 
 
 stands on the northern edge of the Corn 
 Belt, which extends from western Ohio 
 to eastern Nebraska and Kan- 
 sas. The principal crop 
 northwest and southwest of 
 this belt is wheat; other grains 
 extensively cultivated in this 
 section are oats and rye. As a result, 
 Chicago is the greatest grain market in 
 the world. 
 
 Where corn flourishes, cattle and hogs 
 are common; for corn is the feed that 
 fattens both. For this reason, Chicago is 
 the greatest stock market in the world; 
 many trainloads of cattle, hogs, and 
 sheep arrive there every day. Most of 
 
 The great rivers in these states, as well 
 as the Great Lakes, furnish routes for 
 the shipment of goods; and Howtheiead- 
 they have an important ad- ing river cities 
 
 . ii 1 1 i_ compare in 
 
 vantage over the lakes, be- size with 
 cause they flow through the those on the 
 
 . lakes 
 
 heart of the country, while 
 the lakes are on its northern edge. On 
 Fig. 86 trace the Mississippi River from 
 its source to southern Illinois. What 
 states does it border? What states does 
 the Missouri River cross or border? The 
 Ohio River? 
 
 Many important cities grew up on these 
 rivers when river transportation was 
 more important than it is now. The larg- 
 
 iiiiiitlin 
 
 llL- 
 
 . _ 'IL 
 
 .sl 
 
 ^_ 1 
 
 1 |i \'\ 
 
 1 1 Ul L 
 
 _- ^.m 
 
 
 
 , ^, . 
 
 ■mm 
 
 mTnr- 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 JL. 
 
 
 **®>B8l^!j 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 ^^ ^^^lifa,.- 
 
 H 
 
 t 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^ 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 90. — Steel mills at Gary 
 In which buildings is the steel made? Which are office buildings? In which buildings do you think the workmen 
 or officials live? 
 
 the animals are slaughtered at the Union 
 Stockyards; for this city is likewise the 
 greatest center for meat packing in the 
 world. The extent of this industry is 
 shown by the fact that the average num- 
 ber of hogs slaughtered here each day 
 during the last twenty years is about 
 20,000. 
 
 est of these was St. Louis. Its location 
 on the Mississippi near the mouths of the 
 Missouri and Ohio rivers connects it by 
 water with points hundreds of miles dis- 
 tant in any one of four directions. On Fig. 
 61 show what these four directions are. 
 In spite of this advantage, St. Louis is 
 less than one third as large as Chicago. 
 
94 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Another large river city is Cincinnati, 
 in the southwestern corner of Ohio on the 
 Ohio River; yet it is much smaller than 
 Cleveland. Other large river cities are 
 Minneapolis and St. Paul, on the upper 
 
 of St. Anthony in the Mississippi River 
 take the place of coal by supplying these 
 cities with a large amount of power for 
 manufacturing. 
 
 The chief disadvantage of the river 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 91. — ^ Upper dam, Falls of St. Anthony 
 
 Where streams are dammed to produce power, it is not the water that flows over the dam that is used, but water 
 that flows swiftly through pipes from a higher level to a lower at one side of the dam. This falling water is used to 
 turn wheels that make, or generate, electricity. 
 
 Mississippi in Minnesota; yet these two 
 cities together are smaller than Detroit. 
 Another river city is Kansas City, in 
 Missouri on the Missouri River; yet it is 
 much smaller than Milwaukee. Locate 
 all these cities on Fig. 86. The fact 
 that the lake cities are so much larger 
 than those on the rivers suggests that 
 the latter are at a disadvantage in some 
 way. Let us see what this is. 
 
 All these cities are benefited greatly by 
 the surrounding farmlands. The two 
 The chief dis- g^oups cujoy nearly equal ad- 
 advantage of vantages also for coal. Min- 
 
 the river cities , . i oj_ -r> i 
 
 neapolis and bt. raul are 
 farthest from coal mines; but the Falls 
 
 cities is the fact that they are not well 
 situated for iron and steel manufacture. 
 The great supply of iron ore to the lake 
 cities, at a low cost for transportation, 
 has led to enormous manufactures of 
 metal goods. It is much more expensive 
 to haul the ore from the mines to the 
 river cities by train, or by train and river, 
 and on that account iron and steel manu- 
 factures are much less developed there. 
 This is probably the leading reason 
 why the river cities are smaller than the 
 others. The only large river city noted 
 for the manufacture of iron and steel 
 goods in the North Central States is 
 Cincinnati. 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 95 
 
 In the Northeastern States the farms 
 produce fewer raw materials for manu- 
 facture; and the foods that 
 
 The great de- , , „ 
 
 pendente of they supply, such as milk, 
 these cities on butter, vegetables, and fruits, 
 
 the farms 7 <=> r j 
 
 meet only a small part of the 
 needs of the dense population. In the 
 North Central States, however, the farms 
 not only produce far more food than is 
 needed in those states, but they supply 
 vast quantities of raw materials for manu- 
 facture. This is an important difference 
 between the two groups of states. 
 
 Minneapolis, being near one of the 
 greatest wheat sections in the world, has 
 become a great wheat market and flour 
 center. It has fifty enormous elevators 
 for grain, and its flour mills can produce 
 75,000 barrels of flour each day. St. Paul, 
 beside being a center for distributing dry 
 goods, hardware, shoes, and other articles 
 among the farming sections, has extensive 
 stockyards and packing houses. Min- 
 neapoUs as a grain market reminds one 
 of Chicago, Milwaukee, and Cleveland; 
 while St. Paul, in the importance of its 
 stockyards and meat pack- 
 ing, reminds one of Chicago, 
 Kansas City, Omaha, and 
 Cincinnati. All these cities, 
 and the smaller ones as well, 
 are much more dependent 
 on the surrounding farm- 
 lands than the cities and 
 towns farther east. 
 
 St. Louis, being so far 
 south, differs greatly from 
 the cities farther north. It 
 is an important center for 
 the manufacture of tobacco. 
 Since great numbers of 
 horses are used in the states 
 
 north of it, and great numbers of mules in 
 those to the south, it is an important mar- 
 ket for both horses and mules. Wool and 
 hides from the sheep and cattle ranches 
 of the West reach the city in large quan- 
 tities, making it an important center for 
 wool and for the manufacture of shoes. 
 It is also a great center for meat packing. 
 
 The importance of the farms for the 
 growth of the cities is perhaps best shown 
 in the cases of Indianapolis, in Indiana; 
 Columbus, in Ohio; and Des Moines, in 
 Iowa. Locate these cities. No one of 
 them has the advantage of water trans- 
 portation on a large lake or river; their 
 growth has largely depended on the sur- 
 • rounding land and transportation by rail- 
 roads; yet they have thrived wonderfully, 
 and two of them are the largest cities in 
 their states. Which are they (p. 311)? 
 
 The surface of the North Central States 
 is very different in appearance 
 from that of the Northeast- 
 ern States. In traveUng from 
 Boston to Pittsburgh one is 
 struck by the number of hills and moun- 
 
 Difference m 
 appearance of 
 this region 
 from that to 
 the northeast 
 
 •tcr Co. 
 
 Fig. 92. —A farm home in the North Central States 
 Homes like this one are common in these states. Many bams and sheds 
 are necessary to store the feed for the live stock during the long winters. 
 The tower-like building is a silo where green fodder is stored. 
 
96 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 tains, by the winding roads, beautiful 
 valleys, and extensive forests, and by the 
 1. The differ- Quantity of land that is not 
 ence in the sur- cultivated. lu New York and 
 
 face 
 
 New Jersey, to be sure, there 
 are many fertile farms. But in New 
 England many of the farms are so strewn 
 
 Fig. 93. — A wheat field in Kansas 
 The only trees are along the banks of streams. 
 
 with bowlders that ploughing is next 
 to impossible; and often where the 
 surface is cleared of rock, the soil is too 
 shallow for successful farming. In Penn- 
 sylvania there is more good farmland; 
 but in traveling by rail from Philadelphia 
 to Pittsburgh one sees many high hills, 
 passes through one deep cut and tunnel 
 after another, goes around a great horse- 
 shoe curve to reach the top of the Alle- 
 gheny Plateau, and then follows deeply 
 carved river valleys. 
 
 As one proceeds westward from Pitts- 
 burgh the scene* changes. Within the 
 first hundred miles the high hills nearly 
 disappear; and beyond central Ohio one 
 rarely sees a hill. For hundreds of miles 
 the land is nearly as level as a floor. There 
 are many patches of timber in Ohio and 
 Indiana; then, in Illinois and Iowa, come 
 the prairies, and beyond them the Great 
 
 Why? 
 
 Plains. In both the prairie and Great 
 Plains regions there are few trees except 
 along streams. It is quite possible that 
 there are some children on the Great 
 Plains old enough to be going to school 
 who have never seen a patch of woods. 
 West of Indiana no bowlders are likely 
 to be seen in the fields, and 
 on many farms a careful 
 search would not discover 
 pebbles large enough for a 
 sling-shot. The soil in most 
 places is so deep that bed 
 rock is not struck even in 
 digging deep wells; and it is 
 also very fertile. No won- 
 der that many men aban- 
 doned their farms in New 
 England, in order to farm 
 in these states! 
 
 The crops, also, are very 
 different in appearance from those in the 
 Northeast. The best time to 
 
 ,1 . 1 , 1 2. The differ- 
 
 see tnem is, perhaps, toward ence in the ap- 
 the end of June, when they f^^'"**^ 
 have not yet matured. Be- 
 ginning in western Ohio, corn is especially 
 common; and it is just as common all 
 the way to eastern Nebraska, occupying 
 nearly one half of all the land in this belt. 
 Because there is so much of it, this region 
 is called the Corn Belt (Fig. 147). 
 
 The wheat section is a little farther 
 west, including North and South Dakota, 
 Minnesota, Nebraska, and Kansas (Fig. 
 148). This is the leading wheat area in 
 the United States, and many of the 
 farmers raise little else. Wheat is so 
 important that, if it were to fail for one 
 year, not only the inhabitants of the 
 United States but those of Europe as 
 well might suffer seriously for bread. 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 97 
 
 "Where the 
 rain comes 
 from and how 
 it is distrib- 
 uted 
 
 Roads are usually straight in these 
 states, because they do not have to wind 
 between hills; and there is little waste 
 land. To many persons much of this 
 country seems flat and tiresome and they 
 do not care to go touring here because 
 ''there is nothing to see." But to others 
 the black, fertile soil, the broad green 
 pastures with their grazing cattle, sheep, 
 and horses, and the fields of waving grain 
 are wonderfully attractive. They enjoy 
 these sights Jiot only on account of their 
 beauty, but because of the prosperity 
 they suggest. 
 
 The area of these states is much larger 
 than that of the Northeastern group, 
 since they extend about 1,200 
 miles east and west, and 800 
 miles north and south. The 
 rain for this whole region 
 comes almost entirely from 
 the Gulf of Mexico. This shows how im- 
 portant the winds are, since they carry 
 all this water. 
 
 Fig. 146 shows the section 
 that has the heaviest rain- 
 fall. What states are in- 
 cluded in it, and how many 
 inches fall there each year? 
 Note how the fall decreases 
 toward the north and west. 
 Point out the sections that 
 have less than twenty 
 inches per year. That is 
 too Uttle for ordinary farm- 
 ing. Do you know what 
 use is made of the land in 
 such areas? 
 
 There is a greater variety 
 of farms in these states 
 than in the Northeastern 
 group. The newly cleared 
 
 lands near Lake Superior that are still 
 covered with tree stumps, are one kind 
 (p. 86). On the western bor- The variety of 
 der, where the rainfall is less farms in these 
 
 ,1 ... 1 . states 
 
 than twenty inches, grass is 
 the principal crop, because there is too 
 little rain for other products. Here the 
 farms, or ranches as they are usually 
 called, often contain many hundreds of 
 acres, because the grass is not heavy in so 
 dry a climate, and a large area is required 
 to feed a herd of cattle or sheep. 
 
 The farmhouses, therefore, are widely 
 scattered, often being located near 
 springs or along streams, where water 
 can easily be obtained. Life is lonely in 
 such places, and some of the most com- 
 mon comforts are little known. Yet it is 
 a very important work that these people 
 are doing, for they help to supply our 
 tables with meat, besides producing hides 
 for leather, and wool for clothing. 
 
 In a region where there are so many 
 
 © International Harvester Co. 
 
 Fig. 94. — Harvesting on a large farm 
 
 Truck farming does not require much machinery. On the larger farms, 
 however, where many acres are devoted to a single crop, farm machinery is 
 very important. The machine on the right is cutting the green fodder. That 
 in the center is raking it into a long windrow. The machine on the left is 
 loading it on to a wagon. 
 
98 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 large cities as in the southeastern portion 
 of these states, truck farming can be ex- 
 pected, as in the Northeastern States. 
 Dairying also flourishes in many places, 
 but particularly in southern Wisconsin 
 and northern Illinois. Can you see any 
 reason for its importance here? 
 
 The most common kind of farm, how- 
 ever, is that on which several kinds of 
 grain and vegetables are raised, as well 
 as live stock and possibly fruit, and 
 where the farmer does not depend mainly 
 upon any one product for his income. 
 This is sometimes called mixed farming. 
 
 A certain farm in central Ohio contains 
 160 acres, which is considerably larger 
 How mixed ^^an the average in that state, 
 farming is Upon it is a farmhouse, with a 
 ried^on ^"" bam near by for horses, cows, 
 and hay. There is another 
 
 1. Appearance ^ 
 
 of a certain bam closc to it for feeding 
 
 farm in Ohio , ■, am i i i i 
 
 stock. A silo stands between 
 the two barns ; and there are some sheds 
 between the house and the barns for 
 storing grain and farm implements. 
 
 A windmill behind the house pumps 
 cold water to the milk shed and also fills 
 the water-troughs in the barnyard. On 
 one side of the house is an orchard of 
 apple, peach, and pear trees, with a few 
 rows of berry bushes in one corner; and 
 there is a chicken house in another part, 
 in which enough chickens are raised to 
 supply some meat and all the eggs that 
 are needed by the family, with some to sell. 
 
 On the side of the house next to the or- 
 chard are a few beehives, and back of the 
 milk house, between the orchard and the 
 bams, is a good-sized garden. Beyond 
 that are several pig pens, in which pigs 
 are fattened for home use and for the 
 market. 
 
 Farther away from the house are fields 
 in which there are at least three or four 
 different kinds of crops. Every farmer in 
 that vicinity expects to raise corn, per- 
 haps sixty acres of it on a farm of this 
 size; some grass for grazing and for hay; 
 and wheat or oats. The part of the farm 
 farthest from the house is a wood lot 
 which contains beech, oak, and maple 
 trees, and from which firewood is obtained. 
 
 The busiest time for work is from 
 spring until fall. As soon as the frost is 
 out of the ground the farmer 2. The work of 
 and one or two men who help ^^^ g^own peo- 
 
 ,.,.,. , pie on this farm 
 
 mm begin plowing the ground. 
 Then comes the planting, and later the 
 tending of the crops, to kill the weeds 
 and keep the soil in good condition. 
 Finally the harvesting follows, from July 
 to late fall, the corn being one of the 
 last crops to be gathered. There are three 
 or four cows, which must be milked night 
 and morning and which supply the family 
 with fresh milk and cream. Now and 
 then the garden must receive attention, 
 the apples must be gathered, the harness 
 must be mended, and many other little 
 things must be done. 
 
 Meanwhile the women do the house 
 work, separate the cream from the milk 
 with a machine called a separator, look 
 after the chickens, pick berries and can 
 fruit, and work in the vegetable and the 
 flower gardens. 
 
 While the winter is the easiest season 
 for the farmer, there are still many regu- 
 lar duties. The cows must still be attend- 
 ed to, the horses fed, and other live stock 
 cared for. On this farm most of the 
 crops are fed to cattle during the winter, 
 because it pays better to fatten stock 
 with the corn than to sell it. 
 
THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 
 
 99 
 
 Life on this farm is much more pleas- 
 ant than it formerly was; it used to be 
 very lonesome, because there were only 
 a few houses in sight and it was two miles 
 to town; and the work for both the men 
 and w^omen was harder. But recent years 
 have brought many improvements. The 
 mail is now delivered every day ; there is 
 a telephone in the house; and an auto- 
 mobile makes it much easier to visit 
 neighbors or distant friends and to go 
 to town. 
 
 There is a bathroom in the house, run- 
 ning water being provided by a pump run 
 by electricity. Electric lights have taken 
 the place of lamps; even the barn is 
 lighted by electricity, so that the farmer 
 no longer needs to carry a lantern at 
 night. The cream separator is run by 
 electricity and a vacuum cleaner takes 
 the place of the old style broom. 
 
 Many modern machines for plowing, 
 fertilizing, and harvesting have made the 
 farmer's work much easier. Some of the 
 time that he formerly gave to hard physi- 
 cal work he now gives to study, for it 
 requires more knowledge and thought to 
 farm now than it used to. This makes 
 the work far more interesting. It re- 
 quires much intelligence to select the 
 proper fertilizer, to change or rotate crops 
 so as not to exhaust the soil, to keep live 
 stock well and to fatten them without too 
 great expense, and to keep machines in 
 good running order. For this reason the 
 farmer reads papers and books on agricul- 
 ture and now and then attends a course 
 of lectures on some farm subject. 
 
 During recent years a girl has been 
 the only child upon this farm. The 
 things she does suggest many of those 
 that are done by any country boy or girl. 
 
 There is a fairly good school only a half 
 mile distant, which she attends; and 
 mornings and evenings she 3 ^hatboys 
 
 helps with the housework. and glrls do on 
 
 fViic form 
 
 She goes to town two or three 
 times a week, and often rides horseback, 
 since she has a horse that she helps 
 take care of and may use at any time. 
 She has her own vegetable and flower 
 garden, where she spends a good deal of 
 time, partly because she likes to work 
 with plants. Now and then she drives a 
 team while the hay is being loaded; she 
 picks berries or apples in the orchard; 
 she gathers the eggs, drives the cows to 
 and from pasture, looks after some of the 
 lambs or calves, feeds the chickens, and 
 does a score of other things indoors and 
 out. Most of these tasks she enjoys. 
 
 She sometimes plays with the neigh- 
 bors' children; but she has a dog of her 
 own, usually five or six cats or kittens, a 
 few pet chickens, and her horse, and she 
 cares more for these animals than for 
 other children or even for the motion 
 pictures in town. She has some relatives 
 in New York City whom she has often 
 visited; but she feels sorry for anyone 
 who must live in a city, because there 
 are so few things that one can do there. 
 
 1. Why is Buffalo rather than some 
 port on Lake Ontario the starting point 
 for westbound lake vessels? Review 
 2. Mention some of the things questions 
 that you would expect to see in Buffalo 
 harbor. 3. At Cleveland. 4. State some 
 facts of interest about Detroit. 5. How 
 has the country west of Lake Huron 
 changed in recent years? 6. Explain the 
 importance of the Soo Canals, and what 
 one might see there. 7. Locate the mines 
 
100 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 on the south shore of I.ake Superior. 8. 
 What things in and about Duluth and 
 Superior would interest a visitor? 9. De- 
 scribe the voyage from the Soo Canals to 
 Chicago. 10. What advantages has Chi- 
 cago for transportation of goods? 11. 
 How is its location favorable for iron and 
 steel manufacture? 12. For manufactur- 
 ing and shipping farm products? 13. 
 Compare the leading river cities in size 
 with those on the Great Lakes. 14. What 
 is the chief disadvantage of the river 
 cities? 15. Explain the dependence of 
 these cities upon the farms. 16. How does 
 this country differ in appearance from the 
 Northeastern States? 17. State differ- 
 ences in the appearance of the farms. 18. 
 Where does the rain for these states come 
 from, and how is it distributed? 19. Dis- 
 cuss the variety of farms in these states. 
 20. Describe the appearance of the farm 
 in Ohio. 21. The work of the grown 
 
 Suggestions 
 for extra 
 work 
 
 people on this farm. 22. Name some of 
 the things that boys and girls do on such 
 a farm. 
 
 1. Make a sketch of the Great Lakes. 
 
 2. Of the principal rivers in these states. 
 
 3. The lakes lead eastward to 
 the Atlantic coast, while the 
 rivers lead to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Which have the advantage in 
 the general direction in which they lead? 
 
 4. From what animals do the following 
 products come: beef; mutton; ham; veal; 
 pork; lard; sausage; tallow; wool; 
 leather? 5. Make a drawing of the farm 
 described on p. 98, locating all the things 
 mentioned. 6. Learn the common abbre- 
 viations for the names of the states in 
 this group. 7. Here is a question for 
 debate: Resolved, that children can have 
 more fun in the country than in the city. 
 8. One car holds forty tons of iron ore. 
 How many cars would a lake boat fill 
 
 Fig. 95. — Threshing wheat ' 
 
 This is another operation seen on farms where wheat is grown. At the left you can see the sacks of grain and 
 the stack of straw. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 tOl 
 
 that carries 16,000 tons? 9. What advan- 
 tage, if any, have Chicago and Gary over 
 Pittsburgh for obtaining ore from the 
 Lake Superior district ? 10. What dis- 
 advantages do you see in the fact that 
 navigation on the Great Lakes is closed 
 from November to May? How can they 
 be partly overcome? 11. Write a com- 
 position on the subject: The life story 
 of a loaf of bread. 12. What might 
 
 have been the route of the canal connect- 
 ing the Great Lakes with the Hudson 
 River, if there had been no rapids or falls 
 between Lakes Erie and Ontario? 13. 
 How do farms that you have seen differ 
 from farms in Ohio? 15. See ho\^ long a 
 list you can make of articles made of iron. 
 16. Of copper. 17. How does a farmer 
 obtain drinking water? 18. On Fig. 86 
 locate the Wheat Belt; the Corn Belt. 
 
 IV. The Southern States 
 
 1. Places to 
 which North- 
 erners go 
 
 In late fall or early winter a great 
 
 many Northern people start South for the 
 
 „ , winter. Some stop in Vir- 
 
 Going South . . TVT ii /-* T 
 
 for the winter gima or North Carouna, or 
 other points a little farther 
 south. Many go on to New 
 Orleans or to other places on 
 
 the Gulf coast. Whole trainloads at a 
 
 time, however, go straight 
 
 through to Florida, some 
 
 stopping at Jacksonville or 
 
 St. Augustine; but most of 
 
 them go to places farther 
 
 on, including Palm Beach 
 
 and Miami on the east 
 
 coast, and Tampa and St. 
 
 Petersburg on the west 
 
 coast. Find these towns on 
 
 Fig. 105. The entertain- 
 ment of Northerners is the 
 
 chief business in many 
 
 parts of Florida during the 
 
 winter and it is prominent 
 
 in many places along the 
 
 Gulf coast. 
 
 The objects of such a 
 
 trip are to escape the cold 
 
 winter of the North, and „ . . 
 
 ' Coconut trees 
 
 to enjoy a vacation. Even west Pahn Beach 
 
 in Virginia and North Carolina there 
 is not very much snow, and on the Gulf 
 coast there are many people 2. what the at- 
 who have never seen snow, t^^'^t^o'^s are 
 
 In New Orleans, few people need over- 
 coats, because midwinter there is much 
 like October in the North. 
 
 All the outdoor sports that are com- 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 96.^ A winter home in Florida 
 
 are in the foreground. Across the water, at the right, is 
 
 (Fig. 105). 
 
IC2 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 mon in summer in the North can, there- 
 fore, be enjoyed on the Gulf coast and in 
 Florida throughout the winter, such, for 
 example', as tennis, golf, boating, and fish- 
 ing. Many of the baseball teams of the 
 
 1 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 r 
 
 pp 
 
 • -^%H 
 
 ^^^^^^^^B^ 
 
 \;.«' 
 
 1 
 
 , ^,-rf^M 
 
 
 
 ^•^ 
 
 # # 
 
 "^ 
 
 y 
 
 Fig. 97. — Chimney rock in the Southern Appalachian 
 Mountains 
 The great size of the rock is shown by comparing it 
 with the people at the foot of the stairway in the notch 
 near the center of the picture. 
 
 majc^r leagues go there in late winter to 
 begin their practice. 
 
 There is, however, danger of a short 
 period of cold weather at any time on the 
 Gulf coast; for there is nothing to pre- 
 vent the north winds from sweeping down 
 there from the Dakotas. The tempera- 
 ture at such times may not go much below 
 freezing; but it can make people feel very 
 uncomfortable for several days. 
 
 These cold spells explain why so many 
 people prefer to go to southern Florida. 
 On the trip South one is likely to feel that 
 
 one is almost at the journey's end when 
 Jacksonville is reached. Yet the dis- 
 tance from that city to Miami is one half 
 that from Washington to Jacksonville, or 
 between 300 and 400 miles. It never 
 freezes at Miami, and many of the days 
 there are uncomfortably warm in Janu- 
 ary and February. One can sit out of 
 doors in comfort, and many of the people 
 spend a large part of their time in the 
 parks. They can add sea bathing to the 
 other pleasures mentioned; and one of 
 their chief delights is to read in the news- 
 papers about how cold it is in the North. 
 
 One of the popular routes from the 
 East to the Pacific coast leads across the 
 South by way of New Or- 
 leans. Starting at New York, 
 one passes through Washing- 
 ton, and then, perhaps, 
 through Danville in Virginia, 
 Atlanta in Georgia, and 
 Montgomery in Alabama. 
 From New Orleans one goes almost di- 
 rectly west through Houston, San An- 
 tonio, and El Paso in Texas, on to 
 southern California. Trace this route on 
 the map. 
 
 On such a trip one acquainted with the 
 North is likely to be impressed first with 
 the likeness between the North and the 
 South. On his right he has the ridges of 
 the Appalachian Highland for several 
 hundred miles, which are a continuation 
 of the highlands of Pennsylvania; and 
 the country through which he passes, 
 until he reaches Atlanta, is rough enough 
 to remind him of the Northeastern States. 
 After that, the surface becomes more 
 level, and from New Orleans to El Paso 
 most of it is as level as the prairies an<d 
 Great Plains of the North Central States. 
 
 Things of 
 special inter- 
 est to the 
 Northerner 
 crossing 
 these states 
 
 1. Similarity 
 between North 
 and South 
 
THE SOUTHERa STATES 
 
 103 
 
 If one makes this trip in 
 summer, one will be im- 
 pressed with the similarity 
 in crops. Corn will be seen 
 all along the route until 
 western Texas is reached, 
 where there is too little rain 
 for its growth. It covers a 
 much smaller portion of the 
 ground than in the Corn 
 Belt, but almost every 
 farmer raises some. It is 
 used much more for bread 
 in the South than in the 
 North, for almost every 
 family expects hot corn bread at least 
 once a day. Sonie rye and wheat will be 
 seen, and also such vegetables as are com- 
 mon in the North. In fact, most kinds 
 of vegetation that grow in the North are 
 likely to be seen on this journey also. 
 
 Some very important differences, how- 
 ever, will be noted. Soon after entering 
 2. striking Virginia, one will be struck 
 differences ^-^j^ ^j^^ amourit of unused 
 
 land. There are fine farms here and 
 
 Fig. 98. — A tobacco field in the Southern States 
 
 © Cook 
 
 Office of Farm Management, U, S. Dept, of Agriculture 
 
 Fig. 99. — A farm in Virginia 
 Can you tell from the elevations as shown on Fig. 105 whether this farm 
 is in the eastern or the western part of Virginia? 
 
 there with good buildings, and herds of 
 cattle and sheep feeding in rich pastures ; 
 but for long distances there „. The amount 
 are no houses and the ground «/ unused land 
 is covered with forest or underbrush. 
 The same impression is received through 
 much of the journey. In fact, les? than 
 a third of all the land in the South has 
 been improved, while in IlUnois and Iowa 
 more than three fourths of the surface 
 are under cultivation. 
 
 In southern Virginia, the 
 traveler begins to see to- 
 bacco fields, and j,. em^^^ ^j 
 as he proceeds tobacco fields 
 into North Carolina the 
 number greatly increases. 
 Tobacco is raised in several 
 Northern states, but in no 
 one of them is so much 
 grown as in the region 
 about Durham, in North 
 Carolina. Can you recall 
 some of the advertisements 
 of Durham tobacco that 
 you have seen? 
 
 Each tobacco field is 
 
104 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 © Portland, Oregon, Chamber of Commerce 
 
 Cotton stored for shipment 
 
 Fig. 100 
 
 small, containing usually from two to ten 
 acres, because the plant requires much 
 labor and each family cultivates only as 
 much . as it can care for alone. But 
 there are so many fields, extending over 
 a distance of 200 miles in Virginia 
 and North Carolina, that one soon finds 
 that tobacco is more of a Southern 
 than a Northern crop. 
 
 Shortly after the train 
 passes the tobacco region, a 
 
 kind of plant c. Extent of 
 
 not seen any- cotton fields 
 where in the North begins 
 to appear ; and for the next 
 1,200 miles in our journey 
 we note that it occupies 
 about as large a part of the 
 cultivated land as does corn 
 in the Corn Belt of the 
 North Central States. This 
 is the cotton plant. As in 
 the North, other crops are 
 seen on many farms, but cot- 
 ton is by far the most com- 
 mon. This region is there- 
 fore called the Cotton Belt. 
 Our journey carries us the whole length 
 of the Cotton Belt. Find out from Fig. 
 101 what states are crossed and in which 
 of them the traveler finds the most ex- 
 tensive cultivation of cotton. 
 
 Two other crops not grown in the 
 North are seen in the neighborhood of 
 New Orleans. One is sugar cane, from 
 which sugar is made; and the other is 
 
 TED STATES 
 COTTON 
 ACREAGE 1909 
 
 From The Geography of the World's Agriculture {1910) 
 
 Fig. 101 
 Cotton is grown also in Arizona and southern California, but the area there devoted to this crop is much smaller 
 than that in the "Cotton States." 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 105 
 
 rice. Sugar cane looks like 
 corn, but grows taller and 
 d. The location has a thlckcr 
 
 and appearance gtalk. FrOm a 
 of two other j • + •<- U 
 
 crops not grown Qistance, ine 
 in the North qj^q g^n hardly 
 
 be distinguished from the 
 other. The cane, however, 
 is injured by frost, and re- 
 quires nearly a year for full 
 growth. The only place in 
 the United States where 
 much of it is cultivated is 
 on the low, flat lands of the 
 Mississippi delta (Fig. 105), 
 which in winter are under 
 the influence of the warm, 
 moist winds from the Gulf. 
 The traveler would find 
 from one third to one half of all the 
 cultivated land in that section planted 
 in sugar cane. 
 
 It is the juice of the cane that produces 
 the sugar. This is pressed out of the cane 
 and boiled down in immense sugar fac- 
 tories in Louisiana. One of the interest- 
 ing sights in the sugar-cane region in the 
 fall is that of both children and grown 
 people chewing away on pieces of cane a 
 foot or more in length. 
 
 Rice is the principal crop farther west 
 along the coast of Louisiana and Texas. 
 According to the season, the appearance 
 of the fields varies greatly. In the spring 
 they look much like fields of wheat or 
 oats. But rice, after its growth is well 
 started, requires one half inch of water 
 every day for ninety days ; and although 
 the rainfall is heavy along the Gulf coast, 
 only about twenty inches fall in that time. 
 Is this more or less than half of what is 
 needed? On this account, the fields must 
 
 
 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 102.— A rice field 
 
 The rice fields vary in size from twenty to one hundred acres, 
 field is divided by ridges into little flooded squares. 
 
 Each 
 
 be flooded, and, as they are separated 
 from one another by embankments, they 
 have the appearance, for about three 
 months, of many little lakes (Fig. 102). 
 
 Toward harvest time, the ground is 
 allowed to dry out and harden, so that 
 machines may be driven over it. The rice 
 is then harvested in much the same way 
 as wheat or oats. 
 
 In one respect, the population of the 
 Southern States differs greatly from that 
 in the North. In traveling in ^ ^^^ ^ _ 
 the South one soon finds that ence in the 
 negroes form a large part of p^p^^'^^^ 
 the population. In some states more 
 than one half of all the inhabitants are 
 negroes. 
 
 The South is the region in which 
 slavery formerly existed on a large scale, 
 because here negro labor was profitable, 
 and these negroes are the descendants of 
 the former slaves. They are particularly 
 valuable workmen in this section because 
 
106 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 they can stand the hot, moist summers 
 better than most white people. Alto- 
 gether there are about 10,000,000 of them 
 in the United States, of whom more than 
 8,000,000 live in the Southern States. 
 
 Photo by U. S. Army Service 
 
 Fig. 103. — Richmond 
 On what river is Richmond located (Fig. 105)? For Richmond's railroad 
 lines, see Fig. 150. 
 
 There is, also, a very marked difference 
 between the North and the South in the 
 , „.- number of large cities. In 
 
 /. Difference in *-' 
 
 the number of golug from New York to 
 large cities chicago, by Way of Buffalo or 
 Pittsburgh, one passes through several 
 great cities. Can you name some of 
 them? On this entire route, however, 
 from Washington to El Paso, the traveler 
 passes through only one very large city — 
 New Orleans. The next largest, located 
 on or near this route, are Richmond, in 
 Virginia (Fig. 103); Atlanta, in Georgia; 
 Birmingham, in Alabama; and Houston 
 and San Antonio, in Texas. Yet only one 
 of these has as many as 200,000 inhab- 
 itants. Locate these cities on Fig. 105, 
 and note their populations on p. 311. 
 What suggestion does this absence of 
 large cities make to you about the prom- 
 
 inence of farming in the South? About 
 the prominence of manufacturing? 
 
 We have seen that the South grows 
 three valuable crops — cotton, sugar cane, 
 and rice — that cannot be a fourth ad- 
 raised in the vantage in 
 
 agnculture of 
 
 INorth. Citrus the South 
 
 fruits are a overtheNorth 
 
 fourth Southern product. 
 Oranges and lemons are 
 raised in many places along 
 the Gulf coast; but they are 
 safe from frost only in the 
 southern half of Florida. 
 There one finds grove after 
 grove of oranges and grape- 
 fruit, with some lemons 
 and limes, 
 
 Florida is a low, flat 
 country and swampy in 
 many parts. But these 
 groves are very beautiful, 
 especially when laden with fruit. Some 
 of the trees bear blossoms, green fruit, 
 and ripe fruit all at the same time. As 
 in the orchards in the North, the trees 
 almost break with the weight they carry, 
 and the bright, richly colored ripe fruit 
 contrasts strongly with the green leaves. 
 At a short distance, the oranges can hardly 
 be distinguished from the grapefruit; but 
 the latter are larger and grow in clusters 
 somewhat like a bunch of grapes. This 
 is the reason for their name. 
 
 Some bananas are produced. These are 
 a tropical fruit; but the only tropical 
 plant extensively cultivated is the pine- 
 apple, so called because it resembles a 
 large pine cone. This fruit grows on a 
 very short stem surrounded by spiny- 
 edged leaves that entirely cover the 
 ground. In looking over a field one sees 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 107 
 
 only these leaves, and the pineapples 
 themselves from two to four feet above 
 the ground (Fig. 104). Florida produces 
 few lemons; but one fourth of the 
 oranges, and about three fourths of the 
 grapefruit, limes, and pineapples raised 
 in our country come from that state. 
 Most of the remainder comes from Cal- 
 ifornia (p. 140). 
 
 The South has still another advantage 
 
 for agriculture. Anyone living in a large 
 
 Northern city has noticed that 
 
 of the South fresh string beans, lettuce, 
 
 m raising g^j^^j radishes can be obtained 
 
 small fruits 
 
 and vegetables at some of the stores through 
 the winter; and that new po- 
 tatoes, fresh peas, asparagus, and straw- 
 berries are in the market in March, even 
 before the snow is all gone. Have you 
 wondered how this is possible? 
 
 These products come mainly from the 
 distant South. The winters are so warm 
 along the coast, and the sandy soils are 
 warmed so readily, that some of these 
 foods are raised there 
 throughout the winter, and 
 others are planted while it 
 is still cold in the North. 
 For example, in Florida two 
 crops of string beans are 
 usually produced in the 
 winter; one, planted in Oc- 
 tober, is ready for market 
 in early December; and the 
 other, planted in January, 
 is shipped in early March. 
 All the gardeners in one 
 neighborhood may grow 
 little else than lettuce, while 
 those in another place may 
 raise only radishes. Thus 
 many truck gardens in Flor- 
 
 ida and other Southern districts keep the 
 tables in the North well suj^plied with 
 vegetables and small fruits through the 
 winter. 
 
 The principal markets are in the dense- 
 ly populated Northern states. As the 
 season advances, these supplies come from 
 regions nearer at hand. Then the more 
 distant Southern sections are at a disad- 
 vantage and must turn to other products. 
 
 Without fast trains the South and the 
 North could not benefit from each other 
 in this way. Thus we are all dependent 
 upon one another, and upon the improve- 
 ments of the past, for most of the things 
 that we receive. 
 
 While some farms in the South grow 
 only garden truck or sugar cane or rice, 
 mixed farming is common in How South- 
 many districts. The South- 
 ern farm of 100 or 200 acres, 
 owned by the man who culti- 
 vates it, looks very much like 
 the farms in Ohio. There is a well-built 
 
 era farms 
 compare with 
 the one in 
 Ohio de- 
 scribed on 
 p. 98 
 
 Pineapples in Florida 
 
1U0° 
 
 ^ B^ 
 
 \o*; 
 
 fi 
 
 <<r\ 
 
 . yTtfHa/ 
 
 \ Guthfrfe J L^apjjJpa f^» 
 **J^a^^e fixity X/t^^^^^^usl/ogee 
 Okmnlgee 
 awnee 
 
 ^l-';iyjtlc-ville 
 
 ARK >vN/l^ 
 
 IXot Sprint, ,^,.,I.it«>^jt,g Ro^ 
 
 ^^Tf^TF^ 
 
 '^Pa«o 
 
 Af 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 POLITICAL AND PHYSICAL MAP 
 
 Scale of statute miles , 
 25 50 100 150 200 
 
 National capital @ ® State capitals 
 
 Important highways- - 
 
 HEIGHTS IN FEET 
 
 Over 10,000 
 6000 to 10,000 
 2000 to 5000 
 1000 to 2000 
 500 to 1000 
 Sea level to SOO 
 
 Fig. 105 
 
ioluml^us J 
 
 
 ■v. 
 
 ,Wi 
 
 
 
 
 ' ; Charleston *u^ ^ ^q^ .,- ^^^tte"*' 
 
 \-- 
 
 K 
 
 >i^ 
 
 port M^ 
 
 ^ckscp' 
 
 temphi^ \ 
 
 f E N /n\e 
 
 ^ Columbia^" ' ^ 
 
 elena\ 
 
 Ciimth 
 
 Coluibbus 
 
 Hoft-nce 
 SheWeld" 
 
 J' 
 
 JirmiiVgi 
 
 Bessemer 
 
 '■J 
 Gadadety' ^';' 
 
 tston . 
 
 ■Winston 
 
 .•Salisbury^Y* /:/ , 
 ,, . ._.3bcviUe 
 
 -^;^Ue^ /-, ^j II 
 - / ./Athens_^.<^-v\ ■ ^^-r'''r\ 
 
 
 
 \ Lookout 
 
 'i* 0crence'' 
 
 
 ^ = 
 
 Augusta 
 
 i^' 
 
 '^r 
 
 Georgetown 
 Charleston 
 
 ISbl'SSlPPjI 
 
 ^ESBjrg- MeriiJvaiiT 
 
 /Maco'V 
 
 A L 4-B, i^^Sd 
 
 Jontgomi 
 
 'f'^f:^.-6-T 
 
 ♦^Savannah 
 
 A 1 
 
 t ^ 
 
 y T 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 VJacksohville 
 
 St. Augustine 
 
 o c? 
 
 E ^ 
 
 If 
 
 Tan 
 
 ilf 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 CfcorlotU «<"•'""■ 
 
 X V 
 
 Es with over 200,000 ^^Ncw Ofleans 
 
 es with 100,000 to 200,000 Memphis 
 
 es with 50,000 to 100,000 Charleston 
 
 er cities , Austin 
 
 89- 
 
 Fig. 105 
 
 C.Sab'e 
 
 :-KeyWe.t^^:^>^:^V 
 
110 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 brick or frame house near the road, with 
 other buildings about it for horses, cows, 
 1. How the machinery, pigs, and chickens. 
 7r1l SthT There is a garden, where both 
 in Ohio "Irish" and sweet potatoes 
 
 are raised, together with cabbages and 
 other vegetables; and there is an orchard. 
 
 Yet there are some striking differences 
 in appearance. The large barns that are 
 so common in the North Central States 
 are lacking, because the short, mild win- 
 ters do not call for much storage of feed 
 for live stock or for large buildings in 
 which the stock may be protected. One 
 
 fas-. 
 
 «L. 
 
 
 Oil 
 Coal 
 
 JHl 
 
 iDri/ 
 iFurtn 
 
 \-z- — 
 
 •.Small 
 XFruita 
 
 •Products 
 
 Coat I 
 Oil 
 
 Com 
 
 Corn{\Gaa 
 ^ Oil 
 
 ICotton 
 I Cotton 6* 
 
 Cum 
 
 ."^ 
 
 M g- 
 
 M 
 
 )'wheat 
 
 fobttcco 
 Corn 
 
 Cff^' 
 
 , Corn ( (^« 
 
 Wheat <^°' I /^•'lv=^» /-^-^ Gar&4 
 
 Cotton ^y S V ^^ 
 
 •Jrn \ Corn \ «• 
 
 Mules 
 Wheat . 
 
 V. 
 
 Girden \ { Ciftlon 
 
 Truck 
 
 y> i It e >L « 4 * « »■ I Tuiventin^or^ 
 
 ■ — r 'X zi'«^_r 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ►^ 
 
 ,Oranaet, 
 » Pomelo' 
 
 M E 
 
 West 81° from Greenitich 87 = 
 
 Wui..Ei.,<.Co..H.V. 
 
 Fig. 108. ^ The more important products of the Southern States 
 This map shows you what is likely to be the chief crop grown on both the large and the small farms in each dis- 
 trict of the South. In what sections are lumber or the products of mines or quarries also important? (Pomelo is 
 another name for grapefruit.) 
 
 There is also some pasture land, usually 
 some corn, and often fields of wheat and 
 oats. 
 
 Life on such farms is much like that 
 on the farm described on pp. 98-99. 
 Neighbors are not far away ; nearly every 
 such farmer has a telephone, the mail is 
 dehvered every day, and automobiles are 
 common. 
 
 also sees patches of tobacco much oftener 
 than in the North ; cotton is a very com- 
 mon crop in many states; and in most 
 states there is sure to be a field of sorghum 
 for making sorghum molasses. 
 
 There are, also, large farms, called 
 plantations, which contain several hun- 
 dreds or even thousands of acres, and 
 which differ much more from the Ohio 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 111 
 
 farm. Corn and cotton and, in Louisiana 
 and eastern Texas, sugar cane, are the 
 2. How the plan- leading crops upon these, and 
 wi?rthe°ohir^ the people who do the work 
 farm are mainly negroes. In many 
 
 cases the owner lives in the nearby town 
 and has an overseer to look after the 
 work. Oftener, however, he lives in a 
 beautiful home on the plantation. 
 
 The portion of the land that the owner 
 does not cultivate is divided into small 
 patches called ''one-horse" or ''two- 
 horse" farms, which are rented out to 
 negro tenants. The size of the farm 
 allotted to each negro depends upon the 
 number of horses he owns and the 
 amount of help he has in his family. A 
 one-horse farm contains about twenty 
 acres, and the negro family that works 
 it lives in a small cabin. Thus a 
 plantation often has one fine residence 
 with a number of cabins scattered over 
 it. Make a drawing of such a plantation 
 as you imagine it. 
 
 Life in the hilly and mountainous sec- 
 tions of the South is different from 
 that on the small farms and 
 hiuy and^moun- the plantations. Note in Fig. 
 onhTsou^"'"' 105 how extensive these sec- 
 tions are, and the states in 
 which they are found. The people here 
 till only a small part of their land, and 
 raise chiefly corn and potatoes. They 
 have little to sell and, therefore, buy 
 little. Their houses are usually small 
 and built of logs, and are poorly fur- 
 nished. Their roads are very poor and 
 railroads are few, so that one sees few 
 persons outside of one's own neighbor- 
 hood. Such a life seems to outsiders to 
 have few attractions. Yet these people 
 love the solitude of the forests and the 
 
 freedom that they have there; and they 
 would not readily leave their mountain 
 homes for the open plains. 
 
 Sixty years ago com and tobacco were 
 raised in the South, and some hemp. 
 Sugar cane and rice were also ^^^^ ^^^ ^j 
 grown, but only in a few sec- King Cotton 
 tions. But the only crop that i. How he got 
 
 n • 1 i I his name 
 
 was really important was cot- 
 ton; this was* produced in large quantities. 
 
 In those days, little of the cotton was 
 manufactured in the South; in fact, the 
 Southerners did not want to manufacture. 
 They preferred to give all their attention 
 to the growing of the raw cotton, letting 
 other people do the manufacturing. The 
 money they received from cotton was 
 enough to supply all necessary comforts, 
 and even luxuries. 
 
 Much of the manufacturing of the 
 cotton into cloth took place in New 
 England. Much of it, also, was done in 
 old England. In both of those regions 
 scores of factories and thousands of 
 workers were occupied entirely with 
 cotton manufacture; and the principal, 
 indeed, almost the only place from which 
 they could obtain the raw material was 
 the South. If for any reason the South 
 withheld it, all these people and the many 
 hundreds of thousands of others depend- 
 ent upon them soon began to suffer. 
 
 The Southerners came to realize how 
 important they were in the world. Cot- 
 ton formed then, as it does now, the 
 greater part of the clothing for both the 
 rich and the poor, in cool climates as well 
 as in warm. People, therefore, had to 
 have it. One day a Southern Congress- 
 man at Washington made a speech about 
 cotton, boasting that all the world had to 
 come to the South to buy; and he ended 
 
112 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 by declaring proudly that Cotton was 
 King and all the people of the world were 
 his subjects. From that time on people 
 often spoke of King Cotton. 
 
 Fig. 107. —Picking cotton 
 Notice that entire families take part in this 
 
 Southern Cotton had not always been 
 a king. He came to America as an un- 
 „ „ ^ known immigrant, and for 
 
 2. How a stran- ^ ® ^ ' 
 
 ger made Cotton 200 years lived in Southern 
 
 so powerful , Till r 
 
 gardens and on the edges oi 
 plantations. His great neighbors Tobac- 
 co and Rice hardly noticed him; and he 
 was of little importance in the world at 
 large in comparison with Flax and Wool. 
 
 The difficulty that held him back was 
 the fact that the fibers were so short and 
 clung so tightly to the seed that there 
 was no easy way of getting them off. It 
 was a day's work for a man to separate 
 more than a pound or two from the seed. 
 Under such circumstances, it did not pay 
 to allow Cotton to occupy much land. 
 
 In 1792 an inventive Yankee, who was 
 teaching in Georgia, noticed how slow 
 
 this work was and set to work to make 
 some improvement. He soon produced a 
 machine that separated the fibers from 
 the seed with wonderful ease and speed; 
 and it could be made so 
 cheaply that it was widely 
 used. This machine became 
 known as the cotton gin. 
 The man who invented it 
 was Eli Whitney. 
 
 The effect was wonderful. 
 It now paid to give ground 
 to cotton and hundreds of 
 acres were soon grown, 
 where before there had been 
 only one. New lands were 
 opened up ; new towns were 
 founded; and new ships 
 were built to carry cotton 
 to New England and to 
 Europe. The South grew 
 by leaps and bounds, all 
 owing to cotton. And it 
 was Eli Whitney who had made it so 
 powerful. 
 
 Although cotton is so necessary to 
 everyone, about two thirds of all that is 
 produced in the world is 3. why he es- 
 grown in the Southern States. ^g^J^^i^' 
 Why does King Cotton thus the south 
 prefer the South to all other regions? 
 
 The reason is that he is very particular 
 about where he lives, and the South 
 just suits him. For example, he cannot 
 endure cold; and in order that he may 
 thrive, the growing season must be free 
 from frost for as many as 200 days. 
 How many months is that? On the other 
 hand, the weather must not be too 
 hot; tropical heat is too severe for him. 
 These requirements limit him to a very 
 few countries. 
 
 Photo by Brown Bros. 
 
 work 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 113 
 
 There are still other requirements. He 
 demands much rain; but he objects to 
 the heavy tropical downpours. Gentle 
 and frequent rains please him best dur- 
 ing the growing season, and he does not 
 want heavy beating rains after the pods, or 
 bolls, burst open. Also, the soil must be 
 deep and fertile. Partly for the last 
 reason, he keeps away from the low, 
 sandy coastlands in the South. Nor does 
 he Uke the hills and mountains in western 
 North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, as 
 is suggested in Fig. 101. That figure 
 shows what a vast area in our Southern 
 states meets all these conditions, and 
 therefore has been chosen for his king- 
 dom. In all this region he rules supreme. 
 
 King Cotton is very exacting toward 
 
 his subjects. Unlike Wheat, he will not 
 
 ^ permit an extensive use of 
 
 4. The demands 
 
 he makes upon machmery; but he requires 
 
 his subjects , j. /• i i i 
 
 a great amount of hand work 
 instead. Thus he keeps a 
 large number of persons 
 in his service, men, women, 
 and children, throughout 
 almost the entire year. In- 
 deed, many thousands of 
 families earn almost their 
 entire livelihood by work- 
 ing in the cotton fields. 
 Hardly any negro child is 
 too small, or any negro 
 Uncle or Mammy too old 
 or too feeble, to help in 
 this work. 
 
 In March or April they 
 plant the seeds in rows like 
 
 corn, very thickly in order ©chariesL.Frawk 
 
 to insure a good crop. Fig. 108. — Loading cotton at New Orleans 
 
 When the plants are well ^f'^ *^^*^"^^ ^'^^ rectangular objects is a bale, tightly pressed 
 
 1 • 1 together and wrapped m burlap to keep it clean. Cotton is being put 
 
 up they thin them out, work aboard this steamer. Is it, therefore, probably a river or an ocean vessel? 
 
 that is done with a heavy hoe and that 
 is called chopping to a stand. Then all 
 through the long, hot summer they care- 
 fully hoe and cultivate the plants, killing 
 the weeds and keeping the soil in good 
 condition. 
 
 Meanwhile the plants are preparing a 
 harvest. In the early summer beautiful 
 blossoms appear, first white and then 
 pink. These soon drop off, and their 
 place is taken by small, green squares 
 which become large and round and are 
 then called bolls. Finally the bolls burst 
 open and the white, fleecy fiber — King 
 Cotton — comes into view all over the 
 field. What can you think of that looks 
 like it? The cotton picking is then ready 
 to begin. 
 
 A score or more of persons — whole 
 families together, negroes for the most 
 part — enter a field; and they have a 
 jolly time at the work. Each picker car- 
 
114 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ries a sack slung over his shoulder, so 
 long that it may even drag on the ground 
 behind (Fig. 107). Since the plants grow 
 only from three to five feet in height, 
 even the children can easily help in the 
 work. They stick the thumb and first 
 two fingers into the boll and take out the 
 cotton with a quick motion. A girl with 
 slender, nimble fingers may do this far 
 more quickly than a strong man with 
 clumsy hands used to holding a hoe. 
 
 ??'iin 
 
 % 
 
 r 
 
 L 
 
 Jl^ 
 
 % « 
 
 
 ^' iSH 
 
 * 
 
 ► * 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 ;i— SSSHS.i 
 
 ,-'■, 
 
 
 '^^■.^//:- 
 
 ' / '^' 
 
 
 
 ^-.-^^^ 
 
 l^'^WWg^ 
 
 / / ' \ 
 
 
 
 ^li^^^^^si 
 
 ^^mk 
 
 Sc;:<^>- 
 
 -^._^l^^^. 
 
 it 
 
 Wm 
 
 ftr^Jwrr^liWlilitf 
 
 m 
 
 ^iMBB^tj - •" ^'^^SSfliB^H 
 
 Courtesy of Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Co. 
 
 Fig. 109. — Coke and ore bins, Binningham 
 
 Picking begins early in September, and 
 the last picking may be as late as Christ- 
 mas or New Year's. If the 
 yield is good, there may be one 
 
 S. How he in- 
 fluences trans- 
 portation and 
 manufacturing bale of 500 pOUuds to the 
 
 acre ; but less than half a bale 
 is more nearly the usual crop. 
 
 King Cotton keeps thousands of sub- 
 jects at work for him in the South in other 
 ways than on the farms. As the cotton 
 is picked, it is hauled to the gin. For- 
 merly, these machines were small and 
 located on the plantations; but now they 
 are much larger and, together with the 
 
 baling press, are in the towns. The far- 
 mer drives a huge load of the loose cotton 
 to the gin and the press, and quickly gets 
 back the baled cotton and the seed. Two 
 thirds of the weight of the cotton, as it is 
 picked, is in the seed. 
 
 Then the cotton is sent to the factory. 
 Before being shipped any great distance, 
 the bales are usually compressed to about 
 half their size as they come from the gin, 
 so that they will not take up so much 
 room. The traveler in the 
 South sees bales of cotton 
 everywhere in transport : 
 at the railroad station, on 
 freight trains, on river 
 boats, and at the ocean 
 docks (Fig. 108). Every 
 coast city, as for example 
 New Orleans, Savannah, 
 and Galveston (Fig. 105), 
 is a center for the export 
 of this product. 
 
 About one fourth of all 
 the cotton raised in the 
 South goes to factories 
 there. Travelers speeding 
 across North and South 
 Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, see 
 many long, low brick buildings, often 
 with tall chimneys. These are cotton 
 mills. Very often, these mills are in the 
 country, with no more buildings near 
 them than are necessary for the workmen 
 and their families. In the North fac- 
 tories are usually located in cities; but 
 in the South a large share of the cotton 
 mills are in the country or in small towns. 
 The cotton seed was, for fully a hun- 
 dred years, considered a nuisance except 
 for planting; but now it is about one 
 sixth as valuable as the cotton fiber; 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 115 
 
 and it leads to many kinds of manufac- 
 turing. An oil is pressed from it that is 
 used in place of olive oil; also as a sub- 
 stitute for lard, and for other purposes. 
 The hulls are used for fertihzer, and the 
 cake that is left after the oil is extracted 
 makes a good feed for live stock. 
 
 We saw that King Cotton has more 
 subjects on the farms in the South than 
 any other crop there. Likewise, he keeps 
 more persons at work for him in trans- 
 portation and in manufacturing than any 
 other product. Hundreds of thousands 
 are serving him there all the time ; he is a 
 powerful king in a very wide realm. 
 
 Everybody is proud of Pittsburgh as a 
 manufacturing center, for reasons that 
 How the you can recall (p. 78). Bir- 
 manufac- mingham, in Alabama, is often 
 
 tunng about n t i -r»« i i <• i 
 
 Birmingham Called the Flttsburgh 01 the 
 compares South, and it even has one 
 
 with that . ' 
 
 about Pitts- important advantage over the 
 burgh Pennsylvania city. Coal is 
 
 just as conveniently located and iron ore 
 far more so. When you recall the dis- 
 tance iron ore must be carried in order to 
 reach the blast furnaces of Pittsburgh 
 (p. 78), you can see how important the 
 advantage of Birmingham is. Iron can 
 be manufactured more cheaply in the 
 latter place than anywhere else in the 
 United States. Birmingham is much 
 smaller than Pittsburgh; but it is, also, 
 very much younger. It manufactures a 
 large amount of iron and steel, and is the 
 most rapidly growing city in the South. 
 This section does not yet compare with 
 Pennsylvania in output of iron and steel; 
 but it is the leading center for that indus- 
 try in the South and has a fine prospect 
 for growth. 
 While the South is not so well supplied 
 
 with bituminous coal as the North, sev- 
 eral of the states have a large amount. 
 They have other things, also, 
 
 . . 1 ., 1 - , . Further com- 
 
 to take the place oi coal m parisonofthe 
 manufacturing. One of these ^°"^ ^^*^ 
 is running water. The heavy advantages 
 rainfall in these states (Fig. ^^^^g"""*^*^ 
 146) , particularly in the South- 
 ern Appalachian Mountains, supplies 
 a great amount of water to the streams, 
 and therefore a great amount of power 
 for manufacturing. Much of it is already 
 converted into electricity for use in the 
 cotton mills and other factories in the 
 areas bordering the mountains. 
 
 Other substitutes for coal are oil and 
 gas. The traveler in Oklahoma, Texas, 
 and Louisiana sees hundreds of derricks, 
 marking valuable oil wells. In north- 
 eastern Oklahoma they are especially 
 numerous. Recently there has been 
 great excitement in all these sections 
 over the discovery of oil, and more oil is 
 now produced in the South than in any 
 other section of our country. 
 
 The South has been too much occupied 
 with agriculture to make full use of its 
 advantages for manufacturing, but it is 
 now turning its attention much more to 
 this form of industry. 
 
 You remember (p. 86) that the stumps 
 of trees in the Great Lakes region are 
 about all that is left of former How the 
 forests in that part of our South is re- 
 
 ^ peating the 
 
 country; also, that those experience of 
 
 northern states must now c^enfrdttates 
 obtain a large part of their in treatment 
 lumber from distant sections ° ^^ °^®^*^ 
 of the country. The South is exhaust- 
 ing its extensive forests in much the 
 same way. Formerly the belt of long- 
 leaf pines extended all along the coast 
 
116 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 from Chesapeake Bay far into Texas. 
 They are very different from the pines 
 of the North, having longer needles and 
 a much harder wood that is especially 
 valuable for building. Besides, the sap 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 110. — Collecting crude turpentine from the 
 Southern pine 
 
 Crude turpentine is obtained by tapping the tree. One 
 method of tapping is to cut V-shaped scars in the tree 
 with a notch below, thus forming a rude cup. The 
 liquid oozes out of the scars and is collected in the ridge 
 cup, from which it is dipped by a paddle. From time to 
 time fresh scars are made higher and higher on the tree. 
 
 that oozes forth when the bark is scraped 
 away is made into turpentine, tar, and 
 pitch (Fig. 110). These are called naval 
 stores, and are used in making paints, 
 varnishes, and many other things. 
 
 The people of North Carolina used to 
 be called ''Tar Heels" because so large 
 a quantity of naval stores was produced 
 there. But that state and several others 
 have nearly exhausted their hard pine. 
 A trip along the coast from Virginia to 
 
 New Orleans would readily show this. In 
 North and South Carolina one would see 
 many cut-over areas, with old sawdust 
 piles, abandoned sawmills, and even 
 abandoned towns. While some lumber 
 still comes from these states, most of the 
 Southern pine is now obtained farther 
 west, from Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, 
 and Arkansas. 
 
 The hardwood forest region contains 
 such trees as oak and hickory. What 
 are some of the uses of such woods? 
 Most of our hardwoods now come from 
 the South, Memphis and Nashville being 
 our most important hardwood centers. 
 The South now produces more than a 
 third of all the lumber used in the United 
 States. 
 
 That cannot, however, be kept up. 
 While there are still very extensive forests 
 in the western states of this group as 
 well as in the Appalachian Highland, 
 the Southern forest area is becoming 
 smaller each year; and unless care is 
 taken, the South, like the North, will 
 soon be seeking its lumber from distant 
 places. Many persons believe that such 
 destruction of forests is a very serious 
 mistake. Can you suggest why? 
 
 There are many things about New Or- 
 leans that make it an especially interest- 
 ing city. For example, it is , 
 
 , , , ,^. . . . Interesting 
 
 located on the Mississippi facts about 
 River, and while in most New Orleans 
 places people go down hill to ^' ^"f^"^?®^ 
 
 x- r- r- D caused by the 
 
 approach a river, there they low land, and 
 
 have to go up hill. The city been overcome 
 
 lies ten feet below the level a. The danger 
 of the river during floods. twZtZ^t 
 Broad banks of earth, called 
 levees, have therefore been built along 
 both sides so as to shut in its waters. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 117 
 
 Why should a river be higher than the 
 land about it? There are a good many 
 such rivers in the world, and the reason 
 is easy to understand. The waters of the 
 Mississippi coming from distant regions 
 are heavily charged with mud, which is 
 carried along by the current. As they 
 approach the sea, the current gradually 
 
 if the levees gave way. This does some- 
 times occur, especially in the spring after 
 the snows have melted in the North and 
 caused the water to rise. Then hundreds 
 of men patrol the levees night and day to 
 check the slightest leak. The smallest 
 hole may be the beginning of a disastrous 
 flood. 
 
 Fig. 111. — St. Charles Avenue, New Orleans 
 In what ways does this street differ in appearance from the streets in the residence districts of Northern cities? 
 
 slackens, and then some of this mud 
 sinks. In this way the river built up its 
 bed and its banks on both sides, and thus 
 elevated its surface level above the sur- 
 rounding land. If the waters were not 
 shut in by levees they would spread out 
 over a wide area and flood much valuable 
 farmland. Much of the land on both 
 sides of the Mississippi from Memphis 
 southward is lower than the river, and 
 must be protected from it by such walls. 
 You can imagine what would happen 
 
 The land on which the city stands is 
 almost perfectly flat, the highest portion 
 being a ridge hardly more than 
 
 p . . , . . ,, TT ^- '^^^ necessity 
 
 two feet in elevation. "How of drainage and 
 can such land be drained?", ^ow it is wo- 
 
 vzded 
 
 you may ask. Also, "How 
 can people live there, if it is not well 
 drained? " The seriousness of these ques- 
 tions is all the greater when one learns 
 that fifty-seven inches *of rain fall there 
 each year; also, when one remembers 
 that every large city produces a great 
 
118 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 quantity of sewage that must be carried 
 away by some system of drainage. 
 
 For a long time there were no good 
 answers to these questions; and the people 
 suffered as a result. The ground was too 
 wet to allow cellars under the houses; 
 the sewage ran or stood in gutters and 
 
 Fig. 
 
 © Charles L. Franck 
 
 112. — The water front at New Orleans 
 
 open ditches; and the principal streets 
 were sometimes flooded with several feet 
 of water. Of course many kinds of sick- 
 ness followed; particularly, mosquitoes 
 so flourished that every few years there 
 was an epidemic of yellow fever that 
 killed thousands of the inhabitants. 
 
 At last a solution of the difficulty was 
 found and carried out at great expense. 
 « Since the sewage could not naturally 
 flow up into the river to be carried away, 
 it was pumped up. Sewer pipes were laid 
 in the streets; these led into cesspools, 
 and pumping stations were established 
 for pumping the sewage from them into 
 the river. The rain waters were likewise 
 pumped into a body of water near by. 
 By such means, the level of water in the 
 
 ground was lowered, so that cellars are 
 now possible; and there has been no 
 epidemic of yellow fever since the mos- 
 quitoes were destroyed in 1906. It re- 
 quired great energy on the part of the 
 people to put through such improve- 
 ments; but the results are wonderful. 
 
 The city is very different 
 from any other in our 
 
 country, with 2. scenes 
 
 its semi-tropical *^°"* *^ "^^ 
 climate and its great vari- 
 ety of inhabitants and of 
 architecture. There is the 
 French quarter, where the 
 people still speak French 
 as their native tongue, and 
 where many old-style man- 
 sions can be seen, with tiled 
 roofs, iron railings on the 
 balconies, and flower gar- 
 dens. The most common 
 trees are the palm, the fig, 
 the orange, and the mag- 
 nolia; and even in winter the air is often 
 perfumed with the odor of violets and 
 roses. 
 
 Probably the most interesting place is 
 the harbor. The river is about a half a 
 mile wide and from forty to two hundred 
 feet deep, and vessels from all parts of the 
 world dock there. The port ranks next 
 to New York in importance in our coun- 
 try. As might be expected, thousands 
 of bales of cotton can be seen on the piers, 
 for New Orleans is the leading cotton- 
 shipping port in the world. There are 
 great quantities of sugar and rice, also. 
 Why should they be expected? Since 
 New Orleans so directly faces South 
 America, many of the products of that 
 continent enter the United States by this 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 119 
 
 port. Much of our coffee and bananas 
 reaches us by way of New Orleans. If 
 you could spend a few days in the city, 
 how do you think you would occupy 
 your time? 
 
 There is a striking difference between 
 the North and the South in the location of 
 
 The difference ^^i^^ ^^^^^^' ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^g" 
 
 between the est in the North, four are on 
 So'Shi^iVca! the Atlantic coast, four on the 
 tion of chief Great Lakes, and two on the 
 large rivers. Every one is on 
 some important water route. See if you 
 can name and locate the ten. 
 
 Of the ten largest in the South, two, 
 New Orleans and Houston, may be count- 
 ed as coast cities, although they are some 
 distance inland. Ocean vessels can read- 
 ily reach them; three are on rivers, namely 
 Louisville, which is next to New Orleans 
 in size; Memphis, on the Mississippi 
 River; and Richmond, on the James 
 River; the other five which are At- 
 lanta in Georgia, Birmingham in Ala- 
 bama, Nashville in Tennessee, and Dallas 
 and San Antonio in Texas, are upon no 
 important navigable waters. Find these 
 ten on Fig. 105. Water routes have 
 counted for very much less in the South 
 than in the North in the location of 
 cities; for, while each of these six cities 
 numbers more than 100,000 in popula- 
 tion, there is but one coast city between 
 Washington and New Orleans that reaches 
 100,000, — Norfolk in Virginia. Other 
 important coast cities are Charleston 
 in South Carolina, Savannah in Georgia, 
 Jacksonville and Tampa in Florida, and 
 Mobile in Alabama. Locate these also. 
 
 What causes such a difference? It cer- 
 tainly is not due to lack of water routes in 
 the South; for that region has a great 
 
 extent of navigable rivers, and much 
 more coast line than the North. Name 
 some of the more important rivers. 
 
 The difference is due chiefly to the 
 difference in the occupations of the two 
 sections. In New York City The meaning 
 the two leading occupations ot this differ- 
 were found (p. 72) to be manu- 
 facturing and transportation; these are 
 much more important than agriculture 
 in the Northeastern States. In the North 
 Central States they rank about equally 
 with agriculture, in spite of the great 
 amount of farm products. If we consider 
 the North as a whole, that is, the North- 
 eastern and the North Central states 
 combined, we find manufacturing and 
 commerce to be considerably more im- 
 portant than agriculture. 
 
 It is just the other way in the South; 
 agriculture is by far the most prominent 
 industry. For this reason few of the chief 
 cities owe their growth to advantages 
 of transportation by water. Like In- 
 dianapolis (p. 95), they have grown up at 
 a distance from water routes, in the midst 
 of rich farmlands, and are mainly depend- 
 ent on such lands for their prosperity. 
 
 1. Name and locate places in the South 
 to which Northerners go for the winter. 
 2. What are some of the Review 
 attractions there? 3. Wliat questions 
 similarity between the North and the 
 South does the traveler note in crossing 
 these states to the Pacific coast? 4. What 
 difference does he see in the amount of 
 unused land? 5. In the extent of tobacco 
 fields? 6. In what states does he find cot- 
 ton, and how prominent is it among farm 
 crops? 7. Locate two other farm products 
 not grown in the North, and tell some- 
 
120 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 thing about their appearance. 8. What 
 difference is there in the character of the 
 population? 9. In the number of large 
 cities? 10. Tell about a fourth important 
 advantage of the South over the North in 
 agriculture. 11. Explain the advantage 
 of the South in raising small fruits and 
 vegetables. 12. Compare the small 
 Southern farm with the one in Ohio. 13. 
 Compare the plantation with the Ohio 
 farm. 14. State some facts about life in 
 the hilly and mountainous section of the 
 South. 15. How did King Cotton get 
 his name? 16. Why has he established his 
 kingdom in the South? 17. What de- 
 mands does he make upon his subjects? 
 18. How does he influence transportation 
 and manufacturing in the South? 19. 
 Compare the manufacturing about Bir- 
 mingham with that about Pittsburgh. 
 20. Make a further comparison of the 
 South with the North in advantages for 
 manufacturing. 21. How is the South 
 repeating the experience of the North 
 Central States in the treatment of its 
 forests? 22. What kinds of trees grow 
 in the South? 23. Explain the danger of 
 floods in New Orleans and how it is met. 
 24. Show the special need of drainage 
 there and how it is provided. 25. De- 
 scribe scenes about that city. 26. How 
 does the South differ from the North in 
 the location of its large cities? 27. Ex- 
 plain the reasons for this difference. 
 
 1. Make a collection of advertisements 
 of winter resorts in the South. 2. Make 
 Suggestions ^ coUcction of articles manu- 
 for extra factured from cotton. 3. Grow 
 
 work , ■ 1 
 
 some cotton and some rice 
 plants in the schoolroom. 4. Write the 
 life story of a bit of cotton, from the time 
 it is picked in the field until it becomes a 
 
 part of a garment or of a sheet of letter 
 paper. 5. Mention other advantages of 
 the Southern climate; for example, in 
 regard to houses and clothing. 6. In what 
 ways are mosquitoes destroyed? 7. Make 
 a drawing to show the plan for carrying 
 off sewage in the town where you Uve or 
 trade. 8. Write a story describing the 
 damage done by a break in a levee of the 
 Mississippi River. 9. If an exposition 
 were held in New Orleans showing the 
 products of the South, what things 
 should be exhibited? See to what extent 
 you could prepare such an exhibit. 10. 
 Trace the shortest route by water from 
 New Orleans to Chile, in South America ; 
 to China. 11. King Cotton has many 
 enemies. Find out what some of them 
 are, and how they are fought. 12. Here 
 is a question for debate: Resolved, that 
 the world would be better off if the to- 
 bacco plant had never been discovered. 
 13. Spell the names of the Southern 
 States, and write the abbreviations for 
 them. 14. Make an outline drawing of 
 these states, and put in the principal 
 ri^^ers, mountains, and cities. 
 
 V. The Western States 
 
 It is a surprise to many people to 
 discover that after traveling all the 
 way from New York to Chi- The great dis- 
 cago they have gone less tances in the 
 than one third of the dis- ®^* 
 tance across the continent. They must 
 continue the journey 100 miles beyond 
 Omaha, in Nebraska, before they have 
 gone half way to San Francisco. 
 
 The West (Fig. 121) covers a vast 
 area. CaUfornia is nearly as long as the 
 distance from New Orleans to Chicago, 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 121 
 
 Why people 
 formerly hesi 
 tated to mi- 
 grate to this 
 section 
 
 and Montana is longer than that from 
 Buffalo to Chicago. The smallest state 
 in this group is larger than the largest 
 east of the Mississippi River, and the 
 average area of these states is more 
 than twice that of New York. Prove 
 that these statements are true (p. 311). 
 
 In most of the states thus 
 far studied, the rainfall va- 
 ries from thirty 
 to sixty inches 
 per year. When 
 some of their 
 inhabitants 
 moved a few hundred miles 
 west of the Mississippi 
 River, they discovered that 
 they could not raise their 
 old crops. While at least 
 thirty inches are required 
 for agriculture as they had 
 been accustomed to carry it 
 on, less than twenty inches 
 fall in much of this new 
 territory. How much of 
 this area suffers from lack 
 of rain you can tell from 
 Fig. 146. Of the eleven 
 states in this group, how 
 many have extensive areas 
 that receive less than 
 twenty inches? Answer this question 
 by comparing Fig. 121 with Fig. 146. 
 What portion of the whole area do you 
 estimate this to be? Which states have 
 large sections whose rainfall is less than 
 ten inches? 
 
 Owing to lack of rain, the entire east- 
 ern and central portion of this group 
 of states came to be called the Great 
 American Desert, although it was often 
 uncertain just what regions the people 
 
 who used the name had in mind. Seeing 
 that the old-style farming was not suc- 
 cessful here, many people rashly con- 
 cluded that the entire West was of 
 little value. 
 
 In the year 1848, however, gold was 
 discovered in the stream beds of Cali- 
 
 lifornia Fruit Growers' Exchange 
 
 Fig. 113. — Oranges and snow in southern California 
 
 California is a land of contrasts. Its southeastern portion is the hottest 
 in the United States; its mountain tops are covered with snow all the year 
 round. It contains the lowest and the highest land in any of our states ; the 
 driest regions, and some of the wettest; some of the most productive, and 
 some of the most desolate. 
 
 fornia. By scooping up some of the 
 sand, gravel, and water in a pan, shak- 
 ing the mixture, and 
 pouring off the water 
 
 then 
 care- 
 
 Why people 
 migrated to 
 „ - , California, and 
 
 fully, bits OI gold and even different ways 
 
 good-sized lumps, or nuggets, in. which the 
 
 ° . va 7 ^jp ^^g made 
 
 might be found at the bot- 
 
 . . , • 1 1. Effect of the 
 
 tom. A man sometimes made discovery of gold 
 hundreds of dollars in one day ^ California 
 in this way. The discovery of gold on the 
 Pacific coast produced great excitement; 
 
122 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 and as this method of mining, called 
 panning, was so simple that almost any- 
 one could provide himself with a gold- 
 mining outfit, thousands of people started 
 for California. 
 
 Fig. 114.— The Overland Limited on the "cut-off" 
 across Great Salt Lake 
 
 The best train on the Union Pacific-Southern Pacific 
 route is here seen crossing the longest bridge in the 
 world. Locate it on Fig. 121. The shallow water made 
 such a bridge possible. What advantage, do you suppose, 
 was gained by its construction? 
 
 How should they go? From our 
 Northeastern States and from Europe 
 
 2. Early ways of ^^^^^ ^ere three main routes: 
 reaching cau- ons was by boat around 
 South America; the second 
 was by boat to Panama, then across 
 the Isthmus and again by boat; the 
 third' was across the "Great American 
 Desert." Trace these routes. Which 
 do you think you would have chosen? 
 The third is the one that concerns us. 
 Many men took their families by the 
 Overland Trail, which was very nearly 
 the same as that taken by the Union 
 Pacific Railroad a few years later (Fig. 
 150). Large numbers traveled together, 
 first providing themselves with covered 
 wagons drawn by horses or oxen and 
 with quantities of food and other neces- 
 saries, including weapons for defense. 
 
 Although people had gone overland to 
 the Pacific before the gold rush, the way 
 was poorly marked; there was danger 
 of death from thirst; and savage Indi- 
 ans might attack them at any time. 
 Does Fig. 121 suggest other difficulties 
 and dangers that had to be met? Many 
 persons perished on the way; but so many 
 reached the coast by some route that in 
 1850 California had become important 
 enough to enter the Union as a state. 
 
 As the population of the state in- 
 creased, mail between the East and 
 the West had to be sent back and forth 
 in the quickest possible time. One 
 of the means employed for this purpose 
 was the Pony Express. Starting from 
 St. Joseph, in Missouri, the end of the 
 railroad at that time, and following the 
 Overland Trail most of the way, it 
 carried mail through the places now 
 called Laramie, Pocatello, and Sacra- 
 mento to San Francisco in eight days. 
 Locate these cities. This was accom- 
 plished by the use of the best horses in 
 the country, traveling at top speed. It 
 was a relay race for 1,400 miles. 
 
 One can imagine that it was expensive 
 to send mail in this way. The price 
 was at first five dollars, and later two 
 dollars and fifty cents, for a letter. 
 What does it cost now? 
 
 Such struggles to cross the Great West 
 help us to realize the joy with which 
 people welcomed the first railroad cross- 
 ing the entire distance. It was com- 
 pleted in 1869. 
 
 This railroad, called the Union Pacif- 
 ic as far as Ogden, in Utah, and the 
 Southern Pacific between Ogden and San 
 Francisco, really begins at Council Bluffs 
 in Iowa, just across the Missouri River 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 123 
 
 from Omaha, although the trains start 
 from Chicago. Beginning the journey at 
 Omaha, one travels the length 
 
 What one can 
 
 see along the of Nebraska over very level 
 
 Union Pacific 
 Railroad to- 
 day 
 
 1. The moun- 
 tains and pla- 
 teaus that 
 have to be 
 cUmbed 
 
 country, called the Great 
 Plains (p. 96). In every di- 
 rection one can see for many 
 miles; for there are no hills or 
 forests. The Great Plains ex- 
 tend into the eastern border 
 of the Western States, Wyoming being 
 the first of the Western States reached 
 in our journey. Although the plains 
 seem almost perfectly level, the train is 
 cHmbing all the time. At Omaha it was 
 1,000 feet above sea level; but at Chey- 
 enne it is more than 6,000 feet above. 
 It has climbed one mile in that distance 
 and is now as high as the peak of Mount 
 Washington, in New Hampshire. Fig. 
 62 shows the long upward slope. Note 
 the gradual rise from the Mississippi River. 
 At Cheyenne the train is at the foot 
 of the Rocky Mountains; in the next 
 thirty miles it must climb 2,000 feet 
 more in order to cross them. At the 
 highest point some of the passengers 
 have difficulty in breathing, for at this 
 altitude, 8,000 feet, the air is much 
 rarer than at sea level. 
 
 In Wyoming one crosses the conti- 
 nental divide of North America (Fig. 61). 
 Some of the rain that falls here reaches 
 the Atlantic Ocean, and some the Pacific. 
 In Fig. 121 note how many rivers rise 
 among these mountains, and trace them 
 to the ocean. 
 
 Through Wyoming the railroad crosses 
 a plateau more than a mile above sea 
 level. Shortly before reaching Ogden, 
 it crosses the Wasatch Mountains, in 
 Utah (Fig. 115). 
 
 Again, after leaving Ogden, one trav- 
 els for nearly 500 miles over a plateau 
 as far as the eastern boundary of Cali- 
 fornia. Then the Sierra Nevada is 
 crossed at an elevation of about 7,000 
 feet. After that the road runs down hill 
 to Oakland, where ferries take one across 
 San Francisco Bay to the city of that 
 name. 
 
 Much of this country looks now as 
 it did when the pioneers of 1849 traveled 
 over it. Trees are seen 
 mainly along the streams and astheToneers 
 in the mountains; in some ofi849sawin 
 
 following this 
 
 sections there are scattered route 
 
 bunches of grass, and over 
 
 wide areas there are sagebrush and 
 
 
 
 ©Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 115.— Wasatch Mountains from Ogden in Utah 
 Except at the very end of the summer, these mountains 
 are covered with snow. For many miles the railroad 
 follows the course of a stream through a deep gorge be- 
 tween lofty ranges. The green alfalfa and poplar trees 
 rest the eye of the traveler after many miles of desert. 
 
124 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 ©Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 116. — The Sierra Nevada 
 This view is taken from a point near the pass where the Southern Pacific 
 Railroad crosses the range. The snowy Sierra is a region of beautiful 
 mountain landscapes, but there are a few abrupt slopes. 
 
 cactus. For long stretches there is 
 very Httle vegetation of any kind. In 
 the driest regions, one sees Httle beside 
 bare, sandy soil, rocky ledges, and 
 mountains. 
 
 On crossing the Sierra Nevada into 
 California, however, the 
 scene changes. There one 
 comes into a region of 
 abundant rainfall, as shown 
 in Fig. 146, and the veg- 
 etation suddenly becomes 
 luxuriant. The western 
 slope of the mountains is 
 covered with magnificent 
 forests. The rest of the 
 journey (p. 132) is through 
 the fertile Valley of Cali- 
 fornia to the prosperous 
 cities on San Francisco Bay. 
 
 The railroad follows the 
 straightest possible route, 
 and keeps to the passes 
 between the peaks. The 
 high points that are 
 reached, however, and the 
 
 remarkably clear air allow 
 views of places scores of 
 miles away. From the 
 highest point on the rail- 
 road in Wyoming one can 
 sometimes see Pike's Peak 
 in Colorado (Fig. 117). 
 Measure this distance on 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 Yet the scenes along this 
 route are not all just as they 
 used to be; for 
 two important 
 changes have 
 taken place in 
 the vegetation and the life 
 dependent upon it. The traveler now 
 comes to many thriving towns and 
 villages surrounded by orchards and gar- 
 dens, with rich fields of alfalfa, grazing 
 cattle and sheep, and prosperous homes 
 near by. More productive districts than 
 
 1 
 
 3. Two impor- 
 tant changes in 
 the vegetation 
 since 1849 
 
 (c) Ewing (Jailoway 
 
 Fig. 117.— Kke's Peak from the "Garden of the Gods" in Colorado 
 Unlike the great volcanic peaks of the Pacific coast states, the mountains 
 of Colorado rise from a high plateau, and do not, therefore, appear so high as 
 the elevation given on the map suggests. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 125 
 
 these are seen scarcely any- 
 where in either the East 
 or the South. Again, far 
 distant from any village, 
 one sees now and then a 
 farmhouse with a large 
 barn near it, stacks of hay 
 in the fields, and, in the 
 growing season, thriving 
 crops of wheat or kafir corn 
 and alfalfa. The farms are 
 far apart, yet the total 
 number is large. 
 
 Then one asks this ques- 
 tion: Can it be that man is 
 changing the cHmate of this 
 region, and that the ''Great 
 American Desert" is disap- 
 pearing? Certainly a region that was 
 formerly thought to have little value now 
 has thousands of excellent farms, and is 
 supporting tens of thousands of people. 
 How has such a change come about? 
 
 Denver, in Colorado, is one of the 
 
 largest cities in the arid region; but it 
 
 has not been built up by 
 
 4. Why Denver . o 
 
 has grown up changing the chmate. iSev- 
 
 where it is i j i • i j 'j. 
 
 eral things have caused its 
 growth, probably the most important 
 being the use of water from a neighboring 
 river. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains west of the 
 city are lofty enough to receive consider- 
 able rain and therefore to be 
 the source of many important 
 streams, as can be seen on 
 Fig. 121. One of these, 
 the South Platte, flows past 
 Denver. A ditch or canal leads water 
 from it out over the arid plain near the 
 city, and smaller ditches run out from the 
 large one. The river itself has a rapid 
 
 Fig. 118. — A sheep ranch in Colorado 
 
 Sheep flourish in places where the grass is very scanty, 
 pect cattle to thrive here? jf^ 
 
 © Exving QaUoway 
 
 Would you ex- 
 
 a. How water 
 is distributed 
 over the land, 
 and the changes 
 it has made 
 
 fall; but just enough slope has been 
 given to the ditch to cause the water 
 to flow gently. Thus the ditch, follow- 
 ing the direction of the river, soon runs 
 on a higher level than the river does, 
 and the smaller ditches can carry water 
 to many fields along its course. When 
 a field needs water for the growth of 
 crops, one of the smaller ditches leading 
 directly to it is tapped, and the land is 
 flooded; or the water is allowed to run 
 across it in furrows that are a few feet 
 apart. The method followed depends 
 upon the kind of crop under cultivation. 
 Such a plan for watering is called irri- 
 gation. 
 
 As there is danger that the supply of 
 water may not last through the season, 
 reservoirs are built to store the water of 
 the spring freshets, which is let into the 
 ditches and on to the land later as it is 
 needed. 
 
 Such an arrangement is, of course, ex- 
 pensive, and each farmer pays for thp 
 
126 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 water he uses, just as in a city one pays 
 for the water used in one's house. But 
 the farmers can afford to pay a good 
 price; for on the upper side of the ditch, 
 which is too high to be reached by the 
 water, the land is fit only for grazing. 
 
 (Q Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 119. — 'The mint and the state capitol, Denver 
 Which building is the capitol? Many state capitols have domes, in imi- 
 tation of the capitol at Washington (Fig. 77). In this mint much of our 
 money is coined. 
 
 (Fig. 118) and worth only a few dollars 
 per acre at best; while on the lower side 
 there are rich fields of grain, vegetables, 
 and alfalfa, where an acre may be worth 
 several hundred dollars. 
 
 With such an abundance of farm 
 products near Denver, other industries 
 
 were easily developed. In the 
 
 mountains are many kinds 
 
 of minerals. Gold is mined 
 
 at Cripple Creek, and Lead- 
 
 ville is a center for gold, 
 silver, and lead. Without the food from 
 the irrigated district about Denver and 
 
 b. Other occu- 
 pations made 
 profitable by 
 these farm 
 products 
 
 other districts like it, mining would 
 
 have been much more difficult and costly 
 
 at these points. 
 
 Naturally, other industries followed 
 
 farming and mining. The ores containing 
 
 the metals had to be broken up and 
 melted or treated with 
 chemicals, in order that the 
 metals might be extracted, 
 or refined; wheat had to 
 be ground into flour; cattle 
 and sheep had to be slaugh- 
 tered for meat and hides; 
 and many kinds of machin- 
 ery and other articles had 
 to be manufactured. Much 
 of this work was done in 
 Denver. As the city grew, 
 it came to be a center for 
 trade and manufacturing 
 for the surrounding district. 
 When the Union Pacific 
 Railroad was built, Denver 
 was too small a town to in- 
 fluence the route chosen ; but 
 now it is one of the large 
 cities in the West (Fig. 119), 
 and a great railway center. 
 Salt Lake City, like Denver, was too 
 
 small to be included on the route of the 
 
 Union Pacific when it 
 
 planned. The land 
 
 ^^^ 5. Reasons for 
 about *e ^owth of 
 Salt take City 
 
 it used to be even drier than 
 the plain about Denver. But a reUgious 
 sect known as the Mormons moved 
 there at about the time gold was dis- 
 covered in California and began irri- 
 gating the level tract southeast of Great 
 Salt Lake. There are now thousands 
 of acres in this vicinity that are as pro- 
 ductive as any land in the United States. 
 The principal crops are grain, fruit. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 127 
 
 sugar beets, and alfalfa; and stock 
 raising is extensive. 
 
 The surrounding mountains are rich 
 in metals, particularly copper. Smelting 
 has, therefore, become an important 
 industry. Other kinds of manufactur- 
 ing have developed, as in Denver, and 
 the city has become an important center 
 for trade. 
 
 Great Salt Lake lies a few miles north- 
 west of the city. Although many moun- 
 tain streams pour their waters into the 
 lake, there is so much evaporation, 
 owing to the dry air, that it never over- 
 flows. It has, therefore, grown more 
 and more salty, until it is several times 
 as salty as the ocean. Even one who 
 cannot swim floats upon it readily because 
 the water is so dense with salt. Bathing 
 in its waters is, therefore, a very popu- 
 lar sport (Fig. 120). No fish can live 
 there, however. Can you suggest why? 
 
 There are many other 
 irrigated districts along the 
 
 6. How farming rOUte of this 
 
 srbi':Srur railway. But 
 irrigation j^qw is farming 
 
 possible in so many other 
 places also? 
 
 Mr. Grant's farm in east- 
 ern Colorado will serve 
 as an example to answer 
 the question. It 
 
 o. The appear- 
 ance of IS square in 
 
 Mr.GranCs gj^^ ^^^ ^^^_ 
 
 dry farm ^ 
 
 tains 640 acres. 
 How long would a fence be 
 that enclosed it? It is al- 
 most as level as a floor, 
 and every foot of it can 
 be plowed except one cor- 
 ner where a brook runs. 
 
 He came here in the 'eighties. His first 
 buildings were of sod. When the tough 
 prairie grass was first plowed up, the 
 sod was turned over in unbroken strips 
 sometimes a mile long. These strips 
 were cut up into sections and laid in 
 courses, like brick, to form walls. The 
 roof was made of heavy plank with a 
 little slope, and covered with earth and 
 gravel a foot deep. The better sod 
 houses have glass windows and wooden 
 floors; Mr. Grant's house was of that 
 sort. It was very comfortable, too, in 
 many ways, being warm in winter and 
 cool in summer. What objections do 
 you see to such a home? Mr. Grant's 
 buildings are now all of wood. 
 
 Water, of course, was necessary for 
 the family and the animals, and very de- 
 sirable for a garden. This was obtained 
 from wells by means of windmills; the 
 wind blows almost constantly on these 
 
 9im&3 
 
 lerials Co. 
 
 Fig. 120. — Saltair beach, near Salt Lake City 
 For a long distance out into the lake the water is very shallow. 
 

130 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 plains, sometimes very hard for days 
 at a time. Near the creek below the 
 house are two windmills that supply 
 water for the house and garden; these 
 are running most of the time. They 
 pump water into tanks, which are filled 
 every night in the dry season; and 
 
 that he must choose only such crops as 
 were suited to a dry climate; and that 
 he must cultivate the soil in such a way 
 as to prevent its moisture from escaping. 
 So he left about half of the farm in 
 native prairie grass, which forms thick 
 clumps or bunches over the ground, but 
 
 Courtesy of Moline Universal Tractor Co. 
 
 Fig. 122. -Cutting wheat on Mr. Grant's farm 
 The machine used here is called a binder. It cuts the grain and ties it into sheaves which it leaves behind in 
 
 the field. 
 
 enough is let out into the garden to 
 raise an abundance of potatoes, vege- 
 tables, and small fruit. There are flowers, 
 also, about the house, and a few shade 
 trees. 
 
 The brook contains too little water to 
 irrigate the fields, and there is no larger 
 h. The crops Stream near. After many 
 that are cfwsen failures Mr. Grant learned 
 that he could not farm by the methods 
 he had used in Illinois. After much 
 experimenting he found out three things: 
 that he could raise a good many cattle; 
 
 never grows more than a few inches high. 
 During the hot summer it dries up and 
 forms natural hay that is very nourish- 
 ing. Cattle can live on it all winter, 
 if necessary. Mr. Grant sells some beef 
 cattle every year, and keeps a fine herd 
 of dairy cows. 
 
 Some of his crops are for cattle feed. 
 The principal crop is sorghum, which 
 looks much like corn. It will live 
 through very dry weather and thrives 
 where there is but little moisture. There 
 is some kafir corn, some barley, and a 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 131 
 
 strip of alfalfa along the creek. The 
 water there spreads out a long distance 
 through the ground, and the roots of 
 the alfalfa get the benefit even if the 
 moisture is as much as twenty feet be- 
 low the surface. This is one of the rea- 
 sons why alfalfa is well suited to a dry 
 country. It remains green through the 
 driest of weather and in that condition 
 is especially good for hogs. As hay it is 
 equal to the finest clover in the East. 
 
 All these crops, together with the 
 prairie grass, are sufficient to feed the 
 stock and, as most of the cream is sold, 
 there is some income every month. 
 
 Chickens and turkeys also bring in 
 considerable money. They thrive in 
 the dry climate, and require very little 
 feeding in addition to the insects and 
 seeds they find. Enough money comes 
 from these sources and from the sale 
 of beef cattle during the year to support 
 the family. 
 
 Mr. Grant sows about 100 acres of 
 wheat every year. This crop brings 
 him his chief income. It is well suited 
 to this climate, because it 
 can get a good start early 
 in the season when most 
 rain falls, and needs but 
 little moisture as it ripens. 
 
 It has taken a long time 
 to iearn how to cultivate 
 these crops in such a way 
 that most of the moisture 
 will remain in the ground. 
 The chief thing to do is to 
 keep a layer of fine, loose 
 dirt on the top. Moisture 
 from below does not easily 
 work its way through such 
 a layer to the air, and rain This 
 
 sinks quickly into the soil instead of 
 running away. 
 
 Thus, in his selection of crops and in 
 his care of the soil, Mr. Grant has adapted 
 himself to the dry country. In distinc- 
 tion from farming in regions of abundant 
 rainfall, or in arid regions by irrigation, 
 this is called dry farming. 
 
 Thousands of farmers throughout the 
 semi-arid regions of the West, all the 
 way from eastern Washington 
 to New Mexico, are now living ness of such a 
 a life somewhat like this. It ^'^^ «^ '""^ "^ 
 
 . tYs pleasures 
 
 is lonely, we must admit, for 
 homes in such a country must be far 
 apart. The nearest neighbors to Mr. 
 Grant are more than a mile away; and 
 the nearest town, which is only a village 
 of 500 inhabitants, is five miles distant. 
 Yet there are many pleasures. Perhaps 
 the greatest is the freedom that Mr. 
 Grant and his family feel. They work 
 for themselves, and can come and go as 
 they please. 
 
 On the journey along the Overland 
 Route one passes through remarkably 
 
 ('ourte!<i/ of U. S. .Reclamation Service 
 
 Fig. 123. — Sagebrush 
 is how the desert looks before it is irrigated. 
 
132 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 few cities. Name some of the largest 
 towns (Fig. 121), and look up their pop- 
 Someofthe ulations (p. 311) . Hour after 
 hour, between stations, one 
 sees from the train such 
 dry farms as that of Mr. 
 Grant, or arid land bearing 
 only sagebrush (Fig. 123). 
 Then one wonders how a railroad run- 
 ning through such a country can pay 
 
 attractions of 
 San Francisco 
 and surround- 
 ing country 
 
 1. Products of 
 the VaUey of 
 California 
 
 Courtesy of California Fruit Growers' Exchange 
 
 Fig. 124. — Wrapping California oranges 
 The citrus fruit industry gives employment to many persons besides those 
 who grow the fruit. These oranges will be shipped in refrigerator cars by 
 fast freight. 
 
 expenses; and why there are so many 
 long, heavily laden passenger and freight 
 trains passing each way every day over 
 that dreary stretch. 
 
 This question is answered when one 
 crosses the Sierra Nevada into Cali- 
 fornia and approaches San Francisco; 
 for the Valley of California is one of the 
 most productive parts of the earth. 
 Fig. 146 shows that the rainfall is heavy 
 in northern California and on the west- 
 ern slopes of the Sierra, but Kght over 
 
 most of this valley. The many streams, 
 however, make irrigation possible. 
 
 Most of the products grown else- 
 where in the United States are found 
 here. Apples, oranges, peaches, pears, 
 plums, cherries, and figs are abundant, 
 and more grapes are raised than along 
 the southern shores of Lakes Erie and 
 Ontario (p. 81). Nearly all the raisins 
 eaten in the United States come from 
 this valley. There are many 
 large fields of grain — wheat, 
 oats, rye, and barley; po- 
 tatoes and sugar beets are 
 common, and rice is culti- 
 vated extensively. Alfalfa 
 is one of the leading crops, 
 and there are large num- 
 bers of cattle and sheep. 
 The valley is an admirable 
 place for truck gardening, 
 and is one of our most im- 
 portant centers for poultry. 
 Estimate the length and 
 average width of the valley 
 as shown on Fig. 121. 
 
 The train reaches the end 
 of the railway at Oakland. 
 There a ferry 
 
 2. Excellence of 
 takes passengers San Francisco 
 
 across the bay to San Fran- 
 cisco. This bay is the harbor, one of the 
 largest and finest in the world. It is 
 about fifty miles long and from five to 
 ten miles wide. It is said that one of the 
 first Spaniards who explored the Pacific 
 coast reported that this harbor was so 
 large that all of the navies of Spain could 
 play hide and seek in it. The entrance 
 to this harbor, called the Golden Gate, 
 is one of our few important gateways 
 to the lands across the Pacific. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 133 
 
 3. Facts of in 
 terest about 
 the city 
 
 Many cities and towns are located 
 around the bay. Name some of them, 
 and find their populations 
 (p. 311). San Francisco (Fig. 
 125) is the largest, and has a 
 very striking location. Note in Fig. 121 
 how nearly it is surrounded by water. 
 There are many high hills in the city, for 
 the Coast Ranges almost entirely sur- 
 round the bay. 
 
 Among the leading industries in the 
 city are the refining of sugar and meat 
 packing. The raw sugar is brought from 
 the Hawaiian Islands (p. 147). 
 
 Many people of foreign birth live in 
 the city, as in the large cities of the 
 East; but there is an especially large 
 Chinese section, called Chinatown. 
 Scarcely any white people dwell in this 
 section, and the customs of the people 
 are much the same as in China itself. 
 Why should so large a number of Chi- 
 nese have collected here? 
 
 One who has made the journey across 
 the Western States to San Francisco has 
 seen what a vast arid waste 
 it still is in many places, no°i^emroute 
 but how irrigation and dry across these 
 
 p • , , 1 1 states com- 
 
 farming together are chang- pares with the 
 
 ing it. He has noted how central route 
 
 they have made it possible i. Points of 
 to develop extensive mining, SfSeSion 
 manufacturing, and trade, 
 and how many towns and cities have 
 grown up as a result. There are now 
 eight great railroads that completely 
 cross the Western States; since they 
 cross many states to the east also, they 
 are commonly called transcontinental 
 lines. Some cross the northern states of 
 this group, others the middle states, and 
 still others the southern. Which of these 
 have we already discussed? 
 
 There are three different railways that 
 can be taken on the northern route, all 
 of them branching out from St. Paul and 
 
 
 ?m' 
 
 © R. I. Water & Co. 
 
 Fig. 125. — San Francisco harbor 
 You are here looking toward the northeast over San Francisco bay. At the extreme right is an island half way 
 between San Francisco and Oakland. At the extreme left is the entrance to the Golden Gate. 
 
134 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 all reaching the Pacific coast by way of 
 Spokane (Fig. 121). One of these, the 
 Northern Pacific, runs through Billings, 
 Butte, and Spokane to Seattle. Trace 
 its course in Fig. 150 and note the states 
 that it crosses. Trace also two other 
 routes that parallel it closely. 
 
 2. Attractions 
 of Yellowstone 
 National Park 
 
 . /,,/,■,,,/ InblislaiKj Co. 
 
 Fig. 126. — One of the few buffalo herds left in our country 
 
 At one time buffalo were numerous over most of the vast area between 
 the Appalachian Highland and the Rocky Mountains. The Great Plains, 
 because of their vast extent of grasslands, were once the home of millions 
 of them. Many thousand Indians depended on these buffalo to a great ex- 
 tent for their living. White men slaughtered most of them for their hides 
 or for the pleasure of killing. In 1920 there were about 3,400 buffalo in the 
 United States and 5,000 in Canada. 
 
 By examining Fig. 146 you can tell 
 whether this region is more or less dry 
 than that along the central route. In 
 Montana the country looks much as it 
 does farther south; there are fully as 
 many irrigated sections, and even more 
 dry farms. Great numbers of cattle 
 and sheep are seen grazing on the prairie 
 grass here, as along the central route. 
 Its value for food is suggested by the 
 report that in one year in the early days 
 250,000 buffalo hides were shipped out 
 of Miles City alone. 
 
 Many travelers on this route stop 
 for a visit to Yellowstone National 
 Park in northwestern Wyo- 
 ming. Here there are hun- 
 dreds of springs, some only 
 two or three inches deep, and others 
 many feet, which are boiling all the time. 
 In some of them the boil- 
 ing water and steam now 
 and then shoot upward 
 with a roar, rising to a 
 height of more than 100 
 feet. Such springs are 
 called geysers; there are 
 scores of them in the park. 
 Here also is Yellowstone 
 River, whose waters tumble 
 more than 300 feet in one 
 fall. In the canyon which 
 the river has cut below 
 these falls, the rocky banks 
 are 2,000 feet high and 
 beautifully colored. The 
 park is properly called a 
 wonderland. 
 
 The law forbids the kill- 
 ing of animals in the park; 
 and as there are thousands 
 of visitors passing through 
 the park every summer, the wild game 
 becomes tame. Among the larger kinds 
 are the elk, the black bear, the brown 
 bear, and the buffalo or bison (Fig. 126). 
 Back of the hotels, where garbage is plen- 
 tiful, one can often walk up within a few 
 feet of a bear without alarm — at least to 
 the bear. 
 
 The two leading cities on the northern 
 route are Butte, in Montana, and Spo- 
 kane, in eastern Washington. They owe 
 their growth much less to irrigation than 
 Denver and Salt Lake City on the central 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 135 
 
 3. Differences 
 between the 
 
 route. Butte is what is called a mining 
 town. It is the center of one of the great- 
 est copper-mining districts in 
 the world, having more than 
 tht*^tSo routes"" 1^^ copper-mines in its vicin- 
 ity, many of them within the 
 city Umits. One fourth of all the copper 
 produced in the United States is shipped 
 from the Butte region. The main interest 
 of the people, therefore, is mining, and 
 their leading topics of conversation con- 
 cern work in the mines, the price of cop- 
 per, the prospect of new mines, accidents 
 in the mines, strikes in the mines, and 
 other events of this kind. 
 
 Spokane owes its growth first of all 
 to the rapids and falls of the Spokane 
 River that flows through it (Fig. 127). 
 These furnish immense power for manu- 
 facturing to the city. Lumber and plan- 
 ing mills and flour mills are among the 
 largest manufacturing establishments. 
 
 The reason for both of these industries 
 is found largely in the climate. The 
 Cascade Mountains in western Wash- 
 ington, which are a continuation of the 
 
 Sierra Nevada of CaUfomia, are lower 
 than the latter, so that the damp winds 
 from the Pacific carry much of their 
 moisture over them and drop it in the 
 Rocky Mountains just north and east 
 of Spokane. On this account extensive 
 pine forests" are found in this region. 
 Large quantities of the timber reach 
 Spokane 
 
 These winds drop some of their 
 moisture also on the plateau in eastern 
 Washington, but so little of it that dry 
 farming (p. 131) is the principal kind 
 in this section. The yield of wheat, rye, 
 and barley is especially large. This partly 
 explains why Spokane is an important 
 center for flour milUng. In addition, 
 there are many mines in the surrounding 
 country, producing gold, silver, copper, 
 and lead; Spokane is a trade and manu- 
 facturing center for these mining sec- 
 tions. 
 
 Great quantities of fruit are raised 
 on irrigated lands in central Washington 
 east of the Cascades, especially apples 
 and apricots. 
 
 Courtesy of Chamber of Commerce, Spokane 
 
 Fig. 127. — The falls in the Spokane River at Spokane 
 
 Only a small part of the power supplied by these falls is used. Notice what the text tells you about the use of 
 this Dower. 
 
136 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 West of the Cascade Mountains in 
 Washington and Oregon is a lowland cor- 
 responding to the Valley of 
 CaUfornia west of the Sierra 
 Nevada. An arm of the sea, 
 called Puget Sound, reaches 
 far southward into Wash- 
 ington; this corresponds to San Fran- 
 cisco Bay. Several large cities and many 
 
 4. How the 
 country west of 
 the Cascades 
 compares with 
 central Cali- 
 fornia 
 
 b. The differ- 
 ence in climate 
 
 © Asahel Curtis 
 
 Fig. 128. — A power dam at the outlet of Long Lake 
 This plant supplies electricity to Seattle and the nearby region. A large 
 dam has been built here. Some of the water is passed through large pipes 
 to the power house on the right, where it is made to turn water wheels 
 which are connected with dynamos that produce electricity. 
 
 towns have grown up about the Sound, 
 
 the most important of which are Seattle 
 
 and Tacoma. Both these 
 
 a. The location . . . i-(» n -j^ ± i 
 
 and population cities are beautiiuUy situated 
 of the chief Q^ ^Yie shores of the Sound 
 within plain view of the great 
 volcanic peak of Mt. Rainier (Fig. 136). 
 Locate them, and name other cities 
 near by. 
 
 Portland (Fig. 129) is another large 
 city of the Pacific Northwest, situated in 
 Oregon 100 miles from the coast on the 
 
 Willamette River, near the point where 
 it flows into the Columbia. The Willa- 
 mette Valley and the district bordering 
 Puget Sound, with other valleys, form a 
 great interior lowland between the Cas- 
 cade Mountains and the Coast Range. 
 How do the cities of this region compare 
 in size with those about San Francisco 
 Bay (p. 311)? Trace the course of the 
 
 Columbia River. 
 
 Fig. 146 shows a very 
 
 great difference in rainfall 
 
 between these 
 
 lowlands. The 
 
 Valley of Cal- "'"^ ^'^ /«'■'" 
 
 ... . products 
 
 ifornia receives 
 a light rainfall, most of 
 which occurs in the winter 
 rronths. The rainfall is 
 heavy, however, over the 
 lowland region in Oregon 
 and Washington. Much 
 rain falls farther east, also, 
 particularly on the west- 
 ern slopes of the Cascade 
 Mountains. The western 
 portion of both these states, 
 therefore, receives abun- 
 dant rainfall for agriculture. 
 Considering how far 
 north this region is, one might expect the 
 winters to be severe. But, owing to the 
 warm ocean winds, flowers bloom in the 
 lowland throughout the winter, and 
 Puget Sound is always free from ice. 
 The winter temperature is not much 
 lower than that about San Francisco. 
 
 With such a climate, almost all kinds 
 of vegetation flourish, including the com- 
 mon grains and a great variety of fruit. 
 The cooler summers and greater rainfall 
 bring about the main differences in agri- 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 137 
 
 culture between the Pacific Northwest 
 and central CaUfornia, but some of the 
 same crops are grown, especially in the 
 Willamette Valley. 
 
 Lumbering and fishing are two other 
 
 especially important industries in this 
 
 region. The climate and soil 
 
 c. Why two ^ , J J X 
 
 other industries togcthcr have produccd trees 
 are especially g^^]^ ^g g^j-g never secn in the 
 
 important . _ 
 
 East or South. The Pacinc 
 coast is the land of big trees. The largest 
 are in the Sequoia National Park in 
 California, not far from the famous Yo- 
 semite Valley. Many trees here are as 
 large around as an ordinary living room, 
 and several are over thirty feet in diam- 
 eter. Measure off such a circle. These 
 trees are thousands of years old. 
 
 In Washington and Oregon a large 
 
 part of the area west of the mountains 
 is forested, and while the trees are smaller 
 than those just mentioned, many of 
 them are nevertheless giants (Fig. 130). 
 The Douglas fir, which is the most valu- 
 able, measures from five to fifteen feet 
 in diameter, and sometimes reaches a 
 height of 300 feet. One of them furnishes 
 enough lumber to build a house. The 
 Sitka spruce is also very large. Until a 
 few years ago, the distance from the East 
 checked any extensive use of these for- 
 ests; but the trees are now being cut 
 down rapidly for lumber. Washington 
 now manufactures about three fifths of 
 all the shingles made in the United States; 
 and Washington, Oregon, and northern 
 California together are now the prin- 
 cipal source of our lumber supply. 
 
 
 JJmtlnnft. (Orft^on ^^^ ^ '**"^^WBPW^ 4 
 
 Courtesy of Portland, Oregon, Chamber of Commerce 
 
 Fig. 129. — A terminal where railways and ocean vessels meet 
 This is a drawing of the great terminal at Portland, Oregon. The tall buildings are grain elevators. The long, 
 low buildings are warehouses. How is the terminal arranged to permit a large number of vessels to load or unload 
 at the same time? In the distance is seen the snowy peak of Mt. Hood. In what direction, therefore, are you looking? 
 
 \] 
 
138 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 How the 
 southern 
 routes com- 
 pare with 
 the others 
 
 1. Points of 
 similarity and 
 difference 
 
 ) Oilliams Service 
 
 Fig. 130. — Splitting one of the huge logs in the 
 forests of Washington 
 
 Some of the logs are too large to be transported read- 
 ily and short lengths are split by wedges and a splitting 
 or riving machine. 
 
 While there is fishing of 
 various kinds along the 
 Pacific coast, salmon is by 
 far the most important 
 (Fig. 131). The salmon 
 spends most of its life in 
 the ocean, but runs up the 
 rivers in order to deposit 
 its eggs in fresh water. It 
 chooses many streams, but 
 an especiallj'' large number 
 run up the Columbia 
 River, where vast quanti- 
 ties are caught. Most of 
 the fish are canned. Prob- 
 ably some of the canned 
 
 salmon that you have seen came from 
 the canneries near Portland or from cities 
 on Puget Sound. 
 
 If one goes West by a southern route, 
 one may start either from Chicago or 
 Kansas City or from New 
 Orleans, and travel through 
 New Mexico, Arizona, and 
 southern California to Los 
 Angeles. The route lies to 
 the south of the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Sierra 
 Nevada. Trace the southern routes on 
 Fig. 121, and learn their names by con- 
 sulting Fig. 150. 
 
 Fig. 146 indicates that this country is 
 even more arid than that along either 
 of the other routes. It is also much 
 hotter in summer. At the point where 
 one crosses the Colorado River into 
 California, the temperature sometimes 
 reaches 120 degrees and one's watch 
 becomes unpleasantly warm to hold in 
 the hand. In spite of the dryness and the 
 heat, one sees many irrigation systems, 
 
 Cmirtesy of Columbia River Salmon Cannery 
 
 Fig, 131. — Cleaning Columbia River salmon 
 The salmon are taken to the cleaning rooms and, after all offal is disposed 
 of, the fish are thoroughly washed and scraped. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 139 
 
 and much of the land is given over to 
 grazing and some to dry farming. Gold, 
 silver, copper, and lead are mined, but 
 copper is by far the most important 
 
 
 Courtesy of Alcfntson, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad 
 
 Fig. 132. — An Indian woman weaving baskets 
 
 The Indians of New Mexico and Arizona live in 
 villages and are therefore called Pueblo Indians. Pueblo 
 is the Spanish word for village. This woman is making 
 baskets to be sold to tourists. Some of the houses of 
 these people are entered by a ladder. Do you see a 
 ladder in the picture? 
 
 metal. Arizona produces more copper 
 than any other state, Montana ranking 
 next to it. 
 
 The most interesting side trip is a 
 visit to the Grand Canyon of the Colo- 
 2. The most in- ^^do Rivcr in Arizona. The 
 teresting side Grand Cauyou in one section 
 is a full mile in depth, and 
 it is a hard day's climb to wind one's 
 way down to the bottom and back again. 
 
 The river, fed by waters from the rains 
 and snows of the Rocky Mountains, has 
 cut its way tJirough the rocks of the 
 plateau to this great depth. Nor has it 
 followed a straight channel, but has 
 wound about, so that now the mighty 
 gorge is ten to thirteen miles wide at the 
 point most often visited. There are so 
 many tall, slender chffs left standing 
 that they often shut the river from view 
 and, when seen from below, seem to be 
 a great number of steep and lofty moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Fig. 146 shows that the central and 
 the northern routes eome out west of 
 the Sierra Nevada and Gas- 3. The wonder- 
 cade Mountains upon well- f^i progress of 
 
 ^ southern Cau- 
 
 watered slopes. But the forma 
 
 southern route crosses arid 
 
 land all the way to the coast. 
 
 There is httle rain in any part of 
 
 California in summer, and the winter 
 
 a. Attractions 
 of the dimcUe 
 
 Courtesy of Goldwyn Studios 
 
 Fig. 133. — Drying a moving picture film 
 These men are engaged in drying a filni in one of the 
 large moving picture studios in Los Angeles. 200,000 feet 
 of film can be dried in this room in one day. 
 
140 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 rainy season in southern California lasts 
 only a few weeks. People boast of 350 
 days of sunshine there every year. How 
 many are there where you live? The 
 temperature along the coast is cool 
 throughout the summer, while it rarely 
 falls to the freezing point in winter. Thus 
 this region has the advantage of Florida 
 as a winter resort, and is far superior 
 to it for smumer residence. 
 
 They soon arranged for the water. 
 Not far from the coast are the San 
 Bernardino Mountains, which receive 
 heavy rains in winter. Why could not 
 these mountains be reached with irri- 
 gation ditches, the people asked; and 
 why could not some of the rain that falls 
 in winter be stored for use in summer? 
 
 Following such plans, dams were built 
 among the hills and mountains, collect- 
 
 Fig. 134. — The buildings around Pershing Square, Los Angeles 
 
 © Hvddleston Photo Co. 
 
 On these accounts many people pre- 
 fer it to Florida, and great numbers make 
 their homes there on account of the cli- 
 mate. This is an ideal pliace for the pro- 
 duction of motion pictures (Fig. 133) ; for 
 the bright sun, the agreeable tempera- 
 ture, and the freedom from rain make 
 it possible to carry on such work almost 
 the entire year. More than 15,000 per- 
 sons are usually engaged there in this 
 industry. 
 
 Southern California was once a barren 
 desert, even the land within sight of the 
 ocean. That was because the 
 west winds that carry mois- 
 ture far into Washington and 
 Oregon do not blow there 
 in summer. Yet people saw 
 that the soil was very fertile, and that 
 water, wlierever it could be appHed to 
 the land, made it very productive. 
 
 h. How an arid 
 desert has been 
 made one of the 
 most prosperous 
 parts of the 
 world 
 
 ing the winter floods; and ditches many 
 miles long were dug, or pipes were laid, 
 leading the water down to the parched 
 plains. By such means large areas have 
 been changed into gardens of fruit trees 
 with attractive homes. More than one 
 half of the oranges, and nearly all 
 the lemons grown in the United States 
 come from this region; a large part of 
 our olives and English walnuts are raised 
 here; vegetables flourish; and forage 
 crops for cattle and sheep are abundant. 
 The production of food has favored 
 the development of mining; many min- 
 erals have been discovered in this vicin- 
 ity, including a great quantity of oil. 
 California is now one of the leading 
 states in oil production. Some of the 
 railroads and many of the factories use 
 oil as fuel, and oil refining is one of the 
 leading industries. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES 
 
 141 
 
 The growth in population has been 
 astonisliing. In 1850 Los Angeles was 
 c. The growth Only a village, but now it is 
 in population ^jjg largest city in the West- 
 ern States (Fig. 121). Compare its popu- 
 lation with that of San Francisco and 
 Seattle (p. 312). There are also many 
 smaller cities about it, and San Diego, an- 
 other important seaport, is not far away. 
 Estimate its distance from Los Angeles. 
 
 1. State some facts showing the 
 great distances in the West. 2. Why 
 Review did people formerly hesitate 
 
 questions ^q gg^^je i^ this scction? 3. 
 
 Show how the discovery of gold in Cah- 
 fomia encouraged travel to the Pacific 
 coast. 4. Describe the 
 early ways of making the 
 journey. 5. Make a draw- 
 ing to show the mountain 
 systems and plateaus that 
 had to be crossed in going 
 from Omaha to San Fran- 
 cisco. 6. Describe some of 
 the scenes that the pioneers 
 of 1849 must have seen 
 in following this route. 
 
 7. What two great changes 
 in the vegetation have 
 taken place since that time? 
 
 8. How is water distrib- 
 uted over the land about 
 Denver, and what ad- 
 vantages have resulted? 
 
 9. Name some other occu- 
 pations that have been 
 made possible by these farm products. 
 
 10. Explain the reasons for the growth 
 of Salt Lake City. 11. Describe Mr. 
 Grant's dry farm. 12. How are the 
 crops planned and cared for on that 
 
 farm? 13. Tell about the loneliness of 
 such a life and some of its pleasures. 
 14. Name the principal products of the 
 Valley of CaUfornia. 15. Describe the 
 harbor of San Francisco. 16. Mention 
 some facts of interest about the city. 
 17. In what ways are the northern routes 
 to the Pacific coast similar to the central 
 routes? 18. Explain some of the wonders 
 of Yellowstone National Park. 19. How 
 do the two leading cities on the Northern 
 Pacific Railway differ from those on the 
 central routes? 20. Name and locate the 
 chief seaports in the Pacific Northwest. 
 21. Show the difference between the 
 Pacific Northwest and central California 
 in cUmate and farm products. 22. Name 
 
 .Si 
 
 Photo by Gifford 
 
 Fig. 135. — The summit of Mount Hood 
 The group of climbers in the foreground is resting after the ascent of the 
 lower slopes. What is the elevation of Mount Hood? It can be seen dis- 
 tinctly from Portland (Fig. 129). How long a distance is that? 
 
 two other industries in the Northwest 
 and show their importance. 23. How do 
 the southern routes compare with those 
 farther north? 24. State some facts 
 about the Grand Canyon. 25. What 
 
142 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 attractions are there in the climate of 
 southern CaUfornia? 26. Tell how this 
 arid region has been made one of the 
 most prosperous parts of the world. 
 27. Show the growth of this section 
 in population. 
 
 Courtesy of Seattle Chamber of Commerce 
 
 Fig. 138. — Mount Rainier (Moimt Tacoma) 
 This picture is taken from a little mountain lake high up on its slopes. 
 Seen from Tacoma or Seattle, this mountain is an almost perfect cone, 
 glistening white with snow. What is its height (Fig. 121)? 
 
 1. Let several pupils represent the 
 pioneers of 1849 and debate among them- 
 selves the most desirable 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 for extra route to California. 2. Write 
 
 ^^""^ a letter describing the hard- 
 
 ships, as you imagine them, of a certain 
 family in reaching California by the 
 Overland Route before the railroads were 
 built. 3. Many tons of salt are obtained 
 each year from Great Salt Lake. Find 
 how it is secured. 4. Find the diameter 
 of some tree near your school and com- 
 pare it with the large trees described on 
 p. 137. 5. Make a drawing of Mr. Grant's 
 
 farm, as it appears to you. Include the 
 principal fields and indicate the crop in 
 each. 6. Show how you could irrigate 
 a piece of land in your neighborhood, 
 either by a well or a stream. 7. Which 
 of the three routes across the West would 
 you now choose? 8. Point 
 out some striking differ- 
 ences between San Fran- 
 cisco and New Orleans. 
 9. Find out what Western 
 fruits, if any, your grocer 
 sells. 10. Make a collec- 
 tion of different kinds of 
 ores. 11. Trace the waters 
 of the Yellowstone River 
 all the way to the ocean. 
 What states and what 
 cities do they pass? 12. 
 Buffalo Bill used to give 
 exhibitions of early West- 
 ern life. Describe some of 
 the things done in them. 
 13. Learn the abbreviation 
 used for the name of each 
 of these states. 14. Many 
 places in the West are 
 noted for their beautiful 
 scenery. Try to secure railroad folders 
 or advertisements telling of the beau- 
 ties of Glacier National Park; the 
 Yellowstone National Park; Mt. Rainier 
 National Park; Yosemite National Park; 
 the Grand Canyon; Mt. Shasta; Mt. 
 Hood; Lake Tahoe. Compare Fig. 121 
 with Fig. 150 to find the names of the 
 railroads to which you should write. 
 15. Compare Fig. 145 with Fig. 146 to 
 see whether there is in general a denser 
 population in the well-watered regions 
 of the Western States than in the arid 
 regions. 
 
DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 143 
 
 VI. Dependencies of the United States 
 
 Tourists especially enjoy the wonders 
 of Alaska. Imagine that you are plan- 
 Alaska ^^ing ^ '^isit there. Ships 
 1. A voyage leave Seattle in any season 
 to Juneau {qj. ^ ten-day round trip 
 along the southeastern coast of Alaska. 
 Follow the route in Fig. 157. Such a 
 voyage will probably be very different 
 from any other you may have taken. 
 
 As you start north you will have the 
 mainland on the right and Vancouver 
 Island on the left. The route lies be- 
 tween the mountainous coast and a wall 
 of islands for nearly the entire distance 
 to Skagway, 1,000 miles. On this account 
 it is called the Inside Passage. Note how 
 islands protect most of the route from 
 ocean storms. With such protection, are 
 you likely to suffer from seasickness on 
 the trip? Along the coast the mildness 
 of the weather may surprise you, for the 
 temperature in winter is warmer on the 
 average than at St. Louis. In the inte- 
 rior, however, the winters are long and 
 cold (Fig. 137). 
 
 The winds bring moisture also, mak- 
 ing rain and clouds so frequent that sun- 
 shine is a treat. It is said that on the 
 average only one out of every four or 
 five days in the year is clear. But the 
 moisture has made possible many of the 
 views you admire. On the right the 
 mountains rise abruptly from 3,000 to 
 5,000 feet, the summits of some of them 
 wrapped in snow. On their slopes are 
 magnificent forests, while at their bases 
 you are astonished to see plants growing 
 in great luxuriance. The wooded islands 
 are full of game, and fish abound in the 
 waters. Perhaps most strange and beau- 
 
 tiful of all are the long, narrow bays 
 carved in the mountains by ancient gla- 
 ciers. The walls are sometimes so steep 
 and high that sunshine never reaches the 
 water. You see many glaciers at the heads 
 of the bays. What pleasures would you 
 expect on a camping trip in this region? 
 Near the end of the Inside Passage 
 you reach Juneau, the capital and larg- 
 est town of Alaska, having; a 
 
 , ' ° . 2. Things to 
 
 population of 3,500. It is be seen about 
 
 built on the steep slope of a 
 mountain; far above the town gUs- 
 tens the snowy peak. Many of the 
 
 Fig. 137. —Winter in Alaska 
 
 This trapper's cabin is near the route of the government 
 railroad to Fairbanks (p. 144). It is fifty degrees below 
 zero, and the owner is chopping wood for his stove. What 
 two facts in this picture prove to you that there is very 
 little wind here in cold weather? 
 
144 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 streets lie in terraces, and winding stair- 
 ways entirely replace others, so that 
 sightseeing is a vigorous exercise. Juneau 
 is the center of a rich gold-mining region. 
 Probably you will visit the Treadwell 
 mines on the island opposite Juneau, 
 where the largest mills in the world for 
 crushing gold ore are located. 
 
 One of the most remarkable trips in 
 Alaska is from Juneau northwestward 
 to Seward and then north to 
 Fairbanks. The voyage to 
 Seward covers a distance of 
 about 500 miles. Along this 
 stretch of coast many of the 
 largest glaciers of our continent are 
 found. The greatest of all is the Mela- 
 spina, which borders the water for about 
 fifty miles. 
 
 The trip from Seward to Fairbanks, 
 470 miles, can soon be made over the 
 
 3. Facts of in- 
 terest on the 
 trip from Juneau 
 to Fairbanks 
 by way of 
 Seward 
 
 Fig. 138.— Mt. McKinley 
 
 This is the highest mountain in North America. What is its altitude (Fig. 
 58)? This photograph was taken from a point about fifty miles north of the 
 mountain. The distant mountain in the center of the pictiire, with clouds 
 gathering around its peak, is Mt. Foraker, 17,000 feet high. 
 
 new government railroad. Follow in 
 Fig. 157 this partially completed line. 
 This portion of the trip is of great in- 
 terest because it shows many of Alaska's 
 
 resources. The railroad passes through 
 good farmlands in the broad valleys and 
 will afford an outlet for great quantities 
 of timber to the seaboard cities. There 
 is also much pulp wood, suitable for the 
 manufacture of paper, in the part of 
 Alaska touched by this railroad. Alaska 
 has the most important coal deposits on 
 our western coast; a branch Une of the 
 railroad taps the largest coal area. How 
 is this coal likely to be important to us? 
 Note that a few miles to the west of the 
 route is Mt. McKinley (Fig. 138), the 
 highest mountain on the continent. At 
 the end of the route is Fairbanks, the 
 center of a gold-mining region. 
 
 In summer there are two other im- 
 portant ways of reaching Fairbanks. 
 From Skagway, at the north- 
 
 ° "^ 4. Two other 
 
 ern end of the Inside Passage, routes to Fair- 
 a railroad leads over the ^ ^ 
 
 mountains to White Horse 
 in Canada. From there 
 the journey is by boat down 
 the Yukon (Fig. 139) to its 
 tributary, the Tanana, and 
 up that river to Fairbanks. 
 Trace this route (Fig. 157). 
 Another but far longer 
 way is from Seattle to the 
 west coast and up the Yukon 
 River to Fairbanks. Trace 
 this route also. The lower 
 portion of the river, which 
 lies in a sandy plain, is wind- 
 ing and so shallow that only 
 small boats can enter. Goods 
 have to be transferred from 
 ocean vessels to river boats at the nearest 
 port, St. Michael (Fig. 157). In spite of 
 these disadvantages, the Yukon has been 
 an important route because it is the chief 
 
DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 145 
 
 5. Certain 
 islands that 
 we might like 
 to visit 
 
 passage through the interior. Why are 
 
 these two routes open only in summer? 
 Alaskan waters have an abundance of 
 
 fish and a visit to one of the salmon-can- 
 ning plants on 
 Kodiak Island, 
 south of Cook 
 Inlet, would be 
 
 worth while. The salmon 
 
 are caught as they go up 
 
 the rivers in the breeding 
 
 season. The largest salmon- 
 canning factory in the world 
 
 is on a stream of Kodiak 
 
 Island, where 3,000,000 fish 
 
 are canned in a season. If 
 
 the average weight of a 
 
 salmon is eight pounds, how 
 
 many tons would this make? 
 
 So large are the fish exports 
 
 that Alaska furnishes nearly half of the 
 
 fish products of the United States. 
 
 A trip to the Pribilof Islands, far to 
 the west in the Bering Sea, where the 
 seals herd in summer, is seldom under- 
 taken; yet it might well be the most inter- 
 
 © Keystone View Co. , Inc. 
 
 Fig. 140. — Drying sealskins 
 Where do you supjpose this picture was taken? On the barren islands in 
 Bering Sea and in most of the western part of Alaska, imported lumber 
 must be used for building purposes. Can you see why? 
 
 Fig. 139. — The Yukon River 
 
 Steamboats like that shown in Fig. 24 ply up and down this broad river 
 during the "open" season from late in May until early October. For hundreds 
 of miles the river follows a winding course through the mountains, until at 
 length it reaches low, level country near the Arctic circle (Fig. 157). Here 
 in midsummer the sun can be seen at midnight. 
 
 esting experience of all. If one ventured 
 there, the first thing noticed on approach- 
 ing would be the continuous 
 barking of hundreds of seals. 
 Finally out of the fog would 
 rise rocky shores swarming 
 with seal families. This is 
 their summer home and the 
 young are born here. On 
 land the animals are slow 
 and clumsy, and are easily 
 driven in large groups to 
 grounds where they are 
 killed and skinned. So 
 many have been killed that 
 our government protects 
 them now, allowing only one 
 company to take a certain 
 number of skins yearly. 
 How have you seen seal- 
 skins used? 
 
 '*f 
 
146 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 The United States has important pos- 
 sessions in the tropics as well as in the 
 far North. Porto Rico and 
 part of a group of islands 
 called the Virgin Islands are 
 under our control (Fig. 158). 
 In Fig. 59 estimate the dis- 
 tance of San Juan from New 
 York. A strip of land ten miles 
 wide across the Isthmus of Panama, con- 
 taining the Panama Canal, is another 
 
 Our posses- 
 sions in the 
 tropics 
 
 1. Names and 
 locations of our 
 tropical posses- 
 sions 
 
 2. How we 
 obtained these 
 regions, and our 
 prospects for 
 keeping them 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 141. — A Porto Rican school 
 
 The small building just behind the group of children is the schoolhouse. 
 What flag floats over it? Why? What other sign of activity by Americans do 
 you see in this picture in addition to the American schoolhouse? If you 
 can explain the tower on the left, you can answer this question. 
 
 possession of the United States in this 
 region (Fig. 158). 
 
 Straight west of Central America, far 
 out in the Pacific Ocean, are the Hawaiian 
 Islands, which also belong to us (Fig. 315). 
 Estimate thedistance of Honolulu, their 
 
 principal city, from the Panama Canal; 
 from San Francisco. 
 
 Far to the west, across the Pacific 
 Ocean, are the Philippine Islands, one of 
 our most important possessions. Manila 
 is their leading city. How would you 
 reach it from San Francisco? From New 
 York? 
 
 These regions have been obtained in 
 different ways. The strip across the 
 Isthmus of Panama was ob- 
 tained in 1903 
 from the little 
 republic of 
 Panama. Our 
 object in securing it was 
 the digging of a ship canal 
 from ocean to ocean. This 
 great task was completed 
 in 1914. 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands 
 used to be an independent 
 kingdom. In 1893 they 
 rebelled against their ruler 
 and formed a republic. 
 Later they asked to be made 
 a part of the United States, 
 and in 1898 became one of 
 our territories. 
 
 The future relation of the 
 other islands to the United 
 States is less certain. Porto 
 Rico and the PhiUppines 
 were obtained as the result 
 of a war with Spain. They 
 had been for a long time 
 under the rule of Spain; but they were 
 not content with their government, and 
 there had been much trouble and blood- 
 shed. In 1898 the United States went to 
 the aid of the Cubans, who were fighting 
 for their independence. This quickly 
 
DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 147 
 
 brought on a war between our country 
 and Spain, known as the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can War, in which we were the victors. 
 Spain then surrendered these islands to 
 us. Cuba is now independent, but Porto 
 Rico (Fig. 158) and the Philippines have 
 remained under our control. We have, 
 however, held out the prospect of inde- 
 pendence to the Filipinos as soon as they 
 show that they are able to govern them- 
 selves without our help. Self-government 
 there is not easy, for there are more than 
 3,000 islands in the group, and there are 
 several races among the 
 natives, many of whom are 
 still uncivilized. Yet the 
 people, under our control, 
 have made remarkable 
 progress. 
 
 A close relation between 
 our island possessions and 
 , _ the United 
 
 3. Advantages . 
 
 of a close rela- StateS bnUgS 
 
 tion between . i • i 
 
 these islands important ad- 
 ^od^the United vantages both to 
 
 them and to us. 
 First of all, they are im- 
 portant as stopping places 
 for our vessels, where re- 
 pairs can be made and where 
 coal and other supplies can 
 be obtained. We have many ships in 
 different parts of the world, and it is 
 much Hke reaching home when they 
 enter the port of San Juan, Honolulu, 
 or Manila. 
 
 Much more important is our commerce 
 with these islands. Since they lie in the 
 tropics, and have plenty of rain, their 
 most important product is sugar cane. 
 They produce, also, tobacco and coffee; 
 great quantities of tropical fruits; and 
 
 many kinds of valuable tropical woods. A 
 very important product of the Philippines 
 is hemp, which is used in making a fine 
 quahty of rope, called Manila rope. All 
 these things we use extensively, while none 
 of them is produced by us in large enough 
 quantities to meet our demands. On the 
 other hand, we manufacture very exten- 
 sively, while these islands do little manu- 
 facturing. Thus by an exchange of 
 products both sides are greatly benefited. 
 We have seen that one of the leading 
 industries of San Francisco is the refining 
 
 These are the 
 houses are owned 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 142. — An Hawaiian village 
 homes of sugar plantation workers on Oahu Island. The 
 by one of the large plantation companies. 
 
 of raw sugar from the Hawaiian Islands 
 (p. 133). To what ports of the United 
 States would you expect products from 
 Porto Rico to be sent? Products from 
 the PhHippines (Fig. 315)? 
 
 The Panama Canal is of world-wide 
 importance. Before it was 
 
 4. Influence of 
 
 dug, vessels bound from New the Panama 
 York to San Francisco had to "^ 
 go around South America. The Canal 
 reduces this distance 8,000 mile^. 
 
148 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Estimate the distance it saves for vessels 
 from San Francisco to New Orleans. 
 a. Th^ distance What other important ocean 
 a saves routes that you can think of 
 
 are greatly shortened by it? 
 
 © Browii, Bros. 
 
 Fig. 143. — Extracting Manila hemp fiber 
 
 The Manila hemp plant really belongs to the banana 
 family. The fiber is obtained by cutting the leaf into 
 strips and pulling these strips over a blunt knife held 
 against the flat side of a board. This process crushes 
 the pulp and leaves the white fiber free and smooth. 
 Nearly all the Manila hemp of the world comes from the 
 Philippines. 
 
 The French began a canal here in 
 1881, but they lost hundreds of men by 
 , ,, . fever, and never finished the 
 
 o. Its improve- ' 
 
 ment of health veuturc. Some of the first 
 coruiitions ^j^.^^^ ^-^^^ ^^^ govemment 
 
 did in preparation for the actual digging 
 were to fill up or drain the surrounding 
 swamp lands, destroy all the mosquitoes 
 possible, build comfortable homes well 
 protected by mosquito netting, and pro- 
 vide good drinking water and a sewerage 
 system. Before this time, Colon and 
 Panama, the towns at the ends of the 
 Canal, were among the most dangerous 
 places on the earth; but they have been 
 
 made as healthful as most cities in the 
 United States. Locate these towns on 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 The success of these sanitary measures 
 has had a wonderful influence on people's 
 opinion of the tropics. Up to this time, 
 they had supposed that the tropical zone 
 was by nature very unhealthful, and that 
 for this reason it could never prove of 
 much value to white men. This success 
 suggests great possibilities for the future 
 of all these hot lands. 
 
 Before the Canal was built, there was 
 little reason for travelers to visit Panama 
 or any part of Central Amer- c. its influence 
 ica, and on account of the «'*^''«''«^ 
 great danger to health they kept away. 
 The whole region, therefore, was little 
 known. Now the Canal is one of the 
 central points of interest for the whole 
 world, and many persons go there to 
 see it. 
 
 The Canal is about forty miles long. 
 It takes about ten hours to pass through 
 it. The vessel, soon after entering, has 
 to be raised eighty-five feet; and it has 
 to be lowered again at the other end of 
 the Canal. This raising and lowering is 
 done by locks, such as are common in 
 canals in the .United States (Fig. 84). 
 The chief difference is that, since this is 
 a canal for the largest ocean vessels, the 
 locks are far larger. Can you imagine 
 the view backward from the ship after it 
 has been raised eighty-five feet? 
 
 Much of Central America is moun- 
 tainous, Uke Mexico (Fig. 58) ; and one of 
 the disappointments that some people 
 experience as they approach the Canal 
 is that the land about it is so low and 
 level. This is one of the reasons why this 
 was a favorable location for it; yet there 
 
REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 149 
 
 is one place, called the Gaillard Cut, 
 where it was necessary to dig through a 
 hill 300 feet high. This is one of the most 
 interesting parts of the Canal to visit. 
 Can you reproduce some of the conversa- 
 tion that might be over- 
 heard on a vessel as it neared 
 and passed through this > 
 section? 
 
 to Galveston, New Orleans, Mobile, 
 Charleston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, 
 New York, and Boston. Trace the routes 
 they would be likely to take to these 
 cities from Panama. 5. What goods 
 
 1. How may tourists be 
 expected to enjoy the voy- 
 Review age to Juneau? 
 
 questions 2. Name some 
 
 of the things of interest 
 about Juneau. 3. Some of 
 the points of interest on the 
 journey to Fairbanks bj^ 
 way of Seward. 4. Trace 
 two other routes from 
 Juneau to Fairbanks. 5. 
 What islands off the coast 
 of Alaska are well worth a 
 visit, and what would be 
 seen there? 6. Name and 
 locate our chief tropical pos- 
 sessions. 7. How did we obtain these 
 regions, and what are our prospects for 
 keeping them? 8. What advantages are 
 there in a close relation between these 
 islands and the United States? 9. Ex- 
 plain how the Panama Canal saves dis- 
 tance. 10. Show the influence of the 
 Canal Zone on health in the tropics. 
 11. How does the Canal influence travel? 
 1. Describe a glacier. 2. Which would 
 you prefer, a visit to Honolulu, or one to 
 Suggestions Juueau? Why? 3. Do you 
 for extra work j-^gard Alaska as more or less 
 valuable to our country than the PhiUp- 
 pines? Why? 4. The vessels of the 
 United Fruit Company carry their goods 
 
 © Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 144. — An ocean steamer in the Miraflores Locks, Panama Canal 
 Note the electric engine that is used to tow vessels through the locks. 
 Compare this view with Fig. 84 to see how the locks work. 
 
 would such vessels be likely to take on 
 their return voyages to the tropics? 
 
 VII. Review of the United States 
 
 We have seen that the forty-eight states 
 in our Union have been settled chiefly by 
 
 people who came from the Distribution 
 
 East. First, immigrants from of population 
 England and other countries of Europe 
 made their homes along the Atlantic 
 coast. Then there was a movement of 
 pioneers westward across the Appala- 
 chian Highland and the Mississippi Ba- 
 sin. Finally, settlers pushed across the 
 
150 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 mountains and plateaus of the West 
 until the Pacific coast was reached. Now 
 the 105,000,000 people in the United 
 States are distributed over nearly all 
 parts of the country. 
 
 They are, however, by no means evenly 
 distributed. In Fig. 145 you can draw a 
 north and south line through Oklahoma 
 City that divides the United States into 
 
 population, we mean that there are as 
 many persons living east of it as west, 
 and as many north of it as south. How 
 far do you Hve from it, and in what 
 direction? 
 
 From the same map you can tell what 
 parts of the country are most densely 
 settled, and what parts have the fewest 
 people. Name the states that are densely 
 
 One dot represents 10,000 people 
 Center of population 
 
 Fig. 145. — The distribution of population in the United States, 192D 
 Each dot stands for 10,000 people. Find the center of population, represented by a star. 
 
 two nearly equal parts. But the people 
 would be by no means equally divided. 
 Very many more would be found east of 
 this line than west of it. While this line 
 would pass through the middle part of 
 the country, the center of population 
 would be a long distance to the east of it. 
 You will find this point in southern Indi- 
 ana marked by a star on Fig. 145. By 
 gayjng that this star marks the center of 
 
 populated; the ones that are thinly 
 populated. 
 
 On p. 311 you will find a list of the 
 twenty-five largest cities in the United 
 States. See how many of Distribution 
 these you can name and locate °^ ^^^^^ *^'*'®^ 
 on Fig. 145. How many of them are in 
 the eastern half of our country? Which 
 are in the western half? How do the lat- 
 ter compare with the former in size? 
 
REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 151 
 
 Reasons for 
 the differ- 
 ence in popu- 
 lation between 
 the East and 
 the West 
 
 There are many reasons why the East 
 is so much more densely populated than 
 the West. Can you recall 
 several of them? The one 
 that is probably most impor- 
 tant is suggested in Fig. 146. 
 It is the distribution of rain- 
 fall. In that map, trace the line dividing 
 the arid section of the 
 United States, where 
 there is less than twenty 
 inches of rain, from the 
 well-watered region. No- 
 tice how near this line 
 is to the north and south 
 line dividing our coun- 
 try into two equal parts. 
 What portion of the 
 West is too dry for ordin- 
 ary farming? How does 
 the rainfall vary over all 
 that area? What states 
 are included in it? What 
 parts of the West have 
 plenty of rain for agricul- 
 ture? Describe the two 
 kinds of farming that are 
 carried on in the arid 
 region. How does the 
 rainfall vary in the 
 South? In the North 
 Central States? In the 
 Northeastern States? 
 
 Probably the next most 
 important reason for 
 the difference in popu- 
 lation between the East 
 and West is found in the 
 difference in the extent 
 of mountainous areas in 
 the two regions. Name three systems 
 of mountains in the West that reach at 
 
 least most of the way from the Canadian 
 boundary to Mexico. What name is 
 applied to all these ranges together (Fig. 
 58)? Which states are crossed by the 
 Rocky Mountains? Which by the Sierra 
 Nevada? Which by the Cascade Moun- 
 tains? In what states are the Coast 
 Ranges? State two reasons why moun- 
 
 Wiu^tK.CvaK.r. 
 
 Fig. 146. — Annual rainfall in North America 
 
 tains are likely 
 agriculture. 
 
 to be unfavorable to 
 
152 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 What extensive highland region is there 
 in the East? What states there are moun- 
 tainous? How do these highlands compare 
 in height and area with those in the West? 
 
 The occupation that most influences 
 
 population is farming. Nearly one sixth 
 
 of all the workers in our 
 
 flr^t^tc^"^' country are engaged in that 
 
 tions are alike industry. Wherever condi- 
 
 in their farm , • r r» 
 
 products tions for farmmg are very 
 
 favorable, there is likely to 
 
 be a large population; and it is largely 
 
 because the lack of rain and the moun- 
 
 From The Geography of the World's Agriculture (1910) 
 
 Fig. 147 
 
 tains make many parts of the West so 
 unfavorable to agriculture that it has so 
 few inhabitants. The North Central 
 States take the lead in the production of 
 farm crops; the Southern States rank next. 
 In spite of many differences in the 
 crops of these sections, there are certain 
 farm products that are found in almost 
 every place where there is farming. One 
 of these is hay; another is cattle, together 
 with milk and butter; a third is poultry; 
 a fourth is potatoes; and a fifth is fruit, 
 particularly apples. Can you suggest 
 
 some reasons why these are so common? 
 Fruit is raised extensively in all four 
 groups of states. Name the kind grown 
 most extensively along the southern side 
 of Lake Erie (p. 81). What kind is 
 raised on the eastern side of Lake Michi- 
 gan (p. 90)? What kinds come in large 
 amounts from California, Washington, 
 and Oregon (pp. 132, 135-7)? 
 
 The South enjoys many advantages over 
 the other sections for farming. Its abun- 
 dant rainfall, fertile soil, and 
 
 ,. . ,, ... . Advantages 
 
 warm climate allow it to raise for farming 
 
 nearly all the that the South 
 
 •^ enjoys over 
 
 crops grown other sections 
 
 elsewhere in the sJI'e^g^""^^ 
 United States, 
 and several others besides. 
 Its most important crop is 
 cotton, which is grown there 
 far more extensively than 
 anywhere else in the world. 
 Show the area on the map 
 that is suited to cotton, and 
 name the principal cotton 
 states (Fig. 101). It is the 
 only section of the United 
 States that can grow sugar 
 cane. In what state is cane 
 chiefly produced (p. 105)? What outly- 
 ing possession of the United States pro- 
 duces great quantities (p. 147)? The 
 South also produces rice and large quan- 
 tities of tobacco; and there is only one 
 other section that competes with it in 
 citrus fruits. What section is that (p. 140) ? 
 The South comes nearer supplying itself 
 with all the kinds of food needed than 
 any other portion of our country. 
 
 In spite of the advantages of the South 
 for agriculture, the North Central States 
 are our most important section for the 
 
REVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 153 
 
 production of food. While corn is grown 
 in most parts ol' our country, the noted 
 Wh the Corn Belt lies entirely in these 
 
 North Central states (Fig. 147). Name the 
 d^eTe"" States included in it. The 
 greatest quan- reason for this fact is that the 
 ^ ° °° soil and climate of these states 
 are better fitted for this crop than the 
 soil and chmate elsewhere. The presence 
 of so much corn makes it possible to 
 fatten great numbers of cattle and hogs, 
 for corn is the best feed for fattening 
 those animals. 
 
 Wheat as well as com is a noted crop of 
 this section. Fig. 148 shows 
 how extensively wheat is 
 grown in the United States. 
 Note how superior the 
 North Central States are to 
 any other entire group in 
 its production. Name the 
 states which lead in this 
 crop. Again, it is the soil 
 and climate that allow such 
 great success in the cultiva- 
 tion of wheat. Thus, we 
 owe our supply of meat and 
 bread more to the North 
 Central States than to any 
 other part of our country. 
 
 Fig. 145 shows that the Northeastern 
 States and those bordering the Great 
 Why the Lakes are the most densely 
 
 Northeastern populated portions of the 
 u^ted states United States. What is the 
 is most dense- principal reason for this? It 
 ypopuae ^annot be due to agriculture, 
 because much of the surface is very 
 poor farmland. Show that this is true. 
 
 It is partly due to coal, the most im- 
 portant mineral. There is one state in 
 this section that mines nearly as much 
 
 coal as all our other states together. 
 Name it. What can you tell about the 
 kinds of coal it produces and the quan- 
 tity of each (p; 77)? Name some of 
 the "coal cities" (p. 77). 
 
 Yet the dense population cannot be 
 due to coal alone, for there are other sec- 
 tions that are well supplied with it. 
 Show what they are (Fig. 149). How 
 does the West compare with the East 
 in abundance of coal? 
 
 It is iron ore and other metals, together 
 with coal, that largely explain the dense 
 population there. Iron ore ranks next to 
 
 From The Geography of The World's Agriculture {1910) 
 
 Fig. 148 
 
 coal in value as a mineral. Where does 
 that ore come from (p. 78)? Describe 
 the course it takes to reach Detroit; 
 Cleveland; Buffalo; Pittsburgh (Fig. 86). 
 In what state of the North Central group 
 is copper mined extensively (p. 87)? 
 The Western States send large quantities 
 of metal to this section also. Which are 
 most noted for copper (p. 139)? 
 
 What use does the East make of iron 
 ore? How are the articles that New Eng- 
 land manufactures from it different from 
 
154 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 those of Pennsylvania and the states 
 surrounding it (p. 78)? Why is there 
 such a difference? 
 
 Skill in manufacturing other things 
 than iron goods is another reason for the 
 dense population of these states. In one 
 section, great quantities of cotton goods, 
 
 The same can be said of the North Central 
 States. Yet these two sections now sup- 
 ply only a small part of the where we are 
 
 wood they require. In many now getting 
 
 1 l^ • p i 1 1 our lumber 
 
 places tneir lorests have been 
 destroyed, as have those west of Lake 
 Huron (p. 86). 
 
 Fig. 149. — Coal and iron in the United States 
 The only deposits shown here are those that have been mined or are being mined at present. 
 
 woolen goods, and leather goods are 
 made, even though that section produces 
 no cotton and very little wool or leather. 
 Which states are engaged in such manu- 
 facturing (p. 79)? Name and locate 
 some of the cities that are occupied with 
 one or more of these industries. What 
 kinds of factories are found in Detroit 
 (p. 85)? In Chicago and vicinity (p. 
 92)? In MinneapoUs (p. 95)? 
 
 Lumbering used to be a very important 
 industry in the Northeastern States, 
 which still produce considerable timber. 
 
 What portion of the South has fol- 
 lowed the example of these other groups 
 of states in the destruction of its forests 
 (p. 116)? The timber in the South is 
 being so rapidly exhausted that the 
 Pacific Northwest is now our principal 
 source of supply. What do you remem- 
 ber about the kinds of trees there, and 
 their size (p. 137)? 
 
 Aside from wagon roads, the chief 
 means for transportation of goods from 
 one part of our country to another are 
 waterways and railroads. By far the 
 
156 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 most important waterway is the Great 
 Lakes system. How are they connected 
 Our provisions ^y Water with New York City 
 
 for transporta 
 tion 
 
 (p. 73)? Trace the route 
 from Duluth and from Chicago 
 to New York. What goods are carried 
 east on these lakes (p. 84)? What 
 goods are carried west (p. 87)? 
 
 The railroads carry many times as 
 much freight as the rivers. Fig. 150 
 shows what a network of railways we 
 have. What is our greatest railroad cen- 
 ter (p. 92)? How can you explain its 
 importance? What other great railroad 
 centers do you find in the North Central 
 States? 
 
 Our greatest port is New York. It 
 receives and sends away about as many 
 goods as all our other ports together. 
 Can you give a reason for such impor- 
 
 tance? Name one important port north- 
 east of New York, and two others south- 
 west of it. The two leading ports in the 
 South are New Orleans and Galveston. 
 Locate each, and state some of their 
 advantages (p. 114). What port on the 
 Pacific coast is located 100 miles up a 
 river, like New Orleans? Name and lo- 
 cate two other prominent ports on the 
 Pacific coast. 
 
 Name the dependencies of the United 
 States and locate each. Which of them 
 seems to you most valuable? The value of 
 Why? What important prod- our depend- 
 ucts are furnished by Alaska? 
 What products do our tropical posses- 
 sions supply that cannot be raised in 
 large quantities in our own country? 
 In what ways is the Panama Canal of 
 importance to us? 
 
 VIII. Other Countries of North America 
 1. Canada and Newfoundland 
 
 Canada is a land of enormous area, 
 
 being about as large as the United States 
 
 and Mexico to- 
 
 and why only narrow strip 
 
 the southern i_ j • x t_ 
 
 part is settled bordering the 
 United States, 
 however, has been settled. 
 This strip averages hardly 
 200 miles in width. Esti- 
 mate its length from ocean 
 to ocean, and the part of the 
 entire area which it forms. 
 Why have the people kept 
 so close to the southern 
 boundary? Fig. 151 sug- 
 gests some of the reasons. 
 North of a line that is 
 
 shown there, neither trees nor any other 
 valuable kind of plant can grow, because 
 
 Fig. 151. — Farmlands in Canada 
 
CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 157 
 
 the average temperature, even in July, is 
 under fifty degrees. How much of Can- 
 ada can you estimate is thus made nearly 
 useless by the cold? 
 
 The same map shows what a large por- 
 tion of the country has very thin soil — in 
 most parts too thin for farming. It is 
 now largely covered with forests, which 
 
 In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
 (Fig. 157) the surface is rough, as in New 
 England, and much of the land is ill 
 suited to farming. Yet fruits and vege- 
 tables, particularly apples, potatoes, and 
 turnips, are grown extensively, and dairy- 
 ing is carried on much as in our northern 
 states. 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 152. — Harvesting wheat, Saskatchewan 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 mil probably, on that account, not be 
 cut down to clear the land for farming. 
 Note how little good land is left along 
 the St. Lawrence River and north of the 
 Great Lakes. The extreme cold and the 
 thin soil are the chief reasons why the 
 settlers of Canada have kept so close to 
 the southern boundary. 
 
 A large part of the boundary between 
 the United States and Canada is only an 
 imaginary line, and there is 
 nothing in the surface or cli- 
 mate that suggests a change 
 from one country to the other. 
 As might be expected, the 
 farm products are very similar to those of 
 our northern states. 
 
 Similarity of 
 our northern 
 states and 
 Canada in 
 farm products 
 
 Along the St. Lawrence River and 
 north of New York, Pennsylvania, and 
 Ohio, wheat, rye, and oats and many 
 kinds of vegetables are raised, while 
 grapes, apples, and peaches are common, 
 as in western New York and northern 
 Ohio. 
 
 Across from Minnesota, North Dakota, 
 and Montana, an immense area is de- 
 voted to wheat. Oats and rye are also 
 important crops, as in those states. 
 
 Just to the east of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, in Alberta (Fig 157), it is dry; 
 much of the land there is on that account 
 given over to cattle and sheep, as it is in 
 western Montana, while the irrigated sec- 
 tions produce potatoes, alfalfa, and fruits. 
 
158 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 In British Columbia the correspond- 
 ence continues, the chief products in 
 the fertile valleys being, as in Washing- 
 ton, apples, pears, plums and other 
 fruits, hops, and vegetables, while grazing 
 is common in the dry sections. 
 
 and the west winds that blow regularly 
 across it make the coast climate surpris- 
 ingly mild in winter. Flowers bloom in 
 the gardens at Victoria and Vancouver 
 (Fig. 157) all the year round. East of 
 the Rocky Mountains the west winds 
 
 |ii»MMfe*^iae*2r 
 
 ^•j&jiii-. 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 153. — Apple-blossom time in Nova Scotia 
 
 Can you see any differences between this country scene and those near your home? Will pupils in all sections of 
 our country answer this question in the same way? 
 
 Montreal used to attract winter visi- 
 tors by building magnificent ice palaces, 
 and many people came to 
 is able to raise associate Canada with the 
 crops so simi- Arctic regions, even in sum- 
 
 lar to our own ° ' 
 
 mer. They could understand 
 why southern Ontario might raise prod- 
 ucts similar to those of our northern 
 states, for it lies as far south as many of 
 them and its climate is made mild by 
 the surrounding lakes. Other portions of 
 Canada, it was thought, could never pro- 
 duce much because they lay so far north. 
 Recent years have greatly changed 
 this impression. British Columbia is 
 farther north than northern Maine, but 
 the North Pacific Ocean is twenty de- 
 grees warmer than the North Atlantic, 
 
 have little influence on the temperature, 
 and the winters are very cold. At Edmon- 
 ton, in Alberta, the temperature some- 
 times falls to forty-five degrees below 
 zero, and in other parts of the central 
 provinces it is still colder. 
 
 The summer, however, is the important 
 season for the farmer, and while frosts 
 last late in the spring and come early in 
 the fall, midsummer days are not only 
 warm but much longer than ours. This 
 latter fact is very important in the ma- 
 turing of crops. At Edmonton on June 
 21st the sun shines for about sixteen 
 hours. Thus the long days make up to a 
 certain extent for the short summer and 
 the slant at which the sun's rays strike 
 the earth. 
 
CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 159 
 
 Some reasons 
 for close 
 friendship be- 
 tween the 
 United States 
 and Canada 
 
 Since only an imaginary line separates 
 much of the United States from Canada, 
 it would be easy for trouble 
 to arise here if there were 
 bad feeling between the two 
 countries. Yet there has 
 been no serious difficulty be- 
 tween us for more than 100 years, and 
 there is not Ukely to be again. We are 
 too much in need of each other not to 
 be good friends. 
 
 Canada has an enormous amount of 
 forest, while ours is rapidly disappearing. 
 There will always be a very extensive 
 demand for wood for building purposes, 
 furniture, farm implements, 
 and paper. A single issue 
 of the New York Sunday 
 Times sometimes requires as 
 much as 370 tons of news- 
 print. One ton of news- 
 print requires one and two 
 fifths cords of wood, which 
 is about one fourth as much 
 as grows on one acre in the 
 forests of northern New 
 England and eastern Can- 
 ada. Knowing these facts, 
 you can figure out how 
 many acres of such forest 
 one issue of this paper may 
 consume. Canada must be 
 a great source of supply of 
 wood for us. 
 
 Canada has large quan- 
 tities of coal in Nova 
 Scotia, British Columbia, and Alberta 
 (Fig. 157), though she lacks it in On- 
 tario and Quebec. Ontario, however, 
 has rich mines of iron ore, copper, and 
 nickel north of the Great Lakes; but 
 without coal she cannot refine the ores. 
 
 On the other hand, we lack coal in New 
 England and in the Pacific coast states, 
 while we have enormous quantities of it 
 in Pennsylvania and other states oppo- 
 site Ontario. How admirably, therefore, 
 we can meet each other's needs! 
 
 Again, Canada is engaged mainly in 
 agriculture. Montreal, the largest city, 
 and Quebec manufacture lumber, flour, 
 shoes, butter and cheese, railroad equip- 
 ment, and many other products. Toronto 
 and Winnipeg produce meat, flour, and 
 other foodstuffs, and on the two coasts 
 fish are prepared for the market; but 
 manufacturing on the whole is not exten- 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 154. — In the Canadian Rockies 
 The Rocky Mountains in Canada are famous for their scenery. The snow 
 extends farther down the slopes than in our country, and there are many 
 beautiful lakes. This body of water is called Lake Louise. 
 
 sive. The United States, however, is 
 becoming so great a manufacturing nation 
 that it must import much food and must 
 find markets in other countries for its 
 manufactures. Thus in a third way we 
 are in a position to supply each other's 
 
160 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 wants. As might be expected from these 
 facts, Canada trades more with us than 
 with any other country. 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Serrire 
 
 Fig. 155. — ^ A member of the Royal Northwest 
 Mounted Police 
 
 These men preserve order and protect the Uves and 
 property of people in northwestern Canada, where there 
 are few people. They often travel long distances to catch 
 criminals or to save lives. 
 
 Not only is the settled portion of Can- 
 ada very long and narrow, but the people 
 are naturally assembled into 
 groups that are separated from 
 one another. Fig. 66 shows 
 that Maine extends so far 
 north as to separate the three 
 coast provinces from Quebec. A vast 
 forest lies between the settled part of 
 Ontario and Manitoba; and the Rockies 
 form a lofty wall between Alberta and 
 British Columbia. 
 
 How the dif- 
 ferent parts 
 of Canada are 
 kept in close 
 touch with one 
 another 
 
 What holds these sections together? 
 One thing is the excellent government. 
 The nine provinces form a union called 
 the Dominion of Canada, which is a part 
 of the British Empire. Ottawa, in east- 
 ern Ontario, is the capital. 
 
 The principal railroads and waterways 
 extend east and west and are very help- 
 ful in keeping these sections in close 
 touch with one another. Canada has 
 more miles of railroad, considering its 
 population, than any other country in 
 the world except Australia. Three of its 
 roads extend entirely across the continent. 
 Trace them from coast to coast and 
 locate the leading cities upon them (Fig. 
 i 157). How many pass through Winni- 
 I peg? Note in what cities they end on 
 the two coasts. The largest cities in 
 j Canada are Montreal and Toronto. How 
 ' many of these railroads run through 
 them? 
 
 A great deal of use is made also of the 
 Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River 
 in travel and commerce east and west. 
 Trace the course of goods from Fort 
 William or Port Arthur on Lake Superior 
 to the mouth of the St. Lawrence River 
 (Fig. 157). This route has some advan- 
 tages over our own from Duluth to New 
 York City. Can you suggest how? 
 
 Newfoundland is not a part of Canada, 
 being an entirely separate colony of 
 Great Britain. Its interests 
 are very different from those 
 of most of Canada, more than 
 one fourth of its entire popu- 
 lation being engaged in fishing. The 
 coastal and nearby waters of Newfound- 
 land swarm with codfish; a good share 
 of the world's supply of cod comes from 
 that vicinity. There has been consider- 
 
 Why New- 
 foundland is 
 separately 
 mentioned 
 
MEXICO 
 
 161 
 
 able discussion of a union with Canada, 
 but the step has not yet been taken. 
 
 1. Compare the area of Canada with 
 that of the United States. 2. Where are 
 Review the inhabitants 
 
 questions located? 3. 
 
 Why is only the southern 
 part settled? 4. Show the 
 similarity in products of our 
 northern states and Canada. 
 
 5. How can Canada raise 
 crops so similar to our own 
 when it lies so far north? 
 
 6. State some reasons for 
 close friendship between 
 Canada and the United 
 States. 7. How are the 
 different parts of Canada 
 kept in close touch with one 
 another? 8. Why is New- 
 foundland mentioned sep- 
 arately? 
 
 1. What greater diffi- 
 culties have the Canadian 
 
 railroads in winter than our 
 railroads have? 2. If you 
 were going to emigrate to 
 Canada, what section would you choose? 
 Why? 3. On Fig. 58, trace a water 
 
 route north of the mainland of Canada 
 between the Atlantic and the Pacific 
 oceans. Why cannot such a route be 
 used? 4. Compare Fig. 157 with Figs. 58 
 and 146 to see what parts of Canada yon 
 
 Suggestions 
 for extra 
 work 
 
 © Publishera' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 156. —A store in the Canadian Northwest 
 There are many of these general stores in the northern wilderness, where 
 trappers and Indians trade. How many kinds of wares do you recognize? 
 
 would expect, because of sufficient rain- 
 fall and smoothness of surface, to make 
 the best homes for large numbers of 
 people. Are these areas near the section 
 where most of the cities are located? 
 
 2. Mexico 
 
 Plan for a 
 short visit to 
 Mexico 
 
 If you were planning a short visit to 
 Mexico, there is one place above all 
 others that you would want 
 to see; that is Mexico City. 
 How could you reach it by 
 rail from where you live? On Fig. 59 
 trace the all-rail route that you might 
 take. If you went from New York by 
 boat, you would probably land at Vera 
 
 Cruz on the Gulf coast. Find this port 
 (Fig. 158). Quite possibly your vessel 
 would stop at Havana on the way. Trace 
 this route. 
 
 At Vera Cruz you would probably feel 
 very uncomfortable, no matter what 
 time of the year you aj-rived, for it lies 
 well within the tropics and is on a low- 
 land. Every day, therefore, is hot. 
 

164 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Estimate its distance south of the tropic 
 of Cancer, the northern border of the 
 tropics (Fig. 59). 
 
 You would not care to stop here long, 
 because it is unhealthful as well as hot. 
 The distance by rail from Vera Cruz to 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 159. — Mexico City 
 What signs do you see of a style of building unlike ours? 
 
 Mexico City is a little more than 250 
 miles. On leaving Vera Cruz the road 
 first crosses a low plain where the rainfall 
 is heavy, vegetation is rank, and insects 
 are abundant. Then the road begins to 
 ascend; it has to climb 8,300 feet above 
 sea level before it comes down into the 
 valley of Mexico City. How much more 
 than a mile is that? How would you 
 expect the vegetation and the scenery to 
 change as you ascended? 
 
 Mexico City is a very interesting and 
 attractive city. Its parks, drives, and 
 public buildings are especially beauti- 
 ful, and its scenery can hardly be sur- 
 passed. In the distance are mountains 
 
 that entirely surround it. The volcanic 
 mountains, Popocatepetl (Fig. 162) and 
 others about forty miles away, can be 
 seen plainly, with their wooded slopes 
 and snow-covered peaks. 
 
 One object of special interest would 
 be the drainage system of 
 the city. The city is located 
 in the bottom of a bowl- 
 shaped basin; formerly 
 water from the surround- 
 ing mountains sometimes 
 flooded its streets for weeks. 
 On one occasion 30,000 per- 
 sons were drowned, and the 
 place was for a long time 
 unhealthful on account of 
 the dampness. In 1900 a 
 canal thirty miles long was 
 completed to lead away the 
 waste waters. There are 
 many other objects of inter- 
 est in the vicinity, such, for 
 example, as old-style build- 
 ings in the city, lakes in the 
 surrounding territory, and 
 other cities not far distant. This country 
 formerly belonged to Spain; and Spanish 
 is still the chief language. There are 
 many sights and customs in Mexico that 
 would seem strange to us. 
 
 Mexico enjoys three great advantages. 
 The first is the delightful temperature in 
 a large part of the country. 
 Mexico City is located in a 
 valley on the plateau at an 
 elevation of more than 7,000 
 feet above the sea (Fig. 159). 
 Although the plateau decreas- 
 es in altitude toward the north, Fig. 58 
 shows what a large area is at least 5,000 
 feet above sea level. Even though much 
 
 Advantages 
 that Mexico 
 enjoys 
 
 1. The attrac- 
 tion of its 
 climate 
 
MEXICO 
 
 105 
 
 of this area is in the tropics, the tropical 
 heat is not felt here. The temperature of 
 Mexico City and the surrounding region 
 is like that of late spring in most of 
 the United States. The attractiveness of 
 this section is suggested by the great 
 number of its inhabitants, for it is the 
 most densely settled part of Mexico. 
 
 The second advantage concerns the 
 variety of farm products. The rainfall 
 2. Its great ^^ heavy in the south, but 
 variety of farm decreascs toward the north 
 
 products •! 1 
 
 until the part next to the 
 United States is as dry as Arizona and 
 New Mexico. With such a variety of 
 temperature and rainfall, Mexico grows 
 about all the kinds of plants 
 found between the equator 
 and the pole. On the hot 
 and damp coastal plains rice, 
 rubber trees, sugar cane, 
 bananas, and other tropical 
 fruits and trees flourish. On 
 the slopes leading up to the 
 plateau are coffee, cotton, 
 tobacco, and other semi- 
 tropical products. On the 
 plateau itself are corn, 
 wheat, beans, and other 
 products of the temperate 
 zone. On the low, level land 
 in Yucatan one of the most 
 important plants is sisal, 
 from which binding twine is 
 made. We use large 
 amounts of such twine for 
 binding wheat and oats. In Yucatan and 
 the arid northwest as many as 30,000 
 cattle sometimes graze on a single ranch. 
 The variety and abundance of minerals 
 give Mexico its third great advantage. 
 It has pi-oduced more silver than any 
 
 3. Its variety 
 and abundance 
 of minerals 
 
 other country in the world, and still leads 
 in the yearly output. Its gold, also, is 
 abundant; and it has large 
 deposits of copper, iron, lead, 
 quicksilver, and other miner- 
 als. Its oil wells are among the most 
 productive in the world. Vessels sail 
 almost every day from the ports of 
 Tampico and Tuxpam (Fig. 158) with 
 oil for the United States or Europe. 
 
 Thousands of our citizens have been 
 attracted to Mexico by opportunities for 
 business. They have invested our interest in 
 extensively in cattle ranches the Mexican 
 
 ,1 -1 .1 , . government 
 
 in the and northern section; 
 
 in oil wells on the Gulf coast; in 
 
 ^ Kcy.stono \ itw Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 160. — Sisal in Yucatan 
 
 What plant that you sometimes see in the United States does this plant 
 suggest? 
 
 mines in the interior; in railroads; and 
 in rubber, sugar, and coffee plantations. 
 But in recent years there has been much 
 disorder. Battles have been fought in 
 many parts of the country. Small bands 
 of ruffians have wandered about, robbing 
 
166 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 and killing helpless travelers, attacking 
 towns, looting homes and stores, and 
 wrecking trains. During these disorders 
 our citizens have suffered severely. Much 
 of their property has been stolen or 
 destroyed; and hundreds of them have 
 
 1. Extent of the 
 country and 
 character of its 
 surface 
 
 I'hdtii hi/ Ehin r,l.-,-/ r) Ewing OaUotoay 
 
 Fig. 161. — A Mexican family 
 Of what does their house appear to be made? 
 
 been killed or forced to flee for their 
 lives. 
 
 The trouble has extended even across 
 our boundary. That line is more than 
 1,800 miles long, less than one half of 
 which is formed by the Rio Grande 
 (Fig. 59). This river looks like a large 
 one on Fig. 58; but it flows through so 
 arid a country and loses so much v/ater 
 for irrigation in its upper course that its 
 lower part is almost dry in summer. It 
 is as easy to cross the Mexican boundary, 
 therefore, as much of our Canadian 
 boundary (p. 159). Until the government 
 of Mexico became stronger in 1920, rov- 
 
 ing bands of Mexicans frequently did so. 
 They drove off horses and cattle, burned 
 houses, and attacked towns. Note how 
 many of our towns are close to the 
 border. Name some of them. 
 
 Mexico is a large country, having about 
 
 one fourth the area of the 
 
 United States. 
 
 _ , . . Why Mexico 
 
 Much of its SUr- is a difficult 
 
 face, too, is ^^^^^^° 
 
 govern 
 
 rough. The low- 
 land along the 
 coast and in 
 the peninsula of 
 Yucatan is level; but the 
 rest is a vast plateau with 
 many mountains upon it 
 which divide it into sections 
 that cannot easily com- 
 municate with one another. 
 Railroads are hard to 
 build in such a region and 
 there are few of 
 them. There are 
 about 16,000 miles of rail- 
 road, which is only one 
 fourth the average for the 
 same area in the United States. Good 
 wagon roads are also uncommon. A few 
 years ago a journey from Vera Cruz, the 
 principal port on the Gulf coast, to 
 Acapulco, 300 miles away on the west 
 coast, was made most easily by going to 
 New York by boat, crossing the United 
 States to San Francisco, and then going 
 south by boat. Most sections are no 
 better off for roads now than they were 
 then. Trails take the place of roads, 
 and the burro is the principal carrier. 
 
 Such a country is bound to be difficult 
 to govern; for when great numbers of 
 people in so large an area are so com- 
 
 2. Lack of roads 
 
MEXICO 
 
 167 
 
 pletely separated from one another, there 
 can be little acquaintance or friendship 
 , , , among them, and misunder- 
 
 3. Ignorance of ^ ^ _ 
 
 the mass of the standings easily arise that lead 
 to war. Only a very strong 
 government can preserve order. The 
 mass of the people, however, are too 
 ignorant to make a strong government 
 possible. Less than one person in five 
 is white, the others being Indians and 
 persons of mixed blood. The whites are 
 usually well educated, but most of the 
 others are unable to read or write; they 
 have little skill or energy in work and 
 little ambition to improve themselves, and 
 they are very superstitious. 
 It is easy for unprincipled 
 leaders to win their support 
 for any sort of violence. 
 In consequence, the govern- 
 ment has been very weak. 
 There has, however, been a 
 great improvement in this 
 respect since 1920. 
 
 for extra 
 work 
 
 1. The rivers of Mexico are short and 
 of little use for transportation. Why? 
 2. What do you imagine to suggestions 
 be the difficulties in travel- 
 ing overland from Vera Cruz 
 to Acapulco? 3. The country south of 
 our boundary is arid. Does that favor or 
 hinder the success of sudden raids from 
 the Mexican side? 4. Describe some of 
 the views you would expect if you as- 
 cended Popocatepetl to the top. 5. Are 
 there as strong reasons for friendship 
 between the United States and Mexico 
 as there are between the United States 
 and Canada? Why? 
 
 1. Show how you could 
 reach Mexico City from 
 Review where you live, 
 
 questions 2. Describe 
 
 some of the scenes on the 
 route and in Mexico City. 
 3. In what way is the 
 climate attractive on the 
 plateau? How can it be so 
 pleasant in the tropics? 4. 
 Why has Mexico a great 
 variety of farm products; 
 and what are the principal 
 crops? 5. What minerals 
 does it produce? 6. How 
 has it caused us much 
 trouble? 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 162. — A country scene in Mexico 
 Popocatepetl is seen on the right. What do you see in this picture that is 
 shown also in Fig. 20? What are the signs that this is a dry or arid region? 
 
168 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 3. Central America and the West Indies 
 
 Even though one sails south from New 
 York toward the West Indies and Cen- 
 Attractions of ^I'^l America in January, the 
 this region to third moming out is hkely to 
 bring warm weather. Then 
 one puts on the lightest 
 summer clothing, the only kind he needs 
 until his return. At Colon, on the 
 coast of Panama, 70 degrees is considered 
 
 travelers 
 
 1. The climate 
 
 Fig. 163. —Loading a steamer with bananas, Kingston 
 
 a low temperature and 95 degrees very 
 hot. This gives a range of about 25 
 degrees during the year, and represents 
 very well the temperature conditions on 
 the lowlands throughout Central Amer- 
 ica and the West Indies; for all of these 
 countries lie fully within the tropics. 
 Their highland areas are, of course, con- 
 siderably cooler. How would you like 
 that kind of climate? Many of our 
 people are attracted by it and go to the 
 tropics for the winter on that account. 
 
 The growing crops are of great interest 
 to the traveler; for example, the bananas, 
 coconuts, coffee, and rubber. 2. The farm 
 Sugar cane, tobacco, and P'^^^^ts 
 many kinds of vegetables are also 
 raised in most parts of this large region. 
 Jamaica produces great quantities of 
 bananas; Costa Rica is especially 
 noted for bananas and coffee; and Cuba 
 
 for sugar. Locate each of 
 
 these countries (Fig. 158). 
 The appearance and 
 
 customs of the people are 
 
 as unlike our 
 
 3. The people 
 
 own as their 
 fruits and vegetables. 
 Some of the people are well 
 educated, however, with 
 homes, dress, and customs 
 much like ours. These are 
 mostly whites. In most 
 of Central America and 
 in several of the islands 
 Spanish is spoken, as in 
 Mexico; in other islands 
 the language is English or 
 French or Dutch. 
 The inhabitants of the 
 West Indies understand better than 
 those of the mainland how to entertain 
 foreigners, and their roads are better for 
 touring. Largely for such reasons, trav- 
 elers from the United States have been 
 more attracted to the islands than to 
 Central America. The most important 
 winter resorts are Havana in Cuba, 
 Kingston in Jamaica, San Juan in Porto 
 Rico, and Nassau in the Bahamas (Fig. 
 165). Locate each of these islands and 
 cities on Fig. 158. 
 
 © Vnrlerirood and Undcnrood 
 
CENTRAL AMERICA AND TITE WEST INDIES 
 
 169 
 
 While there are well edu- 
 cated and i^rosperous people 
 in all these countries, many 
 of them have little educa- 
 tion and would seem to us 
 very poor. In Jamaica, for 
 example, the homes of the 
 natives are the simplest 
 huts, having usually only 
 one or two small rooms, a 
 dirt floor, no chimney, and 
 scarcely any furniture, not 
 even a stove. The chief use 
 of their houses is protection 
 from the sun and rain, 
 though the roof may leak 
 in the wet season, and the 
 floor become muddy. Men 
 and women possess very 
 little clothing, and use but little money. 
 Many Uving about Kingston supply fruit 
 and vegetables to the city. They gen- 
 erally carry their produce to market in 
 
 © Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 164. — Selling fruit and poviltry in Havana 
 This is what one would see in many of the cities of Cuba. Can you name 
 the kind of fruit this man has to sell? Is the poultry dressed or alive? 
 
 © PvbUxhers' Photo Seriire 
 
 Fig. 165. — Avenue of palms, Nassau 
 
 baskets on their heads, walking both 
 ways, even though they live ten or fifteen 
 miles out in the country. They start by 
 midnight or earlier with a few coconuts, 
 bananas, short stalks of 
 sugar cane, a live hen or 
 goose, or other articles, 
 weighing in all from twenty 
 to fifty pounds. They spend 
 the morning at the market 
 selling their wares and then 
 return with perhaps twenty- 
 five or fifty cents in their 
 pockets. 
 
 Cuba is the most pros- 
 perous and the most highly 
 
 developed of importance 
 
 these countries. °^ ^"^* 
 Its people are largely of 
 Spanish descent. Many of 
 these Spanish families have 
 been in Cuba for several 
 hundred years. The island 
 
170 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 has valuable deposits of iron ore and 
 other minerals and its farms produce 
 sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, and hemp. 
 It is one of the greatest sugar-producing 
 regions of the world. Estimate the dis- 
 tance of Havana from the southern tip 
 of Florida. 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Galhyway 
 
 Fig. 166. — Mt. Pel6e, from the water 
 
 To many of us the steady heat of these 
 countries would seem a great hardship. 
 Though the thermometer does 
 not go so high as it sometimes 
 does with us, there is no relief 
 from the heat day or night 
 throughout the year. There 
 are far worse hardships, how- 
 ever, than the heat. The most common 
 winds blow from the northeast and bring 
 much rain, especially to the north and 
 east coasts. Now and then they cause 
 serious floods; and sometimes there is a 
 
 Hardships 
 that these 
 countries 
 suffer 
 
 1. From the 
 climate 
 
 drought that is just as bad. In addition, 
 destructive hurricanes are frequent. 
 Farming is, therefore, less certain here 
 than in the United States. 
 
 Earthquakes and eruptions of volcanoes 
 have often caused great damage. For 
 example, San Salvador (Fig. 
 
 •^ ' . , 2. From earth- 
 
 158), the capital quakes and 
 ., p ri ^ T volcanoes 
 
 city 01 Salvador, 
 which has been destroyed so 
 many times by earthquakes 
 that its site was changed. 
 In 1902 one of the most 
 terrible eruptions ever re- 
 corded occurred in the island 
 of Martinique, in the lesser 
 Antilles. After being quiet 
 for about fifty years, Mont 
 Pelee (Fig. 166) suddenly 
 burst forth and completely 
 destroyed the beautiful city 
 of St. Pierre at its foot. In 
 a few minutes all its 25,000 
 inhabitants were kiUed by 
 the steam, gases, and hot 
 ashes that descended upon 
 them. Locate this island. 
 More recently Guatemala 
 City was almost entirely 
 destroyed by an earthquake. Partly on 
 account of earthquakes, buildings in this 
 region are seldom over two or three stories 
 in height. 
 
 Another serious danger is that of 
 disease, particularly of fever and other 
 ailments common in the hot 3. From diseases 
 and undrained lowlands. The "'^ ^^ ^o-^^^as 
 lands along the coast of the Caribbean 
 Sea in Central America are very fertile 
 and could produce vast quantities of 
 food, but the people fear them as they 
 do the plague. They avoid the eastern 
 
CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 
 
 171 
 
 4. From 
 revolutions 
 
 coast in all these countries ; as in Mexico, 
 they make their homes on the highlands, 
 which are well toward the west. They 
 therefore lose the use of much of their 
 best soil. The islands suffer in the same 
 way. Sanitary measures must be taken 
 in all these sections before their full 
 value to man can be enjoyed. 
 
 Revolutions are as common in some of 
 these countries as earthquakes, and are 
 fully as destructive. All the 
 Central American countries, 
 except British Honduras, are republics. 
 Name them. Cuba also is a republic, and 
 the island of Haiti is divided into two 
 republics, Haiti in the west 
 and the Dominican Repub- 
 lic in the east. But, owing 
 largely to the ignorance of 
 the people in these repub- 
 lics, an ambitious leader 
 bent on rebellion can often 
 find followers, so the gov- 
 ernment may be overturned 
 at any time. These revo- 
 lutions result not only in 
 loss of Ufe and property, 
 but in general unrest and 
 disorder that check progess. 
 Foreigners have been of 
 much help in overcoming 
 some of these 
 difficulties. Brit- 
 ish Honduras on 
 the mainland, 
 Jamaica, Trinidad, and sev- 
 eral of the smaller islands are 
 British possessions (Fig. 158). These 
 have been free from disorders, and on 
 most of them attention has been given to 
 farming, road building, and sanitary 
 measures, so that the people are fairly 
 
 prosperous and happy. Trinidad is the 
 island from which most of the asphalt for 
 our streets is obtained. 
 
 The country that exerts the greatest 
 influence here, however, is the United 
 States, though our possessions ^ influence of 
 have a smaller total area the united 
 
 Stfltes 
 
 than those of the British. 
 Porto Rico is under our control (p. 147), 
 as are also several of the Virgin Islands 
 just east of .it. Cuba is under our pro- 
 tection; it is not a dependency of ours, 
 like Porto Rico, but relies upon our gov- 
 ernment for assistance in preserving order 
 when such help is greatly needed. 
 
 How foreign- 
 ers have 
 helped these 
 countries 
 
 1. Influence of 
 the English 
 
 .Ma 
 
 © Publish) r^: Photo Ser\ice 
 
 Fig. 167. — The market square in Port au Prince, Haiti 
 
 Our business men, as well as our gov- 
 ernment, are doing great services to 
 these countries. Here and 
 
 .1 . 11 i 1 3. Benefits 
 
 there is one who has estab- brought about by 
 lished a coffee plantation or a l^f^r^y 
 cattle ranch or a fruit farm; 
 but the work of the United . Fruit 
 
172 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Company is on a grander scale and sug- 
 gests how extensively these lands may be 
 improved. 
 
 The lands held by this company are 
 almost entirely lowlands, many of them 
 
 ^, , on and near the eastern coast, 
 
 z. The farm- 
 lands held by which the natives have long 
 this company ^volded. Some of it is moun- 
 tainous, but most of the land can be 
 cultivated. It is rapidly being cleared 
 and put to use. The principal crop is 
 h. The uses it bauauas. Sugar cane is the 
 
 makes of these pj-QfJug^ ^^xt lu ImportaUCe. 
 
 Other products are coconuts, cocoa, 
 oranges, and rubber. 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf ©Evnng Galloway 
 
 Fig. 168. — Main Street in St. Thomas 
 St, Thomas, on the island of the same name, is the chief town of the 
 Virgin Islands. Until recently its name was Charlotte Amalie. These islands 
 were purchased by the United States from Denmark in 1917. 
 
 The company's land extends up the 
 valleys from the coast, often for a dis- 
 tance of fifty miles or more, and hundreds 
 of miles of wagon roads, tramways, and 
 railroads for transporting men and mate- 
 rials have had to be built. 
 
 Even before our government obtained 
 control of the Canal Zone in 1903, this 
 company had begun to carry out the 
 strictest sanitary rules, taking such meas- 
 ures as the government took in connec- 
 tion with the Canal. Recall several of 
 them (p. 148). 
 
 The company does more than till the 
 soil; it transports its products to many 
 countries, and for this pur- 
 pose it owns or controls sev- portationof 
 eral scores of ships. goods and pas. 
 
 sengers 
 
 Until this company was 
 formed, in 1899, there were scarcely any 
 good deep-water harbors on the east 
 coast of Central America; 
 now there are a half dozen, 
 made by this company, 
 and others have been im- 
 proved in regions where 
 it has interests. The ves- 
 sels carry their products to 
 Galveston, New Orleans, 
 Mobile, Charleston, Balti- 
 more, Philadelphia, New 
 York, and Boston. Locate 
 these cities and trace the 
 routes (Fig. 315). The chief 
 cargo is bananas, a single 
 ship often containing 40,000 
 or 50,000 bunches. The 
 principal port for this fruit 
 is New Orleans. Can you 
 suggest why? New York 
 ranks next. 
 
 In spite of its extensive 
 the company raises fewer 
 bananas than it wants; so it buys exten- 
 sively from independent farmers. The 
 company also does a general freight and 
 passenger business, carrying thousands of 
 passengers to and from the tropics yearly. 
 
 production. 
 
CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES 
 
 173 
 
 d. Its influence 
 
 All together this company has spent 
 about $200,000,000 in the tropics, and 
 it now employs about 60,000 
 men. There are other excel- 
 lent farmlands in these countries that 
 have never been properly cultivated. 
 This company's example is 
 an encouragement to the 
 natives and others to under- 
 take their cultivation. Its 
 many excellent roads must 
 lead to more road building; 
 its provisions for sanitation 
 to more extensive provisions 
 of the same kind. Do you 
 see other good results from 
 its work? Do you think it 
 would have any influence in 
 discouraging revolutions? 
 
 the United States in this area? Locate 
 them. 14. What kind of land has been 
 selected by the United Fruit Company, 
 and on which coast is that in Central 
 America located? 15. Tell about its 
 transportation of goods and people abroad. 
 
 1. What temperatures 
 can be expected in these 
 Review tropical coun- 
 
 questions ^^^3? 2. HoW 
 
 greatly do they vary in the 
 course of a year? 3. Name 
 their principal agricultural products. 
 4. Name and locate the principal winter 
 resorts. 5. Why has Central America been 
 less popular as a winter resort than the 
 islands? 6. Describe the life of the poorer 
 people in Jamaica. 7. What pecuHar 
 hardships are due to the climate? 8. Tell 
 about the hardships due to volcanic erup- 
 tions and earthquakes. 9. What danger 
 is feared from the lowlands, and where is 
 good land avoided on that account? 10. 
 What is the form of government in most 
 of these countries? 11. Why are revolu- 
 tions especially common? 12. What sec- 
 tions are dependencies of the British? 
 Locate each. 13. What possessions has 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 169. — Central Park in Havana 
 The opera house is seen on the right. 
 
 What ports in the United States do its 
 vessels reach? 16. Mention some ways in 
 which its work is helpful to these 
 countries. 
 
 1. What influence does the United 
 Fruit Company seem to you to have 
 upon the relations between suggestions 
 the United States and these for extra 
 tropical countries? 2. Can 
 you name other uses of the banana beside 
 that of food in the raw state? 3. Can 
 you explain why a dozen bananas, which 
 are very perishable fruit and must be 
 brought by fast freight 1,000 miles or 
 more, often cost less than a dozen apples 
 raised in our own orchards? 
 
174 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 This book tells you about the parts 
 of the earth's surface with which you 
 ought to be acquainted. Part 
 study of what you should learn is 
 
 ™*P^ given in the text. Review 
 
 what you have already learned on pp. 7, 
 16, 19-20, and 26 about how to study the 
 text. Other facts that you should learn 
 are given in maps and pictures. A map, 
 as we have seen (p. 34), is really a 
 picture of a part of the earth's surface. 
 For that reason, it tells you many things 
 that it would be very hard to tell you in 
 any other way. Does not a picture of 
 someone that you know tell much more 
 than you can tell in words? Maps ought, 
 therefore, to be studied very carefully. 
 
 Whenever you come to a new map, 
 you should try to imagine how the part 
 of the earth that it represents would ap- 
 pear if you could look down upon it from 
 a great height. 
 
 Political maps, such as Fig. 46 or Fig. 
 59 or Fig. 63, tell you less about the 
 
 1. Political appearance of the country 
 °"*P^ than the other maps, because 
 each color on such a map represents a 
 country or a state, and the surface of one 
 political unit may look much like that 
 of another next to it. In studying politi- 
 cal maps, therefore, you should pay close 
 attention to the size and shape and name 
 of each country or state that is shown. 
 
 Physical maps, however, like Fig. 58 or 
 Fig. 174, or combined physical and politi- 
 
 2. Physical cal maps like Fig. 61 or Fig. 
 ™*P^ 66, show you how high each 
 part of the land is above the level of the 
 ocean. In studying such maps you should 
 try to imagine how the high regions and 
 the low regions would appear. In this 
 book, brown areas are high; the darker 
 
 the brown, the higher the land they repre- 
 sent. Green areas are low; the darker the 
 green, the lower the land they represent. 
 
 In studying the physical maps, the re- 
 lief maps, like Fig. 60 or Fig. 62, will be 
 a great help to you. If there 3. Relief 
 is a relief map that shows the ""^^ 
 same part of the earth's surface that is 
 shown by a physical map, you should turn 
 from one to the other and study them 
 together. You will find that the brown 
 areas really look higher on the relief maps, 
 and the green areas lower. Compare 
 Fig. 58 with Fig. 60. Soon you wiU be so 
 used to the colors that you will not need 
 a relief map to make the green areas look 
 low or the brown areas high. If you are 
 studying a map, such as Fig. 66, that has 
 no relief map corresponding to it, you 
 should find the area that it represents on 
 some relief map that you have already 
 studied. Find on Fig. 62 the area shown 
 by Fig. 66. 
 
 When you first look at a map, read the 
 names in large type but do not try to 
 remember them. You are asked to refer 
 to them so often in reading the text that 
 by the time you have finished your study 
 of the text you will remember most of 
 them. Just as you review sections of the 
 text, however, you ought to review what 
 you have learned by your study of the 
 maps. The questions on the maps in this 
 book are to help you in these reviews. 
 
 1. What continent joins North America? 2. 
 By what are they joined? 3. What two large 
 bodies of water indent North Amer- j^^p ^^^^_ 
 ica? 4. Name a gulf on the eastern tions on 
 coast. 5. Name one on the western North 
 coast. 6. Name a gulf that hes with- 
 in a gulf. 7. Name a bay that hes within a bay. 8. 
 What two peninsulas are on the eastern coast? 9. 
 
MAP STUDIES 
 
 175 
 
 What two on the western? 10. Name the Great 
 Lakes in order from west to east. 11, Where is 
 the greatest mountain system of North America? 
 12. Name and locate four mountain chains that 
 are parts of this system. 13. Where is the second 
 largest mountain system? 14. What can you say 
 of the country between these two mountain sys- 
 tems? 15 What and where is the greatest river 
 system of North America? 16. Trace the longest 
 river. 17, Name the countries of North America. 
 18. Which has the greatest area? 19. Name the 
 countries that lie within two zones. 20. Which lie 
 within a single zone? 
 
 21. How many states are there in the United 
 States? 22. Name the largest state; the smallest. 
 23. Compare the sizes of the states in the western 
 half with the sizes of those in the eastern 
 half. 24. What states border on the Great Lakes? 
 25. What states are touched by the Missouri 
 River? By the Mississippi River? 26. What 
 state lies farthest north? South? 27. What state 
 consists of two distinct parts? 
 
 28. Wliat states compose the group known as 
 the Northeastern States? 29. How many of them 
 have seacoast? 30. Name the states that border 
 on Lake Erie; on Lake Ontario. 31. Where is 
 the Erie Barge Canal? 32. Where is Niagara 
 Falls? 33. Name and locate five rivers in these 
 states. 34. What are the four largest cities in the 
 Northeastern States? 35. Locate Pittsburgh; 
 Buffalo; Washington; Newark; Providence. 36. 
 Trace the principal highway from Boston to Pitts- 
 burgh and name the principal cities through which 
 it passes. 
 
 37. Name the states of the North Central 
 group. 38. Trace a highway across this section 
 from Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania, to Pueblo, in 
 Colorado. 39. Name the principal cities and 
 towns through which this highway passes and the 
 principal rivers which it crosses. 40. Trace high- 
 ways from Louisville to Kansas City and to Min- 
 neapolis. 41 . Measure the distances traversed on 
 each of the above routes. 42. Name and locate 
 €he four largest cities in the North Central States. 
 
 43. Name the states included in the Southern 
 section. 44. Which ones border on the Atlantic 
 Ocean? 45. Which on the Gulf of Mexico? 46. 
 Which on the Mississippi River? 47. Which 
 on the Ohio River? 48. Into which states of 
 
 this section does the Appalachian Highland 
 extend? 49. What seaports are there on the 
 Atlantic coast of this section? 50. On the Gulf 
 coast? 51. Name and locate the three largest 
 cities in this section. 52. Beginning at Richmond 
 in Virginia, and using the highways shown on the- 
 map, trace an automobile route that would carry 
 you into every state of this section. 53. Name the 
 rivers you would cross and the principal cities 
 through which you would pass. 54. Locate Nor- 
 folk, Dallas, San Antonio, Birmingham, Nash- 
 ville, Fort Worth, and Houston. 
 
 55. Name the Western States. What three 
 border on Canada? 56. WTiat three on Mexico? 
 57. What three on the Pacific Ocean? 58. In what 
 states are there any lowlands? 59. Locate the 
 following mountains: Mt. Hood; Mt. Shasta; 
 Pike's Peak; Mt. Whitney; Mt. Rainier. 60. 
 Name and locate the nine National Parks in these 
 states. 61. Locate Denver, Butte, Spokane, 
 Tacoma, San Diego, Portland, Sacramento, and 
 Oakland. 62. Beginning at Denver, trace an 
 automobile tour extending through at least nine 
 of these states. 63. Name the mountain ranges 
 and the rivers that the route crosses. 64. Through 
 what cities does it pass? 
 
 65. How does the width of Canada compare 
 with that of the United States? 66. The length? 
 67. Where are the highlands of Canada? 68. The 
 lowlands? 69. Give a reason why British Colum- 
 bia is thinly settled. 70. Tell why Labrador has 
 so few people. 71. Name and locate the two 
 largest cities of Canada. 72. Where is Halifax; 
 Ottawa; Winnipeg; Regina; Edmonton; Van- 
 couver; Victoria? 73. Why are there no large 
 towns near Hudson Bay? Which provinces have 
 the most railroads? 74. About how wide is Alaska 
 from north to south? 75. From east to west? 76. 
 How does Alaska compare in area with the State 
 of Texas? 77. Where does the Arctic Circle cross 
 Alaska? 
 
 78. Locate the chief highlands of Mexico and 
 Central America. 79. Name two peninsulas in- 
 cluded in Mexico. 80. What waters border on 
 Mexico and Central America? 81. Locate the 
 Isthmus of Panama. 82. Where is the Panama 
 Canal? 83, Name and locate two high mountains 
 in Mexico. 84. Are the principal railways of Mex- 
 ico on the highland or lowland? 
 
A'-j^r^^?^ 
 
 '- \'''M^- 
 
 :d 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 REUEF MAP 
 
 uw no Ko 1000 
 
 PROFii.K OF SOUTH AMKRiCA r !;';! ^^ A *"'"""' 
 
 ».(«)(.« ALONG THE PARALLEL 16° S. 
 
 10.000 <Mt -^ h.TSU 
 
 flt^tliAanm <m>«ta<i » 
 
 Fig. 170 
 
PART III. SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 There are many reasons why one 
 
 might expect South America to have as 
 
 many inhabitants as North 
 
 rapid TettL- America. One reason is that 
 
 ment of South j^ closely resembles North 
 
 America might ... ^ 
 
 have been America m many respects, 
 expected 'pj^g ^^q Continents are of 
 
 1. Resemblance nearly the same size, and of 
 J^n^ the same general shape. Draw 
 
 triangles to show their out- 
 line. Each has vast mountain ranges on 
 the western side, and broad, fertile plains 
 in the east. Point to such mountains 
 and plains on Fig. 174. In each there are 
 large navigable rivers reaching into the 
 heart of the continent. Trace the three 
 leading rivers of each continent (Figs. 58 
 and 174). 
 
 In some respects South America enjoys 
 important advantages over North Amer- 
 ica. No part of South America, 
 except the mountain peaks, is 
 very cold; but a large part of 
 North America, Ijdng in and near the frigid 
 zone, is too cold for farming. Locate the 
 Arctic circle in Fig. 58. In the second 
 place. South America is for the most part 
 well watered. In Fig. 171 note how small 
 are the arid sections. A large part of 
 North America, on the other hand, is very 
 dry (Fig. 146). Finally, gold and silver 
 were discovered in South America hun- 
 dreds of years earlier than in North Amer- 
 ica. This gave an early start to immigra- 
 tion to that continent. 
 
 In spite of these facts. South America 
 has developed less rapidly than North 
 
 2. Advantages 
 over North 
 America 
 
 America. One of the most important 
 reasons is the cUmate. Note where the 
 equator and the tropic of ^ 
 
 ^^ . , . Reasons for 
 
 Capricorn cross the continent, slow develop- 
 About how much of South ™®°* 
 America, therefore, lies in the i- character of 
 torrid zone? Thus it is seen 
 that the greater part of the continent is 
 too hot for the white man to work to 
 
 W Greenwich 40" 
 
 Wiiia.Eii(.Co.,N.r, 
 
 Fig. 171. — Annual rainfall in South America 
 
 How does the area of heavy rainfall compare with that 
 in North America? 
 
 the best advantage. How does South 
 America compare in this respect with 
 North America? 
 
 177 
 
178 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 2. The lack of 
 coal 
 
 3. The general 
 lack of educa- 
 tion 
 
 A second reason for the slow develop- 
 ment is the lack of coal. Coal is not 
 entirely lacking, but the 
 amount is not great nor is 
 much of it mined. No region ever de- 
 velops its industries extensively, especial- 
 ly manufacturing, with- 
 out coal. Why is coal so 
 necessary? 
 
 There are many highly 
 educated people in South 
 America, but 
 they are main- 
 ly the whites, 
 who are outnumbered by 
 the natives. Spanish is 
 the language of most of 
 these countries, but Portu- 
 guese is spoken in Brazil. 
 The good taste of the ed- 
 ucated people and their 
 interest in progress are 
 shown in the appearance 
 of many of the cities, with 
 their beautiful buildings, streets, and 
 parks. Their interest in independent gov- 
 ernment is shown, also, in the fact that 
 all the South American nations are re- 
 pubUcs except the Guianas, which are 
 colonies belonging to three countries in 
 Europe. 
 
 More than three fourths of all the 
 people, however, of several South Ameri- 
 can countries are Indians and people of 
 mixed blood (Fig. 172) ; and most of these 
 can neither read nor write. They are too 
 ignorant to share in the government, or to 
 be reliable and skillful workmen. It is 
 this lack of education of the common 
 people more, perhaps, than the climate 
 or the lack of coal that has hindered 
 progress in South America. 
 
 A trip to 
 South Amer- 
 ica 
 
 1. The season 
 to choose, and 
 the method of 
 travel 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 
 Americans are likely to visit South 
 America much more in the future than 
 they have in the past. Where 
 should one go, and what 
 should one see? Following 
 are suggestions for a trip 
 that might 
 occup}^ six 
 months. Since South 
 America is mainly in the 
 southern hemisphere, win- 
 ter comes there during our 
 summer, and we should 
 time our visit so as to 
 reach Chile and Argentina, 
 the colder part, during 
 their summer. We ought 
 therefore, to start in Oc- 
 tober. 
 
 Since there is no railroad 
 connecting the two con- 
 tinents, we go by boat. 
 Indeed, except in the 
 southern half of the con- 
 tinent, there are few railroads connecting 
 the countries of South America with one 
 another. On that account our trip will 
 be chiefly by boat. 
 
 Starting from New York for the west- 
 ern coast of South America, we sail 
 directly for Panama. Six or , ^^ 
 
 ^ ^ 2. The voyage 
 
 seven days bring us to the toGuayaqmiin 
 entrance to the Canal. How 
 would the trip from New Orleans or San 
 Francisco compare with this in length? 
 
 At the port of Panama, on the Pacific 
 side of the isthmus, a boat may be ready 
 to take us south. If not, we wait for one. 
 From now on boats going our way are 
 likely to be a week or so apart, and if we 
 just miss one, we contentedly wait for 
 the next. There is no need of hurrying 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Half-breed Indians 
 in Peru 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 179 
 
 or fretting about delays. We must adopt 
 the customs of the people; and they 
 make it clear that time is not valuable to 
 them. How do you suppose they do it? 
 
 Wliere do we make our first stop? 
 Colombia lies on our left; but most of its 
 coast is densely forested and 
 it has no important port. 
 If we come near enough, we 
 may see lighters putting off 
 from the shore to an ocean 
 steamer that is anchored in 
 deep water, laden with rub- 
 ber, coconuts, and perhaps 
 coffee, cotton, and bananas. 
 
 We pass on to Guayaquil 
 in Ecuador, crossing the 
 equator on the way. On 
 the fourth day out from 
 Panama we reach the Gulf 
 of Guayaquil and steam 
 forty miles up the river to 
 the city of that name. 
 
 The heat is one of the 
 chief topics of conversation. 
 The temperature is not much higher 
 than in some of our Southern States in 
 summer; but it rains 120 inches there in a 
 year, and the hot air reeks with moisture. 
 
 The city in the distance looks beautiful 
 with its white, marble-like buildings. 
 - „ . Buildings are usually white in 
 
 •S* Scenes m 
 
 and about the tropics. But a nearer 
 
 Guayaquil i i • t • i 
 
 approach brings disappoint- 
 ment; for what seemed to be marble turns 
 out to be split bamboo plastered with 
 mud and whitewashed. This is a land of 
 earthquakes, and houses of this sort are 
 little damaged by them. The cracks they 
 cause in the mud can easily be repaired. 
 Although Guayaquil is the principal 
 port of Ecuador, and has a population of 
 
 nearly 100,000, it is a wretched looking 
 place. Both the streets and the people 
 seem greatly neglected. Until recently 
 tropical diseases caused great havoc here, 
 and vessels stopping at this city were in 
 danger of being placed in quarantine on 
 
 Courtesy of Son/ ■ ! lishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 1 73.^ Mount Tunguragua, Ecuador 
 There are several such volcanic cones near Quito. 
 
 approaching the next port. That danger 
 is now largely passed, owing to efforts 
 of Americans in making conditions in 
 Guayaquil more sanitary. 
 
 Along the coast of Ecuador and in this 
 valley are extensive and very fertile 
 plains. In the harbor we see their prod- 
 ucts being loaded into vessels for export; 
 sugar, bananas, coconuts, and pine- 
 apples. The two things that interest us 
 most are cacao and Panama hats. 
 
 The trees that bear the long pods 
 filled with cacao beans grow from fifteen 
 to twenty feet high. Plantations of 
 such groves are worth a visit. The dried 
 beans, when ground, produce chocolate, 
 and when the oil is pressed out of the 
 
Fig. 174 
 
70° 
 
 A-M erica/' a "^-^^i^J-' ^ "%. I^IXCuc-Mfi/J 
 
 ^ T L. A N \T I C 
 
 ^ IfclMIDAD 
 
 ,,vo 
 
 i. O.M CIA I 
 
 
 
 .1 .V 
 
 Equator 
 
 100" 
 
 80 LougUude 70 WcH bO Aom 50 Greenwich 40 
 
 Fig. 175 
 
182 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 chocolate and the remainder is mixed 
 with starch, we have cocoa. 
 
 The kind of fiber or straw necessary 
 for Panama hats thrives best on these 
 low coastal plains, and the hats are 
 manufactured in surrounding towns. It 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 176. — A cacao plantation 
 How many pods can you find here? 
 
 would be interesting to observe these 
 
 workers making our most expensive hats, 
 
 some of which sell for several hundred 
 
 dollars each. 
 
 The people in these tropical countries 
 
 largely avoid the low coastlands. A 
 
 4. The journey joumey to Quito will bring 
 to Quito j.gijgf f j.Qj^ tj^g YiQ^^, for it is 
 
 located on a plateau 9,500 feet above 
 sea level. How much does that lack of 
 being two miles? The railroad running 
 there climbs 12,000 feet over the moun- 
 
 tains before it comes down into the 
 valley where Quito lies. 
 
 Of course there is wonderful scenery on 
 the route (Fig. 173). What are some 
 of the views that you would expect? 
 The changing vegetation and farm prod- 
 ucts are especially interesting. 
 
 Quito is nearly as large as Guayaquil, 
 and not much cleaner. But everything 
 is interesting (Fig. 178) . This 5. in and 
 is a land of perpetual spring, about Qmtj 
 and the contrasts are surprising, often 
 wonderful. In one field the Indians may 
 be harvesting ripe grain, while in one ad- 
 joining it the grain is green, and in a third 
 they may be plowing and sowing for future 
 harvests. In the same orchard there may 
 be peach trees bearing blossoms, green 
 fruit, and ripe fruit. Since there is no 
 change of seasons, any stage of growth 
 may be reached at any time. 
 
 In the valley everything is green; but 
 the snow-capped mountain peaks tower 
 in the distance; and at night the glow of 
 fire in the crater of the volcano Cotopaxi 
 can be seen. Find its height (Fig. 174). 
 
 Would you like to take an automobile 
 trip or a drive out into the country? This 
 could hardly be done owing to lack of 
 roads; in fact, there are hardly any roads 
 at all. Even in the city, an automobile 
 is almost useless, because there are few 
 blocks where it can run; and in the 
 country there are only bridle paths. 
 
 The lack of roads is one of the serious 
 difficulties in South America. People in 
 Colombia living in the valley of the 
 Magdalena River or at Bogota, the capi- 
 tal, find it next to impossible to reach 
 the Pacific coast of their own country by 
 land. They must go around by way of 
 the Panama Canal. What prevents their 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 183 
 
 going across countr}-, even though there 
 are no roads? Examine Fig. 174 to see. 
 
 We stop at only two places on the 
 coast of Peru. The first is Callao, the 
 , „ . , , . port of Lima. Callao itself 
 
 6. Points of in- ^ 
 
 terestinPeru is of little interest; for the 
 a. What one low coastlaud uorth and soutli 
 
 might see in ^f j^ f^j. huudreds of mllcS 
 
 and about Lima . 
 
 IS and. Some sugar cane, cot- 
 ton, and rice are grown by irrigation. 
 Lima is of interest as the capital and 
 largest city of Peru, and also as the 
 old Spanish capital of South America. 
 The Spaniards were attracted to this 
 region by the gold and silver mines, and 
 the city contains many buildings, gar- 
 dens, and paintings that recall the Span- 
 ish rule. 
 
 What we care most to see is the rail- 
 road leading from Callao through Lima 
 to Oroya and the silver and copper mines 
 at Cerro de Pasco (Fig. 177) . It is one of 
 the highest railways in the world; at one 
 point it reaches an altitude of 15,600 feet. 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 177. — The railroad leading from Callao through 
 Lima to Oroya 
 Locate this railroad on Fig. 175. Does this appear to 
 be a dry or well-watered region? See Fig. 171. 
 
 © Inter national Film Service Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 178.— The Theater in Quito 
 
 How does this compare with 
 the height of the highest 
 mountain in the United 
 States (Fig. 58)? It is 
 quite likely that the change 
 in the pressure of the air as 
 you reach the top would 
 make you dizzy. At times 
 you would hold your breath 
 in fear, too, as you looked 
 down from the car windows 
 and thought what would 
 happen if the train left the 
 track. 
 
 Returning to Callao and 
 steaming on for a few 
 hundred miles, we come to 
 
184 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 MoUendo, which really has no harbor at 
 all, only a roadstead, where ocean vessels 
 are met by lighters from the 
 shore for loading and unload- 
 ing goods and passengers. Yet 
 it is a fair example of most of the ports 
 of South America. In addition to sugar, 
 
 6. Why a stop 
 at MoUendo is 
 desirable 
 
 © E. M. Newman 
 
 Fig. 179. — The old Inca gate at Cuzco 
 
 cotton, and copper, which are shipped 
 from many of the other Pacific ports, 
 wool and tin are Ukely to be seen here. 
 MoUendo is the port for Arequipa, a great 
 center for those products. The tin comes 
 mainly from Bolivia, which mines a large 
 part of the world's supply. The wool 
 comes from the sheep, alpacas, and vicunas 
 that graze in this plateau country. A 
 visit to one of the sheep and alpaca 
 ranches would be interesting. 
 
 Two other places of interest are Cuzco 
 and Lake Titicaca (Fig. 175). This lake 
 
 has an elevation of about 12,500 feet 
 and is over 100 miles long. On it can be 
 seen both the straw boats used by the 
 Indians and modern steamers. 
 
 Cuzco was once the capital city of the 
 Incas, the Indians who ruled here at the 
 time of the discovery of America. Can 
 you explain how the climate and even the 
 desert coast without good harbors may 
 have influenced them to choose this loca- 
 tion? The Inca ruins are the great at- 
 traction at Cuzco (Fig. 179). Along one 
 street are the remains of fourteen of their 
 palaces. 
 
 The next stop along the coast should 
 be either at Iquique or Antofagasta in 
 northern Chile. The land is a 
 
 1 1 K j_ e 1 J 7- Value of the 
 
 desert; Antofagasta gets barren coast 
 its water from the Andes by a cm^^^™ 
 pipe hne more than 200 miles 
 long. The water costs about five cents a 
 gallon. Yet this most barren place on the 
 earth helps to produce a flourishing 
 vegetation in many other countries; for 
 a material called nitrate of soda, which is 
 the finest kind of soil fertihzer, is mined 
 here in vast quantities. So much of it is 
 sent abroad that it is one of Chile's prin- 
 cipal sources of wealth. The importance 
 of the industry can be judged from the 
 fact that of the 71,000 miners in Chile 
 in a recent year, 44,000 were engaged in 
 mining nitrate of soda (Fig. 180). Our 
 farmers are using it extensively. Haye 
 you seen any of it? 
 
 Instead of going back to the boat from 
 the nitrate fields, we travel south to Santi- 
 ago by rail. Chile is a more ^ Attractionsof 
 prosperous country than any the central vai- 
 other we have visited, with 
 better educated people, and the accom- 
 modations for traveling are better. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 185 
 
 It is a long journey from 
 Antofagasta to Santiago. 
 Estimate the distance (Fig. 
 175). How long is Chile 
 itself? How wide, on the 
 average? 
 
 As we approach Santiago, 
 the climate and farm prod- 
 ucts remind one. of south- 
 ern California. That city 
 is about the same distance 
 south of the equator as Los 
 Angeles is north of it. Sho^^• 
 that this is true. Irrigation 
 is necessary here, as it is 
 there, because, as in Cali- 
 fornia, the rains come main- 
 ly in winter. 
 
 The city is located in the central valley 
 of Chile, a valley nearly 700 miles long 
 but averaging only about thirty miles in 
 width. Most of the Chileans live in this 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Sernce 
 
 Fig. 181.— The National Museum, Santiago 
 South Americans take great pride in their beautiful buildings. The large 
 cities of Chile, Argentina, and Brazil are among the most beautiful in the world. 
 
 © Publisliers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 180. — A nitrate factory, Chile 
 On the right is a huge pile of nitrate, which is being sacked for shipment. 
 
 valley because of its fertile soil and de- 
 lightful climate. Santiago, mth a popu- 
 ation of 400,000, is located near its 
 northern end (Fig. 181). From the city 
 the mountains can be seen 
 on both the east and the 
 west. All about are fields 
 of wheat, maize, alfalfa, and 
 vegetables. Vineyards, also, 
 are plentiful. A railroad 
 extends along the valley for 
 its entire length. 
 
 The next city which we 
 shall visit is Buenos Aires, 
 in Argentina. 
 How shall we 
 travel to reach 
 it? The old 
 route would 
 probably have been from 
 Santiago down to Valpar- 
 aiso, its port, and then by 
 boat through the Strait of 
 Magellan or around Cape 
 
 9. The journey 
 from Valparaiso 
 to Buenos Aires 
 
 a. The route 
 selected 
 
186 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Horn. But that is a very long voyage, 
 both dismal and dangerous. Southward 
 from Valparaiso it rains more and more, 
 until in southern Chile it rains almost 
 constantly. The severe storms in the 
 Strait of Magellan and about Cape Horn 
 also make navigation very dangerous. 
 
 ) Pvblishera' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 182. — The Trans-Andean Railway 
 The train is standing at a station in the foothills of the Andes. 
 
 Since 1910 it has been unnecessary to 
 take this long voyage, for in that year a 
 railroad was completed from Valparaiso 
 to Buenos Aires. This transcontinental 
 road (Fig. 182) and the Panama Canal 
 together have made the southern end of 
 the continent much less important than 
 formerly. Now many boats that come 
 south through the Canal end their voy- 
 age at Valparaiso and start north again. 
 Punta Arenas, the southernmost city in 
 the world, located on the Strait of 
 Magellan, suffers in consequence. Why? 
 Valparaiso, however, gains. The fact 
 that many passengers bound for Argen- 
 
 tina come directly to Valparaiso and then 
 take the railroad, makes that port espe- 
 cially important, although the harbor is 
 very poor. 
 
 It is a fifty-hour trip from Valparaiso 
 to Buenos Aires. Estimate the distance 
 and the rate of travel per hour. What is 
 the distance through the 
 Strait of Magellan by boat? 
 The views are magnificent 
 as one ascends the moun- 
 tains and looks , Experiences 
 back into the <"* ^^ mountain 
 
 central valley. •^'""'^^^ 
 
 The highest altitude reached 
 
 is about 12,000 feet, where 
 
 a tunnel, completed by 
 
 Americans, leads through 
 
 the mountains toward Men- 
 
 doza, in Argentina (Fig. 
 
 175). Note how near at 
 
 hand is Mount Aconcagua, 
 
 the highest peak in the 
 
 western hemisphere. What 
 
 is its height? Why would 
 
 you expect glaciers there? 
 
 There may be delays on 
 
 this journey, for we are well within the 
 
 temperate zone, and the train is likely to 
 
 be snowed in; or avalanches may block 
 
 the way. On account of such difficulties 
 
 the road loses part of its value. 
 
 We come now into Argentina, often 
 called the United States of South Amer- 
 ica. Chile was found to be ,_ impressions 
 much like California. Note east of the 
 
 , 1 1 A i • mountains 
 
 how^ closely Argentina resem- 
 bles our states just east of the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 At Mendoza there are vineyards every- 
 where. This is an arid region, having 
 
 only about six inches of rain per year 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 187 
 
 (Fig. 171), but the lofty mountains supply 
 water for irrigation. Traveling east, we 
 first pass through an arid section where 
 the only industry is grazing, particularly 
 the grazing of sheep. Gradually, on ac- 
 count of the greater rainfall, cattle are 
 more often seen; then wheat, and more 
 wheat. If we visit this region during 
 harvest, we see great piles of wheat in 
 sacks in the fields or along the railroad 
 awaiting shipment. Soon other crops ap- 
 pear, including oats, barley, flax, corn, 
 alfalfa, and vegetables such as we raise 
 in the United States. Finally, on the 
 latter part of the journey, where the 
 rainfall approaches forty 
 inches and the summers are 
 hot, corn is the principal 
 product. 
 
 Throughout the 600 miles 
 from Mendoza (Fig. 183) to 
 Buenos Aires there is 
 scarcely a break in the 
 landscape. The plain is 
 perfectly flat, with hardly a 
 hill or even a low ridge, 
 and not many trees. Only 
 here and there are clumps 
 of trees, carefully cared for 
 by man. A journey could 
 scarcely be more monoto- 
 nous. Yet, after leaving the 
 arid section, it is hardly 
 tiresome; for one sees signs 
 of prosperity on all sides. 
 How fully would this description fit a 
 journey across our own country from the 
 Rocky Mountains through Nebraska and 
 Iowa to the Mississippi River? 
 
 We are now in the most active part of 
 South America. Buenos Aires is often 
 called the New York of that continent, 
 
 and Rosario, a few hours' journey to the 
 northwest on the Parana River, its Chi- 
 cago. How far is Montevideo from Buenos 
 Aires? 
 
 What makes this section so important? 
 It is, "first of all, the climate. In the tem- 
 perate zones, where there is 
 a decided change of seasons, ofkinot'^S 
 people have most energy and ^ou*J"^'°" 
 make most progress. It is 
 also due to the class of people who live 
 here. Most of the inhabitants are white, 
 and very many are immigrants from 
 Europe, including many Itahans. In 
 the tropical countries that have been 
 
 © Keystone View Co. , Inc. 
 
 Fig. 183. — Molding and drying adobe bricks, Mendoza 
 Can you explain why bricks are in great demand in a country of little 
 
 rainfall? 
 
 named the people move slowly and spend 
 a large part of their time resting. But 
 here we find energy, and we should feel 
 much at home among the inhabitants if 
 they spoke English instead of Spanish. 
 
 A third reason for the importance of 
 Buenos Aires is the fact that, located at 
 
188 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 the mouth of the Plata River, it is the 
 outlet for a vast and very fertile region 
 including much of Uruguay and Paraguay. 
 The country between Mendoza and Bue- 
 nos Aires well represents, in its farm 
 products, the area for several hundreds 
 of miles both north and south of it. 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 184. — The Palace of Justice, Buenos Aires 
 What do the palms tell you about the climate here? 
 
 Finally, the ease of transportation 
 makes this section important. Note 
 how many railroads there are here (Fig. 
 175). It is easier to build them on these 
 plains than among the mountains. The 
 great rivers, the Uruguay and the Parana, 
 that empty into the Plata, are navigable 
 far inland. The Parana is twenty miles 
 wide at Rosario. 
 
 Buenos Aires is a very attractive city, 
 with magnificent buildings, streets, and 
 parks. The harbor is per- 
 haps the most interesting 
 part; here are seen hides and meat, as 
 well as the corn and wheat that are 
 
 11. Attractions 
 of this section 
 
 shipped abroad; and the machinery and 
 textile goods that are imported. There 
 arc ships from all countries, and flags 
 and people of many colors. 
 
 Rosario is busy with many of the 
 same products that are important in our 
 own Chicago. What are some of them 
 (p. 92)? Since the region 
 north of it is not far from 
 the tropics, some of the 
 semi-tropical products that 
 are grown in our Southern 
 States are also to be seen 
 here. Tucuman, far to the 
 northwest, is a noted ship- 
 ping point for sugar. 
 
 There is no need for us 
 to stop in Uruguay; it is so 
 much like Ar- ,^ ^^ . . 
 
 12. The princi- 
 
 gentina that it paipartof 
 
 . , ,, , Brazil to visit 
 
 might well be a 
 part of it. Our next stop 
 will be in Brazil. That 
 country has a greater area 
 than the United States, and 
 ranks with Argentina and 
 Chile as one of the leading 
 countries of South America. 
 
 If a stranger had only a few weeks to 
 visit the United States, he might be 
 confused about the places he should 
 choose to see. But one feels no such con- 
 fusion in regard to Brazil. Most of its 
 vast area has very few people. Since a 
 large part of the population is found 
 along the southeastern coast, that is the 
 part for us to visit. 
 
 One fact may cause surprise. People 
 in Ecuador and Peru largely avoid the 
 coast, living far up on the highlands. 
 This Brazilian coast is likewise mostly in 
 the tropics (Fig. 175). There are ex- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 180 
 
 tensive highlands a short 
 distance inland, although 
 they are by no means as 
 lofty as the Andes, being 
 only two or three thousand 
 feet in altitude. Yet they 
 are high enough to afford 
 considerable relief from the 
 tropical heat. Why, then, 
 are so many cities located 
 directly on the coast? Name 
 the more important ones. 
 
 One reason is that there 
 are regular winds here, called 
 trade winds, blowing from 
 the southeast, that bring 
 much rehef . Another is that 
 the people are more progres- 
 sive than those in other 
 South American countries 
 and have made their most important 
 coast cities, particularly Rio de Janeiro 
 
 13. Facts of 
 interest in the 
 coffee section 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Servifc 
 
 Fig. 186. — ^ A coffee plantation in Brazil 
 Does this plantation appear to be on the highland or lowland, or on the 
 slope between them? What is being done to the coffee berries in the fore- 
 ground? 
 
 Cuurteny of South A merican Publishing Co. 
 
 Fig. 185. — Loading wheat in Rosario 
 Can you explain the method that is being used here? To what ports in 
 the United States may this wheat eventually find its way? 
 
 and Santos, quite sanitary, so that they 
 
 can live in them with safety. 
 
 The leading export of 
 Brazil is coffee; that coun- 
 try grows two 
 thirds of all the 
 coffee in the 
 world. No doubt you have 
 heard of "Rio" coffee, so 
 called because it comes from 
 Rio de Janeiro. The more 
 important port for its ex- 
 port, however, is Santos. 
 
 The coffee trees grow best 
 on the highlands, at an al- 
 titude of from 1,000 to 
 2,500 feet. Men take care 
 of the trees very carefully, 
 one man having perhaps 
 2,000 trees in charge, and a 
 family often from 8,000 to 
 10,000. The berries in 
 
190 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 which the grains of coffee are found begin 
 to ripen in June. They have to be 
 picked from the trees, dried in the sun 
 as shown in Fig. 186, and then hulled. 
 The harvest is in full swing by September 
 and is about over in November. 
 
 (i;) I'liblislierti' Pltoto Service 
 
 Fig. 187.^ Rio de Janeiro 
 The harbor of Rio de Janeiro is one of the most beautiful in the world, 
 with its mountain scenery and tropical plants. 
 
 There are many small planters; but 
 most of the coffee is grown on large plan- 
 tations. Such a plantation has its own 
 villages or houses for the workmen; its 
 own stores, where they can purchase most 
 of their food and clothing; and even its 
 own railroads for carrying the workmen 
 to different parts of the estate and for 
 collecting the berries. A large plantation 
 may employ as many as 1,000 or even 
 1,800 men. The center of the industry 
 is Sao Paulo, on the upland. 
 
 Although it is in the tropics, Rio de 
 Janeiro is the second city in size in South 
 America. The part of most beauty is the 
 
 harbor (Fig. 187), and it is the excellence 
 of this harbor more than anything else 
 that has caused the growth ,, „ 
 
 , '='14. Reasons for 
 
 of the City. While coffee is the growth of 
 
 , 1 1 1 . 1 , • , 1 • Rio de Janeiro 
 
 the leading product in this 
 
 region, others of importance are sugar 
 cane, cotton, and cacao, 
 which grow on the low coast- 
 lands and on the slopes of 
 the uplands to the north- 
 east. There are many cattle, 
 also, upon the uplands. 
 
 There is a serious draw- 
 back to the development 
 of Rio de Jan- 
 
 1 • p ■ 15. A serious 
 
 eirO and, in tact, hindrance to 
 
 of Brazil as a l^tlT'''' 
 whole. One can 
 travel by rail southwest to 
 Uruguay, but one cannot 
 reach the next important 
 city to the northeast, Bahia 
 (Fig. 175), by rail. One can 
 go by rail from Bahia to 
 Pernambuco, but not from 
 Pernambuco to Para, at the 
 mouth of the Amazon. In 
 other words, the principal centers of 
 population in Brazil, which are hundreds 
 and even thousands of miles apart, are 
 connected with one another only by 
 water. Boats are so much slower than 
 trains, and run so seldom, that the dis- 
 advantage is great. What must be the 
 effect upon the trade of these centers with 
 one another? Upon the acquaintance 
 and friendship of the inhabitants of 
 different sections with one another? 
 
 Is a trip up the Amazon River advis- 
 able? Judge for yourself after learning 
 the principal facts. If the trip is taken, 
 one ought to go all the way to Iquitos 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 191 
 
 16. A trip up the 
 Amazon River 
 
 in northeastern Peru, which is about 
 2,600 miles from the river mouth. Find 
 that town on Fig. 175 and 
 trace the route to it. Ocean 
 o. The route vesscls cau reach Iquitos. 
 follow rpj^g entire voyage, up and 
 
 back, takes about a month. 
 
 Of course it is very hot all the time. 
 How near is the mouth of the river to the 
 equator? No one who is unable to stand 
 heat ought to attempt the voyage. 
 
 Very few people live along the river. 
 There are only three important towns 
 during this whole distance. Para, Manaos, 
 and Iquitos. The main stops would be at 
 these places, and one would expect to be 
 on the boat almost the entire time. If 
 one happened to be travel- 
 ing on a vessel intended 
 more for freight than for 
 passengers, as would prob- 
 ably be the case, there would 
 be a good many discom- 
 forts during the voyage. 
 Can you imagine what some 
 of them would probably be? 
 
 The principal product of 
 this region is rubber. Brazil 
 once supplied 
 most of the 
 world's supply of rubber. 
 The amount of rubber now 
 produced is about the same 
 as formerly, but so much 
 plantation rubber is now 
 being produced in the East 
 Indies that BraziHan rubber is today 
 only about a tenth of the world's supply. 
 Para, a city of 275,000 is the center for its 
 transportation. It will be seen awaiting 
 shipment also at Manaos and Iquitos, in 
 fact at almost every stop that is made. 
 
 Dyewoods and cabinet woods, nuts, and 
 barks from which we get vanilla and 
 sarsaparilla, are other common articles 
 for export. 
 
 The tropical jungle is interesting, if 
 one gets near enough to it to see it well. 
 It must be remembered that this is a 
 wide river, at times so wide that one can- 
 not see across it. Even at Iquitos it is 
 three miles in width. Yet now and then 
 as one comes close to shore the tangle of 
 the forest will be observed. There are 
 many trees, both large and small, and 
 vines of many kinds all struggling for 
 room and so close together that one 
 would often have to cut a path in order 
 to pass through. 
 
 6. What one 
 would see 
 
 © Broun Brox 
 
 Fig. 188. ^Preparing rubber for shipment 
 The rubber is smoked and dried until it takes the form shown in Fig. 189. 
 
 Animal life is just as abundant. The 
 only dangerous beast of prey is the 
 jaguar. Monkeys are common; brilliant- 
 ly colored birds also, such as parrots; 
 butterflies of gorgeous hues, and numer- 
 ous other insects. Among the reptiles 
 
192 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 are alligators, snakes, and turtles; and 
 there are fish of various kinds. The visi- 
 tor is sure to see many of these animals. 
 But the many annoying insects, particu- 
 larly the mosquitoes and fleas, would 
 probably claim more of one's attention. 
 
 Fig. 189. — Rubber ready for shipment 
 
 The rubber, as you see, is carried on poles. Notice the holes in the 
 large "biscuits" that are lying in the pile. 
 
 The hot, damp, and dark forest is the 
 poorest of places for a home; neverthe- 
 c. Life of the less the natives who collect 
 rubber cou^tar ^^iQ rubber and other forest 
 
 products must spend a great deal of time 
 there. 
 
 The rubber trees are not found in 
 groves, but are widely scattered, one here, 
 another there. The rubber collector, 
 therefore, usually alone, builds a hut for 
 himself out in the forest, which he makes 
 his headquarters. From it he follows 
 paths from tree to tree, covering a con- 
 siderable area. The rubber from the trees 
 that he taps is brought to this head- 
 quarters, smoked and dried, and then 
 carried or taken in canoes to warehouses 
 
 erected by white men along the larger 
 streams. From these it is taken by boat 
 to larger centers, finally reaching Iquitos 
 or Manaos or Para, from which places it 
 is shipped abroad. How would you like 
 to spend a few days with the rubber col- 
 lector? Can you imagine 
 adventures that you might 
 have? 
 
 On leaving the Amazon 
 we start for home. There 
 are a few other countries 
 that might be visited; but 
 they would show only such 
 products and kinds of life 
 as we have already seen; 
 and we are tired of the heat 
 and the hardships of travel. 
 As we leave the continent 
 we ar6 impressed with our 
 dependence upon it. . Much 
 of our coffee grows there; 
 part of our rubber, also, and 
 our cacao. Many other 
 things, too, are imported by 
 us from South America, such, for example, 
 as vanilla, Panama hats, dyewoods, hides, 
 and wool. As these countries develop 
 and our own population increases, much 
 of our other food may be found there, 
 particularly meats and grains. In return, 
 these countries are buying many of our 
 manufactures and are likely to import 
 far more in the future. The welfare of 
 each continent, therefore, depends great- 
 ly upon that of the other. 
 
 © Brmrn Bros. 
 
 1. How does South America resemble 
 North America? 2. State some advan- 
 tages that South America en- Review 
 joys over North America. 3. questions 
 Show how the climate of South America 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 193 
 
 has hindered its progress. 4. Tell about 
 the lack of coal. 5. The lack of educa- 
 tion. 6. At what seasons and by what 
 means of conveyance should one visit 
 South America? 7. Describe the voy- 
 age to Guayaquil. 8. What scenes would 
 you expect in and about Guayaquil? 
 9. Give facts of interest on a journey 
 to Quito. 10. In and about Quito. 
 11. At Callao, Lima, and vicinity. 12. 
 At Mollendo, Arequipa, and other points 
 in that region. 13. How is northern Chile 
 especially important? 14. What are the 
 attractions of the central valley of Chile? 
 15. What route should be taken from 
 Santiago to Buenos Aires? 16. What 
 experiences might be expected on the 
 mountain journey? 17. What impres- 
 sions does the traveler receive? 18. Ex- 
 plain the importance of Buenos Aires 
 and the region about it. 19. What are 
 the attractions of that region? 20. Which 
 is the principal part of Brazil, and what 
 makes it so important? 21. State some 
 facts about the coffee section. 22. Give 
 reasons for the growth of Rio de Janeiro. 
 23. What obstacle checks its growth and 
 that of Brazil as well? 24. What are 
 some of the conditions to be expected 
 on a voyage up the Amazon River? 
 
 25. What is to be seen on such a trip? 
 
 26. Describe the life of the rubber col- 
 lector. 27. How are we dependent on 
 South America? 
 
 1. How does the shape of Chile com- 
 pare with that of a yardstick an inch 
 Suggestions ^ide? 2. How can you ac- 
 for extra count for this shape? Is it 
 
 an advantage or disadvan- 
 tage for a country to be so long and nar- 
 row? 3. The condor of South America 
 
 is one of the largest of birds. Read about 
 its appearance and habits. 4. Make a 
 list of the uses of rubber. 5. Make a list 
 of all the things you eat, wear, or use in 
 other ways, which come from South 
 America. 6. There has been talk of a 
 railroad from Buenos Aires to New York. 
 What parts in South America are already 
 completed (Fig. 175)? Map out the route 
 the remaining parts in South America 
 could best take. 7. Make a sand model 
 of South America, showing the highlands 
 and lowlands, the three great rivers, and 
 locations of principal cities. Use Fig. 
 170 as a help. 8. What reasons can you 
 give why it might be wise for you to 
 study the Spanish language? 
 
 1. Between what oceans does South America 
 
 lie? 2. With what other continent is it connected? 
 
 3. Compare South America and jyj aues- 
 
 North America in shape; in size; tions on 
 
 in coast line. 4. Measure the dis- South 
 , . ., o XI A • America 
 
 tance m miles across South America 
 
 from north to south; from east to west at the 
 widest part. 5. In what zones does South America 
 lie? 6. Locate and name four important capes or 
 points on the coast line. 7. In what part of South 
 America are the highest mountains? 8. To what 
 mountain system of North America do they cor- 
 respond? 9. What highland region of South 
 America corresponds in location to the Appala- 
 chian Highland of North America? 10. Name and 
 locate the two great river systems of South Amer- 
 ica. 11. Are there any great bays, gulfs or lakes in 
 South America? 12. Name and locate the largest 
 country in South America. ■ 13. Locate and de- 
 scribe the shape of Chili; of Ecuador. 14. Judg- 
 ing from the railways and cities shown, which 
 country do you think is most thickly settled? 
 15. What are the two largest cities of South Amer- 
 ica? 16. What country in South America has a 
 climate most nearly like ours? Why? 17. What 
 countries have no seacoast? 18. Using the notes 
 in black type on the margin of the pages as a guide, 
 trace again the imaginary journey described in 
 the text. Locate each place mentioned. 
 
PART IV. EUROPE 
 
 I. General Facts 
 
 The botind- 
 aries of 
 Europe and 
 reasons for 
 calling it a 
 continent 
 
 A continent is a very large body of 
 
 land almost or entirely surrounded by 
 water. North and South Am- 
 erica are examples. Europe 
 (Fig. 197) has oceans on its 
 north and west sides, and on 
 its south two great seas. Name 
 
 and locate these bodies of 
 
 water. On the east, how- 
 ever, there is land. Trace 
 
 the boundary of Europe 
 
 from the Caspian Sea to the 
 
 Arctic Ocean. Europe is 
 
 thus seen to be only a pen- 
 insula extending westward 
 
 from Asia, a little larger in 
 
 area than the United States. 
 
 Europe and Asia together 
 
 are sometimes called the 
 
 continent of Eurasia. 
 Yet Europe is commonly 
 
 called a continent. It got 
 
 Reasons for that name long 
 
 its importance g^g^^ when its 
 
 connection with Asia was 
 not known, and it has kept 
 it partly because of its great 
 importance, for it is one of 
 the most densely populated of all the 
 continents. Note how many separate 
 countries there are in Fig. 198. How does 
 the number compare with that in North 
 America? Which has the greatest area? 
 Which ones have you often heard of? 
 
 Locate the British Isles; France; Ger- 
 many; Russia; Italy. Although Europe 
 is only a Httle larger than the United 
 States and Alaska, it has more than four 
 times as many inhabitants. 
 
 Europe is of great importance, also, be- 
 cause it governs so many other parts of 
 
 Fig. 191. — Annual rainfall in Europe 
 
 the earth. Although Canada governs 
 itself, it is a part of the British Empire. 
 What other parts of North America be- 
 long to Great Britain? Guiana, in South 
 America, is divided among three coun- 
 tries of Europe (p. 178). Name and 
 
 195 
 
19G 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 locate them. Almost all of Africa is 
 governed by the countries of Europe; 
 so also are large areas of Asia, and one 
 entire continent, Australia, is, like Can- 
 ada, a part of the British Empire. 
 
 Again, Europe has been a teacher for 
 all the peoples of the world. Its countries 
 are so much older than most others that. 
 
 Why it is di- 
 vided into so 
 many coun- 
 tries 
 
 Fig. 192. — The Tyrolean Alps 
 
 The Tyrolean Alps (Fig. 201) contain some of the most rugged mountains in Europe, 
 rivalling the Swiss Alps (Fig. 220) in beauty. Notice on the map that, while the chief 
 mountain systems of North and South America run north and south, those of Europe 
 run east and west. 
 
 until the advances made in North Amer- 
 ica in the last century, they led all others 
 in discovering the best ways of farming, 
 mining, manufacturing, and doing other 
 kinds of w^ork. Most of the best books, 
 music, painting, and sculpture have been 
 produced there, and many of the best 
 schools have been there. 
 
 Make a list of the countries that you 
 find on the map of Europe. One reason 
 why there are so many is that the water 
 
 and mountains together divide the con- 
 tinent into parts that could not easily 
 communicate with one an- 
 other before the days of rail- 
 roads, automobiles, the tele- 
 graph and telephone. For 
 example, the British Isles form a separate 
 nation because they are entirely cut off 
 
 from other people 
 by water. Italy is 
 nearly surrounded 
 by water, while on 
 the north side are 
 the Alps (Fig. 197), 
 which are not easy 
 to cross. What 
 other countries are 
 largely cut off by 
 water, or mountains, 
 or both? 
 
 In times past when 
 there was little travel, 
 each group of people 
 thus separated from 
 others learned to 
 speak a different lan- 
 guage from its neigh- 
 bors and to govern 
 itself in its own way. 
 War has been an- 
 other cause of the 
 large number of separate countries. Dif- 
 ferent groups of people have found it 
 difficult to get on with one another, 
 having lived separately and kept their 
 own customs for many centuries; and 
 after fighting for a time, they have set 
 up independent governments with any 
 boundaries that they have had strength 
 enough to hold. Much of the boundary 
 of Germany is the result of war. Trace 
 it and note how irregular it is. 
 
 tone View Co., Inc. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 197 
 
 II. Northwestern Europe 
 1. The British Isles 
 
 Why these 
 islands are a 
 central place 
 of interest in 
 the world 
 
 1. Our special 
 
 The British Isles — called, also, the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland — are of special inter- 
 est to us, because they are our 
 Mother Country. 
 All the nations of 
 Europe have sent 
 
 interest in them g^ttlerS tO US; but 
 
 our early settlers came from 
 this kingdom and gave us our 
 English language. Many of our 
 names of places are English, 
 such for example as New York, 
 New Hampshire, and New Jer- 
 sey. Can you think of others? 
 Many of our books were writ- 
 ten there: Alice in Wonderland, 
 for instance, Robinson Crusoe, 
 Treasure Island, and Ivanhoe. 
 Many of our ideas of govern- 
 ment have come from these 
 islands, and we have more trade 
 with them than with any other 
 country in the world. 
 
 The British Isles are the cen- 
 ter of the British Empire, which 
 
 includes about a 
 
 fourth of all the 
 
 land and nearly a 
 
 fourth of all the inhabitants 
 of the earth. We have already noted 
 (p. 196) that Canada and Australia are 
 parts of this empire; so, also, is the 
 great peninsula in southern Asia called 
 India; and so are large portions of Africa 
 and scores of islands in all parts of the 
 world. Many of the colonies look to 
 these islands for guidance in govern- 
 ment, commerce, and education. No other 
 
 country has so many people dependent 
 upon it. 
 
 Since we are so closely related to these 
 isles, many of our people visit them both 
 
 2. Their im- 
 portance as the 
 center of the 
 British Empire 
 
 © Underu-ood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 193. — The Tower of London 
 This is one of the most famous prisons in the world. You will find 
 many references to it in your study of history. 
 
 for business and for pleasure. If you were 
 to make the voyage from New York, you 
 might be surprised at the 
 direction the ship took. In- 
 stead of sailing directly east, 
 it would go northeast nearly 
 all the time. London is almost 
 seven hundred miles farther north than 
 New York City, or much farther north 
 than Montreal. In Fig. 315 follow the 
 
 A visit to 
 these islands 
 
 1. Some facts 
 about the 
 voyage 
 
198 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Photo by ElinendorJ' © Eiiiny Galloway 
 
 Fig. 194. -The River Clyde, near Glasgow 
 
 Are these ships completely built? What parts are missing? Explain, from 
 your study of the text, why this river should be famous for its shipbuilding. 
 
 course that would be taken. Note how 
 near you go to the coast of Nova Scotia. 
 
 The voyage would last 
 
 from five days to a week or 
 more, according to the speed 
 of the vessel. The port for 
 which you would be bound 
 would probably be South- 
 ampton on the southern 
 coast of England (Fig. 201), 
 or Liverpool on the west 
 coast, or Glasgow in Scot- 
 land (Fig. 194). Estimate 
 the distance from New 
 York to Liverpool; also the 
 rate of travel if the voyage 
 takes six full days. How 
 does this rate compare with 
 the usual rate by rail? 
 
 The climate on the 
 islands might bring an- 
 other sur- 2 ^^^ ^,^^^^ 
 
 prise. Al- needed on the 
 11 island 
 
 though they 
 lie so far north, the 
 temperature is warmer 
 in winter and cooler in 
 summer than in New 
 York state. Less fuel 
 is needed in winter, and 
 people suffer little from 
 the heat in summer. 
 Heavy wraps or light 
 summer clothing, there- 
 fore, are less needed 
 there than here. 
 
 The Atlantic Ocean 
 and the winds furnish 
 the explanation. The 
 warm waters of the Gulf 
 of Mexico drift north- 
 eastward past Ireland 
 far toward the Arctic Ocean; and the 
 winds which blow across them from the 
 
 © Press Illustrating Service 
 
 Fig. 195. — The Thames River at Hampton, England 
 This small city in England lies to the west of London, in the farming sec- 
 tion of England. This southern portion of the coimtry is quiet, clean, and 
 pleasant, a section that one would want to visit on a tour of the British Isles. 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 199 
 
 west spread their heat over the land and 
 give it a much milder winter than could 
 otherwise be expected. In summer the 
 ocean is cooler than the land and the 
 winds bring cool air to the islands. 
 
 These westerly winds carry an abun- 
 dance of moisture. Some of the western 
 slopes of the mountains receive as high as 
 eighty inches of rain per 
 year, which is twice as much 
 as falls in most of our east- 
 ern states. Farther east the 
 fall is less and in southeast- 
 ern England the amount is 
 not over twenty-five inches. 
 
 London is the city to visit 
 above all others. It is the 
 3. What one capital and the 
 would see in the center of the 
 
 large cities t-> -x- i t-i 
 
 British lijmpire 
 
 a. In London , / , 
 
 and, next to 
 New York, the largest city 
 in the world. 
 
 Possibly the most inter- 
 esting thing to see there 
 would be the harbor. The 
 city is located on the 
 Thames River about forty 
 miles from its mouth, which 
 is about as far up-stream as 
 ocean vessels can go. For 
 thirty-five miles of that dis- 
 tance, ships from all parts 
 of the earth would be found 
 on both its shores loading 
 and unloading their goods. 
 London is the port into 
 which much of the food for this island is 
 brought. If you were to board the ves- 
 sels or pass through the warehouses, you 
 would see vast stores of bananas, coco- 
 nuts or coconut meat, cocoa, coffee, tea. 
 
 wines, wheat, flour, corn, rice, sugar, and 
 meat. Make a list of other things you 
 would expect to find. What flags of for- 
 eign nations could you recognize? 
 
 The street scenes might interest some 
 persons even more. The buildings are by 
 no means so tall as they are in our large 
 cities, nor are street cars common. The 
 
 © Underwood and Undertiood 
 
 Fig. 196. — Cheapside, London 
 This is one of the main streets of London. Many of the important streets 
 of London are the built-up portions of roads that radiate out from the center 
 of London in every direction. 
 
 streets are too narrow for them, and om- 
 nibuses are used instead (Fig. 196) ; they 
 can pick their way about more readily. 
 Would you expect to find many foreigners 
 on the streets? Why? 
 
202 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Some of the public buildings should 
 be visited. Since London is the capital 
 of the British Empire, many laws are 
 
 Fig. 199. — "Westminster Abbey, London, England 
 This is one of the most famous buildings in the world. Here are buried 
 many of England's illustrious dead. 
 
 made there and the Parliament Buildings 
 in which this is done would be of interest. 
 The British Parliament corresponds to 
 our Congress that meets at Washington 
 (p. 31). Westminster Abbey (Fig. 199) 
 is a church that is noted as the burial place 
 of distinguished men. The palace of the 
 king w ould be seen from a distance. One 
 of the most famous buildings in the city is 
 the great prison called the Tower of 
 London (Fig. 193). 
 
 Liverpool ranks next to London as a 
 seaport. Manchester and Glasgow also 
 
 have a great foreign commerce. How 
 far apart are the latter cities? They 
 are especially well situated h. in Liverpool 
 for trade with <^^ Glasgow 
 North and South America, 
 receiving vast quantities 
 of food and raw mate- 
 rials for manufacture, and 
 exporting manufactured 
 articles. In their harbors 
 the great number of masts 
 reminds one of a for- 
 est of very straight trees, 
 and the funnels of steam- 
 ships can be counted almost 
 by the hundred. Many of 
 the ships are unloading 
 wheat, flour, corn, meat, 
 and w^ool. Cotton bales by 
 the thousand may be seen 
 at Liverpool, although most 
 of them are carried, farther 
 inland by ship canal to Man- 
 chester (Fig. 201). What 
 countries that you have 
 studied are hkely to send 
 these things to Great 
 Britain? 
 
 The cities themselves 
 would seem to you dingy and smoky, for 
 they have an enormous number of fac- 
 tories and mills. Shipbuilding is a leading 
 industry; Glasgow is the greatest center 
 in the world for this work. So many 
 ships are built there that even the chance 
 visitor is likely to see the launching of 
 one. The principal articles piled up at 
 the wharves ready for export are woolen, 
 cotton, and Unen goods, and machinery 
 of all kinds. 
 
 Edinburgh, facing the North Sea and 
 only a short distance east of Glasgow, is 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 203 
 
 c. In Edin- 
 burgh 
 and other 
 towns on the 
 east coast 
 
 very different in appearance. It is the 
 old capital of Scotland. Here one sees 
 churches and schools, book- 
 stores, publishing houses, 
 government buildings, and 
 beautiful parks (Fig. 200). 
 There is less smoke in the air, 
 and everything is cleaner. 
 
 The most interesting occupation to a 
 visitor on the eastern coast of England 
 would be the fishing (Fig. 202) . The shal- 
 low North Sea shuts out the cold currents 
 of the ocean and furnishes excellent breed- 
 ing and feeding grounds for fish. Since the 
 winters are mild, fishing can be carried on 
 here throughout the year. Accordingly, 
 this is a favorite place for that industry. 
 A passenger on board a ship 
 crossing the North Sea to 
 Hamburg in Germany once 
 counted 120 fishing boats 
 within a few minutes, al- 
 though the day was so rainy 
 and gloomy that he could 
 not see far. All together 
 there are about 100,000 
 men in the United King- 
 dom engaged in this occu- 
 pation, most of them in 
 these waters. Can you im- 
 agine some of the dangers 
 they must meet in stormy 
 and foggy weather? 
 
 Any traveler crossing 
 northern England is im- 
 
 d. In the minino prCSSCd wlth the 
 
 districts number of chim- 
 
 neys belching forth black 
 smoke. Great Britain is a manufacturing 
 country. The chief reason for this is the 
 abundance of coal underground. The 
 raw material, next to coal, that is usually 
 
 most valuable for manufacturing is iron 
 ore; and that also is found in large quan- 
 tities near the coal. For these reasons 
 mining is extensive here, and there are 
 nearly a million men at work under- 
 ground. The visitor, therefore, would 
 see many miners and mining towns. How 
 could you tell that they were miners, 
 if you saw them on their way to or from 
 their work? 
 
 Three principal kinds of manufacturing 
 are carried on in the interior cities. One 
 makes use of the coal and iron 
 ore to produce iron and steel, 
 and hundreds of kinds of met- 
 al articles. Birmingham and Sheffield 
 are two cities especially noted for that 
 
 e. In the 
 
 manufacturing 
 
 districts 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Eiring Galloway 
 
 Fig. 200. — Scott Montiment and Princes' Street, Edinburgh 
 
 Read the text to see why you would expect Edinburgh to be a more 
 beautiful city than Glasgow. 
 
 work, making armor plates for ships, steel 
 rails, firearms, automobiles, and cutlery. 
 Locate them. You can see one reason, 
 now, why shipbuilding is so great an 
 
Longitude West from G 
 
 Fig. 201 
 
 CORbjC* 
 
enb' 
 
 '""i 
 
 
 v1 
 
 
 fiS' 
 
 ornholm I ___J^. 
 y~- - (Van.) T, 
 
 ,1 m.' HUGEN j. 
 
 C>.!/>^' 
 
 
 V.iei^\ ^oSCO 
 
 CO 
 
 o«^\«^ 
 
 CO 
 
 a^«»»*' 
 
 of 
 
 ^ 
 
 .^ei 
 
 ''>y^.. 
 
 
 ^-i^ 
 
 ^<wM 
 
 
 V^ U U N G A P I A N « •_ 
 
 STER1 
 EUROPE i 
 
 POUTICAL AND PHYSICAL MAP 
 
 Scale of statute mile 
 50 lOO 200 
 
 Railroads 
 
 Canals 
 
 ■ ^ Tola* 
 
 
 Capitals of Countries ® 
 H€lGHTS IN FEET 
 
 Over 10,000 1,000 to .',1,00 
 
 5,000 to 10,000 -^ . 500tol,{^£n 
 
 ■ 000 to 6,000 ■ ^ ;*^»i- atia level ^00 
 
 Longiluile hai<l Jront Greenwich 15 
 
 ^^^^M BelovKsea le 
 
 IMfc M«l IHhWb-KOHTnMtf WORxill DuFflLO, 
 
 Fig. 201 
 
206 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 industry in Liverpool and Glasgow; the 
 necessary coal and iron are near at hand. 
 Does the chief occupation of Birmingham, 
 in England, explain the name of Birming- 
 ham in Alabama? 
 
 Another kind of manufacturing here 
 is that of woolen goods. Sheep have 
 always thrived on this island; this led 
 
 can make of things made of cotton. The 
 spinning and weaving of wool led to cot- 
 ton manufacture, and the abundance of 
 coal, used in running the machinery of 
 the mills, has favored both industries. 
 Now the cotton industry is much more 
 important than woolen manufacture. 
 Most of the cotton comes from our South - 
 
 Fig. 202. — An English fishing fleet 
 
 © Keystone View Co. , Inc. 
 
 long ago to the spinning and weaving of 
 wool. Now the native sheep supply only 
 a small part of the wool used. The lead- 
 ing cities in this industry are Leeds and 
 Bradford. Find them on Fig. 20 L What 
 articles can you name that are made of 
 wool? 
 
 The third kind of manufacturing here 
 is that of cotton goods. Strange to say, 
 while these islands grow no cotton, an 
 enormous amount of it is here made into 
 thread and cloth. See how long a list you 
 
 ern States. The center of the industry 
 is Manchester, which is connected with 
 Liverpool by the ship canal already men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Central England and southern Scot- 
 land are two of the greatest workshops 
 of the world. In these regions the cities 
 are so close together that a person some- 
 times cannot tell when he is leaving one 
 and entering another. People in the 
 West Indies, southern Africa, India, and 
 many other distant places are very de- 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 207 
 
 pendent on what goes on here. Why? Do 
 you see now why so much food and raw 
 material are brought into the leading sea- 
 ports, and so many goods made of iron 
 and steel, wool, and cotton are sent forth? 
 Name the principal imports and exports 
 once more. To what extent would there 
 be suffering in the world if the coal miners 
 of England, Scotland, and Wales refused 
 to work? 
 
 cover many of the buildings, and green 
 grass and magnificent trees are always in 
 view (Fig. 204). 
 
 Some of our most important crops 
 would not be seen: for example, corn, 
 grapes, sugar cane, or cotton; h. The farm 
 the summers are too cool for -products 
 them. But the most hardy grains and 
 vegetables flourish, such as oats, barley, 
 rye, cabbages, peas, beans, turnips, and 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Eming Galloway 
 
 Fig. 203. — Lake Aive in the Scottish Highlands 
 
 country 
 
 a. The scenery 
 
 To many visitors the country districts 
 would be the most attractive parts of the 
 4. What one island. There is a beautiful 
 wouid^see in the Jake distHct in northern Eng- 
 land, and another in Scotland. 
 How could you enjoy your- 
 self in such a place? Almost any section 
 of the country, however, is beautiful. 
 The houses and the fields are kept in 
 good condition, the winding roads are 
 finely paved, the hedges that border them 
 are well trimmed, ivy and other vines 
 
 potatoes. Truck gardens are very numer- 
 ous, since there are so many large cities. 
 
 Twice as much space is given to grass 
 as to all these products, partly because 
 much of the land is too hilly and rocky to 
 be cultivated, and partly because grass 
 grows so well in that climate. Some of 
 the finest country scenes are those of 
 grazing cattle and sheep. Many of our 
 best cattle and sheep are imported from 
 Great Britain and its neighboring islands. 
 Possibly you know the names of some of 
 
208 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 (£i Press Illustrating Service 
 
 Fig. 204. — An English country home 
 Many of the houses in the country districts of England are set in large 
 yards surrounded by stone or hedge fences and by many large trees. 
 
 the breeds. The cattle and sheep supply 
 many useful products, such as milk, but- 
 ter, meat, hides, and wool. Yet farming, 
 when compared with other 
 occupations, is much less 
 important in the British 
 Isles than in any other lead- 
 ing country, and far too 
 little food is produced to 
 feed the people. 
 
 Some travelers going from 
 America to the British Isles 
 5. Some of the ^^ave the vessel 
 attractions of at Queenstowu, 
 
 Ireland ^^ ' 
 
 Ireland. l*rom 
 there they go to Cork (Fig. 
 205) , then northeast to Dub- 
 lin, the capital, and across 
 the Irish Sea to Liverpool or 
 Glasgow. Trace the route. 
 The country is charming 
 because the frequent rains 
 keep all the vegetation espe- 
 
 cially green. Ireland is often 
 called the Emerald Isle 
 because of this rich color. 
 Lakes are numerous there, 
 also, the Killarney Lakes 
 (Fig. 206) being perhaps 
 the best known. Farming, 
 rather than manufacturing, 
 is the prominent industry. 
 Many of the farm products 
 are similar to those of Eng- 
 land. One of the principal 
 differences is in the great 
 amount of flax grown in 
 Ireland. Flax is the mate- 
 rial from which linen is 
 made, and Belfast in par- 
 ticular is noted for its linen 
 mills. Both Dublin and 
 Belfast are so close to Great Britain that 
 they can easily secure coal and iron. 
 Many of their maiitifactures are similar 
 m 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 205. — The River Lee at Cork 
 
THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 209 
 
 to those in Liverpool and 
 Glasgow. 
 
 1 . Why have we a special 
 interest in the British Isles? 
 Review 2. Describe the 
 
 questions voyage from 
 
 New York to Great Britain. 
 3. Name and locate three 
 ports at which passengers 
 often land. 4. What kind 
 of clothing would one need 
 on the islands ? 5. Tell 
 about some of the interest 
 ing sights in London. 6. In 
 Liverpool and Glasgow. 7. 
 In Edinburgh and towns 
 along the eastern coast. 8. 
 State some facts about 
 mining in Great Britain. 9. What three 
 kinds of manufacturing are especially im- 
 portant in the interior cities? 10. Name 
 and locate two cities noted for manufac- 
 
 Pubti>-lurs' Photo Servuc 
 
 Fig. 206. — A portion of one of the Lakes of Killarney 
 These famous lakes he in basins between low mountains in western 
 Ireland. The whole region is one of great beauty. There are many ruins 
 of castles, some of which were built before America was discovered. The 
 moist climate favors the growth of plants and most of the movmtains are 
 covered with forest from base to summit. 
 
 ture of steel goods, 
 woolen manufacture, 
 cotton manufacture. 
 
 IL Two noted for 
 
 12. One noted for 
 
 13. Name the prin- 
 
 Fig. 207. — A farm scene in western Ireland 
 What indications do you see that this country is well watered? 
 
 cipal farm products. 14. What are some of 
 
 the attractions of Ireland? 
 
 J 1. Make a list of good 
 
 books whose authors lived 
 
 in the British suggestions 
 
 Isles. 2. People for extra 
 
 from England 
 are called English; what are 
 those from Ireland called? 
 From Scotland? From 
 Wales? 3. What waters sep- 
 arate Great Britain from 
 the continent? What is the 
 shortest distance across? It 
 is said that Britain has 
 escaped many wars by this 
 separation from the conti- 
 nent. How can that be 
 true? 4. Describe the 
 launching of a ship. 
 
2in 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 ^\ 
 
 ^J 
 
 © Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 208. — An airplane view of a part of Paris 
 Note the irregular streets, and the trees along the famous boulevards. What is the stream that flows through 
 the center of the picture? 
 
 2. France 
 
 Our soldiers 
 in France 
 
 1. How they 
 reached the 
 fighting line 
 
 More than two million of our men 
 went to France as soldiers in 1917 and 
 1918. A few sailed directly to 
 Havre (Fig. 201), the port of 
 Paris at the mouth of the Seine 
 River. There they took train 
 for Paris, since the river is too 
 shallow for large ocean vessels, or directly 
 for the field of battle. Others landed at 
 Cherbourg or Brest, or even as far south 
 as Bordeaux, wherever there was room in 
 the crowded harbors or wherever the 
 course seemed safest from German sub- 
 marines. Some went to England and then 
 crossed over to Calais or Boulogne. Trace 
 the route from New York, and locate 
 these French ports. 
 
 saw in and 
 about Paris 
 
 New York and London are the only 
 cities in the world that are larger than 
 Paris, but Paris is very differ- 2. what they 
 ent from either. Its principal 
 streets are broader, the most 
 noted being the avenue called Champs 
 Elysees (Fig. 209). The buildings are of 
 a uniform height, contrasting strikingly 
 with those in New York as shown in Fig. 
 67; and the Seine River, which runs 
 through the city, is crossed by many 
 beautiful bridges. The street life, also, 
 is more interesting, partly because there 
 is more of it. For example, many of the 
 restaurants serve their customers out of 
 doors in summer; the wide sidewalks 
 in front are filled with tables and chairs. 
 
FRANCE 
 
 211 
 
 Two of the most noted churches are the 
 Madeleine, modeled after a Greek temple, 
 and Notre Dame. The mansion of the 
 president of the republic, corresponding 
 to our White House at Washington, may 
 be seen there ; and there are several former 
 palaces that are now used as museums or 
 picture galleries, in w^hich some of the 
 finest paintings and sculptures in the 
 world are exhibited. One of these is 
 called the Louvre. The most famous 
 suburb is Versailles, where the Peace 
 Commission sat that ended the World 
 War (Fig. 210). Ask some of your soldier 
 friends what they saw in Paris and what 
 they thought of the city. 
 
 Our soldiers could not have been greatly 
 surprised at the climate, for it is similar to 
 ■r-r T, , our own. On the western coast 
 
 How French . . 
 
 farming com- it IS mild and damp hke that 
 pares with our q£ q^j. q^^ western coast, ow- 
 
 own _ ^ ' 
 
 ing to the westerly winds from 
 across the Atlantic. The far- 
 ther inland one goes, the 
 warmer it gets in summer and the colder in 
 winter. In the section where most of our 
 troops were quartered, both seasons are 
 much like those in southern New York, 
 though perhaps a Uttle milder. South- 
 eastern France, however, under the influ- 
 ence of the Mediterranean Sea, is semi- 
 tropical, like southern California and 
 Florida. The products, also, are similar 
 to our own: cattle and sheep; wheat, corn, 
 oats, rye, and vegetables; fruits such as 
 we know, and an especially large quantity 
 of grapes (Fig. 211). Along the Mediter- 
 ranean coast in the section called the 
 Riviera, oranges, lemons, olives, and figs 
 are common. 
 
 There are two striking differences be- 
 tween France and the United States in 
 
 1. The climate 
 and products 
 
 the farming. One concerns the size of 
 the farms. Many of the French farms 
 contain no more than two and 2. important 
 one half acres; and nearly one differences 
 fifth of the land is in farms of less than 
 twenty-five acres. What is the usual size 
 in your state? The other difference con- 
 cerns the place where the farmers live. 
 They do not have their houses on their 
 land, but live in small villages and go out 
 into the country only to work. What 
 advantages and disadvantages do you see 
 in such a plan? Would it be advisable to 
 try to introduce it into our country? 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Exving Galloway 
 
 Fig. 209. — The Champs Elysees, Paris 
 
 The area of France is 212,700 square 
 miles and its population is nearly 41,- 
 476,000. Compare these figures with 
 the corresponding figures for Great Brit- 
 ain (p. 310). The proportion of France 
 that is level enough for cultivation is 
 larger than in England. Locate the prin- 
 
212 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 cipal plains and highlands (Fig. 201). 
 
 More than one half of all French workers 
 are farmers, while in the Brit- 
 ish Isles the farmers are less 
 than one fourth of the popu- 
 lation. Four out of five of the 
 French farmers own the land 
 they cultivate. How must 
 
 these facts affect the amount of farm 
 
 products that they raise? 
 
 Why the 
 French are 
 more inde- 
 pendent than 
 the British in 
 their food 
 supply 
 
 namely, the manufacture of cotton, 
 woolen, and linen goods. 
 
 The making of silk goods is a fourth 
 textile industry of importance, particu- 
 larly in the Rhone Valley. The raw 
 material for silk is obtained from cocoons 
 spun by a caterpillar called the silkworm. 
 Each of the cocoons is made of a tiny 
 silk thread several hundred yards long, 
 looking somewhat like the thread of a 
 
 Fig. 210. — The Hall of Mirrors in the palace at Versailles 
 It was in this beautiful room that the treaty of peace closing the World War was signed. 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Northern France resembles northern 
 England in its mining and manufacturing. 
 Minin and ^ large part of the coal and 
 
 iron mined in France comes 
 from its northern part; and 
 the same three textile indus- 
 tries are prominent there that 
 are prominent in the United Kingdom, 
 
 manufactur- 
 ing compared 
 with those in- 
 dustries in 
 England 
 
 spider's web. The silk industry depends 
 upon these worms, which require much 
 care. Their principal food is the leaf of 
 the mulberry tree, which is cultivated in 
 large groves in the Rhone Valley; but the 
 greater part of the raw silk is imported 
 from other countries, especially Italy, 
 Japan, and China. The leaves are plucked 
 
FRANCE 
 
 213 
 
 from the trees and fed to the worms; and 
 when the caterpillars reach the right stage 
 they spin the cocoons. After these have 
 been softened in hot water, the threads 
 are unwound, and then wound upon 
 spools. They are later made into silk 
 thread, which is then woven into ribbons, 
 cloth, and other silk goods. The center of 
 
 Saar Basin (Fig. 201), which will greatly 
 increase her coal supply. 
 
 The cities in Great Britain that rank 
 next in size to London are on the west 
 
 coast, where they can best ^he two cities 
 trade with America. One next to Paris 
 might expect, therefore, that >" ^"^P^'-t^"^^ 
 the French cities ranking next to Paris 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 211. — Vineyards in France 
 One of the great industries of France is wine making. 
 The land in the grape-growing regions is so valuable that 
 nearly every square foot is used. The vines are kept 
 short. Pruned vines grow better grapes and the vine- 
 yards are thus more easily handled. 
 
 the industry is Lyon (Fig. 201), the lead- 
 ing silk-manufacturing city in Europe. 
 
 Before the World War, however, 
 France was seriously hindered in manu- 
 facturing by lack of coal. She mined only 
 a small fraction of the amount mined in 
 England, and partly on that account her 
 manufacturing was much less. But as a 
 result of the war she has been granted 
 the use of extensive coal mines in the 
 
 c) Vnderifood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 212. — Household spinning in Brittany 
 The northwestern part of France is called Brittany. 
 There are many very old-fashioned homes in France. 
 This one room serves as a living room, kitchen, and bed- 
 room. Do you see the bed? The open fire is used for 
 cooking and heating. 
 
 would be on the west coast. Yet they 
 are not; they are Marseille i. Advantages 
 (Fig. 213) and Lyon, one on <^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 the Mediterranean coast and the other in 
 the Rhone Valley. 
 
 France imports much smaller quantities 
 of food and raw materials for manufac- 
 ture from the west than does Great Brit- 
 ain, and she exports smaller quantities 
 of manufactured goods; consequently her 
 
214 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 seaports on the Atlantic are much smaller. 
 On the other hand, she has an extensive 
 trade with • the Mediterranean countries 
 and the Orient by way of the Rhone Val- 
 ley, which has always been the main route 
 
 it, in Africa, are Algeria, Tunis, and 
 Morocco, important colonies of France, 
 whose trade with the mother country 
 naturally passes through this port. What 
 route would goods bound for London 
 from points on the Mediter- 
 ranean coast be likely to 
 take if they did not go up 
 the Rhone Valley? 
 
 © E. M. Newman 
 
 Fig. 213. — Aerial ferry, Marseille 
 
 This ferry, hanging from overhead cables, carries passengers, carts, and 
 automobiles from one side of the harbor channel to the other. 
 
 between those regions and northwestern 
 Europe. In Fig. 201, trace the course 
 that goods might take up the Rhone River 
 to Paris. Note how the rivers of France 
 are connected by canals. Can Paris be 
 reached from Marseille by water? Lyon 
 and Marseille owe their growth largely 
 to this commerce. 
 
 Lyon is not only a center for silk ; it has 
 extensive metal manufactures as well. 
 It is not far from coal and 
 iron mines, and makes more 
 automobiles than any other 
 French city. 
 
 Marseille is the leading seaport of 
 France. Across the Mediterranean from 
 
 2. Their indus' 
 tries and 
 commerce 
 
 1. Name and locate the 
 principal ports of France. 
 
 2. How is Paris Review 
 
 different from questions 
 New York and London? 3. 
 Name some of the noted 
 buildings and other attrac- 
 tions of Paris. 4. Compare 
 the climate and farm prod- 
 ucts of France mth those of 
 the United States. 5. State 
 two differences between 
 them. What makes the 
 French more independent . 
 than the British in regard 
 to food supply? 7. Compare 
 mining and manufacturing in France with 
 these occupations in Great Britain. 8. 
 Tell about the silk industry of France. 
 9. Why are the cities on the west coast 
 of France less important than those on 
 the west coast of Great Britain? 10. 
 Show the advantage of the location of 
 Lyon and Marseille. 11. State some facts 
 about their industries and commerce. 
 
 1. How much of the boundary of 
 France is natural? 2. About how far is 
 Paris from the Belgian bound- suggestions 
 ary? The Spanish boundary? for extra 
 3. Find or mark off a plot of 
 ground that contains only two or three 
 acres. 4. Make a collection of photo- 
 
GERMANY 
 
 215 
 
 graphs taken in and about Paris. 5. 
 Soften a cocoon in warm water and see 
 if you can unwind the thread. 6. Show 
 that when a hole is broken into a cocoon, 
 its value for silk is destroyed. 7. Draw 
 an outline of France and put in the prin- 
 
 cipal highlands, rivers, and cities. 8. 
 How far is it from Paris to London? 
 How far from Paris to Berlin? 9. Locate 
 on Fig. 201 as many places as you can 
 that were the scenes of battles in the 
 World War. 
 
 3. Germany 
 
 How Ger- 
 many com- 
 pares with 
 California in 
 area, popula- 
 tion, and size 
 of cities 
 
 ence, for 
 
 The countries of Europe are so im- 
 portant that we often forget how small 
 they are. Germany, for ex- 
 ample, is now only a little 
 larger than California. 
 
 In population, 
 however, there 
 is a vast differ- 
 Germany has 
 about sixteen times as many 
 inhabitants, or a little more 
 than 55,000,000. How 
 much more is that than one 
 half of the entire population 
 of the United States? How 
 crowded California would 
 be if it contained so many 
 people! 
 
 As might be expected, 
 German}' contains many 
 large cities. There are only 
 three cities in California 
 with a population of more 
 than 100,000, and only two 
 of them contain more than 
 500,000 each. In Germany, 
 however, there are scores of such cities. 
 The largest German city is Berlin, the cap- 
 ital, with nearly 2,000,000. Others are 
 Hamburg, Cologne, Leipzig, Dresden, 
 Breslau, and Munich. Locate these cities 
 on Fig. 201. Show whether or not they 
 are well distributed over the country. 
 
 How can so small a country support so 
 many people? How can it How so many 
 feed them? This question is people get 
 especially serious when one ®^**"sh to eat 
 understands how unfavorable some of the 
 
 in 1789 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Gallouay 
 
 Fig. 214. — The Brandenburg Gate in Berlin 
 
 This famous gate forms one of the entrances to the city. It was erected 
 The gate is 85 feet high. 
 
 conditions are for farming. The rainfall 
 is sufficient in all parts, being heaviest 
 in the west and decreasing toward the 
 east until it is only about twenty-five 
 inches. You can easily explain this de- 
 crease, since the rain-bearing winds come 
 from the Atlantic. Yet there is enough 
 
21C 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 215. — Natives of Bavaria 
 Bavaria is the name of one of the highland regions of Germany. 
 
 rain everywhere for the usual crops of 
 the temperate zones. The temperature 
 also is favorable; for the summers are 
 nearly as hot as those in our Northeast- 
 ern States. 
 
 But there are two difficulties. In Fig. 
 201 you can see that almost one half the 
 area is mountainous or hilly. In the ex- 
 treme south the mountains reach an alti- 
 tude of more than 5,000 feet, but they 
 decrease in height toward the north. A 
 large part of this mountainous area is too 
 rough for farming and is covered with 
 forest. 
 
 The northern part is a great plain, level 
 enough for farming; but much of it is too 
 sandy for profitable cultivation. Partly for 
 that reason there are extensive forests 
 there also; and much of the land used for 
 farms is cultivated at a disadvantage. 
 
 In spite of these drawbacks, Germany 
 is a noted farming country. The people 
 are careful to cultivate as much of the 
 
 land as possible, and they 
 fertilize the soil far more 
 extensively than we do. 
 Their most important prod- 
 ucts are rye, oats, wheat, 
 and barley, potatoes and 
 other vegetables, sugar 
 beets, and grapes. Rye 
 holds the place there that 
 wheat does in our country; 
 and most of the people eat 
 rye bread, often called black 
 bread. Many prefer it to 
 wheat bread. Germany 
 leads the world in the pro- 
 duction of sugar beets, and 
 is noted for her vineyards. 
 
 Only about one third of 
 the population, however, 
 finds employment at farming and, as in 
 the case of the English (p. 208), large 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 216. — Picking onion seed in Germany 
 
GERMANY 
 
 217 
 
 Why Ger- 
 many has 
 been able to 
 develop 
 
 sively 
 
 1. Conditions 
 favoring metal 
 manufactures 
 
 amounts of food must be imported. We 
 send the Germans dried fruits, wheat, 
 corn, meat, and a large quantity of lard. 
 They are able to pay for such imports by 
 other goods that they produce. 
 
 Germany has ranked among the lead- 
 ing manufacturing countries of the world. 
 One reason for this is that so 
 few of the people could farm; 
 the others had to do some- 
 m^^'Sacturing thing else to make a hving. 
 very exten- But there were many condi- 
 tions favorable to manufac- 
 turing. For example, coal is 
 abundant; before the war. 
 Great Britain was the only 
 country of Europe that produced more 
 coal than Germany; and no other Euro- 
 pean country mined so much iron ore. 
 Recalling the great importance of coal 
 and iron ore in the industries of our 
 Northeastern States (p. 77), you can 
 realize their importance for Germany. 
 In Fig. 201 you see the names of several 
 cities just north of Cologne and east of 
 the Rhine River. How manj^ can you 
 count there close together? They are 
 chiefly engaged in iron and steel manu- 
 facture, that section being one of the 
 great centers in the world for this in- 
 dustry. With what two sections in the 
 United States can you compare it (pp. 
 78 and 115)? With what part of Great 
 Britain (p. 203)? 
 
 Germany closely resembles our North- 
 eastern States in its manufacturing. You 
 have seen how Pennsylvania and the 
 surrounding states produce iron and steel 
 and heavy articles made from them. You 
 have seen, also, how New England, being 
 farther away from the coal and iron sup- 
 ply, makes lighter articles of metal 
 
 (p. 78). Germany manufactures both the 
 heavy and the light articles in large 
 quantities; for example, engines, boilers, 
 steel plates for ships, and hardware. Be- 
 fore the war she was widely noted for her 
 excellent knives, scissors, needles, and 
 microscopes. She has imported large 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 217. — Painting dolls' heads and arms in a 
 German toy factory 
 
 In some portions of Germany great quantities of toys 
 and Christmas goods are made. These women are paint- 
 ing dolls' heads and arms. In the basket are hundreds of 
 arms. Many German toys are sold in the United States. 
 
 amounts of copper from us to be used in 
 connection with metal manufactures. 
 
 Again, like New England, Germany 
 has developed the textile in- ^ other leadin 
 dustry extensively, including Mndsofmanu- 
 
 1 n ft factxiring 
 
 the manufacture of cotton, 
 
 woolen, and silk goods. Nearly all of her 
 
218 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Fig. 218. — Bremen 
 What river is this ? (See Fig. 201.) 
 
 raw cotton is obtained from us, and she 
 
 exports lace and other textiles to us. In 
 
 addition to all these things, 
 
 she produces about three 
 
 times as much beet sugar 
 
 as we do and makes a great 
 
 quantity of beer and wine. 
 Other conditions, also, 
 
 have been favorable to Ger- 
 many. For ex- 
 ample, her cen- 
 tral position 
 in closer touch 
 
 with the leading nations of 
 
 Europe than any other 
 
 country. What nations bor- 
 der her (Fig. 201)? 
 At the same time she has 
 
 a direct outlet to the sea, 
 
 her two leading ports being 
 
 Hamburg and Bremen (Fig. 
 
 218). Locate them. Note 
 
 the number of ports on the 
 
 Baltic Sea also. They are 
 
 more likely to be blocked by 
 ice in winter than the others. 
 Can you suggest why? 
 Trace the route from these 
 ports around Denmark to 
 the North Sea. Locate the 
 Kiel Canal across the south- 
 ern part of this peninsula. 
 Estimate the distance that 
 it saves. 
 
 The rivers are another 
 important aid to German 
 commerce, since they are 
 navigable for a good part of 
 their length. In what di- 
 rection do most of them 
 flow? What are the names 
 of the larger ones flowing 
 north? The Rhine (Fig. 219) is the most 
 important, although neither its source nor 
 
 3. Conditions 
 favoring trans- 
 portation 
 
 puts her 
 
 Ewing OaUoway 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf 
 
 Fig. 219. — Scenery along the Rhine 
 Along the Rhine, chiefly on the hilltops but now and then close to the 
 water, are the ruins of castles hundreds of years old. 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 219 
 
 its mouth is in Germany. In Avhat coun- 
 tries are they? Why might the Germans 
 regret that the mouth is not in German 
 territory? What reasons can you see for 
 the importance of the Rhine? Recall 
 what was said about manufacturing 
 along its course; also, note the number 
 of cities upon it, and the location of its 
 mouth. 
 
 The Danube River flows across south- 
 ern Germany and eastward into the 
 Black Sea. Trace its course in Fig. 197. 
 It is connected by canal with the Main 
 River, which flows into the Rhine. Thus 
 boats can travel all the way from the North 
 Sea to the Black Sea. What advantage 
 for Germany do you see in this fact? 
 
 1. Compare Germany with California 
 in area; in population; in number of 
 Review large cities. 2. How are the 
 
 questions conditions in Germany un- 
 favorable to farming? 3. Name the 
 principal farm products. What food does 
 
 Germany buy of us? 4. What important 
 minerals are found in Germany? 5. How 
 does she resemble our Northeastern States 
 in manufacturing? 6. What advantages 
 for commerce are secured by the position 
 of Germany? 7. By her rivers? 
 
 1. Germans on the average eat about 
 one half as much sugar as we do. What 
 explanation can you find for e 
 
 Y ^ Suggestions 
 
 this fact? 2. Follow the course for extra 
 that goods might take from ^°*^ 
 New York across Germany by water to 
 the Black Sea. 3. Draw an outline map 
 of Germany, showing the boundaries, the 
 principal rivers and cities, and the coun- 
 tries bordering it. 4. Between what two 
 routes must ships choose, in order to 
 reach the ocean from Hamburg? Which 
 is probably the more used? Why? In 
 either case, how^ near to Great Britain 
 must the ships approach? Do you see 
 any reason why the Germans might re- 
 gard it a disadvantage to have to pass 
 so close to Great Britain? 
 
 4. Switzerland 
 
 Switzerland, in the center of Europe, is 
 often called the playground of that conti- 
 nent and America because so 
 
 land isThr*^' ^lauy touristS go there to en- 
 favorite coun- joy the scenery and climate, 
 for touri"ts^^ ^^ the lofty Alps is some of the 
 grandest scenery in the world. 
 The mountains, rising in the path of the 
 west winds, cause a very heavy rainfall, 
 much of which turns to snow and ice. The 
 many snow-covered peaks, being so white 
 and high, look Hke distant clouds. The 
 great quantities of snow have formed 
 glaciers, which move slowly down the 
 vallevs like rivers of ice. Below the snow 
 
 line the ice melts, and streams and lakes 
 are numerous. The lower slopes are fer-. 
 tile, and in spring and summer the grass- 
 covered valleys are brilliant with flowers. 
 The high altitude gives Switzerland a 
 cool climate, and tourists enjoy especially 
 the outdoor life. The dry, bracing air is 
 also helpful, so that many go there to 
 regain their health. One of the chief 
 pleasures is mountain-climbing, which is 
 sometimes dangerous as well as exciting. 
 Many persons spend their winter vaca- 
 tions there in order to take part in such 
 sports as skating, skiing (Fig. 222), and 
 tobogganing. 
 
220 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Only the most sturdy people can climb 
 the higher mountains, for it is a difficult 
 The ascent ^^^ dangerous task. Mont 
 of Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the 
 
 Blanc Alps, is oftcu chosen for this 
 
 sport. What is its height (Fig. 201)? 
 Though its summit is just across tlie 
 
 Photo bij FublUhers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 220. — A bit of Swiss scenery 
 Beautiful waterfalls, cliffs with varied colored rocks, 
 deep gorges, glaciers, and forests are the attractions of 
 Switzerland to many tourists. 
 
 border in France, its lower slopes are in 
 Switzerland and the climb is started in 
 that country. Strangers wishing to climb 
 it dare not go alone; they must employ 
 guides, to show them the way and help 
 them over the worst places. 
 
 The round trip usually takes two nights 
 and three days; and as there is no place 
 to obtain food, it is necessary to carry it. 
 
 Overcoats and blankets are also needed; 
 for even though the journey be made in 
 the hottest summer weather, it is bitterly 
 cold upon the mountain top. 
 
 Suppose that we are making such a 
 journey. We start early in the morning, so 
 as to have a long day. Each of us carries 
 a few light articles, but the guides and 
 porters take most, for they are strong 
 and used to cHmbing. At first we walk 
 along a pleasant path in a beautiful 
 wood; now and then a house is passed, 
 and perhaps a green field, but soon there 
 are no more houses or tilled fields, and 
 we meet no people. The trees become 
 smaller and smaller, until the line is 
 reached above which it is so cold that no 
 trees can grow. This is called the tree 
 line or timber line. 
 
 From this point on, no plants larger 
 than bushes are seen, and after a while 
 even these disappear. Meanwhile the 
 soil and grass have become more scarce, 
 while here and there banks of snow are 
 found in the shady hollows. Soon we 
 have climbed to the snow line. This is 
 the line above which snow is found all the 
 year round. Now, no matter in what 
 direction we look, rocks and snow are 
 everywhere to be seen, and the snow is 
 often twenty or more feet in depth (Fig. 
 221). 
 
 What a wonderful view is before us! 
 It repays us for all the hard work. We 
 look down upon the woods through 
 which we have just passed, and over them 
 to the deep valleys, with the green fields, 
 pretty houses, and villages far below us. 
 Beyond are seen other steep mountains 
 on the opposite side of the valley. 
 
 A guide takes his place in front of us, 
 and often tells us to stop while he goes 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 221 
 
 ahead to examine the way. It may be 
 
 that the snow has bridged over and 
 
 hidden a deep and narrow chasm, and 
 
 if we were to step upon this snow bridge, 
 
 we might break through 
 
 and fall a hundred feet or 
 
 more. Sometimes the guides 
 
 lift us over a dangerous 
 
 place; and when it is steep 
 
 or slippery, they fasten all 
 
 the members of the party 
 
 together with ropes, so that 
 
 if one starts to fall, the 
 
 others may hold him. 
 
 As we advance higher and 
 higher, it is often necessary 
 to take a narrow path on 
 che steep side of the moun- 
 tain. On the right we can 
 look hundreds of feet almost 
 straight downward; on the 
 left are huge stones and 
 masses of snow almost di- 
 rectly overhead. 
 
 The snow sometimes 
 slips, forming snow slides, 
 or avalanches, which are 
 very dangerous. They come 
 tearing down the sides of 
 the mountains with a ter- 
 rible roar, at times burying 
 whole villages beneath 
 them. You have seen the 
 same thing, on a much 
 smaller scale, when snow 
 has slid from the roofs of 
 houses on warm winter days. 
 
 After one night spent in 
 a Uttle house about half way up the moun- 
 tain side, and after much hard work on 
 the next day, we reach the summit. Here, 
 in spite of our heavy wraps, we are all 
 
 shivering, for it is freezing cold upon high, 
 mountain tops and there are often fierce 
 winds which seem to go through even the 
 thickest clothing. 
 
 ly 
 
 UnderxDood and Unden':ood 
 
 Fig. 221. — The ascent of Mont Blanc 
 The party of mountain-climbers is resting at a point known as the Grand 
 Plateau, 13,000 feet above the 'sea. Beyond is seen the snowy summit. 
 The climbers are equipped with ice-axes, packs, and snow-glasses. 
 
 On this barren mountain top there are 
 no birds, no trees, no grass — nothing but 
 snow and rock. But if it is a clear daj^ 
 and there are no clouds clinging to the 
 
222 
 
 EUROPi: 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 222. ^ A skiing party mountain-climbing in Switzerland 
 
 mountain sides below us, we may be able 
 to look down into the beautiful green 
 valleys onl}' a few miles away. There 
 the birds are singing, flowers are bloom- 
 ing, and men working in the fields are 
 complaining of the heat. 
 
 Before the World War more than 
 
 3,000,000 persons visited Switzerland each 
 
 , year. Probably on the aver- 
 
 Importance of , , i ^ ^ 
 
 the totirist in- age cach spent not less than 
 dustryto 150 on hotel bills, raUroad 
 
 Switzerland ' 
 
 fares, and amusements while 
 in the country. You can estimate, there- 
 fore, the amount of money their visits 
 brought to Switzerland. 
 
 It is known that considerably over one 
 third of this sum was spent on hotel bills 
 alone. No wonder that the accommoda- 
 tion of tourists ranks as a great industry 
 there! There are over 9,000 Swiss hotels, 
 many of them in the mountains where 
 the scenery is the grandest. The num- 
 ber of people employed in hotels is second 
 only to the number employed in the 
 largest Swiss industry, the manufacture 
 
 of machinery and instru- 
 ments. 
 
 Among the many beauti- 
 ful Swiss towns Lucerne, 
 
 on the lake of Attractions of 
 
 the same name lucerne 
 (Fig. 224), is one of those 
 most often visited. Locate 
 it on Fig. 20 L Near by are 
 two famous mountains, Rigi 
 and Pilatus. From their 
 summits one obtains mag- 
 nificent views of the lake, 
 over 4,000 feet below, bor- 
 dered by green meadows 
 and numerous villages. In 
 several directions, as far as 
 the eye can reach, are the snow-covered 
 crests of lofty mountains shining in the 
 sunlight or lost in the clouds. 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 223. — A Swiss hamlet 
 Directly back of this little village you see a glacier. 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 228 
 
 Another beautiful city is Geneva, on 
 a large lake of that name in the midst 
 Chief indus- ^^ ^^^^ Alps. It is especially 
 tries in the noted for its fine watches. 
 In northern Switzerland is 
 Zurich, the largest city, on Lake Zurich, 
 and Basel, at the point where the Rhine 
 enters Germany. All three 
 of these cities have good 
 water or railroad connec- 
 tions, and are manufac- 
 turing centers, producing 
 textiles, jewelry, scientific 
 instruments, and dairy 
 products. Perhaps you have 
 seen a Swiss w atch or carved 
 cuckoo clock. The next 
 time you buy milk choco- 
 late see if it bears a Swiss 
 brand. 
 
 The best farmlands of 
 Switzerland are on the pla- 
 Leading kinds teau lying be- 
 of farming tween the Jura 
 
 Mountains on the north 
 and the Alps on the south. In the valleys 
 of that region cereals, vegetables, and 
 fruits are raised. The mountain slopes 
 afford excellent pasturage, and dairying 
 is far more important than other kinds 
 of farming. In the early spring the cat- 
 tle, sheep, and goats are driven up the 
 slopes of the valleys as the snow and ice 
 melt and new grazing lands are exposed. 
 Such a pasture is called an alp, and from 
 it the chief mountains have received their 
 name. The herders remain far up in the 
 mountains all summer, living in log huts, 
 watching the flocks and making cheese 
 from the milk. In the fall the herds are 
 driven back to the valleys to be stall-fed 
 during the winter. What pleasures and 
 
 hardships do you see in the life of a 
 herder in this mountainous country? 
 
 1. Wliy is Switzerland the favorite 
 country of Europe for tourists? Review 
 2. Show tlie importance of the questions 
 tourist industr}' there. 3. Give an ac- 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig, 224. — Lake Lucerne 
 
 count of the ascent of Mont Blanc. 4. 
 How is the region about Lucerne espe- 
 cially attractive? 5. Name the principal 
 cities and their leading industries. 6. 
 What are the leading kinds of farming? 
 1. What effect did the World War have 
 upon the tourist trade of Switzerland? 
 Why? 2. Compare Switzer- suggestions 
 land with your own state in for extra 
 area and population. 3. Read ^°^ 
 the story of William Tell. 4. The Swiss 
 people living next to France speak French; 
 those next to Germany speak German; 
 and those next to Italy, Italian. What 
 disadvantages do you see in having three 
 languages? 5. What large rivers rise in 
 Switzerland? Trace their couraes. 
 
224 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 5. Belgium and The Netherlands 
 
 These two countries have far more im- 
 portance than their size suggests. They 
 are the principal gateway to 
 
 Importance of if. .i • ^ • e 
 
 the location of and irom the mterior oi 
 these coun- Europe. East and southeast 
 
 tnes 
 
 of them are many nations 
 that want goods from England and across 
 the Atlantic, and that send goods to both 
 of those regions. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 © Press Illustratino Service 
 
 225. — A view of Rotterdam 
 
 The Rhine River is a natural highway 
 for the transportation of such goods; its 
 connection with the Danube, as we have 
 seen (p. 219), provides a water route all 
 the way to the Black Sea. There is no 
 such easy route across France toward the 
 east; and the route by way of Bremen or 
 Hamburg is less direct. Estimate the 
 distance from the coast of Belgium to 
 Hamburg. In addition, the coasts of The 
 Netherlands and Belgium have many ex- 
 cellent harbors. 
 
 The above facts explain why these 
 small countries have three great ports: 
 Amsterdam and Rotterdam in The 
 
 Netherlands, and Antwerp in Belgium. 
 Which one of these three cities is on the 
 Rhine River? By means of canals, boats 
 from the other two cities can easily reach 
 the Rhine. About how far are these ports 
 from London? Locate the two other 
 large cities; also The Hague and Brussels, 
 the capitals of these two countries. The 
 area of Pennsylvania is less than the 
 average area of our forty- 
 eight states. The Nether- 
 lands and Belgium are each 
 only about one quarter as 
 large as Pennsylvania. On 
 the other hand, the popu- 
 lation of each is nearly equal 
 to that of Pennsylvania. 
 This shows that the people 
 are very much crowded, 
 even more so than those of 
 Germany. 
 
 These two countries form 
 a striking contrast to Penn- 
 sylvania in their 
 surface features. 
 What do you remember about 
 the mountains in Pennsyl- 
 vania (Fig. 66) and the diffi- 
 culty early settlers had in 
 crossing them (p. 73)? The surface of 
 these two countries is remarkably level, 
 only the southeastern part of Belgium 
 having any elevated land. The highest 
 point even there is only about 1,100 feet 
 above sea level. 
 
 Moreover, a portion of the land of The 
 Netherlands is even lower than the level 
 of the sea. On that account this country 
 is often called Holland, or hollow land. 
 What is the meaning of Nether-lands? 
 
 How they 
 compare with 
 Pennsylvania 
 in appearance 
 and products 
 
 1. The contrast 
 in appearance 
 
BELGIUM AXD THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 220 
 
 Fig. 201 shows how large a 
 part is below sea level. 
 
 Many of the farm prod- 
 ucts of The Netherlands are 
 
 2. The contrast the SamC aS 
 
 in industries ^j^^gg ^f Penn- 
 sylvania. The principal 
 crops are wheat, oats, and 
 rye, vegetables and sugar 
 beets, flowers raised for seed, 
 and grass. Dairying is a 
 very prominent industry. 
 The people, called the 
 Dutch, send away great 
 quantities of butter, and 
 Dutch cheese is famous 
 throughout the world. 
 
 The appearance of the 
 farms, however, and many 
 of the methods of work would seem very 
 strange to us. In the region below sea 
 level the land must be protected from 
 
 Phalli 1)1/ Ehiii mlorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 227. — A knitting lesson in Holland 
 
 Pres8 lUuatraiing Service 
 
 Fig. 226. -A school in Holland 
 These boys are learning the silversmith's trade. 
 
 floods by high embankments. The lower 
 Rhine is kept within its banks in the 
 same way as the lower Mississippi River 
 (p. 116); and as one approaches Rot- 
 terdam on shipboard, or travels by boat 
 through the lowlands, one sees the house- 
 tops on a level with these embankments, 
 and looks downward into the surrounding 
 fields. The storks that may be seen 
 resting on the roofs are protected by law, 
 because they eat crayfish and other bur- 
 rowing animals that might cause leaks 
 in the embankments, or dikes. 
 
 On such a trip one finds the houses 
 spotlessl}" clean. The people usually 
 leave their wooden shoes at the door, so 
 that they may not soil the floor with mud. 
 Even the gardens of fruit and flowers are 
 in exact rows and without a weed. Rain 
 on more than 200 days in every year, to- 
 gether with the seepage of water through 
 the dikes, keeps the low ground wet, and 
 the water must, therefore, be pumped out. 
 
226 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Photo iiy ElmeiKiorj ■>€; Ewing Galloway 
 
 In mining and manufac- 
 turing Belgium reminds one 
 of Pennsylvania. Like the 
 latter, it mines an enormous 
 amount of coal, and much 
 iron ore besides. With these 
 minerals it manufactures 
 great quantities of iron and 
 steel, and machinery of 
 many kinds. Glass is also 
 an important product, just 
 as at Pittsburgh. Cotton 
 and woolen mills are numer- 
 ous, as in New England; 
 and sugar is made from 
 sugar beets. 
 
 Fig. 228. — A home in Holland 
 
 The Dutch people are noted for their cleanliness, 
 humble the home, it is kept neat and and free from dirt, 
 ness of the street before these modest homes. 
 
 Windmills are commonly used for this 
 purpose, and are found near most houses. 
 Can you see how wooden shoes might be 
 better than leather in such a country? 
 Since about one half of all the farmland 
 in The Netherlands is in grass, what 
 animals would you expect to see in large 
 numbers? 
 
 Belgium is the most densely populated 
 country in Europe, and the people are, 
 if possible, even more careful 
 than the Dutch to make use of 
 every square foot of ground. 
 Many of the farms contain 
 only two or three acres, and most of the 
 work is done by hand. For example, 
 spading largely takes the place of plow- 
 ing. Many of the crops are the same as 
 in The Netherlands, although there are 
 more sugar beets and fewer cattle, because 
 other crops prove more profitable than 
 grass. 
 
 No matter how 
 Notice the cleanli- 
 
 1. Explain the impor- 
 tance of the location of The 
 Netherlands and Review 
 Belgium. 2. How do they com- questions 
 pare in area and population with Penn- 
 sylvania? 3. Show their contrast with 
 
 Why Belgitmi 
 might be 
 called a small 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 © L'7tderwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 229. — Retting flax on the Schelde River, Belgium 
 
 After flax is cut and stacked, it is soaked in clear 
 
 water, so that the fiber from which linen is made may be 
 
 separated easily. This soaking process is called retting. 
 
THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 
 
 227 
 
 Pennsylvania in appearance. 4. How 
 does The Netherlands differ from Penn- 
 sylvania in industries? 5. Why might 
 Belgium be called a small Pennsylvania? 
 
 6. Describe a home in The Netherlands. 
 
 7. Compare a Dutch farm and its culti- 
 vation with a farm and its cultivation in 
 your community. 
 
 1. Find the average size of our forty- 
 eight states and compare with the aver- 
 age size of these countries. 2. Show that 
 there is no transportation route by water 
 across France equal to that from Rotter- 
 dam across Germany. 3. Read the story 
 about the little Dutch boy who saved 
 many lives by holding his hand in the 
 
 leak in a dike until help came. 4. There 
 is much shipbuilding at Antwerp. What 
 conditions have favored its de- g^ estions 
 velopment? 5. Secure a pic- for extra 
 tureofaDutchmndmill. Why ^^'^ 
 are they so common in Holland? 6. Why 
 is the wooden shoe more practical in 
 Holland than it would be in our country? 
 7. Why does Holland depend so largely 
 upon rivers and canals as means of trans- 
 portation? 8. If you were painting a 
 picture of a Dutch scene, tell at least two 
 things you would put in it. 9. What are 
 the principal farm crops of The Nether- 
 lands? 10. Locate Amsterdam; Rotter- 
 dam; Antwerp; The Hague; Brussels. 
 
 6. The Scandinavian Countries 
 {Norway, Sweden, and Denmark) 
 
 These three countries are closely related 
 
 in language and customs, and Norway and 
 
 Sweden were for a long time 
 
 three co^un- United in One nation. These 
 
 tries are are knowu as the Norse na- 
 
 closely asso- . . ,, , • /. ., 
 
 dated tions, or the countries oi the 
 
 Norsemen or Northmen. The 
 many Norse myths came from this region. 
 Do you know any of them? 
 
 Norway and Sweden are much larger 
 than Denmark. The areas of densest 
 population of all three countries are close 
 together. Locate the three leading cities 
 and capitals, Christiania, Stockholm, and 
 Copenhagen. If a triangle were drawn 
 connecting the three, which would be the 
 shortest side? How many miles would it 
 represent? What water would be included 
 in the triangle? How much land? 
 
 The map shows that the coast of Nor- 
 way is very irregular and mountainous. 
 The sea enters the deep mountain val- 
 
 leys, forming long, narrow bays with 
 
 steep walls. Such bays are 
 
 called fiords. Some of the '^l.^^fe 
 
 fiords are more than 100 miles western coast 
 
 long, and their walls 2,000 JourisS'^''**' 
 
 to 3,000 feet high. They offer 
 
 some of the grandest scenery anywhere 
 
 in Europe. 
 
 Many Americans visit this region in 
 summer. Even though it is so far north, 
 the w^arm winds from the Atlantic make 
 the voyage delightful in that season. 
 Besides the steep cliffs and deep, quiet 
 waters of the fiords, many glaciers are to 
 be seen. The tourist steamers cross the 
 Arctic circle and go as far as North Cape. 
 There in midsummer one can see the sun 
 at midnight. This part of Norway is 
 called the Land of the Midnight Sun, be- 
 cause for a few weeks in summer the sun 
 is in sight during the full twenty-four 
 hours of every day. 
 
228 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewino Gallowa// 
 
 Fig. 230. — A view of Skarsfos, Norway 
 The streams in this picture are pouring down into one 
 of the deep fiords along the coast of Norway. 
 
 The peoples of Norway and Sweden 
 are famous sailors. Their ancestors, the 
 Vikings, sailed along the coast 
 of North America 500 years 
 before Columbus landed here. 
 What stories or poems have 
 you read about the Vikings? 
 Many of the most noted and 
 successful modern explorers 
 of the polar regions are Scandinavians. 
 Can you name any of them? Scandina- 
 vian sailors are found in nearly every port 
 of the world. 
 
 If you inquired why so many become 
 sailors, you would probably be told that 
 2. The few oc- ^^ ^^ because of lack of employ- 
 cupations open ment at home. A large part 
 
 to them at home o -f 
 
 of the country cannot be in- 
 habited. The northern parts of Norway 
 
 Why many 
 Scandinavians 
 become sail- 
 ors 
 
 1. How they 
 have distin- 
 guished them- 
 selves on the 
 ocean 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 231. — A view of Grand Rocks, North Cape 
 From this point on the northern coast of Norway the 
 midnight sim may be seen in June and July. 
 
 and Sweden are too cold in winter, and 
 much of the interior is too mountainous, 
 
 4H 
 
 
 
 Wjr\^ 
 
 
 ^rsh^kJ 
 
 
 '^i--- 
 
 
 ^'W^IH 
 
 lA 
 
 
 1 
 
 HHb|#^; 
 
 
 K&^^^^K^e'^ 
 
 © Keystone View Co., I tic. 
 
 Fig. 232. — Milking goats at a home on Hardanger 
 Fiord, Norway 
 
 In many portions of Europe where pasturage is too 
 poor for cattle, goats are raised for dairy purposes. Some 
 of the famous cheeses of Europe are made from goats' milk. 
 
THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 
 
 229 
 
 to support many people. 
 Therefore, they make their 
 homes chiefly in the south- 
 ern part of the peninsula 
 and near the coast. Less 
 than one fifteenth of the 
 surface of Norway can be 
 cultivated, and in both 
 countries only the hardy 
 grains and vegetables can 
 be grown. Sheep and cattle 
 are raised in large num- 
 bers. The forests are exten- 
 sive, so that lumbering is 
 important. Examine some 
 boxes of safety matches, to 
 see if they have not come 
 from Nor\\^ay or Sweden. Yet lumbering 
 is an industry that requires few workmen. 
 
 Fig. 233. — Gothenburg harbor, Sweden 
 
 © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Photo from Ewing Galloway, N. Y. 
 
 Fig. 234.— Helsingfors, the capital of Finland 
 What is the building on the left? Read the sign. 
 
 There is some excellent iron ore; but the 
 lack of coal prevents the employment of a 
 large number of people in manufacturing. 
 
 Denmark has Httle forest, and is the 
 poorest country in Europe for minerals. 
 Moreover, while it is not mountainous, 
 the soil is sandy and not very fertile. 
 Careful methods, similar to those used 
 in Belgium, are necessary to make the 
 ground productive. Dairying and the 
 manufacture of dairy products form the 
 principal occupations. 
 
 On the other hand, the sea calls for a 
 large number of men. Since the land 
 
 produces so Httle, much of the 3. Attractions 
 
 food consists of fish; and both "^t^e^ea 
 the North Sea and the coast of Norway 
 are excellent fishing grounds. The export 
 of lumber and iron ore and the import of 
 coal call for much transportation by water. 
 Since they live along the coast and travel 
 from town to town oftener by water than 
 by land, the people have become very 
 familiar with the sea. Their abundance 
 of lumber has made it possible for them to 
 
230 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 manufacture wooden vessels very cheaply. 
 For all these reasons, they have engaged 
 extensively in fishing and in ocigan trans- 
 
 Fig. 235. — On the coast of Spitzbergen 
 Norwegian vessels run even to this little settlement on the bleak coast of 
 Spitzbergen (Fig. 46). 
 
 portation both for themselves and for 
 others, particularly the Norwegians. Nor- 
 way has a larger number of ships in pro- 
 portion to its population than any other 
 country in the world. 
 
 1. Describe the attractions to tourists 
 of the western coast of Norway. 2. What 
 is the midnight sun? 3. Why Review 
 do many Scan- questions 
 dinavians become sailors? 
 4. What common article 
 do we use that comes from 
 Norway and Sweden? 5, 
 What is the chief industry 
 of Denmark? 
 
 1. Do you see any reason 
 for thinking that the Kiel 
 Canal may have o 
 
 •^ Suggestions 
 
 injured Copen- for extra 
 hagen? 2. What "^"'^ 
 proportion of the land in 
 your state can be culti- 
 vated? How does this com- 
 pare wdth Norway and 
 Sweden? 3. Compare Den- 
 mark and The Netherlands in area, popu- 
 lation, surface, and products. 4. The 
 Danes used to charge toll for all vessels 
 entering and leaving the Baltic Sea. What 
 reasons can you see for such a practice? 
 
 III. Eastern Europe 
 Russia, Finland, Poland, and Neighboring Countries 
 
 The government of Russia has been 
 more nearly an absolute monarchy than 
 
 Weaknesses ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ Europe. The 
 
 of Russia meaning of the word absolute 
 
 1. Character of is suggestcd hj some incidents 
 
 government .^ ^j^^ j.^^ ^^ Peter the Great, 
 
 the ruler, or Czar, of Russia 200 j^ears ago. 
 In 1703 he began to build an entirely 
 new city on the Gulf of Finland, which 
 was to be the new capital in place of 
 Moscow, and is now known as Petrograd 
 (p. 234). Estimate its distance from 
 Moscow (Fig. 20iy 
 
 In the progress of the work he could 
 not obtain enough masons to put up 
 buildings; so he forbade all other con- 
 struction of stone buildings throughout 
 Russia. When the city lacked desirable 
 inhabitants he required every man in 
 Russia who employed as many as five 
 hundred serfs, or workmen, to build a 
 residence in Petrograd and to spend the 
 winter there. In other words, his will 
 was law, and his government an absolute 
 monarchy. The other Czars of Russia 
 ruled in the same way. 
 
EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 231 
 
 The last Czar, Nicholas II, however, 
 was driven from the throne in 191 7. After 
 some attempts had been made to form 
 a repubhc, a small group of lawless men 
 obtained power and undertook to govern 
 the country. Everywhere there has been 
 disorder and suffering. 
 
 Another striking weakness is lack of 
 education. Four out of every five persons 
 2. Lack of can neither read nor wTite. 
 education Q^ ^j^^^ accouut the store 
 
 signs in many places consist of pictures 
 rather than words (Fig. 236) . For instance, 
 a picture of a hat over a door means a 
 hat store; a picture of a shoe, a shoe store; 
 and a picture of a sausage, a butcher shop. 
 Americans in Russia have found that 
 many of the cab-drivers could not find 
 the houses whose addresses were given to 
 them, because they could not even read 
 house numbers. People who are so igno- 
 rant as that are not usually intelligent 
 enough to handle machinery, or to do>any 
 kind of work well; and the}^ are easily 
 misled by bad men. Any nation is 
 checked in its progress in 
 every direction by such 
 ignorance, and lives and 
 property are not safe. 
 
 Yet Russia has been re- 
 garded as one of the impor- 
 Tin. A A tant countries of 
 
 Why regarded 
 
 as an impor- the world. This 
 tant country ig partly because 
 of its great size and popula- 
 tion. A considerable part of 
 Asia belongs to Russia; but 
 Russia in Europe before the 
 World War occupied more 
 than half of all Europe, and 
 the whole empire included 
 about one seventh of the 
 
 land surface of the globe. Trace the bound- 
 aries of Russia in Europe today (Fig. 198). 
 
 The population of European Russia be- 
 fore the war was about 140,000,000; and 
 that of the whole empire about 175,000,- 
 000. How does that compare with the 
 population of the United States? 
 
 Its great resources are another reason 
 for regarding it as an important country. 
 More than one third of Russia in Europe 
 is covered with forest. The land is re- 
 markably level; much of the soil is un- 
 commonly fertile; and the climate in 
 most sections is favorable to farming. 
 It has vast quantities of coal and iron ore 
 and ranks next to the United States in the 
 production of oil. With all these resources, 
 it is bound to be one of the very greatest 
 of nations as soon as its government and 
 education are properly improved. 
 
 Four out of every five men are engaged 
 in farming; no other occupa- The principal 
 tion approaches it in impor- occupation in 
 tance. Most of the people, ^"'"'^ 
 therefore, live in the country, and there 
 
 © InUrniitiotial Film Service Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 236. — A butter, cheese, and egg shop in Russia 
 Note the picture sign painted on the window. 
 
232 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 are few large cities. Although Russia's 
 population is much greater than ours, we 
 have at least twice as many 
 cities with 100,000 inhabi- 
 tants. 
 The people do not live on 
 their farmland, however. Just as in 
 France (p. 211), they live in villages con- 
 
 1. Prominence 
 of fanning and 
 and interesting 
 facts about it 
 
 Fig. 237. — Russian peasants 
 
 taining from 200 to 500 persons and go 
 out to the land each day to work. Can 
 you imagine how such a level country 
 would look with thousands of these vil- 
 lages scattered over it? Make a drawing 
 to show how you think the country would 
 appear to a man in an airplane. 
 
 Northern Russia is too cold for farming, 
 
 and the southeastern section is so dry 
 
 that it is fit only for grazing. 
 
 2. How the farm rr^-, i j i i -.i r^ 
 
 products com- Ihe land about the Caspian 
 pare with our Sea is a real descrt. Locate 
 the desert region in Fig. 191. 
 The rest of the country produces crops 
 similar to those of our country. There 
 
 are more acres in wheat, oats, rye, and 
 barley than in the United States; and in 
 some years more wheat has been raised 
 there than here. Russia raises great 
 quantities of potatoes, hay, flax, and 
 hemp. In the extreme southern part 
 the climate is so mild that cotton and 
 tobacco are produced. The greatest 
 difference in the crops of 
 the two countries is in the 
 corn; we raise far more of 
 that grain than Russia does, 
 chiefly because Russia has 
 not enough rain. 
 
 Moscow is distinguished 
 in two ways. It is the great- 
 est manufacturing center in 
 Russia. That country be- 
 fore the war did not manu- 
 facture on any such scale as 
 we do. Yet there was a 
 considerable amount of it in 
 some places; and in Mos- 
 -^ cow one found many textile 
 mills, and factories for the 
 ,,,.,, /,,,/r,,x manufacture of chemicals, 
 leather goods, machinery, 
 and other articles. The thing „„ 
 for which Moscow is most is the most in- 
 distinguished, however, is the t^^esting city 
 
 . / in Russia 
 
 part of the city called the 
 Kremlin. Here the Czars were formerly 
 christened, married, crowned, and buried. 
 Here, also, they lived and worshiped; and 
 as Moscow was the headquarters of the 
 Russian Church, the oldest and finest 
 cathedrals and monasteries, as well as 
 palaces, were erected in that quarter. 
 There are 500 churches in the city; but 
 on account of the Kremlin in particular 
 Moscow is known as the holy city of Rus- 
 sia. The Russians call it Holy Mother 
 
EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 233 
 
 Moscow. In Fig. 198 notice the impor- 
 tance of Moscow as a railroad center. 
 
 The two leading seaports of eastern 
 Europe are Petrograd and Odessa. Lo- 
 The two lead- catc each. How far apart are 
 ing seaports thcv? Russia is SO level that 
 
 of Russia .,11 , , 
 
 it has been easy to connect 
 
 1. Their advan- ., -ii ji • • i • 
 
 tages and disad- them With the principal rivers 
 coJ^erci""^ by canals ; and one can go from 
 within Russia gne of thcse ports to the other 
 by several water routes. 
 
 There are some disadvantages, however, 
 that such transportation suffers. Most of 
 the rivers of Russia rise near the center 
 of the country in the Valdai Hills, which 
 are the highest land in the interior of 
 Russia. Locate these hills and name 
 several rivers that begin in that region. 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 238. — The famous "King Bell" in Moscow 
 This bell, which was made in 1737, weighs 200 tons. 
 
 © A merican Red Cross 
 
 Fig. 239. — Cathedral of St. Basilica, Moscow 
 Note the peculiar shape of the Russian church steeples. 
 
 The highest point there is only 1,150 feet 
 above the sea, which allows a fall of only 
 a few inches per mile for the rivers. On 
 that account they flow very slowly and 
 wind about so much that the distance 
 between points upon them by water is 
 often twice as great as by land. Since 
 lumber is one of the chief exports, there 
 are many timber rafts on the rivers, and 
 it takes so long for these to reach their 
 destination that families often build 
 shacks for homes and even raise gardens 
 upon them. Mention some of the pleas- 
 ures you see in such a life. Aside from 
 the many windings of the rivers, the Volga, 
 which is the largest of all, indeed the 
 largest river in Europe, loses much of its 
 value because it ends in a desert region. 
 Locate its mouth (Fig. 197). 
 
 The building of railroads in such a flat 
 country is easy, and the map shows that 
 
234 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 there are many. Yet their number is small 
 compared with the number in the United 
 States. Russia in Europe has 36,000 miles 
 of railway, while we have 266,000. Can 
 you account for the difference? 
 
 Both Petrograd and Odessa are a long 
 
 way from the ocean. Trace the route 
 
 that vessels must take to 
 
 vantage foT " reach the Atlantic from Petro- 
 
 foreigncom- gradi from Odessa. Which is 
 
 merce o ; 
 
 the shorter? Which port has 
 the advantage in the winter? In case of 
 
 • riroot! mid Vvfhnrood 
 
 Fig. 240. — Wheat ready for shipment, Odessa 
 Notice the wooden yokes that are placed upon beasts 
 of burden in Russia. 
 
 war how many countries might block the 
 way from Petrograd to the ocean? From 
 Odessa? In spite of the great area and 
 population of Russia, its entire foreign 
 commerce before the war was only about 
 two thirds as great as that of New York 
 City alone. What reasons can you give 
 for so small an amount? 
 
 Odessa is often compared with Minneap- 
 olis, because it is a great center for wheat. 
 
 How does it compare in population? It 
 has many flour mills, and is the chief 
 port for shipment of wheat 3 ^,,,^,,^^ 
 abroad. It is a modern city facts about 
 
 these ports 
 
 With many fine streets and 
 
 parks and is built around a beautiful bay. 
 
 Petrograd is much more important than 
 Odessa as a manufacturing center, ranking 
 next to Moscow in that respect. Compare 
 it with Chicago in population (pp. 310 and 
 311). It is located in a marsh at the point 
 where the Neva River empties into the 
 Gulf of Finland. Its climate is severe. 
 Up to the time when Peter the Great 
 founded Petrograd, Russia had been more 
 related to Asia than to Europe. Peter 
 changed the capital in order, as he said, 
 that he might have a window looking out 
 upon Europe. Why, do you suppose, was 
 that desirable? Do you think this loca- 
 tion a wise one? 
 
 The city was until recently the center 
 of education and government. It is a 
 city of beautiful streets and imposing 
 buildings. The marsh has been drained 
 into canals, which form some of the 
 streets; and many bridges cross the canals 
 and connect the islands. Can you imagine 
 some of the winter sports there? 
 
 As a result of the World War, Russia 
 has lost very important territory. Fin- 
 land (Fig. 198) has become „ . , 
 independent; it is now a re- of territory 
 pubUc, having an area about pj^^^jj 
 equal to that of the British 
 Isles and a population of more than three 
 miUion. Its capital, Helsingfors, is right 
 at the front entrance to Petrograd. Can 
 you see any reason why the Russians 
 might object to having the capital of a 
 foreign country at this point? Finland 
 is chiefly a farming country. It contains 
 
EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 235 
 
 many lakes (Fig. 197), with 
 patches of farmland scat- 
 tered among woods and 
 marshes. 
 
 Poland, on the west side 
 
 of Russia next to Germany 
 
 (Fig. 198), has 
 
 2. Poland \ , 
 
 also become an 
 independent republic. It 
 has a population of about 
 30,000,000 and an area of 
 more than 140,000 square 
 miles. Some of this terri- 
 tory has been won back 
 from Germany and Austria, 
 by w^hom it was seized 
 many years ago; but the 
 greater part, including War- 
 saw, the capital, and Lodz, was restored 
 to it from Russia. Locate these cities. 
 They are great manufacturing cities, noted 
 especially for textiles and iron goods. The 
 number of important cities, however, is 
 
 © American Red Cross 
 
 Fig. 241. — ^ A Polish peasant's home near Warsaw 
 
 How does this home appear to compare in comfort and attractiveness 
 with the dwellings occupied by the poor in our own country? 
 
 not great, for Poland has surface fea- 
 tures similar to northern Germany and 
 is chiefly a farming country. RecalHng 
 what has been said about manufacturing 
 in Russia, what do you suppose must be 
 the feeling of the Russians 
 about this loss? 
 
 Esthonia and Latvia (Fig. 
 201) are now recognized as 
 independent na- 
 tions. Lithuania 
 and Ukraine have likewise 
 declared their independ- 
 ence. If they also remain 
 separate, Russia will lose 
 much of her former prom- 
 inence among the nations 
 of the earth. 
 
 3. Other new 
 countries 
 
 Photo from Ewiny Galloway 
 
 Fig. 242. — Interior of a Finnish peasant's home 
 
 Finland is as far north as Alaska, and the warmly built but roughly fur- 
 nished cabins of the Fiimish peasants resemble the cabins of the Alaskan 
 miners. 
 
 1. State the character of 
 
 the Russian gov- Review 
 
 ernment. 2. Tell q"es«o»^s 
 about the lack of education. 
 3. Why has Russia been 
 
236 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 regarded as one of the great nations? 
 4. State some facts about Russian farm- 
 ing. 5. Compare Russian farm products 
 with our own. 6. Why is Moscow an 
 especially interesting city? 7. Name and 
 locate the two leading seaports of Russia. 
 8- What advantages have they for com- 
 merce within Russia? 9. What disadvan- 
 tages do they suffer in foreign commerce? 
 
 offered a better location for the new 
 capital of Peter the Great than that of 
 the Baltic Sea. 2. There are e 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 two other prominent routes for extra 
 from Russia to the ocean. Can ^^^^ 
 you find them? 3. Russia consumes one 
 fifth of a ton of coal per person each year, 
 while the United States consumes five tons " 
 per person. What other differences be- 
 
 I'liolo from Ewhiy Galloway 
 
 Fig. 243. — City of Riga, capital and chief seaport of Latvia 
 
 10. Recall some facts about each of these 
 seaports. 11. What losses of territory has 
 Russia recently suffered? 12. What can 
 you tell about the surface features of 
 Finland? About those of Poland? 13. 
 Tell what you can about the occupations 
 of the Polish people. 14. What other 
 countries have secured or hope to secure 
 their independence from Russia? 
 
 1. Here is a question for debate: Re- 
 solved, That the coast of the Black Sea, if 
 it could have been secured, would have 
 
 tween the two countries do these facts 
 suggest to you? 4. What countries and 
 bodies of water bound Russia? 5. Make 
 a drawing of Russia, putting in the 
 principal highlands, rivers, and cities. 
 6. Many Finnish people have settled in 
 northern Michigan. Can you suggest 
 why they have preferred to settle there 
 instead of farther south? 7. Find out 
 how Poland came to be divided among 
 three of her neighbors. How does her 
 present size compare with her former size? 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 237 
 
 IV. Countries of the Western Mediterranean 
 1. Spain and Portugal 
 
 The rank of 
 these coiin- 
 tries 
 
 1. The advan- 
 tages that their 
 location sug- 
 gests 
 
 Spain and Portugal (Fig. 247) are lo- 
 cated so much farther south than other 
 well-known countries of Eu- 
 rope that one would expect 
 them to have a mild, pleasant 
 climate. With ports on both 
 the Atlantic Ocean and the 
 Mediterranean Sea, one might 
 expect them to do a great deal of trading 
 with other countries. As Spain and 
 Portugal he between Africa and central 
 Europe, their railroads should offer one 
 of the best means of transporting goods 
 between the two continents. Likewise, 
 since these countries are nearer the 
 United States than any of the other 
 countries of Europe, goods might be ex- 
 pected to enter and leave Europe through 
 Spanish or Portuguese ports. Point out 
 on Fig. 315 these advantages of location. 
 Yet the climate of most of the penin- 
 sula is not mild. Nearly three quarters of 
 o o -c «e the area is a 
 
 2. Some reasons 
 
 whytheirrank mOUUtainOUS 
 
 is low . 
 
 plateau over 
 half a mile above the level 
 of the sea. Only a narrow 
 strip around the edge and 
 a few river valleys are low 
 and have a mild climate. 
 Point out some of these 
 warmer sections on the 
 map. How does the sur- 
 face remind you of that of 
 Mexico (Fig. 58)? 
 
 On account of this lofty 
 plateau, it is difficult to get 
 goods from the interior to 
 
 the coast for shipment abroad. For the 
 same reason, incoming goods are not 
 easily distributed to the central region. 
 Most of the rivers flowing from the 
 plateau to the sea have many rapids and 
 falls, so that they are of little use for navi- 
 gation. The most valuable is the Guadal- 
 quivir River. Trace its course. You 
 can see that the mountainous plateau 
 makes it difficult to build railroads across 
 the peninsula. The lack of good harbors 
 interferes still further with transportation. 
 Lisbon has one of the finest harbors in 
 the world, and Oporto a fair harbor. 
 Two good harbors in Spain are Cadiz and 
 Barcelona; but there are few others. 
 Locate these four. 
 
 For these reasons goods cannot easily 
 be shipped across the peninsula. It has 
 not become, therefore, an important route 
 between Europe and Africa, or between 
 Europe and America. 
 
 Fig. 244. — A public square in Lisbon 
 
 © Ewing QalUrway 
 
238 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Photo by Elmeiulorf © Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 245. — The cliffs and viaduct at Ronda 
 Ronda is a short distance from Malaga and Gibraltar 
 
 (Fig. 247). 
 
 The foreign trade of Spain and Portugal 
 together is in most years much less than 
 one fifth that of France; and their rank 
 is very low in comparison with other 
 nations. 
 
 The average Spaniard dislikes business. 
 The rich landowners have been content to 
 ■nrt- xxu allow ignorant overseers to 
 
 What the ° , 
 
 peopled© look after their estates while 
 
 1. Their love of they themselves spent their 
 atyiife ^.^^ ^^ ^^^ citics. Madrid 
 
 owes its size partly to this cause, since 
 there is little manufacturing there. ' 
 
 The narrow strip of land lying between 
 the plateau and the Mediterranean is very 
 
 2. Poor success productive. In some years 
 in agriculture three or four crops are raised. 
 On account of the lack of sufficient rain 
 there, however, irrigation is necessary. 
 
 Near Valencia, where the gardens are 
 famous, some of the irrigation works date 
 from the time of the Moors, who were 
 driven out of Spain several centuries ago. 
 Malaga is noted for its grapes. Have 
 you ever eaten any of them? Dates, 
 oranges, lemons, grapes, and raisins are 
 raised for export, and rice, sugar cane, 
 onions, beans, and peas for home use. 
 The fertile Guadalquivir Valley is well 
 known for its wines and olives. 
 
 On the plateau, however, the farming 
 is poor. Although over half of the people 
 are engaged in agriculture, they export 
 little food. One reason for this is that 
 they get most of their rain in the winter 
 after the growing season. Another reason 
 is the old-fashioned way in which they 
 farm. For instance, they still use wooden 
 plows and thresh their grain by having 
 horses tramp it out. Wheat, rye, flax, 
 and grapes for wine are the principal crops 
 there, and some sheep and cattle are raised. 
 
 Spain and Portugal are rich in minerals. 
 Coal, lead, iron, zinc, tin, copper, and 
 quicksilver are abundant, and 
 
 /, , -i. i" -1 3. TheUttle 
 
 there are deposits ot silver, use they make 
 All the mountainous sections er^'^"^'" 
 have one or more of these 
 minerals. Yet the people have shown so 
 little energy that they have allowed for- 
 eignei's to work the mines and export 
 the products. These minerals should be a 
 great source of wealth in the future. 
 
 If you were to visit Spain and Portugal 
 you would hardly find traveling as com- 
 fortable as it is in the United Discomforts 
 
 States. There are not many 
 fast trains and the cars are not 
 well heated in winter. When 
 the trains are crowded no more pas- 
 sengers are allowed to get on. You 
 
 and pleasures 
 of a visit to 
 these coun- 
 tries 
 
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 239 
 
 may wait hours for your train and then 
 find that you cannot board it. The 
 hotels are even more uncomfortable than 
 the trains. A bathroom with running 
 water is rare, and even hot water is hard 
 to obtain. 
 
 Madrid is the railroad center of Spain 
 (Fig. 247). If you visited Madrid in the 
 spring you might suffer from the cold. 
 One of their proverbs says : "Don't take 
 off your overcoat till the fortieth day of 
 May." What does that mean to you? 
 But if you arrived in summer you would 
 be sure to suffer from the heat. 
 
 As you traveled about the country you 
 would be surprised at the large number of 
 beautiful churches and buildings. The 
 art gallery at Madrid is one of the finest 
 in the world. Some of the most interesting 
 buildings in Spain were erected by the 
 Moors. The famous palace at Granada, 
 called the Alhambra, is one 
 most often visited by tour- 
 ists (Fig. 249). 
 
 One of the best known 
 places to visit in Spain is 
 Gibraltar. Many Ameri- 
 cans go to Europe by way 
 of the Strait of Gibraltar 
 (Fig. 315). Gibraltar is now 
 owned by the British, who 
 have made a powerful for- 
 tress of it. Why should 
 Great Britain want a strong- 
 hold at this point? 
 
 pie show their love of city life? 4. Name 
 their principal agricultural products. 5. 
 For what is Valencia famous? Malaga? 
 6. Why is their farming so poor? 7. What 
 minerals are found in abundance in Spain? 
 8. What use do they make of their min- 
 erals? 9. Tell of the discomforts and 
 pleasures of a visit to these countries. 10. 
 What is the Alhambra? What is Gibraltar? 
 1. Compare the location of Madrid 
 with that of Mexico City. Which has 
 the better climate? 2. Why suggestions 
 would you expect considerable 
 water power in these countries? 
 
 3. Who were the Moors? When did they 
 live in Spain? From where did they come? 
 What works of the Moors can still be seen? 
 
 4. In what ways is it an advantage, and 
 in what ways a disadvantage, that the 
 Pyrenees Mountains so fully separate 
 Spain and France? Note whether there 
 
 for extra 
 work 
 
 1. What advantages 
 does the location of these 
 Review countries sug- 
 
 questions g^gt? 2. Give 
 
 some reason why their rank 
 is low. 3. How do the peo- 
 
 . I'liishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 246. — Carrying hay on pack mules near Seville 
 Can farmers accomplish a great deal by such methods? What public 
 improvement would make better methods possible? 
 
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 rX / ^ COUNTRIES OF THE 
 DANUBE AND THE BALKANS 
 
 POLITICAL AND PHYSICAL MAP 
 
 
 
 Scale of statute miles 
 50 100 200 
 
 300 
 
 Railroads i ■ 
 
 Capitals of Countries ® 
 
 HEIGHTS IN FEET 
 
 Over 10,000 1,000 to 2,000 
 
 6,000 to 10,000 500 to 1,000 
 
 2,000 to 5,000 n||||||tt|| ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ 
 
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 Longitude East from Greenunch 
 
 20" 
 
 AFRICA^ 
 
 Int. MATTHiWt-NOWTwHUP WOPK$, BUI 
 
 Fig. 248 
 
242 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 are any railroads connecting the two 
 countries. 5. Compare Spain and France 
 in area and population. Which seems to 
 have the advantage in location? Why? 
 
 Fig. 249. 
 
 l')wlo by Elmendorf © Ewing Oalloway 
 
 -Entrance to the Alhambra 
 
 6. How do the two capitals, Madrid and 
 Lisbon, compare with each other and 
 with the other cities in population (p. 
 312)? 7. What reasons do you see for 
 so large a city in central Spain? 
 
 2. Italy 
 
 Italy is an especially interesting country 
 to tourists. Before the war great num- 
 itaiyas h^Y^ of Americans visited it 
 
 a tourist each year, and many more 
 came from other countries. 
 Some travelers were attracted to Italy 
 by the mild climate and beautiful scenery. 
 
 To others, since Rome was once the leader 
 of the world, the many ancient buildings 
 are the chief attraction. Still others go to 
 Italy to see its paintings and statues, which 
 make Italy the art center of the world. 
 Which of these attractions would most 
 appeal to you? 
 
 If you ever visit Italy, you are likely to 
 sail from New York to Naples. In Fig. 
 315 follow the route from New 
 York through the Azores and V'^7''^^^J *° 
 
 ci • p /~^•^ Naples and 
 
 the Strait of Gibraltar to the attractions 
 Naples. How direct is this °* *^^* "^^ 
 route? What does it tell you 
 about the latitude of these 
 two cities? You may wonder 
 at the climate in Naples. Whatever the 
 season, the weather is Ukely to be warmer 
 than it is in New York. 
 
 1. The beauty 
 of the climate 
 and location 
 
 © Underwood and L nderwood 
 
 Fig. 250. — Macaroni drying in the open streets of 
 
 Naples 
 
 The macaroni is often made in dark, unsanitary rooms 
 
 and then brought out to be dried in the sun. The streets 
 
 are often dirty. How would you like to eat macaroni 
 
 that has been made in such places? 
 
ITALY 
 
 243 
 
 The curved bay on which Naples is lo- 
 cated presents a most magnificent sight 
 as the boat steams into the harbor. Its 
 sparkling blue water is crowded with 
 shipping. On the north shore the city 
 rises street above street upon the slopes 
 of high hills. To the east is 
 the volcano, Mount Vesu- 
 vius (Fig. 251), with the 
 crest3 of the Apennines in 
 the distance. 
 
 As you take some of the 
 delightful excursions about 
 , . , ^ Naples vou find a 
 
 2. Interesting ^ 
 
 sights about productive farm- 
 Naples . . , , 
 
 ing region; the 
 farms, however, are very 
 different from ours. In- 
 stead of living on their land, 
 the peasants crowd into 
 Naples and go out to their 
 work each day. It is partly 
 because of this desire for 
 town life that Naples has 
 become the largest city in 
 Italy. Every possible foot 
 of land is cultivated to 
 supply food for the dense population, for 
 over half the country is too mountainous 
 for farming, or is covered with marshes 
 that are too unhealthful for human be- 
 ings. Notice how the Apennines extend the 
 whole length of Italy (Fig. 247), forming 
 its backbone. Many of the fields are 
 small and irregular. It is a common 
 sight to see hillsides terraced in narrow 
 strips of wheat, vineyards, and groves of 
 olive, orange, and lemon trees; and even 
 a corner by the roadside may be a vege- 
 table garden. 
 
 Strange as it may at first seem, the 
 great fertility of this region is due largely 
 
 to Mount Vesuvius, for the decay of the 
 lava and ashes thrown out by that vol- 
 cano has enriched the soil. You may be 
 interested in climbing Vesuvius and peer- 
 ing cautiously down into the smoking 
 crater. The city of Pompeii, which was 
 
 Photo by Elmendorf © Ewirtg Oalloway 
 
 Fig. 251. — ^ Mount Vesuvius 
 
 Locate this famous volcano on Fig. 247. What is its height? Notice the 
 smoke rising from the hollow top, or crater. 
 
 completely buried in a terrible eruption 
 nearly 2,000 years ago, has been un- 
 covered and may also be visited. One 
 may wander about its silent streets and 
 ruined homes, and in the museum see 
 loaves of bread and other articles which 
 were turned to stone centuries ago. 
 
 Locate Rome, the capital and most im- 
 portant city of the peninsula. It is a city 
 of fine residences, public build- 
 ings, art galleries, and notable 
 ruins. The dome of St. 
 Peter's, the largest and most 
 famous church in the world, towers 
 above everything else; and the Vatican, 
 
 Why Rome 
 and Florence 
 are interest- 
 ing cities 
 
244 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 where the Pope resides, is the most noted 
 palace in the world. In the Vatican are 
 many famous paintings. 
 
 © Underwood and Underuood 
 
 Fig. 252. — Ruins of the Forum at Rome 
 In ancient times this open square was used as a common meeting place 
 where the Romans transacted their business and held their elections. 
 Around it are seen the ruins of many of their chief public buildings. 
 
 Modern Rome is built partly over the 
 ruins of ancient Rome, which was the 
 center of the mighty Roman 
 Empire. During the cen- 
 turies which have passed since 
 the fall of that empire, most of its ruined 
 buildings have been gradually buried by 
 
 1. Famous 
 buildings to be 
 seen in Rome 
 
 sand and rubbish. Can you imagine some 
 of the ways in which winds and wars 
 would help to do this? Only in recent 
 years has the rubbish been 
 dug away from many of 
 these ruins, so that you can 
 now see parts of them as 
 they stood in JuHus Caesar's 
 time. One of the most 
 noted relics is the Colos- 
 seum, a huge, oval-shaped 
 theatre open to the sky. 
 There fights to the death 
 were held between men, and 
 between men and wild 
 beasts, for the amusement 
 of the Romans. Another 
 extensive ruin is the Forum 
 (Fig. 252), a great pubhc 
 square, where monuments, 
 arches, and temples stood. 
 Florence is a picturesque 
 town lying in the upper 
 valley of the 
 Arno, amid hill- 
 sides thickly 
 dotted with olive trees. 
 The ancient palaces, the 
 Duomo, or cathedral, and 
 the more modern buildings 
 cluster about the banks of 
 the river, which is spanned 
 by many quaint bridges. 
 Florence is noted as a 
 storehouse for art, and its 
 galleries are among the best in the w^orld. 
 Even the Florentine manufactures are 
 especially beautiful. You will see hats 
 and baskets of plaited straw, hand woven 
 silks, and statues made of flawless Carrara 
 marble from the quarries near by (Fig. 
 253). 
 
 2. Beautiful 
 sights of 
 Florence 
 
ITALY 
 
 245 
 
 you may see 
 at Venice 
 
 You are likely to think Venice, at the 
 head of the Adriatic Sea, the strangest 
 strange things city you have ever seen. The 
 train which carries you there 
 passes from the mainland over 
 shallow lagoons to a city which seems to 
 rise out of the sea, but which is securely 
 built upon more than 100 small islands 
 (Fig. 254) . You will be met at the station 
 by a boat called a gondola and rowed to 
 the doorstep of your hotel; for canals 
 form the streets of Venice and gondolas 
 take the place of automobiles and street 
 cars. There are many footpaths and 
 bridges, however, so that one may walk 
 throughout the city; but there are no 
 wagon roads nor horses. 
 You will enjoy riding down 
 the Grand Canal (Fig. 254), 
 which is bordered by palaces 
 of white marble. You will 
 see St. Mark's Cathedral, 
 and in the great square in 
 front of it you may stop to 
 feed the pigeons. Near by 
 is the palace of the Doges, 
 where the rulers of Venice 
 lived long ago. 
 
 There are many things to 
 buy, for the Venetians are 
 
 other attrac- espcciaUy noted 
 tions of north- for their artistic 
 ern Italy manufactures. 
 The Venetian glassware is 
 famous. Very fine lace is 
 made there, and pottery 
 making is another industry. 
 Notice that the principal 
 river of Italy is the Po. 
 Trace its course. As you 
 travel through the Po Basin 
 you pass through the rich- 
 
 1. A journey 
 from Venice to 
 Milan 
 
 est farmlands of Italy. The tempera- 
 ture is similar to that about New York, 
 but the rainfall is much less 
 in summer. You will notice 
 familiar crops, such as grapes, 
 wheat, and corn, the richness of the 
 region being due partly to the irrigation 
 systems which thread the plain in all 
 directions. On irrigated fields nine crops 
 of fodder are sometimes harvested in a 
 single season. The mulberry tree also 
 grows several crops of leaves, making the 
 production of raw silk the chief industry 
 of the valley. How do the level land and 
 numerous rivers make irrigation easy? 
 Where the plain is marshy and difficult 
 
 © Underuood and U nderwood 
 
 Fig. 253. — Hauling Carrara marble slabs to a railway station for 
 
 shipment 
 
 The Carrara marble district lies about fifty miles southeast of Genoa 
 Some of these quarries have been worked for more than 2,000 years. These 
 slabs will be used to beautify buildings; their value lies in their pure white 
 color and the absence of stains or cracks. 
 
246 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 \\ 
 
 fNl 
 
 to drain, you will see rice being culti- 
 vated. 
 
 Perhaps you have wondered why so 
 little thus far has been said about manu- 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 254. — The Grand Canal, Venice 
 Venice is built on about 120 islands near the mouth of the Po River. 
 Canals, for the most part, take the place of streets. There are 175 canals, 
 which are crossed by more than 375 bridges. 
 
 The reason is that Italy lacks 
 all the minerals, including 
 coal, which are necessary for 
 manufacturing. In Milan 
 and its vicinity, however, 
 manufacturing is possible; for 
 there the mountain streams afford abun- 
 
 facturing. 
 practically 
 
 2. How MUan 
 differs from 
 other Italian 
 cities 
 
 dant water power. From what moun- 
 tains do they get their water? Impor- 
 tant trade routes likewise pass through 
 Milan (Fig. 247), and coal is easily 
 brought from Germany. 
 Therefore, you will see 
 many factories, especially 
 for silk, woolen, and cotton 
 goods. Food products are 
 also prepared, and machin- 
 ery and cutlery are manu- 
 factured. 
 
 Milan has not the num- 
 ber of noted buildings that 
 many other Italian cities 
 have; but its cathedral is 
 particularly beautiful. On 
 the walls of a former mon- 
 astery is the great painting 
 ' ' The Last Supper." Have 
 you seen a copy of it? If 
 so, describe it. 
 
 The temperature changes 
 greatly as you approach 
 Genoa. You 
 
 3. A visit to the 
 will see olive, most important 
 
 d seaport 
 
 lemon trees flourishing 
 there, for the west winds 
 from the sea moderate the 
 temperature just as they 
 do at Naples. The warm 
 days and brilliant sky and 
 sea make this portion of 
 the coast one of the fa- 
 vorite resorts of Europe. 
 
 Genoa is connected by rail with other 
 Italian cities and with the largest cities 
 of Europe, and its harbor is the finest in 
 Italy (Fig. 255). Therefore, you might 
 expect to see on the wharves the principal 
 exports and imports. Among the largest 
 
ITALY 
 
 247 
 
 exports will be silk, wine, and olive oil. 
 What others might you expect? You will 
 see raw cotton from the United States and 
 coal from Great Britain being unloaded. 
 
 1. Show the importance of Italy as a 
 tourist country. 2. State 
 Review some facts 
 
 questions about the voy- 
 age to Naples and about 
 the beauty of the climate 
 and loeation of that city. 
 
 3. What interesting sights 
 are found around Naples? 
 
 4. What famous buildings 
 and ruins are to be seen 
 in Rome? 5. Mention some 
 of the attractions of Flor- 
 ence. 6. Of Venice. 7. De- 
 scribe the journey across 
 the Po Basin. 8. How does 
 Milan differ from other 
 Italian cities? 9. Explain 
 the importance of Genoa. 
 
 1. Describe the shape of 
 
 Why can you expect the Po and its trib- 
 utaries to be well supplied with water in 
 summer, even though the rain- o 
 
 ' _ '^ Suggestions 
 
 fall is shght? 4. How must for extra 
 the Alps affect the tempera- "^^^^ 
 ture of Italy? 5. Write a composition 
 
 Ewing Galloway 
 
 Fig. 255. — A view of the harbor at Genoa 
 For more than a thousand years this has been an important harbor. 
 
 Til T\ T 1 J • c What great explorer was bom here? 
 
 Italy. Make a drawing oi 
 
 Italy, locating cities, mountains, rivers, 
 and the islands Sicily and Sardinia. 
 2. Make a list of the leading cities. 
 
 teUing why you would like to hve in 
 Venice. 6. Collect pictures of ruins and 
 famous buildings in Italy. 
 
 V. Countries of the Danube and the Balkans 
 
 (Czecho-Slovakia, Austria, Hungary, Jugo-Slavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Rumania, 
 
 Greece, Turkey) 
 
 The position of these countries is of 
 
 special importance. For many centuries 
 
 the principal part of the civi- 
 
 Importance of „ , ^ ^ ^ - 1 ^ 
 
 the position hzed world lay south and 
 of these southeast of the Black Sea. 
 
 countnes i i • i 
 
 Europe was then thinly set- 
 tled by half -savage tribes, and was an in- 
 viting region for those inhabitants of Asia 
 
 who wanted adventure or more space. 
 From time to time great masses of people, 
 thousands and even hundreds of thou- 
 sands together, pushed westward from 
 Asia into Europe, and on finding some 
 suitable place, settled down. There they 
 remained until crowded aside by new 
 and more powerful hordes from other 
 
248 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 parts of Asia. Thus through the long 
 centuries one wave of people after an- 
 other entered Europe and established a 
 home there. 
 
 No matter where they finally settled, 
 most of them came by one route that 
 
 made them a bridge between Asia and 
 the leading European nations. 
 
 Each new wave of people crowded aside 
 those whom it found in its way; or, after 
 much fighting, it mixed with 
 them as masters, or slaves, or the^many^^ 
 
 In such languages and 
 
 1 irregular 
 peoples boundaries 
 
 © E. M. Newman 
 
 Fig. 256. — Shoemakers in the street in Constantinople 
 Much of the business of Turkish cities is carried on in the streets. In- 
 stead of stores, many of the merchants have open booths in which they dis- 
 play their wares. 
 
 lay across the narrow outlet of the Black 
 Sea into the Mediterranean. The most 
 convenient point to cross was where Con- 
 stantinople stands. From there they 
 often moved westward along the coast 
 toward Greece; or, taking the easiest 
 route to the Danube, they followed its 
 valley into central Europe and even 
 beyond. Trace this route on Fig. 248. 
 
 The latter was for a long time the 
 route for trade as well as travel. Until 
 the discovery of America, the road past 
 Constantinople was one of the principal 
 routes by which the treasures of the In- 
 dies were brought to western Europe. 
 Thus the location of these countries 
 
 equals, 
 ways 
 
 speaking differ- 
 ent languages became es- 
 tablished near together. 
 
 Naturally the different 
 races have often been at 
 war with one another, and 
 government has been a diffi- 
 cult problem. One cause 
 of trouble has been the de- 
 sire of each race, particu- 
 larly when it formed a 
 majority of the inhabitants 
 of a considerable area, to 
 rule over the others and 
 establish a government of 
 its own. That desire never 
 could be very fully realized, 
 however, partly because 
 of the number of races, and partly be- 
 cause some of the more powerful Euro- 
 pean countries like Germany, Austria, 
 and Russia have kept the bad feeling 
 ahve. Discontent and strife have, there- 
 fore, been constant. 
 
 As a result of the World War, the 
 old boundaries of countries in this re- 
 gion have been set aside, and, as far 
 as possible, those people who are akin 
 in language and race and who form a 
 majority of the inhabitants over an ex- 
 tensive section have been allowed to 
 form an independent nation. How many 
 nations do you find there now (Fig. 248)? 
 Some of these are entirely new, and all the 
 
COUNTRIES OF THE DANUBE AND THE BALKANS 
 
 249 
 
 old ones have had theu- frontiers greatly 
 changed so as to include only the people 
 who belong together. This is the princi- 
 pal reason for the very irregular bound- 
 aries. Trace some of them. Which 
 countries have the sea or a river for a part 
 of their boundaries? 
 
 Since these countries are especially im- 
 portant as a bridge between Asia and 
 northwestern Europe, the 
 
 The principal , , . -i i 
 
 railway leading railway may be ex- 
 
 through these pected to run northwest from 
 Constantinople. Beginning 
 
 1. Reasons for ^^gj-e, it foUoWS the COUrSB 
 its location ' 
 
 that the hordes from Asia, 
 who were bound for central Europe, long 
 ago discovered to be the most level and, 
 therefore, the easiest. Trace this road 
 through Sofia, Belgrade, Budapest, Vien- 
 na, and Prague (Fig. 248) . Notice that it 
 goes on to Berlin. What countries does it 
 cross? What capitals are located upon 
 it? Which of the countries in this region 
 seems least benefited by this railway? 
 
 © Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 257. — A view of the famous churchyard in Hallstadt 
 The little town of Hallstadt is picturesquely situated in the Tyrolean Alps 
 in Austria. It is famous for its old buildings. 
 
 ■'J Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 258. — Castle Karlstein, near Prague 
 This part of Europe has many such castles, built by 
 royal families. Many of them are centuries old. 
 
 Prague, the capital and leading city of 
 Czecho-Slovakia, enjoys two advantages 
 that greatly affect its manu- 2. Leading cities 
 f acturing. Coal °^ ^^ ro"** 
 
 and iron ore are a. Advantages 
 
 both found in ^f^^P^a^^ 
 
 enjoys 
 
 abundance in its 
 vicinity. The people of 
 Czecho-Slovakia are more 
 highly educated than any 
 other people in this part 
 of Europe. With the ad- 
 vantages of education and 
 the abundance of raw ma- 
 terials, it is not surprising 
 that manufacturing is bet- 
 ter developed here than 
 elsewhere in all these coun- 
 tries. Among the manu- 
 factures are metal goods, 
 textiles, beet sugar, and 
 
250 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 glassware. Bohemian glass, made from 
 
 the pecuhar sand from the mountains 
 
 near at hand, is famous. 
 
 Until 1919 Vienna was the fourth city 
 
 in size in Europe. Can you name the 
 three that were larger? Aus- 
 tria, of which it is the capital, 
 then included all the territory 
 shown under that name in 
 
 Fig. 248, most of Czecho-Slovakia, and 
 
 b. The past 
 and the future 
 of Vienna 
 and Budapest 
 
 ([) Eicitiy Galloway 
 
 Fig. 259. — Peasants plowing in Hungary 
 Notice the crude plow and the oxen. Do you think a fanner could culti- 
 vate much land in this way? Tell how the American farmer plows his land 
 
 much other land besides. As the capital 
 of so great a country, it contained nu- 
 merous royal palaces, government build- 
 ings, and magnificent parks and drives. 
 There was also a large number of fac- 
 tories, and its manufactures, hke those of 
 Paris, were distinguished for their pecu- 
 liar grace and beauty. Now it is the 
 capital of a very much smaller country 
 which has only about one fourth its for- 
 mer population. How do you imagine 
 
 this will affect its appearance and popu- 
 lation in the future? 
 
 Budapest is one of the chief flour- 
 milling centers in the world. The vast 
 plains of Hungary surrounding it grow 
 large quantities of grain. Like Minne- 
 apolis (p. 95) and Odessa (p. 234), this 
 city is a center for milling and shipping 
 wheat. Minneapolis owes much to the 
 Hungarian mills; for its methods of pro- 
 ducing flour were first ex- 
 tensively used in Budapest. 
 The city is the capital of 
 Hungary and has a double 
 name, because Buda is on 
 one side of the Danube 
 River and Pest on the other, 
 the two being connected by 
 several bridges. While it 
 has grown remarkably in 
 recent years, there is doubt 
 about its future prosperity; 
 for Hungary has less than 
 half its former area, and its 
 capital, like Vienna, may 
 suffer seriously. 
 
 Constantinople has long 
 ranked as one of the fore- 
 most cities of c. Constan- 
 
 the world. Lo- '^^^'^ 
 cated at the point where 
 Asia and Europe meet, it has attracted 
 people from all the nations of the earth. 
 As the capital of the Roman Empire of 
 the East, it was for many centuries the 
 leading center of government, art, and 
 learning. One of its churches, completed 
 about 550 a. d., still ranks among the 
 finest structures ever built. 
 
 In 1453 it was conquered by the Turks 
 under Mohammed II ; and from that time 
 until the present it has been the capital 
 
COUNTRIES OF THE DANUBE AND THE BALKANS 
 
 251 
 
 and largest city of the Turks. Under 
 Turkish government it soon lost its lead- 
 ership in the world, and became dis- 
 tinguished for its backwardness. For ex- 
 ample, the city has very few street names 
 and house numbers. It is divided into 
 quarters, and mail reaches a person by 
 being carried to the quarter in which he 
 lives, where further progress depends 
 upon chance inquiries by the postman. 
 
 The character of the Turk greatly in- 
 fluences the languages used and even the 
 dress of the people. On account of his 
 backwardness and cruelty, the hundreds 
 of thousands of foreigners from all sec- 
 tions of the earth who have settled there 
 and now make up about half of the popu- 
 lation have had no desire to adopt that 
 country as their- own, as foreigners become 
 citizens of our country. Instead of be- 
 coming Turks they prefer to remain 
 Greeks, or Arabs, or Russians; accord- 
 ingly, each foreigner continues to speak 
 his native tongue, and to dress as he did 
 in his own country. Thus there are doz- 
 ens of languages in use, and one who 
 knows only two or three is often help- 
 less. Common handbills and notices are 
 usually printed in four languages. One 
 can imagine, too, what a variety of cos- 
 tumes may be seen on the streets. 
 
 Ever since 1453 Europeans have been 
 hoping to expel the Turks from Europe; 
 and it was nearly accompUshed as a re- 
 sult of the World War. Constantinople 
 and a small area outside the city are 
 still occupied by the Turks, but the water 
 route between the Black Sea and the 
 Mediterranean is no longer under their 
 control; the peace treaty which ended the 
 war declared this water route open to all 
 nations, to be used by all on equal terms. 
 
 Two other capitals are located on this 
 railroad. Name them (Fig. 248). What 
 tributaries flow into the Dan- ^ ^,,„^ .,„ ,^ 
 ube near Belgrade? What Belgrade and 
 advantages in location has 
 that city over Sofia? Do you see any dis- 
 advantages in the fact that the capital 
 and largest city of Jugo-Slavia is so near 
 a foreign country? 
 
 On entering Czecho-Slovakia from Ger- 
 many by this route one passes through 
 a gap in the mountains and 
 comes out into a broad and 
 nearly level basin almost 
 surrounded by mountains, 
 is near its center, and in all 
 
 e. Country 
 scenes along 
 this railway 
 
 Prague 
 directions 
 
 Keystone View Co. , Inc. 
 
 Fig. 260. — A public letter-writer, Constantinople 
 
 In Turkey and many other countries in Asia, and even 
 in some parts of Europe, every town and city has its pub- 
 lic letter-writers. Why do the people not write th.eir own 
 letters? 
 
252 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 from it there is highly cultivated land. 
 In the growing season one sees fields of 
 wheat, oats, rye, barley, potatoes, sugar 
 beets, and hops; also many cattle and 
 sheep. The scenes are similar to those in 
 our North Central States, although the 
 
 ■ © Eu'in.g Gallotrai/ 
 
 Fig. 261. — Peasant women of Jugo-SIavia spinning 
 Machinery is not used in these old European countries 
 to the extent to which it is used in America. The women 
 still do much spinning and weaving and the ways of liv- 
 ing are much the same as they were in our country 150 
 years ago. 
 
 surface is rougher. On the mountains 
 and in the wilder sections unsuited for 
 farming there are extensive forests. 
 
 After entering Hungary from Vienna 
 one hardly cares to look out of the car 
 window much of the time, because the 
 view for a distance of more than 200 
 miles varies hardly at all. This region 
 resembles our western plains, having long 
 stretches that are as level as a floor, no 
 trees except in villages and along the 
 
 streams, and little to interest one except 
 prosperous farms. This is one of the fin- 
 est agricultural sections in Europe, and 
 is noted for its wheat, corn, and live 
 stock. In some of the more hilly portions 
 grapes are extensively grown, and other 
 fruits, such as plums, apples, pears, and 
 cherries are common. How fully does 
 this picture recall Iowa and the Dakotas 
 (p. 96)? 
 
 On leaving Belgrade, the capital of 
 Jugo-Slavia, one enters mountainous 
 country again. At Sofia, in Bulgaria, the 
 Balkan Mountains, after which the Bal- 
 kan Peninsula is named, are crossed. 
 On the south side of these mountains 
 the climate is quite different from that on 
 the north side. The countries so far 
 crossed have hot summers and cold win- 
 ters, like our northern states; in southern 
 Bulgaria, however, the Balkans shut out 
 the cold north winds and cause a very mild 
 climate. On that account the crops vary 
 greatly from those farther north. For 
 example, roses are particularly common. 
 On a spring day, as soon as the train 
 enters the plain from the north, the fra- 
 grance of roses greets the traveler, and 
 he sees hundreds of acres of rose-bushes 
 about him. They are raised for their 
 petals, from which perfume is made. 
 
 A journey over this railroad gives a 
 fair idea of the agricultural products of 
 these countries. The differ- 
 ent climate elsewhere, how- fer^t climate 
 ever, permits different crops, elsewhere 
 The western section that bor- ent crops 
 ders the Adriatic Sea has a 
 mild climate and a heavy rainfall. In 
 some places as many as 200 inches of 
 rain fall in one year. What is the 
 amount where you Uve? There the olive, 
 
COUNTRIES OF THE DANUBE AND THE BALKANS 
 
 253 
 
 mulberry, and grape flourish. Toward 
 the east the rainfall decreases, so that 
 the eastern parts of Bulgaria and Ruma- 
 nia are too dry for farming and are given 
 up to grazing. 
 
 Greece lies too far south to be in the 
 path of the rain-bringing winds, and what 
 rain it receives comes mainly during the 
 winter. The climate is mild, however, 
 and, with the aid of irrigation, figs, grapes, 
 olives, and tobacco are grown. 
 
 Only two of these countries, Hungary 
 
 and Rumania, have extensive plains. 
 
 The plains are noted for their 
 
 ^"aSSXa wheat and corn. Most of the 
 
 compared with surfacc elsewhere is moun- 
 
 other occupa- , . i • i x 
 
 tions tainous, and agriculture is 
 
 possible only in the narrow 
 valleys. Yet, in spite of these disad- 
 vantages, it is the principal occupation 
 throughout this region. 
 
 Which of these countries border the 
 Mediterranean? Name some of their 
 seaports. Which depend 
 most upon the Danube for an 
 outlet by water to the sea? 
 This river is 
 connected by canal in Ger- 
 many with the Rhine (Fig.. 
 201), so that goods bound 
 for Enlgand can go west, as 
 well as east by the Black 
 Sea and the Mediterranean. 
 Trace each route to London 
 from Budapest. Every one 
 of these countries needs an 
 outlet to the sea by water, 
 particularly for such heavy 
 and bulky freight as timber, 
 oils, and grain. Transpor- 
 tation of such things by rail 
 is too expensive. 
 
 How the At- 
 lantic is 
 reached by 
 water 
 
 The principal Mediterranean port for 
 these countries is Saloniki. In ancient 
 times there was an easy road ^^ saioniki 
 from that point northward is the leading 
 through river valleys to Nish '°^'*"*^ 
 in eastern Jugo-Slavia. A railway now 
 follows that ancient route, connecting 
 at Nish with the Berhn to Constan- 
 tinople railroad. This is, therefore, the 
 chief rail route from these countries to 
 the Mediterranean; and since the har- 
 bor at Saloniki is especially good, that 
 city is next to Constantinople in size and 
 importance. Athens is nearly as large; 
 but it lacks direct rail connections with 
 other countries. 
 
 Athens is the capital of Greece, located 
 six miles inland from its port, called 
 Piraeus. In ancient times, xheimpor- 
 before Rome reached its full- tanceof 
 est grandeur and before Con- 
 stantinople was heard of, this was the 
 most important city in the world. The 
 most civilized people were then collected 
 about the eastern Mediterranean, and 
 Athens was their leading center. 
 
 lone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 262. — Old citadel at Saloniki 
 
254 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 It led the world in architecture, sculpture, 
 poetry, and learning, and in many respects 
 its works along these lines have never 
 been surpassed. Some of the most highly 
 prized treasures in the great museums of 
 Paris and other European cities are frag- 
 ments of sculpture that have come from 
 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 263. — The ruins of the Parthenon at Athens 
 Long before the time of Christ, Greece was the most civilized country of 
 the world, with hundreds of ships on the Mediterranean, many cities and 
 some of the most beautiful buildings ever erected. The ruins of one of the 
 most famous temples, the Parthenon, are shown in this picture. The Parthenon 
 stands on the Acropolis, or citadel, of Athens. 
 
 Athens. Along the sides of some of its 
 streets and on the fiat-topped hill at the 
 edge of the city called the Acropolis, are 
 hundreds of statues, monuments, and 
 ruins of buildings which are still very 
 beautiful. While Athens is now a thriving 
 city, these reminders of the distant past 
 are the chief attraction to many of its 
 visitors. How was the location of the city 
 favorable to leadership in ancient times? 
 
 1. Explain the importance of the posi- 
 tion of these countries. 2. Give reasons 
 Review for their many languages and 
 
 questions irregular boundaries. 3. What 
 course does their principal railway take, 
 
 and why does it follow that route? 4. 
 State some of the advantages that Prague 
 enjoys. 5. What can you tell about the 
 past and future of Vienna? Budapest? 
 
 6. Show how important Constantinople 
 has been. 7. What has been the influence 
 of the Turks upon it? 8. Describe the 
 
 country scenes along the 
 chief railway in this region. 
 9. How do the climate and 
 farm products differ along 
 the western coast? 10. 
 How prominent is agricul- 
 ture in these countries 
 compared with other oc- 
 cupations? 11. In what 
 ways is the Atlantic Ocean 
 reached by water from 
 these countries? 12. Why 
 is Saloniki the leading coast 
 city? 13. Show the impor- 
 tance of Athens. 
 
 1. Make a drawing of the 
 Danube River and locate 
 the principal suggestions 
 
 cities upon it. for extra 
 
 2. Add to this drawing a line 
 to represent the Berlin to Constantinople 
 railway; also the road to Saloniki. 3. 
 Describe some of the costumes you would 
 expect to see on the streets of Constan- 
 tinople; or make a drawing or painting 
 to show them. 4. A surprising number 
 of great cities are on very nearly the 
 same parallel of latitude as Constanti- 
 nople. Find several of them (Fig. 315), 
 and explain why there are so many. 5. 
 What reasons can you give why Bucha- 
 rest and Sofia are not located on the 
 Danube? 6. Read the story of the Greek 
 boy Yanni, in Child Life in Other Lands. 
 
 7. Tell what a tourist in Greece should see. 
 
MAP STUDIES 
 
 255 
 
 1. How does the coast line of Europe compare 
 with that of South America? 2. In what gen- 
 eral direction do the greatest high- 
 Map lands of Europe extend? 3. Name 
 questions ^j^ ^j^ highlands that run in a 
 on Europe ,. . 
 
 different direction. 4. Name the 
 
 countries of Europe that consist chiefly of high- 
 lands. 5. Of lowlands. 6. Name the countries 
 that have no seacoast. 7. Name the countries 
 that have areas below the level of the ocean. 
 8. What country has the largest number of lakes? 
 9. Would you expect to be able to see across 
 the Strait of Dover on a clear day? 10. From 
 Ireland to Scotland? 11, Most of the great 
 cities of Europe are between the forty-seventh 
 and the sixtieth parallels of latitude. Where 
 does the same belt cross North America? 12. Can- 
 als are shown chiefly in the green areas of Fig. 201. 
 Why? 13. Locate the capitals and largest cities 
 of the British Isles; France; Germany; Poland. 
 14. Locate the Rhine River; the Danube; the 
 Thames; the Seine; the Vistula. 
 
 15. Would you expect to be able to see across 
 the Strait of Gibraltar? 16. The Strait of Mes- 
 sina? 17. From Corsica to Sardinia? 18. Lo- 
 cate Madrid; Lisbon; Naples; Rome; Milan; 
 Venice; Genoa. 19. Which of the cities just 
 named are important railroad centers? 20. Which 
 one of them is situated on a plateau? 21. Are 
 most of the great cities which you have studied so 
 far highland" or lowland cities? 22. Does the 
 nearness of most cities to great waterways help 
 you to answer the last question? 23. Locate 
 Mt. Vesuvius; Mt. Etna. 24. To what country 
 does most of Morocco belong? 25. Algeria? 
 26. Tunis? 27. Between what countries of 
 Europe are there high mountain barriers? 
 
 28. What boundaries of the countries of 
 southeastern Europe appear to you to be natural? 
 29. Which appear to be artificial? 30. What 
 country of southeastern Europe contains many 
 islands that served the ancient mariners as step- 
 ping stones to Asia? 31. Locate Vienna; Buda- 
 pest; Constantinople; Odessa; Saloniki; Athens. 
 
Fie. 264 
 
PART V. ASIA 
 
 I. General Facts 
 
 Since Asia is on the opposite side of 
 
 the northern hemisphere from the United 
 
 States, it can be reached by 
 
 routes'from traveUng either east or west. 
 
 the United From San Francisco or Seattle 
 
 States to Asia , rt -n 
 
 one can cross the racinc 
 Ocean to Yokohama in Japan and then 
 proceed farther to Shanghai or Hongkong 
 on the coast of China. This Pacific route 
 is the easier. 
 
 Or one can cross the Atlantic Ocean 
 from New York to Europe, and then 
 proceed by rail across Europe either to 
 Moscow in Russia and on into Asia, or 
 to Constantinople. A third route leads 
 from New York to the Strait of Gibraltar; 
 then through the Mediterranean Sea 
 either to Smyrna in Asia Minor or to Con- 
 stantinople; or through the Suez Canal 
 around Arabia to India. Trace these 
 routes in Fig. 315. Also foUow them on 
 a gk)be. Which one do you think would 
 be the most interesting, and why? 
 
 Asia is larger than any other continent. 
 
 Indeed, it is greater than North and South 
 
 America together, or Europe 
 
 How Asia and Africa together. It has 
 
 compares with • i i •< , i ii 
 
 the other con- more mhabitants, also, than 
 tinents in area ^j^y other Continent. China 
 
 and popma- "^ i . i 
 
 tion alone has about two thirds as 
 
 many people as all Europe, 
 and India has more than any other 
 country in the world except China. Find 
 these two countries in Fig. 268. More 
 
 than one half of all the people on the 
 earth live in Asia. 
 
 While it is easy to reach Asia, it is near- 
 ly impossible to cross it in most sections. 
 Europe and Asia form only 
 
 one body of land (p. 195); Some reasons 
 - -It P why there is 
 
 therefore the railroads of only one rail- 
 Europe might be expected road crossing 
 . . Asia east and 
 
 to extend into Asia, all the west 
 way to the Pacific coast. 
 Since Asia is so large and contains so 
 great a population, many such trans- 
 continental roads might be expected. 
 Yet there is only one such road, and much 
 even of it lies farther north than the most 
 northern railway across Canada (Fig. 
 59). Why are there not several trans- 
 continental lines in the southern half of 
 the continent, just as there are several 
 crossing the United States? Why is the 
 only one located so far north? 
 
 The climate and surf aee features largely 
 answer these questions. Western Asia 
 south of the fiftieth parallel of ^ The check to 
 latitude is a vast arid 
 desert land (Fig. 265), 
 Sea is in the midst of a region that re- 
 ceives only a few inches of rain per year; 
 and, although great rivers from Russia 
 empty into the Caspian Sea, the dry 
 climate causes its waters to evaporate so 
 fast that it has no outlet. Its waters, 
 therefore, are salty like those of Great Salt 
 Lake. 
 
 Qj* railroads in 
 western Asia 
 
 Aral 
 
 257 
 
258 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Most of the territory extending from 
 Aral Sea all the way to Africa is arid. 
 Name the countries included in this region. 
 Nearly all of Arabia, for example, which is 
 a peninsula about as large as all our states 
 east of the Mississippi River, is a desert. 
 
 
 Wua.Eii(.Cl>.,N.V, 
 
 Fig. 265. — 'Annual rainfall in Asia 
 
 In an east and west direction the dry area 
 of western Asia varies from 2,000 to nearly 
 4,000 miles in length. Can you suggest 
 some of the difficulties in the way of 
 building railroads across such a region? 
 
 Farther east there is another barrier 
 fully as great. That is the mountainous 
 2. The check to ^^^ platcau regiou in central 
 Asia. Among the mountains 
 are the Himalayas, just north 
 of India, the loftiest mountain range in 
 
 railroads in 
 central Asia 
 
 the world. Mt. Everest, the highest 
 peak, rises over 29,000 feet, or five and 
 one half miles, above the level of the sea. 
 Locate this mountain in Fig. 267. Point 
 out other ranges farther west and north. 
 There are great stretches of level land 
 among these mountains, 
 but they are plateaus rather 
 than low plains. One great 
 highland is the plateau of 
 Tibet, which is from two to 
 three miles above sea level. 
 That is higher than most of 
 the mountain peaks in 
 North America. This high- 
 land, consisting of moun- 
 tains and plateaus, is even 
 more extensive than the 
 arid region in the west. 
 Fig. 264 shows how high 
 above sea level a train 
 would have to climb in 
 crossing central Asia. What 
 difficulties do you see in 
 building railroads there? 
 
 Neither the arid nor the 
 mountainous section can 
 support man}^ inhabitants, 
 because the one is too dry 
 for agriculture without ir- 
 rigation and the other is 
 too mountainous and cold. A trans- 
 continental railway, therefore, starting 
 at the European boundary would have 
 to run for thousands of miles through 
 country that is either arid or moun- 
 tainous and cold, and everywhere sparse- 
 ly settled, before reaching the densely 
 populated part of China. This makes 
 railroad building almost impossible. 
 
 The one Une across the continent is 
 called the Trans-Siberian Railway. It 
 
SOUTHWESTERN ASIA 
 
 259 
 
 runs from Petrograd through Moscow in 
 Russia to \ladivostok on the Pacific 
 , xiTu .u coast. Follow its route in Fig. 
 
 3. Why the one ^ 
 
 line is so far 268, and noto how near one 
 can come to Peking, the cap- 
 ital of China, by this line. There is 
 more rain along its western course than 
 in the country about Aral Sea; and the 
 mountains in the east are much less diffi- 
 cult to cross than those farther south. 
 
 Throughout the whole distance, how- 
 ever, the population is scattered, and it 
 is doubtful if the road would ever have 
 been built had not Russia felt the neces- 
 sity of an outlet to the sea in this direc- 
 tion. Recall some of the difficulties Rus- 
 sia has had in reaching the sea either from 
 Petrograd or from Odessa (p. 233). 
 
 This part of Asia, called Siberia, has 
 long belonged to Russia, and it was that 
 country that built this railw^ay. What 
 great disadvantages do you see in its use 
 as an outlet from Europe to the ocean? 
 
 1. Describe the route you would take 
 from your home to Peking, China, and 
 Review tell why you would choose 
 
 questions [^ 2. Compare Asia with 
 North America in area. 3. Tell what 
 you know of the population of China; 
 of India; of Asia. 4. Why is it difficult 
 to make a trip across the continent of 
 Asia? Why are there so few railroads 
 
 in the southern part of Asia? 5. Locate 
 the Trans-Siberian Railway. 
 
 1. Find the time of day in Shanghai 
 when it is noon at your home. 2. What 
 is the distance from your c 
 
 *^ Suggestions 
 
 home to Vladivostok? 3. On for extra 
 a train traveling thirty miles ""^^ 
 an hour, how long would it take to make 
 a journey from Petrograd to Vladivos- 
 tok? 4. How would you prove that Asia 
 has greater extremes of heat and cold 
 than any other continent? 
 
 ' Brawn Bros. 
 
 Fig. 266. —The Buddhist temple in Lassa, Tibet 
 The name of the god worshiped by the people of this 
 
 country is Buddha, and their religion is called Buddhism. 
 
 Lassa is a sacred city of the Buddhists. Locate it on 
 
 Fig. 277. 
 
 II. Southwestern Asia 
 
 The part of southwestern Asia that is 
 of most interest to us is a very small sec- 
 The most in- tion, Called Palestine, near 
 onouJhwes't- the eastern end of the Medi- 
 ern Asia terrancan Sea. Long before 
 
 the time of Christ the Hebrews escaped 
 
 from Egypt and came to this little 
 country, which was their '^ Promised 
 Land." They must have found it very 
 inviting, since they described it as ^'flow- 
 ing with milk and honey." Here they 
 developed a nation with Jerusalem as its 
 
Fig. 267 
 
xv^ao" 
 
 Fig. 268 
 
262 
 
 ASIA 
 
 capital; it reached its greatest prosperity 
 under King Solomon. Can you tell some 
 of the events that happened here, as 
 described in the Old Testament? This 
 is the scene also of events in the New 
 Testament; for this is where Christ lived 
 
 in Fig. 277. Some of the best known 
 among the Turkish rugs are made about 
 Smyrna and are called Smyrna rugs. 
 
 Possibly you have seen advertisements 
 of Turkish tobacco. This is one of 
 the most important products of Turkey. 
 Other things that we re- 
 ceive from southwestern 
 Asia are dates, figs, and 
 olives. Still another is an 
 especially fine kind of coffee. 
 It comes from Mocha, and 
 is called Mocha coffee. 
 Find this place on Fig. 277. 
 Cotton, rice, grain, and 
 garden vegetables are also 
 raised. 
 
 Though these agricultur- 
 al products are valuable, 
 southwestern 
 
 Why the prod- 
 
 ucts are not 
 
 Asia is not able 
 
 to raise enough moreimpor- 
 
 of them to make 
 
 1. How the sur- 
 face and climate 
 check produc- 
 tion 
 
 / ati / I iiiKrwood 
 
 Fig. 269. — A village school near Jerusalem 
 Tell all the ways you can in which this school is different from yours 
 
 and taught. On that account it is called 
 
 the Holy Land. 
 
 From southwestern Asia we import 
 
 many beautiful and interesting manu- 
 
 The principal factured articles. In Persia 
 and Turkey thousands of 
 beautifully colored rugs, car- 
 pets, and shawls are woven 
 
 every year. Locate those two countries 
 
 products that 
 we obtain 
 from south- 
 western Asia 
 
 the country a 
 
 prosperous one. 
 
 One reason is 
 
 that much of the surface of 
 
 the land is mountainous. 
 
 As shown by Fig. 267, 
 
 which sections are they? In 
 
 addition, as has been stated 
 
 (p. 258), the rainfall is only 
 
 a few inches per year over 
 
 almost all of this vast area. And water 
 
 for irrigation can be provided for only a 
 
 small part of the land. 
 
 The character of the people also hin- 
 ders production. Although the Turks 
 now control only a small part of this re- 
 gion, most of it has been for a long time 
 under Turkish rule, and the Turks have 
 always opposed progress. You have seen 
 
SOUTHWESTERN ASIA 
 
 263 
 
 to what extent they have done this in 
 their capital, Constantinople (p. .251). 
 
 They have followed a similar 
 chara°Ter o*f the course clsewherc. One of their 
 ch^Sr^ worst customs concerns the 
 
 collection of taxes. Instead of 
 fixing a definite rate of taxes and paying 
 men a salary for collecting them, it has 
 been their habit to agree with some man 
 to accept a certain amount from each dis- 
 trict and to allow each collector to get his 
 pay by collecting as much more as he 
 can. Under such an arrangement few 
 persons can save anything beyond the 
 bare necessities of life, and modern im- 
 provements cannot be expected. 
 
 There is a prospect of an advance in 
 some parts of this territory, for the Turks 
 The prospect Were defeated in the World 
 of new life in War and lost portions of their 
 IS region empire. The British have 
 taken over the section called Mesopota- 
 mia, through which the Euphrates and 
 Tigris rivers flow to the Persian Gulf. 
 They have also taken control of Palestine, 
 which had been under Turkish rule, while 
 the French govern the rest of Syria. These 
 two European nations will, no doubt, 
 bring about many improvements. The 
 Greeks also have a small area across the 
 Aegean sea from their European posses- 
 sions. It includes Smyrna, an old Greek 
 city. The Aegean coast and the islands 
 near it were settled by Greeks about 
 3,000 years ago, but were under Turkish 
 rule for many centuries. 
 
 1. What is the most interesting part 
 of Asia to us and why? 2. What name 
 is given to the country surrounding 
 Jerusalem? 3. What manufactured prod- 
 ucts do we receive from southwestern 
 
 Asia? What natural products? 4. Give 
 two reasons why the products of this 
 region are few in number and Review 
 small in quantity. 5. Tell how questions 
 the Turks collected taxes in the countries 
 under their rule. 6. What effect has the 
 World War had on Palestine? 
 
 1. The Jews who escaped from Egypt 
 into Palestine called it the Promised 
 Land and described it as suggestions 
 "flowing with milk and honey." for extra 
 Does that country deserve 
 this description now? If not, what has 
 brought about the change? 2. Make 
 a list of the places you would want to 
 see if you made a trip to the Holy Land. 
 
 3. From what do the Persians make 
 their fine rugs and how are they woven? 
 
 4. Find out something about the life 
 of olive trees. 
 
 © Undervoorl ami U luhruood 
 
 Fig. 270. — A sword-maker at Damascus 
 These beautiful pieces of steel are made entirely by 
 hand. The swords of Damascus have long been famous 
 for their beautiful carving and keenness of edge. 
 
264 
 
 ASIA 
 
 III. Siberia and Central Asia 
 
 The traveler from Petrograd to Vladi- 
 vostok sets out on a journey of nearly 
 5,500 miles, and even after 
 crossing the Ural Mountains 
 into Asia he still has 4,500 
 miles to go. Recall the dis- 
 tance from New York to San 
 Francisco. At first he passes through 
 level country where farming is well de- 
 
 r 
 
 What the 
 traveler sees 
 along the 
 Trans-Sibe- 
 rian railway 
 
 2. The goods 
 that one sees 
 along the road 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 271. —Fishing in the 3ea of GaUlee 
 Both in ancient and in modem times this fresh-water sea, that pours its 
 waters through the River Jordan into the Dead Sea, has supported many 
 fishermen. 
 
 veloped. The farm products to be seen 
 are . the ordinary grains, particularly 
 wheat; potatoes; onions and 
 other vegetables; and live 
 stock. How do these products 
 compare with those in western 
 Canada? While the population is thin, 
 there are some large towns. Name several 
 
 1. The differ- 
 ence between 
 the western and 
 the eastern half 
 of the joiimey 
 
 of them. The most important is Tomsk. 
 Since the road was built only only a few 
 years ago, perhaps you can suggest why 
 some of the towns are many miles from 
 any railway station. 
 
 After one crosses the Yenesei River, 
 near the middle of Siberia, the scenery 
 changes greatly. One enters a region of 
 low mountains, which continue for many 
 hundred miles. Farms al- 
 most disappear, there are 
 great forests, and mining is 
 an important industry. 
 
 Naturally the principal 
 farm products form a large 
 part of the 
 freight on this 
 road. The most 
 important are wheat, cattle 
 or meat, and butter and 
 eggs. 
 
 Minerals, also, are prom- 
 inent. Still other kinds 
 of freight are brought long 
 distances to the railway 
 from both the south and 
 north. Many caravans 
 bring goods from the south ; 
 and the vast forests on the 
 north, extending from 
 Europe to the Pacific, sup- 
 ply great quantities of furs. 
 The more common animals are the fox, 
 sable, otter, ermine, wolf, bear, and gray 
 squirrel. In this cold climate their fur 
 grows especially thick and soft. Siberia 
 now supplies more furs than any other 
 country, not excepting Canada. 
 
 In 1915 goods worth $45,000,000 were 
 shipped from the United States into Si- 
 
SIBERIA AND CENTRAL ASIA 
 
 265 
 
 Why impor- 
 tant towns 
 have devel- 
 oped in the 
 arid region 
 east of the 
 Caspian Sea 
 
 beria by way of Vladivostok. Can you 
 suggest what some of the articles must 
 have been, and for what sections they 
 were bound? 
 
 The most important interior city is 
 Irkutsk, near the center of the route; 
 here there is extensive trading in silk, 
 porcelain, tea, and furs. You will find 
 out later where the first three of these 
 articles come from (pp. 269, 272). 
 
 The region east of the Caspian Sea is 
 also a part of Russia. The lack of rain 
 there would lead 
 one to expect 
 few cities. Yet 
 the map shows 
 several, the most 
 important of 
 which are Bokhara and 
 Khiva (Fig. 277). What are 
 the reasons for their 
 growth? The fact that Bo- 
 khara and Khiva rugs are 
 well known in the United 
 States suggests one of them. 
 While the region is arid, 
 there is enough grass to sup- 
 port large herds of sheep; 
 and they produce the wool 
 from which many of the rugs are made, 
 as in Persia and Turkey in Asia (p. 262). 
 Irrigation, also, makes farming possible. 
 
 Yet there is another important reason 
 for these cities. For many centuries the 
 principal overland route between China 
 and Europe led through these points. 
 Marco Polo of Venice, the most cele- 
 brated traveler of the Middle Ages, 
 crossed Persia and then passed eastward 
 near Bokhara and Khiva on his w^ay to 
 China. Caravan routes leading from 
 China, India, and Persia to Russia have 
 
 for ages come together in this section. 
 The trade caused by the caravans led to 
 the growth of these cities. Formerly the 
 caravans traveled on to Russia; but now, 
 as you can see in Fig. 268, railroads take 
 their burdens at these places. Note the 
 courses of these roads. 
 
 1. What is the length in miles of the 
 Trans-Siberian Railway? 2. What differ- 
 ences in the country would a traveler 
 notice in making a trip from Petrograd to 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 272. ^ A view of Vladivostok, showing a part of the harbor 
 
 Vladivostok? 3. What farm products and 
 other goods would he find for sale? 4. 
 Name the fur-bearing animals Review 
 of Siberia. 5. Why have the questions 
 cities of Bokhara and Khiva thrived 
 though located in an arid country? 
 
 1. Why is the water of the Caspian 
 Sea salty while that of Lake Baikal is 
 fresh? 2. Describe the dif- suggestions 
 ference in clothing you would for extra 
 expect to see in a trip from ""^^ 
 India to Siberia. 3. Why are there no 
 seaports on the northern coast of Siberia? 
 
266 
 
 ASIA 
 
 IV. India, Indo-China, and the Malay Peninsula 
 
 The vast region known as India is 
 about half as large as the United States 
 Ease of and is part of the British Em- 
 
 travei pjj.^ (p^g 3^5) jhe EngUsh 
 
 have made many improvements there. 
 Extensive railroads have been built, so 
 
 The season 
 in which to 
 visit India 
 
 *»€V3*. 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 273. — A general view of Delhi, the capital of India 
 
 that one can now reach almost any part 
 of India by rail. In fact, India has more 
 than half the total railroad mileage of 
 Asia. 
 
 At any of the large ports at which you 
 might land, as at Bombay or Calcutta, 
 you would find an European section resem- 
 bling one of our own cities. Moreover, 
 you could make yourself understood in 
 your own language; for, although there 
 are many native tongues, English is com- 
 monly used in business affairs. 
 
 The countries east of India also enjoy 
 a certain amount of modern conveniences, 
 for several of them are under the control 
 of European nations. In Fig. 268 locate 
 Singapore, an important British city at 
 the southern end of the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 Trace the French possessions. Locate 
 the independent country of Siam. 
 
 In Fig. 277 note the latitude in which 
 most of India Ues. As you might expect 
 from this latitude, it has a 
 tropical climate, with a wet 
 and a dry sea- 
 son. During the dry season 
 northeast winds from the 
 heart of the continent blow 
 over India, bringing little or 
 no moisture. There is so 
 little rainfall in some years 
 that the water supply gives 
 out, crops dry up, and the 
 people suffer from severe 
 famines. It is also intensely 
 hot on the plains, and white 
 men can live comfortably 
 only in the mountains where 
 it is cooler. It is evident 
 that traveling would not be 
 enjoyable in this season. 
 
 In the wet season, which comes in our 
 summer, winds blow over the land from 
 the direction of the sea. Abundant rain 
 falls over much of the country, and crops 
 flourish. Although the heat is still great, 
 it is more endurable than in the dry 
 season. This, then, is the season to 
 choose for visiting India. From its 
 location, why might the Malay Penin- 
 sula be expected to have more rain- 
 fall throughout the year than India? 
 
 Probably you would be more impressed 
 with the peculiar customs of the people 
 than with anything else you might see. 
 You would soon notice that the Hindus, 
 as the people of India are called, are divid- 
 ed into classes or castes; unlike ourselves, 
 
INDIA, INDO-CHINA, AND THE MALAY PENINSULA 
 
 267 
 
 Some cus- 
 toms of the 
 people which 
 would seem 
 strange to us 
 
 they do not believe that all men are born 
 free and equal. On the streets you would 
 see mainly the lower castes, 
 to which belong the poorer 
 people, the shopkeepers, ser- 
 vants, laborers, and beggars. 
 If you wondered why so few 
 of the upper castes appeared, you would 
 learn that it is because they think it de- 
 grading to mingle with those of a lower 
 caste. They will not eat at the same 
 table with them, nor will they taste food 
 on which so much as the shadow of a 
 lower-caste person has fal- 
 len. How might such a be- 
 lief prevent progress? 
 
 The Hindus have many 
 superstitions which would 
 seem strange to us. For in- 
 stance, thousands make pil- 
 grimages yearly to the 
 Ganges River in eastern 
 India; for they believe that 
 its waters are sacred and 
 that bathing in them washes 
 away disease. In Siam you 
 would be surprised to find 
 that next to the king, the 
 natives hold the white ele- 
 phant in highest reverence. 
 Siam is often called the land 
 of the white elephant. 
 
 As you traveled through 
 India you would find about 
 nine tenths of 
 the population 
 living in the 
 country, since 
 farming is the chief occupa- 
 tion. Millet is the chief food of many 
 of the people because it can be raised even 
 in the drier sections. Another important 
 
 grain is wheat. Great quantities of rice 
 are grown on the flooded lowlands both 
 in India and in the Malay Peninsula. In 
 the Malay Peninsula there are many 
 large rubber plantations. You would also 
 see cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, and pop- 
 pies from which opium is made. Spices 
 and tropical fruits grow in southern India 
 and in the region north of Singapore. 
 
 Tea is a very important crop. You 
 would probably visit a tea plantation. 
 The tea plant thrives best on a hillside 
 where the water can drain off quickly. 
 
 The occupa- 
 tion in which 
 most of the 
 people are 
 engaged 
 
 © Ptiblishern' Photo Serrire 
 
 Fig. 274. — In the native section of Bombay, India 
 Many of the cities of the Orient have a foreign section that is modem 
 in most respects, and a native section where the natives live much as they 
 did before Europeans came. 
 
 It grows from two to four feet high, and 
 has leaves resembling those of a rose- 
 bush. The leaves are picked several 
 times a year, boys and girls often helping, 
 
268 
 
 ASIA 
 
 and are carefully dried before being 
 
 packed. 
 
 Trace in Fig. 267 the course of the 
 
 Ganges River. In what mountains does 
 
 Why the it rise? Note the great ex- 
 
 Ganges Basin ^g^^ Qf j^g i^^g-^ jl^^^ .g ^^ 
 IS the most 
 
 interesting part of India you would be 
 section to visit ^Qg^ likely to visit, for it 
 
 has the most fertile land, and over a third 
 of the immense population lives there. 
 
 more rain falls there than in almost any 
 other part of the world, the river floods 
 much of the valley, depositing over the 
 fields a rich sediment brought from the 
 mountains. Because of these facts the 
 Ganges Valley is able to support one of 
 the densest populations of the world. 
 
 You would pass hundreds of temples 
 along the banks of the river, for, as we 
 have seen, the natives believe the Ganges 
 
 'i^ I'ubiiiihtr^' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 275. — Elephants hauling logs in India 
 In India the elephant is a common beast of burden. 
 
 Near the mouth of the river you would 
 pass through a dense tropical jungle, 
 where tigers, elephants, crocodiles, poi- 
 sonous snakes, and many other dangerous . 
 animals live. Beyond the swampy low- 
 land is Calcutta, the largest city of India. 
 Locate it in Fig. 277. 
 
 You would now be traveling through 
 one of the oldest farming regions of the 
 world. Rice, tea, and many of the other 
 crops already mentioned grow here. The 
 great fertility of the region is due to the 
 Ganges River; for throughout the dry 
 season it supplies water for irrigating the 
 crops, and during the wet season, when 
 
 is sacred — probably because it is so 
 valuable in irrigating and fertilizing the 
 land. In the holy cities along the way you 
 would see many of these temples, and 
 flights of steps, thronged with pilgrims, 
 leading into the water. 
 
 1. What facts help to make traveling 
 easy in India? 2. In what season could 
 one best visit that country? Review 
 3 . Mention some of the strange questions 
 customs of the people. 4. Show the 
 prominence of agriculture, and name the 
 leading products. 5. Why is the Ganges 
 Valley the most interesting section to 
 
THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 
 
 269 
 
 visit? 6. Locate the following: India; 
 Calcutta; Himalaya Mountains; Siam; 
 French Indo-China; Singapore. 
 
 1. Read Kipling's Jungle Book. 2. On 
 a globe find which is the shortest water 
 
 route from Bombay to London. 3. What 
 important products would you expect 
 India to send to Great Brit- suggestions 
 ain? What would you expect ^^'^ ^^^* "^""^^ 
 Great Britain to send to India in return? 
 
 V. The Far East 
 1. The Chinese Republic 
 
 The Chinese are one of the oldest civi- 
 lized races. They had made great ad- 
 ^ vances long before the time of 
 
 The progress ° 
 
 of China in Christ. Therefore, it is not 
 
 early times strange that some of the most 
 
 important arts that man has ever learned 
 
 have come from them. For 
 
 instance, they learned to 
 
 make porcelain dishes long 
 
 before the Europeans; on 
 
 that account such dishes are 
 
 stiU called chinaware, even 
 
 though manufactured in the 
 
 United States or in Europe. 
 
 The Chinese invented 
 gunpowder. Our firecrack- 
 ers for the Fourth of July 
 used to come from China. 
 You may still see packages 
 of firecrackers marked in 
 Chinese characters. 
 
 They also discovered how 
 to make silk and paper, and 
 they invented the art of 
 printing. They were the 
 first to use the compass. 
 What articles have you 
 seen that probably came from China? 
 
 You would be likely to feel at home in 
 China so far as the climate and appearance 
 of the country are concerned. In Fig. 
 315 compare the latitude of China with 
 that of the United States. How much 
 
 farther south does China reach than our 
 
 most southern state, Florida? Resemblances 
 
 How much farther north than ^^^ ^^^^- 
 our most northern states? cwnaandthe 
 From this comparison it is United states 
 plain that much of China has a temper- 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 276. — A temple in Calcutta, India 
 
 What differences do you notice between these buildings and those of 
 oxu' own country? 
 
 ate climate. Perhaps it will surprise you 
 to learn that crossing China from east 
 
 to west is about as long a i. SimUarityin 
 
 journey as crossing the United ^^^^l S; 
 States. From the Chinese co^^y 
 coast you would travel westward over 
 

 V$ 
 
40 
 
 Urea 
 
 -fii^''' 
 
 
 
 ( ..''4j 
 
 /Mukden'' 
 
 
 otaro? 
 
 ^'viS^ostok Hakod^^^ 
 
 J A \P A ^ ' 
 
 Is ^'^'^HtaJf *'ancH2ng v^r--^"^~\ li 
 
 ^ -^ *^"'^/5/ 
 
 PHILIPPINE IS. 
 
 Kago&him 
 
 ^ohama 
 
 Shuri 
 
 24 
 
 THE ORIENT 
 
 Scale of statute miles 
 P 60 lUO 200 800 4<I0 S< IO 
 
 Capitals of countries ® Railroads - 
 
 118^ Longitude 
 
 East 126 '^ 
 
 Greenwich 134^ 
 
 Fig. 278 
 
272 
 
 ASIA 
 
 broad, fertile valleys resembling those 
 along our Mississippi Basin. Beyond 
 these lowlands rise vast plateaus (Fig. 
 267) which remind one of our western 
 plains; for the chief occupation is herding, 
 
 3. Differences 
 in appearance 
 of cities 
 
 Fig. 279. — A Chinese pagoda and temple 
 
 and there are some desert areas where 
 even that is impossible. Along the west- 
 ern border extend many lofty mountain 
 ranges. What great plateau lies in the 
 southwestern part of China (Figs. 267 
 and 268)? What section of great impor- 
 tance in. our country is unlike any section 
 in China? 
 
 Since the climate of China is some- 
 what like our own, we may expect many 
 2. Similarity in of the Same farm products 
 farm products ^Yisit are raised in the United 
 States. Wheat, barley, corn and other 
 grains, and beans, peas, and many vari- 
 eties of vegetables are grown in northern 
 China. In the south sugar cane, cotton, 
 and oranges are grown. Rice, of which 
 we raise only a little, is a principal crop 
 
 and one of the chief articles of food for 
 the Chinese. Among the important prod- 
 ucts which we do not produce are tea 
 and raw silk; China produces more 
 of the latter than any other country in 
 the world except Japan. 
 
 The Chinese cities and 
 towns appear very different 
 from our own. 
 In our large 
 cities, such as 
 New York or Boston, the 
 foreign quarter is likely to 
 be shabby and run-down, 
 while the native section is 
 w^ell built and well kept. In 
 the Chinese cities and ports 
 where foreigners — British, 
 French, Americans, and 
 others — are allowed to make 
 their homes, the opposite is 
 true. The foreign colonies, 
 like those of Shanghai and 
 Hongkong, consisting chief- 
 ly of Europeans, resemble American or 
 European cities very closely. The na- 
 tive sections of these cities, although they 
 have some fine homes, are generally 
 crowded and dirty, with narrow, un- 
 paved streets, and without water systems, 
 sewers, or lights. 
 
 Many of the cities are surrounded by 
 high w^alls with gates that are closed at 
 night, as was the case in European cities 
 in olden times. 
 
 The houses, seldom more than one 
 story in height, are built close together, 
 and the stores have gaudy decorations 
 and signs. The streets are crowded 
 with rickishas, or sedan chairs carried by 
 men; with men pushing wheelbarrows or 
 drawing low, heavy two-wheeled carts; 
 
THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 
 
 273 
 
 with peddlers carrying baskets slung from 
 poles across their shoulders; wdth crip- 
 ples and diseased beggars seeking alms; 
 and with women carrying children on 
 their backs. Even in Peking, the capital, 
 where there are many wide streets, most 
 of the streets are too narrow for car- 
 riages, and since most of them are not 
 paved they are worn in deep ruts, and 
 after rains are full of mud-holes. 
 
 Many of the cities are so crowded that 
 great numbers of the people live in 
 boats on the harbors and rivers. Espe- 
 cially is this the case in Canton, the larg- 
 est port of southern China. Chickens 
 are kept, and even gardens are raised, on 
 many of these boats. Locate the cities 
 mentioned on Fig. 278. 
 
 Traveling accommodations in China 
 are not so convenient as they are in this 
 country. China has very few railroads; 
 and only a few cities in the interior can 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Fig. 281. — A Chinese orchestra 
 
 The sounds made by these players are very different from what we call 
 music. Notice the strange kinds of instnunents. What, do you suppose, 
 do people of other countries think of our music? 
 
 I'lioln Ijij Elmendorf ij^ Ewim/ dalbnmy 
 
 Fig. 280. — Market scene in Hongkong 
 Study this picture with the text to the left. 
 
 be reached by rail. In Fig. 278 trace the 
 railroad lines. In what sections are they 
 
 found? What 4. Differences 
 important cities ^^ ways of travel 
 
 do they connect ? Between 
 Chinese seaports and river 
 ports, travel is generally by 
 water, and good accommo- 
 dations can be secured on 
 the larger river boats. Since 
 the rivers are open to navi- 
 gation far up toward their 
 sources, the easiest way of 
 getting into the interior is 
 by boat, especially on the 
 Yangtze River. Trace this 
 river on the map. 
 
 Canals connect many of 
 the rivers with each other, 
 and also many of the cities. 
 Find the Grand Canal on 
 the map and tell what cities 
 
274 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Fig. 282. — One of the gates through the walls of Peking 
 
 Many cities of China have walls similar to the one here shown. This 
 wall is from forty to fifty feet high and about sixty feet thick at the bottom. 
 It is made of clay and plaster faced by brick. It was built to keep out rob- 
 bers from the desert to the north. Do you think it would keep out an army 
 with heavy cannon? 
 
 it connects. Poles, oars, and sails take the 
 place of steam, and traveling is naturally 
 very slow. 
 
 Chinese roads are greatly inferior to 
 ours. Most of them are narrow and in bad 
 repair, so that carriages 
 usually cannot pass over 
 them. In northern China, 
 especially in Manchuria and 
 about Peking, there are 
 some good wagon roads 
 over which people travel in 
 two-wheeled covered carts, 
 drawn by donkeys or small 
 horses. 
 
 Across the desert of Gobi 
 travel is usually by camel, 
 and it is not unusual to see 
 in the streets of Peking 
 camel trains bearing loads 
 of grain or passengers from 
 Mongolia. Fig. 283. 
 
 Traveling ])y wheelbar- 
 row is common over the 
 narrow footpaths of the 
 interior. Pack horses and 
 donkeys are also often 
 used (Fig. 283), especially 
 in mountainous parts of the 
 country. 
 
 Travel by automobile is 
 not possible except in the 
 neighborhood of the large 
 cities, where many Ameri- 
 can machines may be seen. 
 The river plains of east- 
 ern China are more thickly 
 populated than 
 any other region 
 in the world. In- 
 deed, if we do not count the 
 desert and mountain re- 
 gions, China is almost as thickly settled 
 as the state of Texas would be if all the 
 people of the United States lived there. 
 It is, therefore, no wonder that the Chinese 
 farms are small. We should hardly call 
 
 S. Differences 
 in appearance 
 of farms 
 
 © Brown Bros. 
 
 Traveling by donkey through a Chinese village 
 
THE CHINESE REPUBLIC 
 
 275 
 
 them farms at all, for the majority have 
 only about two acres of ground. On this 
 area must be grown all the different things 
 required to support one family. Thus you 
 might see a flooded half-acre of rice, for 
 instance, with beans growing on ridges on 
 the sides, and with perhaps a few mul- 
 berry trees on raised ground in one corner. 
 
 The methods of farming are also very 
 different from ours. Most of the work is 
 done by hand, with the aid of crude im- 
 plements. Why can little farm machinery 
 be employed? Some of the land is irri- 
 gated and water is pumped or carried 
 from the rivers and canals not only to 
 land of moderate slope, as in the United 
 States, but also from terrace to terrace, 
 to the very tops of the hills. 
 
 Chinese children are brought up very 
 differently from children in our country. 
 
 6. Differences ^^^^ of the iustrUCtioU of 
 
 in training of children is given them by 
 
 children ° -^ 
 
 their parents and they are 
 taught very thoroughly to obey and 
 respect their parents and superiors. 
 
 Until recently there were no public 
 schools such as we have and only the 
 well-to-do parents could afford to pay 
 tuition for private instruction. When- 
 ever parents were able they sent their 
 boys, and sometimes girls, to some private 
 or mission school, to learn to read and 
 write the simplest Chinese characters. 
 
 At the present time China is organizing 
 a good public school system for both 
 boys and girls, and there are many good 
 public elementary schools in the cities. 
 In nearly every city and town there are 
 also excellent mission schools where Chi- 
 nese cliildren are being educated. 
 
 One of the chief reasons for these differ- 
 ences between China and the United 
 
 States is found in the religion of the 
 Chinese. They have believed that what- 
 ever their ancestors did, they 
 
 , ■, r-i- ii • p ji Some of the 
 
 must do. hmce their fathers reasons for 
 had no railroads, steamboats, these differ- 
 or automobiles, they have 
 wanted none themselves. Thus their 
 progress has been checked, and they 
 have been kept from adopting European 
 and American ways of living. 
 
 Fig. 284. 
 
 ) E. M. Newman 
 
 Chinese children of Canton 
 
 Another reason why the Chinese have 
 until recently made but little progress 
 has been the lack of education. The 
 Chinese have been unwilling to learn 
 about new things. Until recently they 
 had never traveled much abroad, nor 
 allowed foreigners to visit them. In fact, 
 they have looked down upon foreigners 
 because they represented new customs. 
 
 A third reason has been the poor 
 government of China, which was long a 
 monarchy. China 's vast area, with many 
 
276 
 
 ASIA 
 
 different groups of people, has made it 
 very difficult to govern. How does it 
 compare in area with the United States? 
 It has at times been difficult to prevent 
 wars between the various provinces. 
 
 A few years ago, 
 however, China became 
 a republic, and since 
 that time the govern- 
 ment has constantly 
 improved. The Chi- 
 nese are losing their 
 dislike for new customs 
 and methods of work 
 and are studying those 
 of Europe and America. 
 
 1. Tell about the 
 progress of China in 
 Review early times. 
 
 questions 2. HoW doeS 
 
 China resemble the 
 United States in cli- 
 mate and appearance? 
 
 3. In farm products? 
 
 4. How do the Chinese 
 cities differ from ours? 
 
 5. The ways of travel? 6. The farms? 
 7. State some facts about the education 
 of the children. 8. Locate Peking; 
 Shanghai; Hongkong; Canton; Hankow; 
 the Hwang River; the Yangtze River. 
 
 1. Find out about the great wall of 
 China. 2. How can you distinguish a 
 Suggestions Chinese from other men? 
 for extra 3. Why shoxild China have 
 ^°^ an even greater variety of 
 
 farm products than the United States? 
 
 4. How would you expect the Grand 
 Canal to be of importance to Peking? 
 
 5. How might railroads help greatly to 
 prevent the terrible famines that some- 
 
 Fig. 285. — Japanese girl 
 Notice the idol. What do you think the girl 
 is doing? 
 
 times occur in China? 6. Write a letter 
 about a trip up the Yangtze River. 7. 
 Why are nearly all the important cities 
 of China in its eastern section? 8. De- 
 scribe the costumes of the Chinese. 
 
 2. The Japanese Empire 
 
 The best way to 
 reach Japan from the 
 United States is to take 
 a ship at 
 
 Q j-y How to reach 
 
 ban l^ran- japan from 
 
 Cisco or the United 
 
 rt 1 States 
 
 feeattle and 
 
 cross the Pacific. If 
 one desires to go direct- 
 ly to the capital and 
 largest city, Tokyo, one 
 travels by steamer from 
 Seattle to Yokohama, 
 the port of Tokyo. 
 This route is the short- 
 est and quickest way 
 to cross the Pacific. On 
 Fig. 315 compare the 
 length of this trip with that from New 
 York to London. By taking a steamer 
 at San Francisco one can visit the Ha- 
 waiian Islands on the way. Trace both 
 routes in Fig. 315. 
 
 For more than 200 years before 1854, 
 foreigners were shut out of Japan and the 
 Japanese did not go abroad. Great changes 
 They wanted to have nothing in Japan in 
 
 , 1 • i 1 i 1 i • recent years 
 
 to do With other countries. 
 But in that year they began to trade with 
 us, and shortly afterward Japan was 
 opened freely to all foreigners and the 
 Japanese themselves began to go abroad. 
 Since the Japanese have begun to exchange 
 
THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 
 
 277 
 
 ideas with other countries, a great change 
 has taken place in Japan. It has adopt- 
 ed many foreign customs, introduced 
 modern machinery, built railroads, and 
 made many improvements. 
 
 Even the Japanese government has 
 been changed; it is now patterned very 
 much after that of Germany before the 
 World War. Modern ideas on war have 
 been especially copied by the Japanese, 
 who have taken pride in developing a 
 powerful army and navy. Indeed, the 
 Japanese navy now ranks among the 
 largest in the world. 
 
 One of the causes of Japan's desire for 
 military strength is her necessity for new 
 territory on account of her 
 dense population. Because 
 of this need, Japan has ad- 
 ded extensively to her ter- 
 ritory since 1895. In that 
 year the island of Formosa 
 was obtained from China. 
 Later, after defeating Russia 
 in war, Japan received im- 
 portant rights in Manchuria 
 and later got possession of 
 the large peninsula of Korea, 
 now called Chosen (Fig. 278), 
 just west of the principal 
 island of Japan. Recently it 
 has taken over Germany's 
 claim to the Shantung Pen- 
 insula in China and man}^ 
 islands north of the equator 
 in the Pacific. Thus it has 
 gained very important pos- 
 sessions on the continent 
 and in the neighboring ocean regions. 
 
 In the great change that has taken 
 place in Japan in recent years, there are 
 many old customs, ways of doing things, 
 
 Interesting 
 mixtures of 
 the old and 
 the new in 
 Japan 
 
 and ways of thinking about things, that 
 the Japanese have not changed. The 
 traveler in Japan will see, 
 therefore, interesting mixtures 
 of the old and the new. Wide 
 differences are noticed in 
 methods of transportation. In 
 the cities electric cars are filled with 
 people as in our own large cities; and at 
 the same time men largely take the place 
 of wagons in carrying heavy burdens. 
 Rickishas, drawn by men, take the places 
 of automobiles and carriages. 
 
 At the hotel the visitor notices a sign 
 stating that accommodations are provid- 
 ed both for Japanese and for foreigners. 
 
 © E. M. Nexoman 
 
 Fig. 286. — Threshing rice in Japan 
 Rice grows on stalks and must be threshed like wheat. The grain is 
 being separated here by pulling the heads of the straw through slits in a piece 
 of metal. Why do these Japanese not have threshing machines as we do in 
 our country? 
 
 and he is likely to spend an unpleasant 
 night if he forgets that he is a "foreigner" 
 in Japan. The Japanese have no tables, 
 chairs, or beds, and little other furniture 
 
278 
 
 ASIA 
 
 J 
 
 in their rooms. They sit on mats and 
 sleep on thin mattresses laid on the floor. 
 The houses are small, generally with 
 thatched roofs. The windows, doors and 
 
 Yet many families draw the silk from the 
 cocoon by old-fashioned methods, by 
 hand. 
 
 Small fields, or paddies, of growing rice, 
 
 Fig. 287. — Japanese tempie 
 
 Newman 
 
 partitions are usually made of decorated 
 panels or screens. 
 
 A visitor finds modern paper factories 
 and cotton mills such as we have; and at 
 the same time thousands of families manu- 
 facturing paper by hand in their homes, 
 while spinning and weaving are carried on 
 in many of the households. There are 
 great silk factories; for Japan leads the 
 world in silk production. A large part of 
 all our silk comes from Japan, and Japa- 
 nese of nearly all classes wear silk garments. 
 
 surrounded by irrigation ditches, are to 
 be seen in almost every valley. Rice is 
 the most common food and is often eaten 
 with fish. Until recent years meat and 
 milk, butter and cheese were almost un- 
 known. Dairying is now beginning tc 
 be introduced. 
 
 1 . Describe two routes from the United 
 States to Japan. 2. Why has Japan 
 changed greatly in recent years? 3. What 
 are some of the changes? 4. Why is 
 
THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 
 
 279 
 
 Suggestions 
 for extra 
 work 
 
 States? 2. 
 
 there a mixture of the old 
 and the new in Japan? 5. 
 Review Give examples 
 
 questions ^f the old and 
 
 the new that a visitor in 
 
 Japan might expect to see. 
 
 1. Can you show in Fig. 
 
 315 how one might reach 
 
 Tokyo by going 
 
 eastward from 
 
 the United 
 
 Make a collec- 
 tion of Japanese articles 
 such as fans, paper napkins, 
 silk, etc. 3. How does 
 Japanese printing differ 
 from ours? 4. Write a com- 
 position on Japanese chil- 
 dren, describing their clothing, their work, 
 and their play. 5. If you were to dine in 
 a Japanese home, what would you expect 
 to find on the table? 
 
 1. Does the mainland of Asia extend farther 
 north than that of North America? 2. In what 
 respects are the Lena and Macken- 
 zie rivers like each other? 3. In 
 what respect do Tibet and Bolivia 
 resemble each other? 4. What 
 oceans bound Asia on three sides? 5. Show that 
 the chief highlands of Europe are an extension 
 westward of those of Asia. 6. What countries 
 
 Map 
 
 questions 
 on Asia 
 
 Fig. 288. — A small village in Korea 
 
 The Koreans resemble the Chinese in many respects. What do you 
 think the two persons at the stream are doing? Locate Korea. 
 
 of Asia are chiefly lowland countries? 7. What 
 countries of Asia are chiefly highland countries? 
 8. What countries contain large areas of both 
 highlands and lowlands? 9. Locate the Ganges 
 River; the Yangtze River; the Hwang River. 
 
 10. Does the latitude of most of the large cities 
 of Asia correspond more closely to that of the 
 large cities of North America or of Europe? 
 
 11. Locate the capitals and largest cities of 
 India; China; Japan. Is the capital always the 
 largest city? 12, Name four important penin- 
 sulas of Asia. 13. Two important seas. 14. W^hat 
 possession of the United States lies southeast of 
 Asia? 
 
PART VI. AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, 
 THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 
 
 I. Australia 
 
 AND 
 
 When the EngUsh took possession of 
 Australia over a century ago, they found 
 strange plants, animals, and 
 ^hrAusS people there. Many of the 
 used to be plants Were unlike those in 
 littie^raiue ^^Y other part of the world 
 and were of little use. Giant 
 trees, nearly as large as those of our 
 Western States, were found growing along 
 the eastern coast, and in the forests were 
 great tree ferns. Part of the interior was 
 covered by a low bush having hard, 
 prickly leaves, and often growing so 
 densely that it was difficult to pass 
 through it. 
 
 Wm«.Ei>(,Co.,N.ir. 
 
 Fig. 292. — Annual rainfall in Australia 
 
 None of the domestic animals used to 
 produce food or to carry goods, which 
 are common in other continents, was 
 found there. The largest animal was the 
 
 kangaroo, which instead of running on 
 all fours jumps along on its hind legs, 
 using its tail for support as shown in 
 Fig. 293. 
 
 © Keystone-Burton Holmes 
 
 Fig. 293 — Kangaroos 
 
 Moreover, the native people were a 
 very low^ class of savages, whom it was 
 difficult to teach. 
 
 Chiefly because of these conditions, 
 Australia seemed to be of little impor- 
 tance. At first it was used by England 
 chiefly as a prison colony, to which 
 criminals were sent. It was a very secure 
 prison, too, for there was little danger 
 that a man sent there would soon reach 
 home again. 
 
 As the continent came to be better 
 known, however, people began to go there 
 of their own accord to live. Now Australia 
 has over 5,000,000 inhabitants. Com- 
 
 283 
 
284 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 pare its area and population with those 
 
 of the United States (p. 310). Most of 
 
 the white inhabitants live 
 
 Where the j^ the southem and eastern 
 
 present popu- ^ , 
 
 lation is found portions. Let US See why. 
 and reasons r^^^ temperature is not the 
 
 for this dis- f 1 • 1 
 
 tribution chief reason, for that is pleas- 
 
 ant enough in a large part of 
 Australia. Prove this by means of the 
 latitude shown on the map (Fig. 289). 
 What portion is in the tropical zone 
 (Fig. 289)? 
 
 The great difficulty is the lack of rain, 
 which is due to the location of the moun- 
 tains and the direction of the winds. The 
 larger part of Australia is a low plateau, 
 with the chief mountain range on the 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Seriicc 
 
 Fig. 294. — Tropical foliage in the mountains in the northern part of 
 
 Australia 
 Can a similar scene be found in America? 
 
 eastern side. Point out these mountains 
 on Fig. 289. 
 
 The prevailing winds come from the 
 southeast, so that they must blow over 
 these mountains before reaching the 
 
 interior. This causes heavy rainfall on 
 the eastern slopes; but as the winds con- 
 tinue on toward the interior, they become 
 very dry. At a distance of 350 miles 
 from the coast, it is so dry that farming 
 without irrigation is impossible. Still 
 farther west there are extensive deserts. 
 If 3^ou examine Fig. 289 a^ou will see 
 signs of the desert, for some of the rivers 
 flow into lakes that have no outlet. These 
 lakes, therefore, are salty, like the Great 
 Salt Lake of Utah. There is so little rain- 
 fall west of the mountain range that the 
 Murray River becomes smaller toward 
 its mouth, and its chief tributary, the 
 Darling, dries up almost entirely in its 
 lower course. Locate these rivers. 
 
 When it is remembered 
 that the northern part of 
 Australia has a tropical 
 climate, and that the central 
 and western parts are arid 
 or desert, it is easy to under- 
 stand why most of the 
 people Uve in the southeast- 
 ern part. Most of the good 
 farmland is found there. 
 The chief river, the Murray, 
 is there also, and so are the 
 principal cities. In Fig. 290 
 name four of the largest. 
 
 Since the plentiful rainfall 
 in the southeastern section 
 favors agriculture, the Eng- 
 lish settlers have imported 
 to this region many of the 
 plants and animals common 
 at home. The climate is like that of our 
 southeastern states, and many of the 
 same crops are grown. Wheat is the 
 largest crop, for it can be grown not 
 only on the eastern slopes of the moun- 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 285 
 
 tains, but, with the aid of irrigation, on 
 the western slopes also. Along the coast, 
 where the rainfall is greatest, 
 STinTut^ced corn, cotton, sugar cane, and 
 occupations of tobacco flourish, as well as 
 thepeope fjuits and vegetables such as 
 1. Importance of arc raiscd in our 
 
 fanning in well- / x 
 
 watered portion OWU COUntry. In 
 
 Victoria, in the 
 south, there is excellent 
 pasturage, and dairying is 
 an important industry. In 
 the drier region about the 
 mouth of the Murray River 
 there are large vineyards, 
 the grapes being grown for 
 raisins or to make wine. 
 Tropical fruits flourish to- 
 ward the north, in the torrid 
 zone. 
 
 West of the mountain 
 ranges is a vast plain, having 
 too little rainfall 
 for the cultiva- 
 tion of crops but 
 enough to pro- 
 grass. One of the greatest 
 pasture regions in the world lies between 
 these mountains and the deserts in the 
 central and western portions. Vast grass- 
 lands stretch for many miles, varied only 
 with scattered trees or patches of bare 
 sand and rock. 
 
 Cattle are raised on the western slopes 
 of the mountains, particularly in Queens- 
 land, where the warm, moist cUmate af- 
 fords good pasturage. Sheep thrive on 
 coarser grass than do cattle, and beyond 
 the cattle ranges, up to the very edge of 
 the deserts, there are great sheep ranches. 
 New South Wales, south of Queensland, 
 has half of the sheep in Australia. 
 
 One great difficulty is that what Uttle 
 rain there is comes very irregularly, and 
 droughts often last for long periods, 
 sometimes causing millions of sheep to 
 die of thirst or starvation. Australia has 
 long been known as one of the greatest of 
 
 2. Why sheep 
 and cattle rais- 
 ing is the prin- 
 cipal industry 
 
 duce good 
 
 Consult Fig. 
 probably taken. 
 
 Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 295. — Sorting wool for shipment 
 289 to find the part of Australia in which this picture was 
 
 sheep countries, and nearly a sixth of all 
 the sheep in the world are raised there. 
 
 Australia has become of great value to 
 England as a source of food. Recall some 
 of the reasons why England 
 
 Why Austra- 
 
 is very dependent on her ua is now one 
 colonies for food (p. 208). of the most 
 
 r» 1 important 
 
 Wheat has long been one of the parts of the 
 chief exports to England. The p^^*^"^^""" 
 fast refrigerator ships of the 
 present day have made it possible to 
 send perishable foods all the way to Eng- 
 land. Thus a large portion of the frozen 
 beef and mutton consumed in that coun- 
 try comes from AustraHa. Butter, cheese, 
 and other dairy products are shipped in 
 
286 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 296. ^Bringing wheat to a railroad station in Australia 
 Many Australian ranches are fifty or more miles from a railroad. This 
 wheat will probably be shipped from Sydney to Europe. 
 
 large quantities, as are also vegetables 
 and fresh fruits. 
 
 Important raw materials used in English 
 manufactures also come from Australia. 
 From what you have already read, what 
 
 important textile material 
 would you expect AustraUa 
 to export? Indeed, Aus- 
 tralian wool is considered 
 the best in the world. As 
 might be expected, many of 
 the hides used in leather 
 manufacture in England 
 come from that continent. 
 A large variety of min- 
 eral resources has been 
 found since the continent 
 has become better known. 
 There are valuable deposits 
 of silver, copper, tin, coal, 
 and other minerals. Gold 
 is the most valuable min- 
 eral, however, and Australia 
 has become one of the chief gold-produc- 
 ing countries in the world. In Fig. 290 
 locate Coolgardie, in the western desert, 
 where the most important gold mines 
 are located. 
 
 II. New Zealand 
 
 Why a visit to 
 New Zealand 
 would be en- 
 joyable 
 
 In Fig. 289 locate the two large islands 
 of New Zealand, lying southeast of Aus- 
 tralia. Estimate their dis- 
 tance from Australia. If you 
 visited New Zealand you 
 would find that it is a farming 
 country Uke AustraHa, and that similar 
 products are raised. But it has a pleas- 
 anter climate, for it is cooler and has 
 more rainfall. Therefore, there are no 
 deserts in New Zealand as there are in 
 Australia, and there are fewer obstacles 
 in the way of successful farming. 
 
 A visitor would probably enjoy the 
 scenery most, for it is especially fine. The 
 surface of the islands is very rugged, and 
 
 there are many lofty mountain peaks. 
 Heavy snows fall upon the higher moun- 
 tains; from these snow fields large gla- 
 ciers descend the mountain valleys. The 
 snow-capped mountains and fiords are as 
 beautiful as those of Norway or of the 
 "Inside Passage" along the northwest- 
 ern coast of North America (p. 143). 
 
 There are also some remarkable vol- 
 canic regions where the ground itself is 
 merely a crust beneath which boil vast 
 quantities of liquid mud. Over this re- 
 gion rise clouds of steam, and there are 
 many hot springs, lakes of boiling water, 
 and geysers more magnificent than those 
 of the Yellowstone Park (p. 134). 
 
THE EAST INDIES 
 
 287 
 
 Why the East 
 Indies have 
 long been of 
 great impor- 
 tance 
 
 III. The East Indies 
 
 Between Australia and Asia are some 
 very important islands. Most of them 
 are small. Java, however, is 
 about the size of the State of 
 New York, and Borneo is 
 about six times as large. What 
 other large islands do you 
 find in Fig. 290? All these islands to- 
 gether form a group, or archipelago, 
 kno^vn as the East Indies. 
 
 It was these islands, as well as India 
 and the Malay Peninsula, that Columbus 
 was trying to reach when he discovered 
 America (p. 35). He undertook his voy- 
 age in order to find a short and easy 
 route by which to bring to Europe the 
 valuable products that had long been 
 coming from the Indies. 
 
 The climate and products of these 
 islands resemble those of the West Indies 
 in many ways, although the former have 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 b3 
 
 
 ^- ■ ^^W^^jT A ' '->■ 
 
 
 K 
 
 V:.. %- , 
 
 ^ > 
 
 
 !>■«,. 
 
 Fig. 297. — A plow used by the natives of Java 
 Even this crude plow is far better than the wooden plow used in many 
 backward countries. 
 
 ©Keystone View Co., Int 
 
 Fig. 298. — Mt. Cook, New Zealand 
 Locate this mountain on Fig. 289. What is its height? 
 Explain the dense tree growth by reference to Fig. 292. 
 
 higher temperatures and more moisture. 
 
 Fig. 292 shows how heavy the rainfall is. 
 In this tropical region grow 
 extensive forests containing 
 many kinds of valuable 
 woods. Most of the world's 
 supply of rubber comes 
 from this region. Unlike 
 the rubber trees of South 
 America, which are scat- 
 tered through the forest, 
 (p. 192), those of this 
 region are raised in huge 
 plantations. Thus the rub- 
 ber can be more easily and 
 cheaply secured. You have 
 probably heard of Java 
 coffee. Tea, indigo, rice, 
 sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, 
 and grain are also impor- 
 tant products. Most of the 
 
288 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 world's spices used to come from these 
 islands; on that account they were once 
 known as the Spice Islands. They still 
 supply many spices. From the very 
 earliest times, too, they have been noted 
 for their precious stones. 
 
 So valuable have been these products 
 that European nations have eagerly taken 
 
 possession of this region. England, as 
 usual, has a part. Point it out (Fig. 290). 
 This time, however, she has not obtained 
 the lion's share. That was secured 
 many years ago by the little country of 
 The Netherlands. Name the large islands 
 that are controlled, wholly or in part, by 
 the Dutch. 
 
 IV. The Smaller Islands of the Pacific 
 
 ■< K /- 
 
 Fig. 299. Workers in rubber in the East Indies 
 The simpler processes in the manufacture of rubber are carried on near 
 the sources of the supply. These natives of Sumatra are drying and fold- 
 ing sheets of crude rubber for shipment. 
 
 In Fig. 290 you will see that there are 
 many small islands in the Pacific. Hun- 
 dreds of others are too small 
 to be shown on the map. 
 Many of the islands are the 
 tops of mountains rising from 
 the bottom of the ocean, while 
 others are merely coral reefs. Al- 
 though most of them lie in the tropics, 
 they are too small to be of great value, 
 
 The great 
 number of 
 islands in the 
 Pacific, and 
 their little 
 value 
 
 and little is heard of them. 
 In addition to the Ha- 
 waiian Islands, several 
 other islands in the Pacific 
 are possessions of the 
 United States. Give their 
 names and locate them on 
 the map (Fig. 315). These 
 islands are used mainly as 
 coaling stations on the voy- 
 age across the Pacific. 
 
 One of the largest islands 
 is New Guinea, just north 
 of Australia, which is not 
 usually classed as one of the 
 East Indies. Among what 
 three nations is it divided? 
 Fierce savages inhabit its 
 forests, and very few Euro- 
 peans live there. 
 
 Among the smaller groups 
 are the Fiji Islands. Find these. To 
 what country do they belong? What two 
 groups lie west of the Fiji Islands? 
 
 1. Why was Australia formerly thought 
 to be of little value? 2. Why is most of 
 the population in the south- Review 
 eastern portion? 3. Why is questions 
 grazing the principal industry of Aus- 
 tralia? 4. What are the chief differences 
 
THE SMALLER ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 
 
 289 
 
 between New Zealand and Australia? 5. 
 What are the chief islands of the East 
 Indies? 6. What are their chief products? 
 1. How could you reach Australia from 
 where you Hve? 2. If you were to go to an 
 Suggestions AustraHan city to live, would 
 for extra you expect to find a strange 
 ^°^ language and strange cus- 
 
 toms? Why? 3. WTiat other coun- 
 tries besides Australia are especially 
 noted for cattle and sheep? 4. Read 
 about the trouble caused by rabbits 
 that were imported to that continent. 
 5. Find out about some of the peculiar na- 
 tive plants and animals. 6. Find what 
 
 spices are used in cooking at your home. 
 7. Find out about the eucah^ptus tree, 
 which has been transplanted to Califor- 
 nia. 8. Write the life history of the rub- 
 ber in a comb or an eraser. 
 
 L Australia is in the same latitude as what part 
 of South America? 2. Of Africa? 3. What unin- 
 habited continent ia about the size of 
 Australia? 4. Australia is opposite ^*P l"6s- 
 what part of the world? Answer this Australasia 
 question by the use of a globe. 5. 
 What provinces of Australia are chiefly lowlands? 
 6. Which province contains many large lakes? 7. 
 What tropical island lies north of Australia? 8. 
 Compare distance between Australia and New Zea- 
 land with that between New York and Liveroool. 
 
3s 
 
 Fig. 300 
 
PART VII. AFRICA 
 
 Why Africa is 
 called the 
 Dark Conti- 
 nent 
 
 Probably one reason why Africa is 
 called the "dark continent" is the fact 
 that it is the home of the black 
 man. The first negro slaves 
 brought to North America 
 came from that continent. 
 Another reason is that until recently 
 we have known little about it. It is one 
 of the oldest continents that history tells 
 us about, and it lies so near Europe that 
 the two almost join at the 
 Strait of Gibraltar; yet it is 
 the least known of all the 
 larger continents. 
 
 There are several reasons 
 why so Uttle has been known 
 about Africa. 
 In the first place, 
 there is a vast 
 desert south of 
 the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea (Fig. 
 302). It extends east and 
 west across the continent 
 from the Atlantic Ocean to 
 the Red Sea; and from 
 north to south it is more 
 than 1,000 miles wide. 
 
 This vast region, most of 
 which is called the Sahara 
 Desert (Fig. 302), is very 
 difficult to cross. It has no 
 roads or railways, and the only way to 
 travel over it is on camels. The water- 
 ing places, or oases, are usually many 
 miles apart, so that both camels and men 
 
 may perish from thirst. Frightful sand- 
 storms sometimes arise, continuing for 
 hours and even days; in these the sand 
 is drifted about by the winds, filling the 
 air and sometimes even burying the cara- 
 vans. If these perils are escaped, there 
 is still the danger of attack from the 
 fierce nomads who live in the desert and 
 who rob the caravans, often showing no 
 mercy to travelers. 
 
 Why so little 
 has been 
 known about 
 Africa 
 
 1. How the 
 desert has 
 checked travel 
 
 ^a^' 
 
 Fig. 301.— The Great Pyramid and the Sphinx 
 
 The pyramids were built thousands of years ago for use as tombs of the 
 royal families of Egypt. What indications do you see that this is a desert 
 region? 
 
 It is not strange, therefore, that Eu- 
 ropeans have failed to become well ac- 
 quainted with Africa by entering it from 
 the north. 
 
 291 
 
Fig. 302 
 
A. 
 
 Bay of Bis 
 
 [JO 
 
 M R./h / 
 
 Strait of (; 
 
 ... JK- 
 
 
 7V CANARY 
 /V"fSjHl».) 
 
 Blanco 
 202. 
 
 ■^ Tropic of Cancer 
 
 S A I! 
 
 Gabca 
 
 A' 
 
 U- 50 
 
 
 f V: 
 
 1 A 
 
 "%<*v" 
 
 K 
 
 EST a'fRIC A^gW 
 
 C,Palma» 
 
 GULF 
 
 S? 
 
 \ 
 
 ERNAN. 
 
 OF CUINEi 
 
 Equator 
 
 KAMKRUN 
 
 iV r 
 
 CairoT^uc 
 
 ; E G Y i?^T 
 
 <<) 
 
 ■-/--[- 
 
 ^ 
 
 f- Khartum; 
 
 ' ANGLO-EGYPT 
 
 SUDA 
 
 •x 
 
 . r 
 
 'i ..->*" 
 
 .--<;:. 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 iKdls Abeb i 
 
 V 
 
 PHOT. ^ 
 
 KFNIA COLON 
 
 I s 
 
 yihortS "v. [ 
 
 "T^ A (a>»T , -y^ 
 
 TANOAnVjIvA 0EMBA 1. 
 
 KMoKY 'Sp'ii <-s Salam 
 
 "iHidlLA. J^-jv,-, ^-^^.^i 
 
 ~, (/'or)«Bu/se) ^ij 
 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 POLITICAL MAP 
 
 Scale of statute milea 
 EOO 1000 
 
 » ' t \-,' NORTHERN / ><' «K ' i^'-^"-^, .- •'VWi 
 
 %. \ I K if O. |/>-f^-;|WomT^v^ -Mozambique ^l* 
 
 1 "^ SOUTH wK"s;f~t ^~^~ ;^, - ' r r~^ 
 
 y^'<iiMtl Banc's ■■ '■""'•■"°''"'-' -" '' 
 
 rliOTECTORATK ,' 
 . Wirt 0/ I K"'" 
 
 -, Un\on\of \ D( 
 
 ^ hlohanncsbura.. 
 
 rr J" ', MAURITIUS I 
 
 X'p!/l REUNION ija 
 
 •Tropic^ pf- Capricorn 
 
 Railroads 
 
 Id tJl<eratioD 
 
 Caravan routes 
 
 iTupiTRlt 
 
 Capitals of independent countries 9 
 Ci^pitals of foreign possessions 3 
 
 Cape To,.aT 
 C. c/ Goo J Hose- 
 
 urenco Maraues 
 
 - Elizabeth 
 
 5 E^GA*vts& C9:,N 
 
 20" Longitude 10^ 
 
 10' Longitude 20 
 
 40° Gre^nu'icA 50° 
 
 Fig. 303 
 
294 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 2. Why the rivers 
 have not favored 
 exploration 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 304. — Along the Nile River in Egypt 
 Two of the pjrramids may be seen in the distance. The palm trees indi- 
 cate a warm climate. The camel driver is waiting for tourists, many of 
 whom visit Egypt. 
 
 One might expect the large rivers to 
 
 offer a good means of reaching the inte- 
 rior. Trace the Nile in Eg^^t 
 (Fig. 302); the Niger and 
 Kongo on the west coast of 
 
 Africa; and the Zambezi in the south. 
 
 Notice how far these rivers extend into 
 
 the continent. If they could be navigated 
 
 far up toward their sources, as our Hud- 
 son and Mississippi rivers are, they would 
 
 make excellent highways to the interior; 
 
 but this cannot be done, for all of them 
 
 have rapids and falls in their lower 
 
 courses. 
 
 The reason for these falls is that the 
 
 interior of Africa, like that of both Mexico 
 
 and Spain (Figs. 58 and 247), is mainly a 
 
 plateau, whose elevation is from a quarter 
 
 to a half a mile above the level of the sea 
 
 (Fig. 302). In descending from this 
 
 plateau, the rivers tumble in cataracts 
 
 and falls. 
 
 One of the largest water- 
 falls is Victoria Falls in the 
 upper Zambezi River (Fig. 
 302). The Nile also has 
 several rapids and cataracts ; 
 and there is a great cataract 
 in the Kongo. Thus the 
 rivers have been of little use 
 for exploring the continent. 
 
 A third reason why we 
 know so little about Africa 
 
 is its Unhealth- 3 ^hedanger 
 
 f U 1 climate. o^ *e climate 
 . to foreigners 
 
 Notice where 
 the equator crosses the con- 
 tinent. From this you see 
 that most of Africa is in the 
 tropical zone, and that only 
 the northern and southern 
 parts are in the temperate 
 zones. Does it extend into the frigid zone? 
 
 ©Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 305. — Railway bridge over the Zambezi River 
 This picture reminds one of the Niagara Falls. 
 
AFRICA 
 
 295 
 
 In this tropical region the 
 low coast lands have too hot 
 and damp a climate for white 
 men. There is much 
 malaria, as well as other 
 diseases that thrive in a hot, 
 damp climate. Generally, 
 therefore, Europeans can 
 live with comfort and safety 
 only upon the high land of 
 the interior. This fact has 
 helped to keep foreigners 
 out of Africa; for settle- 
 ments in new countries are 
 usually first made along the 
 coast. In Africa, it is dan- 
 gerous even to cross the 
 narrow strip of coastland to 
 reach the highlands. 
 
 A part of central Africa, 
 where the rainfall is very heavy (Fig. 
 307), is covered with a dense forest like 
 that in the Amazon Basin. This forest 
 
 Fig. 307. — Annual rainfall in Africa 
 
 Fig. 306. — Interior of the old palace of the rulers of Morocco 
 This reminds one strongly of the interior of the Alhambra (Fig. 249) 
 Both were occupied by the Moors. 
 
 extends north and south for a full thou- 
 sand miles, and is very difficult to cross. 
 There are many wild animals in the 
 forest and on the open plains to the north 
 and south of it. Among these ^^ ^ 
 
 , . 4. The eflfect of 
 
 are the lion, elephant, rhinoc- native ufe on 
 
 1 . , 1 • exploration 
 
 eros, hippopotamus, and gi- 
 raffe, as well as many snakes. Some of 
 these animals, like the lion, are very fierce 
 and dangerous. 
 
 Another difficulty comes from the great 
 numbers of savage black men, or negroes, 
 many of whom are dangerous to meet. 
 For centuries the negroes have been 
 seized and carried away as slaves to vari- 
 ous parts of the world. Even today the 
 Arabs seize many of them for that pur- 
 pose. Such treatment has not helped to 
 make them friendly to white men. 
 
 If you traveled along the Mediterra- 
 nean coast from Morocco to Tripoli (Fig. 
 303) you would see some very different 
 
 WlM.Ei.g.Co.,N.Y. 
 
296 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 sights from those in the European 
 countries on the Mediterranean. These 
 cities have a strange appear- 
 ^J^aby ance with their white, flat- 
 traveling over- topped Moorish buildings 
 the'^Mediter- (Fig 306) and the domes of 
 ranean coast mosoues, or churches, rising 
 
 from Morocco , ^, ^y. , , 
 
 to Tripoli above them. You would soon 
 
 find, however, that more of 
 
 them are poorly built and that there is 
 
 more dirt than in the European cities on 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 308. — The temple of Karaak, in Egypt 
 Modern workmen are shown here repairing this very ancient temple to 
 keep it from further decay. Note, on the right, carving by ancient artists. 
 The signs in the upper right-hand comer are ancient Egyptian writing. 
 
 the Mediterranean coast. In the bazaar 
 or market place you would meet Moors, 
 Arabs, Berbers, Hebrews, negroes, and 
 some Europeans. Many of the people 
 are poor and ignorant. 
 
 Much the same crops are raised along 
 this coast as on the north shore of the 
 Mediterranean; you would see wheat, 
 olives, figs, dates, and other fruits. But 
 the methods of farming are very different, 
 
 having scarcely improved in the last 
 2,000 years. In the interior, on the south- 
 ern slopes of the Atlas Mountains, the 
 country becomes drier, and herding is the 
 chief occupation. On the southern bor- 
 der of these countries is the Sahara. 
 There, in some of the towns, you would 
 see caravans starting for oases far out in 
 the desert. 
 
 These people are so backward partly 
 because their Mohammedan religion 
 teaches that everything 
 should be done as their 
 fathers did it before them. 
 Hence they have opposed 
 changes. For a long time 
 it was even dangerous for 
 foreigners to travel here. 
 Within recent years, how- 
 ever, France and Italy have 
 taken control of these coun- 
 tries, and they are gradu- 
 ally improving conditions. 
 At Algiers (Fig. 247), the 
 most important seaport on 
 this coast, the French have 
 built an entirely modern 
 city along the harbor below 
 the old Moorish town. As 
 shown by Fig. 303, which of 
 these countries belong to 
 France? To Italy? To 
 Spain? Are they important as colonies? 
 More tourists visit Egypt than any 
 other part of Africa, for it is one of the 
 oldest and most interesting why a trip up 
 countries of the world. Civi- 
 lized people lived there thou- 
 
 1 » 1 /• ii i • !• Interesting 
 
 sands oi years before the time sights one 
 of Christ (Fig. 308). This is '^''^'^''^ 
 the countrv, the Bible tells us, where 
 
 the Nile is 
 popular 
 
 country, ttie JbSibie teiis us, 
 Moses once lived, and Joseph also. 
 
 What 
 
AP^RICA 
 
 297 
 
 stories from the Bible do you remember 
 about their stay in Egypt? 
 
 Travelers usually land at Alexandria, 
 the chief seaport of the country. In Fig. 
 303 note its location in the delta of the 
 Nile River. Traveling inland across this 
 delta, you would see a great deal of farm- 
 ing country. When Joseph lived there, 
 Egypt was a store-house for grains; and 
 wheat, corn, and millet are still exten- 
 sively raised (Fig. 309). The climate is 
 so warm that crops like 
 those of our Southern 
 States can be produced, 
 and you would see much 
 rice, sugar cane, and espe- 
 cially cotton. There are 
 many vineyards, and groves 
 of oranges, lemons, figs, and 
 dates. Grazing is also im- 
 portant, herds of water- 
 buffalo and camels, as well 
 as cattle, sheep, and goats, 
 being common. 
 
 At the head of the delta 
 is Cairo (Fig. 303), the 
 capital of Egypt and the 
 largest city in Africa. There 
 you would see the palace of 
 the Sultan, several mosques, 
 and a museum containing 
 many Egyptian works of 
 art. Perhaps nowhere else in the world 
 would you find so many races or hear so 
 many strange languages. Three Sabbaths 
 are observed each week by these different 
 religions: Friday by the Mohammedans, 
 Saturday by the Jews, and Sunday by the 
 Christians. 
 
 Probably you would most enjoy taking 
 a camel ride south of Cairo to visit some 
 of the most interesting ruins of ancient 
 
 Egypt. Here are the immense pyramids 
 and the Sphinx, with the head of a woman 
 and the body of a lion (Fig. 301). With 
 much effort you can climb step by step 
 up the great stone blocks of which the 
 pyramids are built. These are the tombs 
 of ancient kings; in them have been 
 found the bodies of the dead rulers, pre- 
 served in a peculiar way. A number of 
 these mummies have been brought to 
 museums in some of our large cities, 
 
 © Publishers' Photo Service 
 
 Fig. 309. — Grain boats on the Nile, near Cairo 
 
 There is much traffic on the lower portion of the Nile. How far from 
 the mouth are the first rapids (Fig. 302)? How many rapids are there? The 
 camels have come from an oasis in the desert with dates to be exchanged 
 for some of the grain that is grown along the banks of the Nile. 
 
 where they may be seen by anyone. 
 
 This rich farming country Ues in the 
 midst of the desert and receives rain only 
 four or five times in a year. 
 The fact that it is, neverthe- ti'ono/thedM-' 
 less, so productive is due to e^isprosper- 
 the Nile River; indeed with- 
 out the Nile Egypt itself would be a des- 
 ert Uke the country which surrounds it. 
 Trace the course of the Nile in Fig. 302. 
 
298 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Its source lies near the equator in a region 
 of such heavy rainfall that every year 
 floods cause the river to overflow its 
 banks. The water, carrying a large quan- 
 tity of sediment, has built up the fertile 
 flood plains on either side of the river and 
 
 Fig. 310. — Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape Town 
 
 also the broad delta at its mouth. The 
 annual floods spread over these plains, 
 each overflow leaving a layer of rich mud, 
 and at the same time providing the water 
 necessary for crops. In this way, for 
 thousands of years, millions of people 
 have been supported in the midst of the 
 desert. 
 
 At the opposite end of the continent 
 from Egypt lies an even more prosperous 
 region. This is the Union of 
 South Africa, which would 
 probably seem less strange to 
 you than any other part of 
 Africa you might visit. It is a part of the 
 British Empire, and large numbers of 
 Europeans, principally English and Dutch, 
 live there. The cities are in most ways 
 as modern as our own. You might be 
 surprised to find that in Cape Town, at 
 the southernmost tip of Africa, there are 
 electric lights, street-cars, fine buildings 
 
 Why South 
 Africa is so 
 attractive to 
 Buropeans 
 
 (Fig. 310), and many of the other con- 
 veniences common in our cities. 
 
 One of the reasons why so many Eu- 
 ropeans live there is that the climate is 
 suitable for the white man. What does 
 the latitude tell you about the climate? 
 Compare it with that of Egypt. 
 
 This is a rich farming country. Be- 
 sides fields of grain, you would see many 
 fruit orchards. A peculiar industry there 
 
 © Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 311. — A Soutli African gold mine 
 Johannesburg is in the heart of the richest gold-pro- 
 ducing region in the world. Gold-bearing rock is brought 
 to the surface and crushed to secure the gold. A great 
 hill of the crushed rock may be seen on the right in the 
 background. 
 
 is the raising of ostriches; you would en- 
 joy visiting a farm where these largest of 
 birds are raised in great numbers for the 
 valuable feathers on their wings and tails. 
 How have you seen ostrich feathers used? 
 
AFRICA 
 
 299 
 
 Another reason why South Africa has 
 attracted so many Europeans is its great 
 mineral wealth. Johannesburg is the 
 center of the gold mining (Fig. 311). The 
 district near it produces more than a third 
 of the gold of the world and nearly twice 
 the amount produced by the United 
 States. At Kimberley (Fig. 303) is one 
 of the greatest diamond mines in the 
 world. There you would see native work- 
 ers digging out the decayed rock from 
 old volcanoes and washing it to find the 
 precious stones. 
 
 In the past travelers in northern Africa 
 seldom ventured into the interior, because 
 
 almost the only 
 
 way of getting 
 
 there was b}^ 
 
 the long and 
 
 difficult caravan 
 
 route across the 
 
 Sahara. Dur- 
 ing the last fifty years, since 
 European nations have 
 taken control of a large part 
 of Africa, there has been 
 greater need than ever be- 
 fore for a railroad to make 
 travel possible through the 
 interior and to carry prod- 
 ucts from central Africa to 
 seaports in the north and 
 south. One of the great 
 plans for developing the 
 continent is the Cape-to- 
 Cairo Railroad (Fig. 312), 
 which will make it possible to travel 
 overland from one end of the continent 
 all the way to the other. In Fig. 303 
 trace this route from Cairo in Egj^t to 
 Cape Town in southern Africa. Estimate 
 the distance. Note also that the greater 
 
 part of the lines has already been com- 
 pleted by the British, through Egypt, 
 which they partly control, and through 
 their colonies of South Africa. What 
 portion remains to be built? The great- 
 ness of the undertaking is shown by the 
 fact that the completed line will be about 
 twdce as long as one of our transconti- 
 nental lines from New York to San Fran- 
 cisco, and it is estimated that it will take 
 about ten days to travel from one end 
 to the other. How long does it take to 
 cross our continent? 
 
 If you were to make the trip by this 
 route when it is completed, you would 
 
 The plan of 
 the Cape-to- 
 Cairo Rail- 
 road 
 
 1. Why such a 
 railroad has 
 long been 
 desired 
 
 This is where 
 with Fig. 305. 
 
 © Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 Fig. 312.— The Cape-to-Cairo Railway 
 
 the line crosses the Zambezi River. Compare this picture 
 
 leave the desert at some distance south 
 
 of Egypt and pass into the grasslands of 
 
 the Sudan. In Fig. 303 trace 
 
 the extent of the Sudan. 
 
 There rain falls during one 
 
 season of the year, while the other season 
 
 2. What one 
 might see on 
 this route 
 
300 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 is dry. This prevents the growth of trees 
 except along the rivers, for they cannot 
 live through the dry season. Grass, how- 
 ever, grows luxuriantly, and herding is the 
 chief occupation of the negro inhabitants. 
 Do you imagine these herders have as 
 pleasant a life as the herders in Switzer- 
 land (p. 223)? Give the reason for your 
 answer. 
 
 © Underwood and Underwood 
 
 Fig. 313. — A view of Zanzibar 
 
 Zanzibar is on an island of the same name and is one 
 of the principal seaports of the eastern coast. 
 
 South of the Sudan the train would 
 climb up into the forest-covered high- 
 lands. Although you would be travehng 
 through the tropics, the altitude is so high 
 that the temperature is very comfortable, 
 and you would see mountain peaks cov- 
 ered with snow. 
 
 As you crossed the plateau of Rhodesia, 
 you would pass through grasslands much 
 like those of the Sudan. There the cool, 
 dry season is followed by a warm, rainy 
 season like our spring. This climate is 
 
 very comfortable for the white man to 
 live in, and many Dutch and English 
 have settled here. Ranching is the prin- 
 cipal occupation; there are large herds 
 of cattle and sheep. 
 
 In southern Rhodesia you would cross 
 the Zambezi River near Victoria Falls. 
 This wonderful waterfall is even larger 
 than Niagara, and is one of the grandest 
 in the world. 
 
 Coming down from the highlands you 
 would pass into South Africa. From 
 what has been said, what 
 would you be likely to see on ^°^e*Kongo 
 the remainder of the trip? In would differ 
 Fig. 302 trace the course of the^Amazon 
 the Kongo River, the chief 
 highway of central Africa. Where does 
 the equator cross it? How does its lati- 
 tude compare with that of the Amazon 
 (Fig. 174)? How does its length compare 
 with that of the Amazon? The number 
 of tributaries? 
 
 From these facts you might expect a 
 trip up the Kongo to be much like one up 
 the Amazon. Recall some of the experi- 
 ences of the latter trip (p. 190). In 
 traveling up the Kongo, however, you 
 would be reminded of the Amazon only in 
 the lower portion, where the Kongo passes 
 through the hot, damp coastal plain. A 
 little over 100 miles inland numerous falls 
 in the river lead up to Leopold ville. From 
 there on, traveling would be more com- 
 fortable; for on the plateau the tempera- 
 ture is lower and the rainfall less. Al- 
 though falls frequently obstruct naviga- 
 tion, railroads have been built around 
 many of them, and you could travel easily 
 either by water or rail over most of the 
 basin of the Kongo and its tributaries. 
 
 Much of the time the way leads through 
 
AFRICA 
 
 301 
 
 forests, but the lighter rainfall on the 
 plateau makes them less dense than the 
 Amazon jungle; and frequently you would 
 see areas of savannahs, or grasslands. The 
 products of the Kongo are, therefore, 
 more easily obtained than those of the 
 Amazon, although they are practically 
 the same. Recall the important products 
 of the Amazon Basin. In addition, ivory, 
 from the tusks of the elephant, is of great 
 importance in the Kongo. 
 The Kongo has a greater 
 variety of animal life; the 
 buffalo, elephant, and leop- 
 ard live on the plains; and 
 the roar of the Hon is fre- 
 quently heard. 
 
 Although the tropical 
 plateau of the Kongo is too 
 unhealthful for the white 
 man, the natives prosper 
 there. Along the river 
 banks you would see many 
 native villages, with their 
 clusters of huts made of 
 straw or some similar ma- 
 terial. Since land is easier 
 to clear here than in the Amazon Basin, 
 the villages are surrounded by gardens 
 and fields where potatoes, corn, sugar 
 cane, cotton, and rice are grown. Only a 
 small portion of the land is tilled at 
 present, but nearly the entire basin, an 
 area about equal to a third of the United 
 States, could be cultivated. How does 
 it compare in this respect with the 
 Amazon Basin? 
 
 is the climate of large parts of Africa un- 
 healthful? 5. How have the natives 
 hindered exploration? 6. De- Review 
 scribe some of the sights to be questions 
 seen in northwestern Africa. 7. Why 
 does the prosperity of Egypt depend 
 upon the Nile? 8. In what ways does 
 South Africa remind one of our own 
 country? 9. What are some of its chief 
 products? 10. Why is a Cape-to-Cairo 
 
 Keystone View Co., Inc. 
 
 1. Why has Africa been called the 
 Dark Continent? 2. How has the desert 
 made travel difficult? 3. Why has naviga- 
 tion on the rivers been difficult? 4. Why 
 
 Fig. 314. — Half-civilized negroes in the Belgian Kongo 
 
 railroad needed? 11. Describe some of 
 the scenes along this route. 12. Com- 
 pare the Kongo and the Amazon basins. 
 1. How do you explain the fact that 
 the Egyptians have made such greater 
 advances than the other ^ 
 
 Suggestions 
 
 peoples of northern Africa? for extra 
 2. Why should Cairo be the ""^'^ 
 largest city in the continent? 3. Read 
 the story of Joseph in the Bible beginning 
 in Genesis, Chapter 37. 4. Read about 
 the Dutch settlements in South Africa. 
 5. Write an account of a visit to an 
 oasis in the Sahara. 6. Make a col- 
 lection of pictures of scenes in Egypt. 
 
302 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 7. To what European countries do the 
 different countries of Africa belong? 8. 
 Find out some interesting facts about the 
 diamond mines at Kimberley. 
 
 1. Show that Africa has a more regular coast 
 line than any other continent. 2. What two seas 
 lie along the northern and northeastern coasts 
 of Africa? 3. What large island lies east of 
 Africa? Compare its area with that of one of 
 
 our states. 4. What countries of Africa consist 
 
 chiefly of highlands? 5. Of lowlands? 6. Trace 
 
 the courses of all rivers mentioned 
 
 in the text. 7. Compare the area 
 
 of Lake Victoria Nyanza with that 
 
 of Lake Michigan. 8. Compare the 
 
 area of the Belgian Kongo with that of the 
 
 United States. 9. The northernmost cities of 
 
 Africa are in about the same latitude as what 
 
 city in the United States? 
 
 Map 
 
 questions 
 on Africa 
 
PART VIII. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES IN RELATION 
 TO OTHER COUNTRIES 
 
 There are more than twenty separate 
 countries in North and South America, 
 T> 1 **u of which Canada and Brazil 
 
 Rank of the 
 
 United States are the largest in- area. All of 
 World ^and them together, however, have 
 some of the a Smaller population than the 
 United States alone. From 
 figures in the Appendix, find out how 
 much smaller it is (pp. 310 and 311). 
 
 Our products from farms, mines, and 
 factories far surpass such products from 
 all these other countries together, and we 
 have fully twice as many miles of railroad 
 as they have. The United States is, 
 therefore, by far the leading country in 
 the New World. 
 
 There are many reasons for this rank, 
 but only two of them can be mentioned 
 here. They are the chmate and the char- 
 acter of our people. Can you show how 
 we have a great advantage over most of 
 the others in climate? WTiat countries of 
 South America are most Hke the United 
 States in that respect? Has Canada the 
 advantage over our country in climate? 
 Has Mexico? 
 
 Climate has a great influence on the 
 character of people. Can you show how 
 that is true in the New World? What 
 two countries in North America have the 
 most intelhgent and energetic inhabitants? 
 What proofs can you give of that fact? 
 What can you tell about the education of 
 the people in South America (p. 178)? 
 
 Although the United States is much 
 greater in population than the other na- 
 tions of the New World, it is 
 by no means independent of Ourdepend- 
 
 *^ ^ . ence upon 
 
 them. Its trade with them is other coun- 
 one of the things that makes ^e^wOTid 
 it great. 
 
 The New World country on from c^Ida "^ 
 which its prosperity most de- seu tohw''^ 
 pends is Canada. When you 
 consider the population of Canada, is 
 this surprising or not? The fact is that 
 our trade with this neighbor is greater 
 than that with all Latin America, which 
 includes all the countries in North and 
 South America from United States south- 
 ward. 
 
 When you recall what Canada pro- 
 duces, you can suggest some of the things 
 that we buy from her. Wheat, flour, oats, 
 bacon, and cheese are her most important 
 agricultural products; but the British Isles 
 take far more of such things than we do. 
 Can you tell why (p. 207)? We do, how- 
 ever, take some of them, and we buy 
 great quantities of wood, wood pulp, and 
 paper. 
 
 On the other hand, we sell to Canada 
 far more goods than we buy, in some years 
 twice as many. The most important 
 articles are iron and steel goods, coal, and 
 woolen and cotton textiles. Can you ex- 
 plain why Canada chooses these things 
 especially (p. 159)? The principal port 
 
 303 
 
Fig. 315 
 
60'' Greenwich 80 
 
 Fig. 315 
 
306 
 
 THE UNITED STATES IN RELATION TO OTHER COUNTRIES 
 
 for. foreign trade in Canada is Montreal, 
 and the one next in rank is Toronto. 
 Show how the location of each gives it 
 advantages for foreign trade. 
 
 From The Geography of the World's Agriculture (1814) 
 
 Fig. 316 
 
 So much of the land south of us Ues in 
 the tropical zone that many of the prod- 
 2. Our trade ^^^^ are different from any 
 with Latin that we can raise. Note the 
 
 Amenca 
 
 boundaries of that zone as 
 shown in Fig. 46. What are the names 
 of the boundary lines of this zone? 
 
 We want many of these 
 tropical articles very much. 
 For example, our breakfast 
 tables call for coffee, sugar, 
 and bananas. Can you 
 point out on Fig. 315 some 
 of the countries from which 
 these common articles may 
 be obtained? Some of 
 our rubber comes from 
 South America and much of 
 our binding twine from 
 tropical North America. 
 Can you name the countries that are noted 
 for these (pp. 147 and 165)? In return 
 for such purchases, we sell to these hot 
 countries such manufactures as cotton 
 
 you expect us to sell them many woolen 
 goods? Why? 
 
 The countries in South America with 
 which we trade most He mainly in the 
 temperate zone. Name those 
 referred to. While we raise 
 a large quantity of wool, we 
 import more than one half 
 of what we consume; and 
 much of it comes from 
 Argentina and Chile. We 
 also obtain a great number 
 of hides there, and a large 
 amount of fertilizer from 
 one of them. On the other 
 hand, we sell to them farm 
 implements, cotton goods, 
 and other manufactures. What condi- 
 tions in those countries favor the export 
 and import of such articles? What cities 
 are their principal ports for foreign trade? 
 What reasons can you give for the fact 
 that our trade with all South America is 
 smaller than that with Canada? 
 
 goods, machinery, and foodstuffs. Would 
 
 From The Geography of the World's Agriculture (.1914) 
 
 Fig. 317 
 
 The country to the south of us with 
 which we have most trade is Cuba. About 
 eighty pounds of sugar per person are 
 consumed each year in the United States, 
 only about half of which is produced by 
 
THE UNITED STATES IN RELATION TO OTHER COUNTRIES 
 
 307 
 
 US and our possessions. A 
 larger amount is imported 
 from Cuba than from any 
 other country. What other 
 important products are im- 
 ported from that island (p. 
 169)? In 1918 our com- 
 merce with Cuba was double 
 that with Mexico. How can 
 you explain that fact? What 
 is the principal port of 
 Cuba? 
 
 The area and population 
 of Africa suggest that our 
 „ ^ , trade might be 
 
 How our trade ° 
 
 with Africa much greater 
 coltr/wi?h with that con- 
 
 compares with 
 
 that with tinent than with 
 
 South America a ^i, a 
 
 South America. 
 Show that that suggestion 
 is true. 
 
 The parts of Africa with 
 which we have most trade 
 are the Union of South 
 Africa and Egypt. How 
 does their latitude suggest 
 an important advantage for 
 them (Fig. 315)? Which of 
 the products of South Africa 
 would you expect us to im- 
 port (p. 298)? Through 
 what port would they be 
 shipped? Why would you 
 not expect wheat to be sent 
 from Egypt to us? It is 
 different, however, with cot- 
 ton. While we raise more 
 of that fiber than any other 
 country, the Egyptian cotton is an espe- 
 cially valuable kind, and we import a 
 large amount of it every year. What 
 other products of Egypt would you ex- 
 
 From The Geoyraphy of the World's Agriculture {191 4) 
 
 Fig. 318 
 
 From The Geography of the World's Agriculture (1914) 
 
 Fig. 319 
 
 From The Geography of the World's Agriculture (1914) 
 
 Fig. 320 
 
 pect US to import? Through what port 
 of that country? 
 
 Compare Australia with Africa in area 
 and population. Australia has two prod- 
 
308 
 
 THE UNITED STATES IN RELATION TO OTHER COUNTRIES 
 
 
 1^ p^;^-^ ^ 
 
 4 
 
 Ig 
 
 A^VvV^,^,- 
 
 ^ 
 
 Kv^^ V 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 xT^ 
 
 _ 
 
 ^s 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 i^^Jw 1 
 
 ^r}-'*a<. 
 
 
 ^w 
 
 
 ti^ WORLD 
 
 ,.„ ' ^ ' 
 
 
 a- V 
 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 
 U- 
 
 
 NUMBER 
 CACH DOT REPRESENT* 
 
 Fig. 321 
 
 Fig. 322 
 
 Our trade 
 with Asia and 
 the islands 
 near it 
 
 Fig. 323 
 
 ucts that we greatly need for clothing. 
 Can you name them (p. 285)? From 
 what ports would you expect them to 
 be shipped? The commerce of Australia 
 
 with the United States is 
 nearly as great as that 
 of Africa; but the two to- 
 gether had only about one 
 fourth as much trade with 
 the United States in 1918 
 as South America alone. 
 Why would you expect 
 largely the same kinds of 
 goods to be exported by the 
 United States to those two 
 continents as to South 
 America? Mention some of 
 the more important articles. 
 The most common arti- 
 cles that reach us from 
 Asia and the 
 islands near it 
 are tea and cof- 
 fee, spices, silk, 
 rice, and rubber. Mention 
 some of those that come 
 from the Philippines (p. 
 147). 
 
 The country of Asia with 
 which we have most trade 
 is Japan. The greater part 
 of the tea produced in the 
 island of Formosa is sent to 
 us. Can you name other 
 Japanese articles that you 
 have seen? Japan sells more 
 of her products to us than to 
 any other country, although 
 she buys more from some of 
 the others. Name two 
 Japanese ports from which 
 goods would be likely to be 
 shipped. In what American ports would 
 you expect such goods to arrive? 
 
 The trade of China with us is only a 
 small part of that of Japan with us. Can 
 
THE UNITED STATES IN RELATION TO OTHER COUNTRIES 
 
 309 
 
 you suggest any reasons for this? How 
 do the two countries compare in area and 
 population? 
 
 India ranks next to Japan in trade with 
 the United States. From the Hst of In- 
 dian products named on p. 267, which 
 would you expect to be sent to us in con- 
 siderable quantities? 
 
 Although we have more commerce with 
 Asia than with South America, or with 
 Africa and Australia, it only about 
 equals that with Canada. What reasons, 
 if any, do you see for surprise in that fact? 
 What are some of the conditions that 
 hinder our trade with Asia? 
 
 Our commerce with the countries of 
 Europe is about equal to that with all the 
 Our trade Other countries in the world, 
 with Europe There are two reasons for this. 
 Because the Europeans manufacture 
 far more kinds of articles than other 
 peoples, they have far more things that 
 we want. For example, we get linen 
 mainly from them; laces as well; much of 
 our cloth; some of our watches and clocks; 
 many of our drugs; also,, raw silk, china- 
 ware, hardware, works of art, toys, and 
 hundreds of other articles. See how long 
 a list of things you can make that we im- 
 port from Europe. 
 
 On the other hand, on account of their 
 dense population they welcome great 
 quantities of food from us. Can you 
 
 name one country in particular that 
 must import much food (p. 207)? Also, 
 their extensive manufacturing calls for 
 many of our raw materials. We send 
 them nearly one fourth of all the wheat 
 that we raise, a large amount of meat, 
 and a vast quantity of cotton. We 
 could spare much corn, too; but they 
 do not want that. They have never 
 learned to eat corn, just as we have not 
 learned to use rice to the extent that the 
 Chinese and Japanese do. Although corn 
 is our most valuable crop, we usually 
 export less than two bushels out of every 
 hundred. 
 
 The European country with which we 
 have most extensive dealings is the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland. France comes next. routes for 
 
 In Fig. 315 you can see ^adeand 
 the principal routes that goods 
 and people take across the oceans. What 
 course would freight bound from Chi- 
 cago to Yokohama be likely to take? 
 From New York to Yokohama? From 
 our Southern States to India? By what 
 course would you expect sugar from 
 Manila or rice from China to reach Chi- 
 cago? What are the leading ports on 
 the west side of the Atlantic Ocean? On 
 the east side? On the shores of the In- 
 dian Ocean? On the east coast of the 
 Pacific Ocean? On its west coast? 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 
 
 THE EARTH 
 
 Land area (square miles) 56,255,000 
 
 Water area (square miles) 140,205,000 
 
 Length of Axis (miles) 7,900 
 
 Length of the equator (miles) 24,900 
 
 CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles 
 
 North America 9,455,700 
 
 Alaska 590,900 
 
 Canada 3.769,400 
 
 Alberta 255,300 
 
 British Columbia 395,600 
 
 Manitoba 251,800 
 
 New Brunswick. 28,000 
 
 Nova Scotia 21,400 
 
 Ontario 407,300 
 
 Prince Edward 
 
 Island 2,200 
 
 Quebec 706,800 
 
 Saskatchewan... 251,700 
 Yukon Territory 207,100 
 Northwest Ter- 
 ritories 1,242,200 
 
 Central America. . . 219,500 
 
 British Honduras 8,600 
 
 Costa Rica 23,000 
 
 Guatemala 48,300 
 
 Honduras 44,300 
 
 Nicaragua 49,200 
 
 Panama (exclu- 
 sive of Canal 
 
 Zone) 32,400 
 
 Panama Canal 
 
 Zone 500 
 
 Salvador 13,200 
 
 Greenland 827,3(K) 
 
 Labrador 120,000 
 
 Mexico 767,200 
 
 Newfoundland .... 42,700 
 
 United States 3.027,000 
 
 West Indies 91,800 
 
 Bahama Islands. 4,400 
 
 Cuba 44,200 
 
 Dominican Re- 
 public 19,300 
 
 Haiti 10,200 
 
 Jamaica 4.400 
 
 Lesser Antilles . . 5,600 
 
 South America .... 7,222,000 
 
 Argentina 1,153,000 
 
 Bolivia 514,000 
 
 BrazU 3,276,000 
 
 British Guiana 89,500 
 
 Chile 290,000 
 
 Colombia 441,000 
 
 Dutch Guiana 46,000 
 
 E(Tuador 116,000 
 
 French Guiana 32,000 
 
 Paraguay 65,000 
 
 Peru 722,000 
 
 Uruguay 72,000 
 
 Venezuela 399,000 
 
 Population 
 143.000,000 
 
 55,000 
 8,428,000 
 407,000 
 400,000 
 554,000 
 352,000 
 492,000 
 2,799,000 
 
 94,000 
 
 2,380,000 
 
 833,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 5,516,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 4.59,000 
 
 2,004,000 
 606,000 
 746,000 
 
 337,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 1,299,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 15,116,000 
 
 255,000 
 
 105,709,000 
 
 9,974,000 
 
 00,000 
 
 2,899,000 
 
 955,000 
 2,,')(K),000 
 
 891,000 
 1,343,000 
 
 62,630,000 
 
 8,279,000 
 
 2,890,000 
 
 30,492,000 
 
 311,000 
 
 3,946,000 
 
 5,420,000 
 
 108,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 1,4.30,000 
 
 2,225,000 
 
 .\rea in 
 Square Miles 
 Europe 3,900,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 32,100 
 
 11,800 
 
 121,700 
 
 88,800 
 
 50,900 
 
 7,.500 
 
 30,400 
 
 32,600 
 
 42,000 
 
 56,300 
 
 17,100 
 
 23.200 
 
 126,000 
 
 212,700 
 
 171,900 
 
 56,000 
 
 .36,600 
 
 110,600 
 
 25,000 
 
 117,200 
 
 13,200 
 
 125,000 
 
 141,900 
 
 35,500 
 
 122,300 
 
 1,371,200 
 
 194,800 
 
 173,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 2,200 
 
 498,100 
 
 Asia 17,000,000 
 
 Albania 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 British Ls'es 
 
 . Great Britain. . . 
 
 England 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Czecho-Slovakia. . . 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Esthonia 
 
 Finland 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Greece (total) 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Italy 
 
 J^atvia 
 
 Jugo-.Slavia 
 
 Netherlands, The. . 
 
 Norway 
 
 Poland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Rumania 
 
 Russi.i in Europe. . 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey in Europe. 
 Ukraine 
 
 Afghanistan 
 
 Arabian Peninsula. 
 
 Armenia 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Chinese Republic . 
 Dutch East Indies. 
 
 Indian Empire 
 
 .Japanese Empire . . 
 Malay Peninsula. . . 
 
 Mesopotamia 
 
 Palestine 
 
 Persia 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Syria 
 
 Turkestan ( R u s - 
 
 sian) 
 
 Turkey in Asia. . . . 
 
 Australia, New Zealand, and Larjier 
 Islands of the Pacific 
 
 245,000 
 
 986,000 
 
 75,600 
 
 25,500 
 
 4,277,100 
 
 963.900 
 
 1,802,600 
 
 260,700 
 
 503,600 
 
 143,300 
 
 9,000 
 
 628,000 
 
 4,831,900 
 
 106,700 
 
 Population 
 455,000,000 
 
 825,000 
 
 6,412,000 
 
 7,762,000 
 
 45,475,000 
 
 40,936,000 
 
 34,015,000 
 
 2,025,000 
 
 4,866,000 
 
 4,390.000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 13,500,000 
 
 3,171,000 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 3,277,000 
 
 41,476,000 
 
 55,086,000 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 8,800,000 
 
 36,120,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 14,798,000 
 
 6,779,000 
 
 2,632,000 
 
 30,072,000 
 
 5,958,000 
 
 17,393,000 
 
 85,420,000 
 
 20,720,000 
 
 5,814,000 
 
 3,937,000 
 
 1,281,000 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 885,000,000 
 
 6,381 ,000 
 
 4,850,000 
 
 4,028,000 
 
 4,686,000 
 
 327,910,000 
 
 48,040,000 
 
 315,1.56,000 
 
 77,005,000 
 
 28,967,000 
 
 2,849,000 
 
 648,000 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 10.378,000 
 
 3,134,000 
 
 420,800 6,684,000 
 97,800 3,719,000 
 
 Australia, 1919 
 
 New Zealand. . 
 
 2,975,000 
 
 105,000 
 
 5,141,000 
 
 1,139,000 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Belf/inn Sphere af 
 
 
 ' ' 
 
 Influence 
 
 
 
 Belgian Kongo. . 
 
 929,000 
 
 15,500,000 
 
 British Sphere of 
 
 
 
 Influence 
 
 
 
 Sudan 
 
 1,014,000 
 
 3.400,000 
 
 British East Africa. 
 
 723,.300 
 
 13,837,000 
 
 Egypt 
 
 350,000 
 
 12,751,000 
 
 Kamerun (Brit- 
 
 
 
 i s h and 
 
 
 
 French) 
 
 191,100 
 
 2,540,000 
 
 Rhodesia 
 
 440,000 
 
 1,699,000 
 
 Union of South 
 
 
 
 Africia 
 
 473,200 
 
 5,973,000 
 
 British West Af- 
 
 
 
 rica 
 
 447,500 
 
 19,862,000 
 
 French Sphere 
 Influence 
 
 of 
 
 Algeria 
 
 French Eciuato- 
 ria! Africa. . . . 
 French West Af- 
 rica and Saha- 
 ra 2,807,000 
 
 Madagascar .... 228,000 
 
 Morocco 221,000 
 
 Tunis 50,000 
 
 222,200 5,564,000 
 672,000 9,000,000 
 
 12,720,000 
 3,545,000 
 5,400,000 
 1,940,000 
 
 ItfUian Sphere 
 Influence 
 
 Libia 
 
 of 
 
 406,000 
 
 528,000 
 
 Portuguese Sphere 
 of Influence 
 
 Mozambique 
 (Port. East 
 Africa) 
 
 Spanish Sphere of 
 Influence 
 
 Spanish Moroc- 
 
 428,100 3,012,000 
 
 Independent Coun- 
 tries 
 
 Abyssinia . 
 Liberia. . . 
 
 11,000 
 
 350,000 
 40,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD 
 
 Population 
 
 1. New York, U. S 5,621,000 
 
 2. London, England 4,358,000 
 
 3. Paris. France 2,888.000 
 
 4. Chicago, U. S 2,702,000 
 
 5. Petrograd, Russia 2,319,000 
 
 6. Tokyo, Japan 2,173,000 
 
 7. Berlin, Germany 1,898,000 
 
 8. Vienna, Austria 1,839,000 
 
 9. Philadfelphia, U.S.... l',823,-600 
 
 Population 
 
 10. Moscow, Russia 1,817,000 
 
 11. Buenos Aires, Argentina 1,637,000 
 
 12. Hankow, China 1,444,000 
 
 13. Osaka, Japan 1,2.53,000 
 
 14. Calcutta, India 1,222,000 
 
 15. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1,128,000 
 
 16. Glasgow. Scotland 1,111,000 
 
 17. Mexico CSy, Mexico 1 ,080,000 
 
 310 
 
 Population 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey 1,000,000 
 
 Peking, China 1,000,000 
 
 Shanghai, China 1,000,000 
 
 Detroit, U.S. 
 
 Bombay, India 
 
 Hamburg, Germany. 
 
 Canton, China 
 
 Budapest, Hungary. 
 
 994,000 
 979,000 
 931,000 
 900,000 
 880,000 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 311 
 
 Area in 
 
 State Square Population 
 
 MUes 1920 
 
 Alabama 52,000 2,348,000 
 
 Arizona 1 14,000 334,000 
 
 Arkansas 53,300 1 ,752,000 
 
 California 158.300 3,427,000 
 
 Colorado 103,900 940,000 
 
 Connecticut 5,000 1,381,000 
 
 Delaware 2,400 223,000 
 
 District of Columbia 70 438,000 
 
 Florida 58,700 968,000 
 
 Georgia 59,300 2,896,000 
 
 Idaho 83,900 432,000 
 
 Illinois 56,700 6,485,000 
 
 Indiana 36,400 2,930,000 
 
 Iowa 56,100 2,404,000 
 
 Kansas 82,200 1,769,000 
 
 Kentucky 40,600 2,417,000 
 
 Louisiana 48,500 1,799,000 
 
 Maine 33,000 768,000 
 
 Maryland 12,300 1,450,000 
 
 Massachusetts 8,300 3,852,000 
 
 Mieliigan 58,000 3,668,000 
 
 Minnesota 84,700 2,387,000 
 
 UNITED STATES AND POSSESSIONS 
 Area in 
 
 State Square Population 
 
 Miles 1920 
 
 Mississippi 46,900 1,791,000 
 
 Missouri 69,400 3,404,000 
 
 Montana 147,200 549,000 
 
 Nebraska 77,500 1,296,000 
 
 Nevada 110,700 77,000 
 
 New Hampshire 9,300 443,000 
 
 New Jersey 8,200 3,156,000 
 
 New Mexico 122,600 380,000 
 
 New York 49,200 10,385-,t)00 
 
 North CaroHna 52,400 2,559,000 
 
 North Dakota 70,600 646,000 
 
 Ohio 41,000 5,759,000 
 
 Oklahoma 70,000 2,028,000 
 
 Oregon 96,700 783,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 45,100 8,720,000 
 
 Rhode Island 1,250 604,000 
 
 South Carolina 31,000 1,684,000 
 
 South Dakota 77,600 637,000 
 
 Tennessee 42,000 2,338,000 
 
 Texas 265,900 4,663,000 
 
 Utah 85,000 449,000 
 
 Vermont 9,600 352,000 
 
 Area in 
 
 State Square Population 
 
 Miles 1920 
 
 Virginia 42,600 2,309,000 
 
 Washington 69,100 1,357,000 
 
 West Virginia 24,200 1,464,000 
 
 Wisconsin 56,100 2,632,000 
 
 Wyoming 97,900 194,000 
 
 United States 
 
 (continental) 3,027,000 105,709,000 
 
 Outlying Pogses/iion« . 12,149,000 
 
 Alaska 590,900 55,000 
 
 American .Samoa . . 102 8,000 
 
 Guam 225 13,000 
 
 Hawaii 6,450 256,000 
 
 Military and naval 
 
 serrice abroad. . . 117,000 
 Panama Canal 
 
 Zone 500 23,000 
 
 Philippine Islands. 115,000 10,351,000 
 
 Porto Rico 3,600 1,300,000 
 
 Virgin Islands of 
 
 U. S 130 26,000 
 
 Total United States.. 3,743,907 117,858,000 
 
 TWENTY 
 Population 
 1920 
 
 1. New York 5,621,000 
 
 2. Chicago, 111 2,702,000 
 
 3. Philadelphia, Pa 1,823,000 
 
 4. Detroit, Mich 994,000 
 
 5. Cleveland, Ohio 797,000 
 
 6. St. Louis. Mo 773.000 
 
 7. Boston. Mass 748,000 
 
 8. Baltimore, Md 734,000 
 
 9. Pittsburgh, Pa 588,000 
 
 FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 
 10. Los Angeles, Cal 577,000 
 
 11. San Franoisoo, Cal 508,000 
 
 12. Buffalo, N. Y 507,000 
 
 13. Milwaukee, Wis 457,000 
 
 14. Washington, D. C. . . '. 438,000 
 
 15. Newark, N. .1 414,000 
 
 16. Cincinnati, Ohio 401,000 
 
 17. New Orleans, La 387,000 
 
 18. Minneapolis, Minn 381,000 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 
 19. Kansas City, Mo 324,000 
 
 20. Seattle, Wash 316,000 
 
 2fl. Indianapolis, Ind 314,000 
 
 22. Jersey City, N.J 298,000 
 
 23. Rochester, N. Y 296,000 
 
 24. Portland, Ore 258,(K)0 
 
 25. Denver, Colo 256,000 
 
 CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES HAVING A POPULATION OF 25,000 OR OVER, INCLUDING THE CAPITAL AND 
 
 Akron, Ohio 
 
 Alameda, Cal 
 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 Albuquerque, N. M. 
 AUentown, Pa 
 
 Altoona, Pa 
 
 Amsterdam, N. Y.. . , 
 
 Anderson, Ind 
 
 Annapolis, Md 
 
 Asheville, N. C 
 
 Atlanta, Ga 
 
 Atlantic City, N. J. . 
 
 Auburn, N. Y 
 
 Augusta, Ga 
 
 Augiista, Me 
 
 Aurora, 111 
 
 Austin, Tex 
 
 Baltimore. Md 
 
 Bangor, Me 
 
 Baton Rouge, La. . . 
 
 Battle Creek, Mich. . 
 
 Bay City, Mich 
 
 Bayonne, N.J 
 
 Beaumont, Tex 
 
 Bellingham, Wash. . , 
 
 Berkeley, Cal 
 
 Bethlehem, Pa 
 
 Binghamton, N. Y.. 
 Birmingham, Ala.. . 
 Bismarck, N. D. . . . 
 
 Bloomington, 111.. . . 
 
 Boise, Idaho 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn... 
 Brockton, Mass. . . . 
 
 Brookline, Mass. . . . 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Burlington, Vt 
 
 Butte, Mont 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. . . 
 
 Camden, N. J 
 
 Canton, Ohio 
 
 Carson City, Nev. . . 
 Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 
 Charleston, S. C. . . . 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 
 208,000 
 29,000 
 
 113.000 
 15,000 
 74,000 
 
 60,000 
 .34,000 
 30,000 
 11,000 
 29,000 
 
 201,000 
 51,000 
 36,000 
 53,000 
 14,000 
 
 36,000 
 35,000 
 734,000 
 26,000 
 22,000 
 
 36,000 
 48,000 
 77,000 
 40,000 
 26,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 67,000 
 
 178,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 29,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 748,000 
 
 144,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 38,000 
 
 .507,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 116,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 68,000 
 
 LARGEST CITY OF EACH STATE 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 
 40,000 
 
 46,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 Charleston, W. Va. 
 Charlotte, N. C. . . 
 Chattanooga, Tenn 
 
 Chelsea, Mass 
 
 Chester, P.i 
 
 Cheyenne, Wyo 14,000 
 
 Chicago, 111 2,702,000 
 
 Chicopee, Mass 36,000 
 
 Cicero, III 45,000 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 401,000 
 
 Clarksburg, W. Va 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Clifton, N. J 
 
 Colorado Springs, Colo. 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 Columbus, Ga 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
 Concord, N. H 
 
 Council Bluffs, Iowa. . . 
 Covington, Ky 
 
 Cranston, R. I 
 
 Cumberland, Md 
 
 Dallas, Tex 
 
 Danville. Ill 
 
 Davenport, Iowa 
 
 Dayton, Ohio 
 
 Decatur, 111 
 
 Denver, Colo 
 
 Dcs Moines, Iowa 
 
 Detroit, Mioh 
 
 Dover, Del 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa 
 
 Duluth, IMinn 
 
 East Chicago, Ind. . . . 
 East Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Easton, Pa 
 
 East Orange, N. J. . . . 
 East St. Louis, 111. . . . 
 
 Elgin, 111 
 
 Elizabeth, N. J 
 
 Elmira, N. Y 
 
 El Paso, Tex 
 
 Erie, Pa 
 
 E\tinston, 111 
 
 Evans^'ille, Ind 
 
 28,000 
 797,000 
 26,000 
 30,000 
 38,000 
 
 31,000 
 237,000 
 22,000 
 36,000 
 57,000 
 
 29,000 
 30,000 
 159,000 
 34,000 
 57,000 
 
 153,000 
 44,000 
 256,000 
 126,000 
 994,000 
 
 4,000 
 39,000 
 99,000 
 36,000 
 27,000 
 
 34,000 
 51,000 
 67,000 
 27,000 
 96,000 
 
 45,000 
 78,000 
 93.000 
 37.000 
 85,000 
 
 Everett, Mass.. . . 
 Everett, Wash.. . 
 Fall River, Mass. 
 
 Fargo, N. D 
 
 Fitchburg, Ma.ss. . 
 
 Flint, Mich 
 
 Fort Smith, Ark. . 
 Fort W&yne, Ind. 
 Fort Worth, Tex. 
 Frankfort, Ky 
 
 Fresno, Cal 
 
 Galveston, Tex 
 
 Gary, Ind 
 
 Grand Rapids, Midi. 
 Green Bay, Wis 
 
 Hagerstown, Md. . . . 
 Hamilton, Ohio! . . . . 
 
 Hammond, Ind 
 
 Hamtramck, Mioh. . . 
 Harrisburg, Pa 
 
 Hartford, Conn 
 
 Haverhill, Mass 
 
 Hazlcton. Pa 
 
 Helena, Mont 
 
 Highland Park, Mich 
 
 Iloboken, N. J 
 
 Holyoke, Mass 
 
 Honolulu, Hawaii . . . 
 
 Houston, Tex 
 
 Huntington, W. Va.. 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. . . . 
 
 Irvington, N. J 
 
 Jackson. Mich 
 
 Jackson. Miss 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla 
 
 Jamestown, N. Y.. . . 
 Jefferson City, Mo. . . 
 Jersey City, N. J. . . . 
 
 Johnstown, Pa 
 
 Joliet, 111 
 
 Joplin, Mo 
 
 Juneau, Alaska . . . 
 Kalamazoo, Mich.. 
 Kansas City, Kan. 
 Kansas City, Mo. . 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 40,000 
 28,000 
 120,000 
 22,000 
 41,000 
 
 92,000 
 29,000 
 87,000 
 106,000 
 10,000 
 
 45,000 
 44,000 
 55,000 
 138,000 
 31,000 
 
 28,000 
 40,000 
 36,000 
 49,000 
 76,000 
 
 138,000 
 54,000 
 32,000 
 12,000 
 46,000 
 
 68,000 
 60,000 
 83,000 
 138,000 
 50,000 
 
 314,000 
 25,000 
 48,000 
 23,000 
 92,000 
 
 39,000 
 14,000 
 298,000 
 67,000 
 38,000 
 
 30,000 
 3,000 
 
 49,000 
 101,000 
 324,000 
 
312 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Kearny, N.J , 
 
 Kenosha, Wis 
 
 Kingston, N. Y.. . 
 Knoxvillej Tenn. . . 
 Kokomo, Ind 
 
 La Crosse, Wis. . . 
 Lakewood, Ohio . . 
 
 Lancaster, Pa 
 
 Lansing, Mich. . . . 
 Lawrence, Mass. . . 
 
 LewLston, Me.-. . . . 
 Lexington, Ky. . . . 
 
 Lima, Ohio 
 
 Lincoln, Neb 
 
 Little Rock, Ark.. . 
 
 Long Beach, Cal. . 
 
 Lorain, Ohio 
 
 IjOS Angeles, Cal. . 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 Lowell, Mass 
 
 Lynchburg, Va. . . . 
 
 Lynn, Mass 
 
 McKeesport, Pa. . . 
 Macon, Ga. ...... 
 
 Madison, Wis 
 
 Maiden, Mass 
 
 Manchester, N. H. 
 
 Manila, P. I 
 
 Mansfield, Ohio . . . 
 Marion, Ohio 
 
 Medford, Mass. . . . 
 Memphis, Tenn. . . 
 Meriden, Conn. . . . 
 Meridian, Miss. . . . 
 Miami, Fla 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. . . 
 
 Mobile, Ala 
 
 Moline, 111 
 
 Montclair, N. J 
 
 Montgomery^ Ala 
 
 Montpelier, Vt 
 
 Mount Vernon, N. Y. 
 
 Muncie, Ind 
 
 Muskegon, Mich 
 
 Muskogee, Okla 
 
 Nashua, N. H 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Newark, N. J 
 
 Newark, Ohio 
 
 New Bedford, Mass.. . 
 New Britain, Conn. . . 
 New Brunswick, N. J. 
 
 Newburgh, N. Y 
 
 New Castle, Pa 
 
 New Haven, Conn. . . . 
 New London, Conn. . . 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 Newport, Ky 
 
 Newport, R. I 
 
 Newport News, Va. . 
 New Rochelle, N. Y. 
 Newton, Mass 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 27,000 
 40,000 
 27,000 
 78,000 
 30,000 
 
 30,000 
 42,000 
 53,000 
 57,000 
 94,000 
 
 32,000 
 42,000 
 41,000 
 55,000 
 65,000 
 
 56,000 
 
 37,00a 
 
 577,000 
 
 235,000 
 
 113,000 
 
 30,000 
 99,000 
 46,000 
 53,000 
 38,000 
 
 49,000 
 78,000 
 284,000 
 28,000 
 28,000 
 
 39,000 
 162,000 
 35,000 
 23,000 
 30,000 
 
 457,000 
 
 381,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 31,000 
 
 29,000 
 
 43,000 
 7,000 
 43,000 
 37,000 
 37,000 
 
 30,000 
 28,000 
 118,000 
 414,000 
 27,000 
 
 121,000 
 59,000 
 33,000 
 30,000 
 45,000 
 
 163,000 
 26,000 
 
 387,000 
 29,000 
 30,000 
 
 36,000 
 36,000 
 46,000 
 
 New York, N. Y.... 
 Niagara Falls, N. Y . 
 
 Norfolk, Va. . . . 
 Norristown, Pa. 
 Norwalk, Conn. 
 Norwich, Conn. 
 Oakland, Cal 
 
 Oak Park, 111 
 
 Ogden, Utah 
 
 Oaklahoma City, Okla. 
 
 Olympia, Wash 
 
 Omaha, Neb 
 
 Orange, N. J.. . 
 Oshkosh, Wis. . 
 Pasadena, Cal.. 
 Passaic, N. J.. . 
 Paterson, N. J. 
 
 Pawtucket, R. I. . . . 
 Pensacola, Fla. . . ; . 
 
 Peoria, III 
 
 Perth Amboy, N. J. 
 Petersburg, Va 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Phoenix, Ariz. . . . 
 
 Pierre, S. D 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. . . 
 Pittsfield, Mass. . 
 
 Plainfield, N. J. . . . 
 
 Pontiap, Mich 
 
 Port Huron, Mich. 
 
 Portland, Me 
 
 Portland, Ore 
 
 Portsmouth, Ohio. . . 
 Portsmouth, Va. . . . 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 
 Providence, R. I.. . . 
 Pueblo, Colo 
 
 Quincy, 111.. . . 
 Quincy, Mass. 
 Racine, Wis. . . 
 Raleigh, N. C. 
 Reading, Pa. . . 
 
 Revere, Mass. . . . 
 
 Reno, Nev 
 
 Richmond, Ind. . . 
 Richmond, Va. . . 
 Roanoke, Va 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. . 
 
 Rockford, 111 
 
 Rock Island, 111. . 
 
 Rome, N. Y 
 
 Sacramento, CaL. 
 
 Saginaw, Mich. . . 
 St. Joseph, Mo. . . 
 St. I/ouis, Mo. . . . 
 St. Paul, Minn.. . 
 St. Thomas, V. 1. 
 
 Salem, Mass 
 
 Salem, Ore 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah . 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 5,621,000 
 51,000 
 
 116,000 
 32,000 
 28,000 
 30,000 
 
 216,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 192,000 
 
 33,000 
 33,000 
 45,000 
 64,000 
 136,000 
 
 64,000 
 31,000 
 76,000 
 42,000 
 31,000 
 
 1,823,000 
 
 29,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 588,000 
 
 42,000 
 
 28,000 
 34,000 
 26,000 
 69,000 
 258,000 
 
 33,000 
 54,000 
 35,000 
 238,000 
 43,000 
 
 36,000 
 48,000 
 59,000 
 24,000 
 108,000 
 
 29,000 
 12,000 
 27,000 
 172,000 
 51,000 
 
 296,000 
 66,000 
 35,000 
 26,000 
 66,000 
 
 62,000 
 
 78,000 
 
 773,000 
 
 235,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 18.000 
 
 118,000 
 
 San Antonio, Tex. 
 San Diego, Cal. . . , 
 
 San Franoi.soo, Cal. 
 
 San Jose, Cal 
 
 San Juan, P. R.. . . 
 Santa Fe, N. M. . . 
 Savannah, Ga 
 
 Schenectady, N. Y. 
 
 Scranton, Pa 
 
 Seattle, Wash 
 
 Sheboygan, Wis. . . , 
 Shreveport, La. . . . , 
 
 Sioux City, Iowa. 
 Sioux Falls, S. D. 
 Somerville, Mass. 
 South Bend, Ind.. 
 Spokane, Wash. . . 
 
 Springfield, 111 
 
 Springfield, Mass. 
 Springfield, Mo. . . 
 Springfield, Ohio . 
 Stamford, Conn.. , 
 
 Steubenville, Ohio. 
 
 Stockton, Cal 
 
 Superior, Wis 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y.. . . 
 Tacoma, Wash. . . . 
 
 Tallahassee, Fla. . 
 
 Tampa, Fla 
 
 Taunton, Mass. . . 
 Terre Haute, Ind. 
 Toledo, Ohio 
 
 Topeka, Kan. . 
 Trenton, N. J. 
 Troy, N. Y. . . 
 Tulsa, Okla. . . 
 Utica, N. Y... 
 
 Waco, Tex 
 
 Waltham, Mass. . . 
 
 Warren, Ohio 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 Waterbury, Conn. . 
 
 Waterloo, Iowa 
 
 Watortown, N. Y 
 
 West Hoboken, N. J. . 
 West New York, N. J . 
 Wheeling, W. Va 
 
 Wichita, Kan 
 
 Wichita Falls, Tex 
 
 Wilkes-Barre, Pa 
 
 Wilmington, Del 
 
 Wilmington, N. C 
 
 Williamsport, Pa 
 
 Winston-Salem, N. C. 
 
 Woonsocket, R. I 
 
 Worcester, Mass 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y 
 
 York, Pa 
 
 Youngstown, Ohio. 
 Zanesville, Ohio . . . 
 
 Population 
 1920 
 161,000 
 75,000 
 
 508,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 83,000 
 
 89,000 
 138,000 
 316,000 
 31,000 
 44,000 
 
 71,000 
 25,000 
 93,000 
 71,000 
 104,000 
 
 59,000 
 130,000 
 40,000 
 61',000 
 40,000 
 
 29,000 
 40,000 
 40,000 
 172,000 
 97,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 51,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 243,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 119.000 
 
 72,000 
 
 72;ooo 
 
 94,000 
 
 39,000 
 31,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 438,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 36,000 
 31,000 
 40,000 
 30,000 
 54,000 
 
 72,000 
 40,000 
 74,000 
 110,000 
 33,000 
 
 36,000 
 48,000 
 43,000 
 180,000 
 
 100,000 
 48,000 
 
 132,000 
 30,000 
 
 FOREIGN CITIES:HAVING A POPULATION OF 250,000 OR MORE 
 
 Population 
 250,000 
 445,000 
 644,000 
 310,000 
 250,000 
 348,000 
 250,000 
 541,000 
 619,000 
 393,000 
 Berlin, Germany 1,898,000 
 
 Aleppo, Syria 
 
 Alexandria, EgjTjt 
 
 Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 
 
 Antwerp, Belgium 
 
 Bagdad, Mesopotamia 
 
 Bahia, Brazil 
 
 Baku, Azerbaijan 
 
 Bangkok, Siam_ 
 
 Barcelona, Spain 
 
 Belfast, Ireland. 
 
 Birmingham, England . 
 
 Bombay, India 
 
 Bordeaux, France. . . 
 Bradford, England. . 
 Breslau, Germany . . . 
 Bristol, England .... 
 Brussels, Belgium. . . 
 Bucharest, Rumania. 
 Budapest, Hungary.. 
 
 862,000 
 979,000 
 262,000 
 283,000 
 512,000 
 362,000 
 679,000 
 309,000 
 880,000 
 
 Population 
 
 Buenos Aires, Argentina 1 ,637,000 
 
 Cairo, Egypt 791,000 
 
 Calcutta, India 1,222,000 
 
 Canton, China 900,000 
 
 Charlottenburg, Germany 306,000 
 
 Chemnitz, Germany 288,000 
 
 Christiania, Norway 259,000 
 
 Cologne, Germany 5] 7,000 
 
 Constantinople, Turkey 1,000,000 
 
 Copenhagen, Denmark . 
 
 Damascus, Syria 
 
 Dortmund, Germany. 
 Dresden, Germany. . . 
 
 Dublin, Ireland 
 
 Dusseldorf, Germany. 
 Edinburgh, Scotland. , 
 
 E.ssen, Germany 
 
 Foochow, China 
 
 Frankfort, Germany. . 
 Genoa, Italy 
 
 506,000 
 250,000 
 282,000 
 548,000 
 309, OOt) 
 359,000 
 334,000 
 464,000 
 624,000 
 415,000 
 300,000 
 
 Population 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland 1.111,000 
 
 Hague, The, The Netherlands 352,000 
 
 Hamburg, Germany 931,000 
 
 Hangohow. China 6-34,000 
 
 Hankow, China 1,444,000 
 
 Hanover, Germany 302,000 
 
 Havana, Cuba. 361,000 
 
 Hongkong, China 366,000 
 
 Kiev, Ukraine 610,000 
 
 Kobe, Japan 609,000 
 
 Kvoto, Japan 591,000 
 
 Leeds, England 431,000 
 
 Leipzig, Germany .590,000 
 
 Lisbon, Portugal 435,000 
 
 Liverpool, England 773,000 
 
 Lodz, Poland 424,000 
 
 London, England '. 4,358,000 
 
 Lucknow, India 260,000 
 
 Lyon, France 524,000 
 
 Madras, India 519,000 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 313 
 
 Population 
 
 Madrid, Spain 652,000 
 
 Magdeburg, Gcrinany 280,000 
 
 Manchnster, England 741,000 
 
 Marseille, France 551 , OCX) 
 
 Melbourne, Australia 724,000 
 
 Mexico City, Mexico 1,080,000 
 
 Milan, Italy 663,000 
 
 Montevideo, Uruguay 361,0(X3 
 
 Montreal, Canada 700,000 
 
 Moscow, Russia 1,817,000 
 
 Munich, Germany 596,000 
 
 Nagoya, Japan 430,000 
 
 Naples, Italy 698,000 
 
 Ningpo, China 670,000 
 
 Nuremberg, Germany 333,000 
 
 Odessa, Ukraine 631,000 
 
 Osaka, Japan 1,253.000 
 
 Population 
 
 Palermo, Sicily 346,000 
 
 Para (Balem), Brazil 275,000 
 
 Paris, France 2,888,000 
 
 Peking, China 1,000,000 
 
 Petrograd, Russia 2,319,000 
 
 Prague, Czecho-Slovakia 617,(KX) 
 
 Rangoon, Burma 294,000 
 
 Riga, Latvia 569,0(X) 
 
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1,128,000 
 
 Rome, Italy 591,000 
 
 Rotterdam, The Netherlands 501,000 
 
 Saloniki, Greece 250,000 
 
 Santiago, Chile 416.000 
 
 Sao Paulo, Brazil 450,000 
 
 Shanghai, China 1,000,000 
 
 Sheffield. England 474,000 
 
 Singapore. Straits Settlements .... 260.000 
 
 Population 
 Smyrna, Greek territory in Asia 
 
 Minor 375.000 
 
 Sooohow, China 500.000 
 
 Stockholm. Sweden 408.000 
 
 Stuttgart, Germany 286.000 
 
 Sydney. Australia 793.000 
 
 Tashkend. Russian Turkestan. . . . 272.000 
 
 Tientsin. China 800.000 
 
 Tiflis. Georgia 347,000 
 
 Tokyo. Japan 2,173,000 
 
 Toronto, Canada 510,000 
 
 Turin. Italy 452,000 
 
 Vienna, Au.'stria 1,839,000 
 
 Warsaw, Poland 820,000 
 
 West Ham, England 288,000 
 
 Yokohama, Japan 423,000 
 
 ELEVATION OF SOME PLATEAUS AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS 
 
 Feet 
 
 Abyssinian Plateau 5-7,000 
 
 Aconcagua, Andes. Argentina (high- 
 est in South America) 22,860 
 
 Apo, Mindanao, Philippines 10,312 
 
 Ararat, Armenia 17,325 
 
 Mt. Blanc. Alps, France (highest in 
 
 Alps) 15,781 
 
 Bolivian J'lateau 10-13.000 
 
 Brazilian Plateau 2-2.500 
 
 Cliimbor.azo, Andes, Ecuador 20,498 
 
 Cotopaxi, Andes, Ecuador 19,613 
 
 Elbruz, Caucasus, Russia (highest in 
 
 Europe) •. 18,200 
 
 Etna, Sicily . 10.835 
 
 Everest. Himalayas, Nopal (highest 
 
 in the world) 29,002 
 
 Feet 
 
 Fujiyama, Japan 12, .365 
 
 Kanchanjanga,jHimaIayas, Nepal. . . 28,156 
 
 Kenia, Africa 18,620 
 
 Kilimanjaro, Africa (highest in Africa) 19,780 
 
 Lassen, Sierra Nevada, Cal 10,577 
 
 Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada (high- 
 est in Canada) 19,539 
 
 McKinloy, Alaska (highest in North 
 
 America) 20,300 
 
 Mauna Kea. Hawaiian Lslands 13.805 
 
 Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 13,675 
 
 Mexican Plateau 5-6,000 
 
 Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., N. C. 
 
 (highest in Eastern U. S.) 6,711 
 
 Mt. Tina, Haiti 10.300 
 
 Orizaba, Mexico (highest in Mexico).. 18,314 
 
 Feet 
 Pike's Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colo- 
 rado 14,111 
 
 Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,798 
 
 Ramier, Cascade Mountains, Wash- 
 ington 14..363 
 
 St. Elias. Alaska 18,025 
 
 San FrancLsco Mountain. Arizona. . . . 12,794 
 Shasta, Cascade Mountains, Cali- 
 fornia 14,380 
 
 Tibet Plateau 10-15,000 
 
 United States, Western Plateau 4-6,000 
 
 Vesuvius, Italy 4,200 
 
 Washington, White Mountains, N. H. 
 
 (highest in Northeastern U.S.) 6,279 
 
 Whitney, Sierra Nevada. California 
 
 (highest in Continental U. S.) 14,502 
 
 SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Length 
 
 in 
 Miles 
 North America 
 
 Arkansas 2,170 
 
 Colorado 2,000 
 
 Columbia 1,400 
 
 Mackenzie 2,500 
 
 Missouri 3,000 
 
 Basin 
 
 Area Ocean 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 185,671 Atlantio 
 225,049 Pacific 
 216,537 Pacific 
 590,000 Arctic 
 527,155 Atlantio 
 
 Missouri-Mississippi. 4,300 1,257,000 Atlantio 
 
 Ohio 975 201,720 Atlantic 
 
 Rio Grande 1,800 240,000 Atlantic 
 
 St. Lawrenoe 2,200 530,000 Atlantic 
 
 Yukon 2,000 440,000 Pacific 
 
 Length Basin 
 
 in Area Ocean 
 
 Miles Sq. Miles 
 South America 
 
 Amazon 3,.300 2,500,000 Atlantic 
 
 Orinooo 1,.350 366,000 Atlantic 
 
 Plata 2,580 1,200,000 Atlantic 
 
 Europe 
 
 Danube 1,770 
 
 Dnieper 1,200 
 
 Dwina 1,000 
 
 300,000 Atlantic 
 242,000 Atlantic 
 140,000 Arctic 
 
 Rhine 800 75.000 Atlantio 
 
 Rhone 500 .38,000 Atlantic 
 
 Seine 482 30,300 Atlantic 
 
 Volga 2,400 563,300 Caspian 
 
 Length 
 
 Basin 
 
 Area Ocean 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 Miles 
 Asia 
 
 Amur 2,800 520,000 Paoifio 
 
 Brahmaputra 1.800 425.000 Indian 
 
 Ganges 1..500 440,000 Indian 
 
 Hwang' 2.700 570.000 Paoifio 
 
 Lena 2,800 950,000 Arctic 
 
 Ob 3,200 1,000.000 Arctic 
 
 Yangtze 3,200 548,000 Paoifio 
 
 Yenisei 3,000 1,500,000 Arctic 
 
 Africa 
 
 Kongo 2,900 1,200,000 Atlantio 
 
 Niger 2,600 563,300 Atlantio 
 
 Nile 3,400 1,273,000 Atlantic 
 
 Zambezi 1,500 600,000 Indian 
 
 SOME OF THE LARGEST LAKES OF THE WORLD 
 
 Sq. 
 Miles 
 
 Aral Sea 26,900 
 
 Baikal 12,500 
 
 Caspian 169,000 
 
 Dead Sea 370 
 
 Erie 9.990 
 
 'Below sea level. 
 
 Area in Ele- Greatest 
 
 Area in Ele- Greatest 
 
 vation 
 
 Depth 
 
 
 Sq. 
 
 vation 
 
 Depth 
 
 in Feet 
 
 in Feet 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 in Feet 
 
 in Feet 
 
 160 
 
 225 
 
 Great Bear Lake.. 
 
 11,200 
 
 200 
 
 
 1.312 
 
 4,550 
 
 Great Salt Lake . . 
 
 2,360 
 
 4.218 
 
 30-50 
 
 -851 
 
 2,400 
 
 Great Slave Lake. 
 
 10.100 
 
 
 over 650 
 
 -1,310' 
 
 1,330 
 
 Huron 
 
 22 322 
 
 582 
 
 750 
 
 573 
 
 210 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 1.850 
 
 810 
 
 
 
 
 Miohigan 
 
 21.729 
 
 582 
 
 870 
 
 Area in Ele- Greatest 
 
 Sq. 
 Miles 
 
 Nyasa 14.000 
 
 Ontario 7,104 
 
 Superior 30,829 
 
 Tanganyika 12,650 
 
 Victoria Nyanza. . 30,000 
 Winnipeg 9.400 
 
 vation 
 
 Depth 
 in Feet 
 
 in Feet 
 
 1,500 
 
 600-1- 
 
 247 
 
 738 
 
 602 
 
 1,008 
 
 2,800 
 
 2,100 
 
 4,000 
 
 590-f 
 
 710 
 
 70 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 
 (Webster's International Dictionary) 
 
 a, as in ale; a, as in sen'ate; &, as in cire; £, as in am; a, as in arm; a, as in ask; a, as in fi'nal; a, as in all; 
 e, as in eve; e, as in e-vent'; e, as in end; e, as in fern; e, as in re 'cent; i, as in Ice; i, as in i-de'a; I, as in 111; i, as in 
 police; 6, as in old; 6, as in 6-bey'; 6, as in 6rb; 6, as in son; 6, as in odd; u, as in use; u, as in u-nite'; u, as in rude; 
 u, as in full; u, as in up; fi, as in firn; y, as in pit'y; oo, as in food; oo, as in foot; ou, as in out; oi, as in oil; N, rep- 
 resenting simply the nasal tone of the preceding vowel, as in ensemble (aN'saN'b'l); ' (for voice glide), as in pardon 
 (par'd'n); g (hard), as in go; s (sharp), as in so; z (like s sonant), as in zone; ch ( = tsh), as in chair; sh, for ch, 
 as in machine; zh ( = sh made sonant), for z, as in azure; j (=dzh), for g, as in gem; k, for ch, as in chorus; kw, 
 for qu, as in queen; ks (surd), for x, as in vex; gz (sonant), for x, as in exist; f, for ph, as in philosophy; hw, for wh, 
 as in what; t, for ed, as in baked; ng, as in long; n (like ng), for n before the sound of k or hard g, as in bank; n 
 (ordinary sound), as in no. 
 
 The primary accent is indicated by a short, heavy mark (')> the secondary by a lighter mark (')• 
 The numbers refer to pages. Where several references are given, the pages on which the principal description 
 is to be found are indicated by heavier type. 
 
 A-c4-pul'c6, 166. 
 
 A-con-cfi'gua, Mt., 186. 
 
 A-crop'o-lis, 254. 
 
 Ad-I-rdn'dack Moimtains, 
 73. 
 
 A-do'be bricks, 187. 
 
 Ad-rl-at'Ic Sea, 252. 
 
 ^-ge'an Sea, 263. 
 
 Af'ri-ca, 291-302; called 
 the Dark Continent, 291 ; 
 Cape-to-Cairo Railroad, 
 299-300; causes for lack 
 of knowledge about, 291; 
 Central, 40, 300; climate 
 and its dangers, 294-295; 
 effect of native life on 
 exploration, 295; falls in 
 rivers, 294; Kongo Basin, 
 300-301; Mediterranean 
 coast, 295-296; Nile 
 River region, 296-297; 
 southern part, 298-299; 
 statistics of area and 
 population, 310; trade 
 of United States with, 
 307-308. 
 
 Agriculture, use of soil for, 
 8-10. See Farming. 
 
 Air, movement of, as winds, 
 
 ^ 12-13; vapor in, 14. 
 
 Al-a-ba'ma, 102. 
 
 A-Us'ka, 55, 58, 143-145. 
 
 Al-ba'ni-a, 247. 
 
 Al'ba-ny (N. ¥.), 76. 
 
 Al-ber'ta, 157. 
 
 Aldermen, 30. 
 
 Al-ex-an'dri-a, 297. 
 
 Al-fai'fa, 131; Alberta, 157; 
 Argentina, 187; Cali- 
 fornia, 124, 132; Colo- 
 
 ^ rado, 131; Utah, 127. 
 
 Al-ge'rI-a, 214 
 
 Al-giers', 296. 
 
 Al-hSm'bra, 239, 242, 295. 
 
 Al 'le-gha-ny Moimtains , 76 . 
 
 Al'le-ghe-ny Plateau, 96. 
 
 Allegheny River, 76. 
 
 Alligators, Brazil, 192. 
 
 Alp, defined, 223. 
 
 Al-p&c'as, 184. 
 
 Al-pe'na (Mich.), 86. 
 
 Alps, 196, 219, 220-222; 
 Tyrolean, 196, 249. 
 
 Am'a-zon River, 190-192; 
 Kongo River compared 
 
 ^ with, 300-301. 
 
 Am'ster-dam, 224. 
 
 A'miind-sen, Ro'ald, 38. 
 
 An'des Mountains, 183, 
 184, 186. 
 
 Animals, Africa, 295; Aus- 
 tralia, 283; Brazil, 191- 
 192; frigid zones, 42; 
 India, 268; Kongo re- 
 gion, 301; Yellowstone 
 
 ^ National Park, 134. 
 
 Ant-arc'tic Circle, 40, 41. 
 
 Antarctic continent, 48. 
 
 An'thra-cite, 77. 
 
 An-til'les {or aN-tel'), 170. 
 
 An'-to-fa-gas'ta, 184. 
 
 Ant'werp, 224, 227. 
 
 Apartment houses, 70. 
 
 Ap 'en-nines, 243. 
 
 Ap-pa-la'chl-an Highland 
 (or -lach'I-an), 102. 
 
 Apples, British Columbia, 
 158; California, 132; 
 Canada, 157, 158; Michi- 
 gan, 90; Northeastern 
 States, 81 ; Washington 
 
 _ (state), 135. 
 
 A'pri-cots, Washington, 135. 
 
 A-ra'bi-a, 258. 
 
 Ar'al, Lake, 257, 259. 
 
 Ar-chi-pel'a-go (ar-M-pel'- 
 
 .. a-go), 287. 
 
 Arc 'tic Circle, 40, 41, 227. 
 
 Arctic Ocean, 48. 
 
 Area and population, tables 
 of, 310-313. 
 
 Ar-gen-ti'na, 186-188, 306. 
 
 Ar-i-z6'na, 138, 139. 
 
 Ar'kan-sas (ar'kan-sa),116. 
 
 Ar'no River, 244. 
 
 A'sia, 48, 256-279; general 
 facts, 257-259; India, 
 Indo-China, and Malay 
 Peninsula, 266-269; Si- 
 beria and central, 264- 
 
 265; southwestern, 259- 
 263; statistics of area 
 and population, 310; the 
 Far East, 269-279; trade 
 of United States with, 
 
 ^308. 
 
 As'philt, Trinidad, 171 ; use 
 of, in road-making, 22. 
 
 Ath'ens, 253-254. 
 
 At-lin'ta (Ga.), 102, 106, 
 
 ^ 119. 
 
 At-lan'tic Ocean, 48, 49, 
 
 ^ 72. 
 
 At'las Mountains, 296. 
 
 Attar of roses, 252. 
 
 Aus-trol-a'si-a, 283-289. 
 
 Aus-tra'll-a, 48, 283-286; 
 area and population, 310; 
 trade relations with Unit- 
 ed States, 307-308. 
 
 Aus'tri-a, 249, 250. 
 
 Automobiles, 22, 78, 85; 
 France, 214; used in 
 China, 274. 
 
 Avalanches, 221. 
 
 Axis of earth, 38. 
 
 A-z6res' Islands, 242. 
 
 Ba-ha'ma Islands, 35, 168. 
 
 Bah-i'a (Brazil) (ba-e'a), 
 190. 
 
 Bai-kal', Lake, 265. 
 
 Bal-kan' countries {or bal'- 
 kan), 247-255. 
 
 Balkan Moimtains, 252. 
 
 Balkan Peninsula, 252. 
 
 Bal'tic Sea, 218. 
 
 Bal'tl-more, 75, 76, 82. 
 
 Bananas, Central America 
 and West Indies, 172; 
 Costa Rica, 168; Florida, 
 106; Mexico, 165; South- 
 ern States, 106; West 
 Indies, 168. 
 
 Banks in New York City, 
 70. 
 
 Bar-ce-16'na, 237. 
 
 Barge Canal, New York, 73. 
 
 Barley, Argentina, 187; Cal- 
 ifornia, 132; China, 272; 
 Colorado, 130; Czecho- 
 
 slovakia, 252; Germany, 
 216; Great Britain, 207; 
 Russia, 232; Washington 
 (state), 135. 
 
 BS'sel, 223. 
 
 Ba-va'ri-a, 216. 
 
 Bay City (Mich.), 86. 
 
 Bays, 50. 
 
 Beans, Mexico, 165. See 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Beer making, Germany, 
 218. 
 
 Bel-fast' (or bel'fast), 208 
 
 Bel'gi-xim, 224-226. 
 
 Bel-grade', 249, 251, 252. 
 
 Be'ring Sea, 145. 
 
 Ber-lin', 215. 
 
 Berlin-Constantinople rail- 
 road, 249, 251, 252. 254. 
 
 Big Trees, California, 137. 
 
 Bn'lings (Mont.), 134. 
 
 Bir'ming-ham (Ala.) (ber'- 
 ming-am), 106, 114, 116. 
 
 Birmingham (Eng.), 203. 
 
 Bituminous coal, 77. 
 
 Black Sea, 219, 247, 248, 
 251, 253. 
 
 Blanc, Mont (m6n-biaN'), 
 220, 221. 
 
 Blast furnaces. North Cen- 
 tral States, 84. 
 
 Bluefish. /See Fisheries. 
 
 B6-g6-ta', 182. 
 
 B6-he'mi-an glass, 250. 
 
 B6-kha'ra, province, 265. 
 
 B6-liv'i-a, 177. 
 
 Bom-bay', 266, 267. 
 
 Boot and shoe making, 
 79, 95, 159. 
 
 Bor-deaux' (b6r-d6'),210. 
 
 B6r'ne-6, 287, 
 
 B6s'p6-rus, 251. 
 
 BSs'ton (Mass.), 75-76, 82. 
 
 Bou-logne', 210. 
 
 Boundaries of countries, 58; 
 natural, 58. 
 
 BrWford (Eng.), 206. 
 
 Bra-zil', 178, 188-192. 
 
 Bread, 2. 
 
 Breakwaters, 50. 
 
 Brem'en, 218. 
 
 315 
 
316 
 
 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Bres'lau (bres'lou), 215. 
 
 Brest, 210. 
 
 Brick making, 3; Argen- 
 tina, 187; used in road- 
 making, 22. 
 
 Brit'ish Af' ri-ca, 299. 
 
 British C6-lum'bi-a, 158. 
 
 British Em'pire, 160, 195, 
 197, 266, 298. 
 
 British Gui-a'na, 195. 
 
 British Hon-du'ras, 171. 
 
 British Isles, 197-209. 
 
 British Parliament, 202. 
 
 Brit'ta-ny, 213. 
 
 Brooklyn, 67. 
 
 Brus'sels, 224. _ 
 
 Bu-cha-rest' (or boo), 254. 
 
 Bu'da-pest, 249, 250. 
 
 Bud'dhism, 259. 
 
 Bue'nos Ai'res (i'ras), 185, 
 186, 187-188. 
 
 Buf 'fa-16 (N. Y.), 73, 76, 84. 
 
 Btiffalo herds, 134. 
 
 Bul-ga'ri-a, 252. 
 
 Buoys, 52-53; bell and 
 whistling, 53. 
 
 Bftr'ma, 270. 
 
 Burros (boor'os), 166, 167. 
 
 Butte (Mont.), 134-135. 
 
 Cabbages. See Vegetables. 
 
 Cabinet woods, Brazil, 191. 
 
 Cacao, Brazil, 190; Ecua- 
 dor, 179, 182. 
 
 Ca'diz, 237. 
 
 Cai'ro (Egypt), 297. 
 
 Ca-lais' (ka-la'), 210. 
 
 Cal-cut'ta, 266, 268, 269. 
 
 Cal-i-f6r'ni-a, 102, 120-122, 
 137; southern, 139-141; 
 Valley of, 132. 
 
 Cal-la'6, 183. 
 
 Cam'bridge (Mass.), 75. 
 
 Cam'dcn (N. J.), 74. 
 
 Camels, 297. 
 
 Can'a-da, Dominion of, 55, 
 58, 166-160; trade rela- 
 tions of United States 
 and, 303, 306. 
 
 Canadian Rockies, 159. 
 
 Canals, 86-87; China, 
 273-274. 
 
 Can'cer, Tropic of, 39-40. 
 
 Can-ton' (China), 273, 275. 
 
 Capes, 51. 
 
 Cape-to-CairoRailroad,299. 
 
 Cape Town, 298. 
 
 Capital, of state, 30; of 
 United States, 30. 
 
 Capitol building, at Wash- 
 ington, D. C, 30, 80. 
 
 Cap'ri-com, Tropic of, 40. 
 
 Caravans, central Asia, 264, 
 265; northern Africa, 
 296. 
 
 Car-ib-be'an Sea, 170. 
 
 Carpet manufacturing, Phil- 
 adelphia, 79; south- 
 western Asia, 262. 
 
 Car-ra'ra marble, 244. 245. 
 
 Cas-cade' Ranges, 135. 
 
 Cas'pi-an Sea, 232, 257, 
 265. 
 
 Caste system, 266-267. 
 
 Cats 'km Mountains, 73, 75. 
 
 Cattle raising, 93; Alberta, 
 157; Argentina, 187; 
 Australia, 285; Brazil, 
 190; California, 132; 
 Czecho-Slovakia, 252; 
 Egypt, 297; France, 211; 
 Great Britain, 207-208; 
 Mexico, 165; Nether- 
 lands, 225; North Central 
 States, 95; Rhodesia, 300; 
 Siberia, 264; Spain and 
 Portugal, 238; world dis- 
 tribution, 308; Yucatan, 
 165. 
 
 Central America, 55, 148, 
 168-173. 
 
 Cer'ro de^Pas'co, 183. 
 
 Champs Elysees (shon'za- 
 le-za'), 210, 211. 
 
 Channels to harbors, 52. 
 
 Charles'ton (S. C), 119. 
 
 Char'lotte A-ma'lie, 172. 
 
 Charts, 52. 
 
 Cheese, Netherlands, 225. 
 See Dairying. 
 
 Cher-bourg' (sher-boor'), 
 210. 
 
 Cherries. See Fruits. 
 
 Ches'a-peake Bay, oysters 
 in, 82. 
 
 Chey-enne ' ( W y o m i n g ) 
 (shi-en'), 123. 
 
 Chi-ca'go (111.), 91-93. 
 
 Chicago River, 91. 
 
 CM'le, 184-185, 306. 
 
 Chim'ney Rock, 102. 
 
 Chinaware, 269. 
 
 Chi-nese', in San Francis- 
 co, 133. 
 
 Chinese Republic, 257, 258, 
 259,269-276; trade with 
 United States, 308. 
 
 Cho'sen, 277. 
 
 Chris-ti-a'ni-a, 227. 
 
 Cin-cin-na'ti (Ohio), 94. 
 
 Cities, development of, due 
 to manufacturing and 
 trade, 19; disadvantages 
 of river cities, 94; dis- 
 tribution in United States, 
 150; largest foreign, 312- 
 313; largest in United 
 States, 311-312; life in, 
 67, 70; North Central 
 States, 84, 85, 91-93, 
 94, 95; Northeastern 
 States, 67-76; officers of, 
 30; Southern States, 102, 
 106, 115, 116, 119; twenty- 
 five largest in world, 310; 
 Western States, 125, 126, 
 133, 134, 135, 136, 141. 
 
 Citrus fruits, California, 
 132; Southern States, 
 106. See Lemons, Or- 
 anges, etc. 
 
 City halls, 30. 
 
 Cleveland (Ohio), 84, 85. 
 
 Climate, Africa, 294-295, 
 298; Alaska, 143; Asia, 
 257-258, 262; Australia, 
 
 284, 285; Balkan coun- 
 tries, 252-253; British 
 Isles, 198-199; California, 
 136, 138; Canada, 156- 
 157, 158; China, 269, 272; 
 East Indies, 287; France, 
 211; India, 266, 268; in- 
 fluence on character of 
 people, 303; Italy, 242, 
 246; Kongo region, 300; 
 Mexico, 161, 164; New 
 Zealand, 286; Oregon, 
 136; Puget Sound region, 
 135, 136; Russia, 231, 
 232, 234; Scandinavian 
 countries, 227, 228; South 
 Africa, 298; South Ameri- 
 ca, 177, 178, 179, 185, 
 187; southern California, 
 139-140; Southern States, 
 101-102, 112, 152; Spain 
 and Portugal, 237; Swit- 
 zerland, 219-220; Wash- 
 ington (state), 135, 136; 
 West Indies, 168, 170. 
 
 Clock-making, New Eng- 
 land, 79; Switzerland, 
 223. 
 
 Clothing, as a necessity, 1; 
 in frigid zones, 43; in 
 torrid zone, 40; of early 
 settlers, 17; origins of, 2; 
 places where manufac- 
 tured, 79; transportation 
 of, 20-21. 
 
 Clouds, formation of, 14-15. 
 
 Clyde River, 198. 
 
 Coal, 76, 77; Alaska, 144; 
 Australia, 286; Belgium, 
 226; British Columbia, 
 159; Czecho-Slovakia, 
 249; France, 212, 213; 
 Germany, 217; Great 
 Britain, 203; Illinois, 92; 
 importance as fuel, 77-78 ; 
 kinds of, 77; lacking in 
 South America, 178; Nova 
 Scotia, 159;Pennsylvania, 
 77; Russia, 231 ; Southern 
 States, 115; Spain and 
 Portugal, 238; state pro- 
 ducing the most, 153. 
 
 Coast Ranges, 133. 
 
 Co'coa, Central America 
 and West Indies, 172; 
 Ecuador, 182. 
 
 Coconut oil, 172. 
 
 Coconuts, Central America 
 and West Indies, 168, 
 169, 172; Florida, 101. 
 
 Cod fishing, 82, 160. 
 
 Coffee, Brazil, 189-190, 306; 
 Costa Rica, 168; Cuba, 
 170; island dependencies 
 of United States, 147; 
 Java, 287; Mexico, 165; 
 Mocha, 262; south- 
 western Asia, 262; world 
 production, 307. 
 
 Co-logne' (ko-lon'), 215. 
 
 Co-lom'bi-a, 179, 182. 
 
 C6-16n', 148, 168. 
 
 C61-6-ra'd6, 124, 125. 
 
 Colorado River, 138, 139. 
 
 Col-os-se'um, Rome, 244. 
 
 Columbia River, 136, 138. 
 
 C6-lum'bus, Christopher, 
 35-36, 287. 
 
 Colvunbus (Ohio), 95. 
 
 Compass, 33; first used by 
 Chinese, 269. 
 
 Concrete, used in road- 
 making, 22. 
 
 Congress of United States, 
 31. 
 
 Con-nect'i-cut, 58. 
 
 Connecticut Valley, 9. 
 
 C6n'stan-ti[-n6'ple,248,250- 
 251, 253. 
 
 Continent, defined, 195. 
 
 Continents, the five, 47-48. 
 
 Cook, Mt., 287. 
 
 Cook Inlet, 145. 
 
 Cool-gar'die, 286. 
 
 Co-pen-ha'gcn, 227. 
 
 Copper, Arizona, 139; Aus- 
 tralia, 286; Lake Supe- 
 rior region, 87; Mexico, 
 165; Minnesota, 87, Mon- 
 tana, 135; Ontario, 159; 
 Peru, 183; Spain and 
 Portugal, 238; Washing- 
 ton (state), 135. 
 
 Coral reefs, 288. 
 
 Cork oak, 208. 
 
 Corn, Argentina, 187; Aus- 
 traUa, 285; China, 272 
 Egypt, 297; France, 211 
 Hungary, 252; Italy, 245 
 Kongo region, 301 ; North 
 Central States, 96; pro- 
 portion exported by Unit- 
 ed States, 309; region of 
 greatest growth, 153; 
 Southern States, 103; 
 world acreage, 306. 
 
 Com Belt, North Central 
 
 States, 93, 96, 153. 
 Cos'ta Ri'ca, 168. 
 Co-to-pax'i, Mt. (ko-to- 
 
 pak'se), 182. 
 Cotton, 2, 20; Australia, 
 285; Brazil, 190; China, 
 272; East Indies, 287; 
 Egypt, 297, 307; Kongo 
 region, 301 ; Malay Penin- 
 sula, 267; Mexico, 165; 
 at New Orleans, 118; 
 Russia, 232; Southern 
 States, 104, 110, 111-115, 
 152; southwestern Asia, 
 262; world production, 
 308. 
 Cotton Belt, 104. 
 Cotton bolls, 113. 
 Cotton gin, 112. 
 Cotton manufacturing, Bel- 
 gium, 226; France, 212; 
 Germany, 217; Great 
 Britain, 206; Japan, 278; 
 Milan, 246; New Eng- 
 land, 79. 
 Cottonseed oil, 115. 
 Coun'cil Bluffy (la.), 122. 
 Crip 'pie Creek (Colo.), 
 126. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 317 
 
 Cu'ba, 146-147, 168, 169- 
 170, 171 ; trade of United 
 States with, 306-307. 
 
 Cu-le'bra Cut, 149. 
 
 Culm, 77. 
 
 Currents, ocean, 49. 
 
 Cutlery, Milan, 246; New 
 England, 78. 
 
 Cuz'co, 184. 
 
 Czech 'o-slo-va'ki-a (che- 
 ko-slo-va'ki-a), 249-250. 
 
 Dairying, Australia, 285- 
 286; Canada, 157; Den- 
 mark, 229; Great Brit- 
 ain, 208; Illinois, 98; 
 Japan, 278; Netherlands, 
 225; North Central 
 States, 98; Northeastern 
 States, 81-82; Ohio, 98; 
 Switzerland, 223; Wis- 
 consin, 98. 
 
 Dairymen, 3. 
 
 DSl'las (Texas), 119. 
 
 Da-mas 'cus, 263. 
 
 DSn'ube region, countries 
 of, 247-255. 
 
 Danube River, 219, 224, 
 250, 251, 253, 254. 
 
 Dan'viUe (Va.), 102. 
 
 Dar'ling River, 284. 
 
 Dates, Egypt, 297; north- 
 ern Africa, 296; south- 
 western Asia, 262; Spain, 
 238. 
 
 Dead Sea, 264. 
 
 Degrees, measuring by, 47. 
 
 Del'a-ware, 58. 
 
 Delaware River, 75. 
 
 Del'hi, 266. 
 
 Del'ta, of Mississippi, 105; 
 of Nile, 297, 298. 
 
 Deltas, 25. 
 
 Democracy, government 
 called, 31. 
 
 Den'mark, 172, 227-230. 
 
 Den'ver (Colo.), 125-126. 
 
 Deserts, Arabia, 258; Aus- 
 traUa, 284; Russia, 232; 
 Sahara, 291, 296. 
 
 Des Moines' (Iowa) (de 
 moin'), 95. 
 
 De-troit' (Mich.), 85. 
 
 Detroit River, 85. 
 
 Dew, 15. 
 
 Diamonds, South Africa, 
 299. 
 
 Dikes, The Netherlands, 
 225. 
 
 Directions, 33-34. 
 
 District of Co-lum'bi-a, 
 79-80. 
 
 Divides, 9. 
 
 Dominican Republic, 171. 
 
 Douglas firs, 137. 
 
 Drainage, 8; New Orleans, 
 117-118. 
 
 Dres'den, 215. 
 
 Dry-dock, 48. 
 
 Dry farming, 131. 
 
 Dub'lin, 208. 
 
 Du-luth' (Minn.), 73, 87, 
 90. 
 
 Dfir'ham (N. C), 103. 
 Dutch Gui-a'na, 195. 
 Dyewoods, Brazil, 191. 
 
 Earth, the, 35-54; circum- 
 ference, 36; continents 
 and oceans, 47-54; daily 
 motion, 37-39; diameter, 
 36; form and size, 35-36; 
 latitude and longitude, 
 47; statistics of area, 
 population, etc., 310; 
 zones and hemispheres, 
 39-42, 46. 
 
 Earthquakes, Central 
 America and West Indies, 
 170. 
 
 East In'dies, 287-288. 
 
 East River, 67, 71. 
 
 Ec-ua-dor' {or ek'-), 179. 
 
 Ed'in-burgh (ed'n-bur-6), 
 202-203. 
 
 Ed'mon-ton, 158. 
 
 E'gypt, 294, 296-298; trade 
 of United States with, 
 307. 
 
 E-gyp'tian Su-dan', 299. 
 
 Elections, 27-28. 
 
 Electric power, 94. 
 
 Ellis Island, New York, 74. 
 
 El Pa'so (Texas), 102. 
 
 Em'er-ald Isle, 208. 
 
 En 'gland (in 'gland), early 
 settlements in North 
 America, 55; East Indian 
 possessions, 288; United 
 States becomes independ- 
 ent of, 58. See British 
 Isles. 
 
 E-qua'tor, 39. 
 
 Erie, Lake, 84. 
 
 Erie Canal, 73. 
 
 Es'ki-mos, 16-17, 38, 41- 
 43, 46. 
 
 Es-tho'ni-a, 235. 
 
 Eii-phra'tes River, 263. 
 
 Eii-ra'sia, 195. 
 
 Eu'rope, 195-255; countries 
 of the Danube and the 
 Balkans, 247-254; coun- 
 tries of western Mediter- 
 ranean, 237-247; eastern, 
 230-236; general facts, 
 195-196; northwestern, 
 197-230; statistics of area 
 and population, 310. 
 
 Evaporation, 13. 
 
 Ev'er-est, Mt., 258. 
 
 Fair 'banks (Alaska), 143, 
 144. 
 
 Farming, 3; Argentina, 187, 
 188; Canada, 156, 157, 
 158; Central America 
 and West Indies, 168, 
 172; China, 274-275; Col- 
 orado, 127-128, 131; 
 Czecho-Slovakia, 252; 
 dry, 131; Egypt, 297; 
 France, 211-212; Ganges 
 Vallej^, 268; Germany, 
 215-217; Great Britain, 
 
 207-208; Hungary and 
 Rumania, 252, 253; im- 
 portance as an occupa- 
 tion, 3; influence on 
 population of United 
 States, 152; Ireland, 208; 
 Italy, 243, 24.5-246; land 
 suitable for, 8-9; Mexico, 
 165; mixed, 98-99; Neth- 
 erlands, 225; New Zea- 
 land, 286; North Central 
 States, 92-93, 95-99; 
 Northeastern States, 80- 
 82; northern Africa, 296; 
 Norway, 229; Poland, 
 235; Russia, 231-232; Si- 
 beria, 264; South Africa, 
 298; Southern States, 
 103, 107, 110-111; Spain 
 and Portugal, 238; Swit- 
 zerland, 223; winds and 
 rainfall as affecting, 11- 
 16. 
 
 Farm machinery, 97, 99, 
 100. 
 
 Fertilizers, 7; nitrate of 
 soda, 184, 185. 
 
 Figs, California, 132; Egypt, 
 297; France, 211; Greece, 
 253; northern Africa,296; 
 southwestern Asia. 262. 
 
 Fi'ji Islands, 288. 
 
 Fin'land, 229, 234-235. 
 
 Finland, Gulf of, 230, 234. 
 
 Fi6rds, 227, 286. 
 
 Fisheries, Alaska, 145; 
 British Isles, 203; New- 
 foundland, 160; North- 
 eastern States, 82-83 ; 
 Pacific Northwest, 137- 
 138; Scandinavian coun- 
 tries, 229-230. 
 
 Flax, 2; Argentina, 187; 
 Belgium, 226; Ireland, 
 208; Russia, 232; Spain 
 and Portugal, 238. 
 
 Flood plains, 25, 298. 
 
 Flor'ence, 244. 
 
 F16r'i-da, 101, 102, 106. 
 
 Flour, 2. 
 
 Flour milling, Budapest, 
 250; Minneapolis, 95; 
 Odessa, 234; Spokane, 
 135. 
 
 Fog, 14. 
 
 Foghorns, 52. 
 
 Food, in frigid zones, 42; in 
 torrid zone, 40; necessity 
 of, 1; of early settlers, 17; 
 transportation of, 20-21; 
 where found, 2. 
 
 Forage crops, southern Cal- 
 ifornia, 140. 
 
 For'a-ker, Mt., 144. 
 
 Fords, 21. 
 
 Forests and forest products, 
 Africa, 295, 301 ; Alaska, 
 143; Australia, 283; Cali- 
 fornia, 137; Canada, 157, 
 159; East Indies, 287; 
 Germany, 216; Michigan, 
 86; Norway, 229; Pacific 
 Northwest, 137-138; Rus- 
 
 sia, 231, 233; Siberia, 264; 
 Southern States, 115-116; 
 state of Washington, 135. 
 
 For-mo'sa, 277, 308. 
 
 Fort Wil'liam, 160. 
 
 Fo'rum, Rome, 244. 
 
 France, 210-215; early set- 
 tlements in North Am- 
 erica, 55; possessions in 
 Africa, 296; trade of 
 United States with, 309. 
 
 Freezing point, 15. 
 
 French Gui-a'na, 195. 
 
 Frigid zones, 41-46. 
 
 Frost, 15. 
 
 Fruits, Alberta, 157; Aus- 
 tralia, 285, 286; CaUfor- 
 nia, 132; Canada, 157, 
 158; Central America and 
 West Indies, 168, 172; 
 Ecuador, 179; Egypt, 
 297; France, 211; Hun- 
 gary, 252; island depend- 
 encies of United States, 
 147; Italy, 246; Mexico, 
 165; Michigan, 90; North- 
 eastern States, 81 ; north- 
 em Africa, 296; Ohio, 98; 
 Pacific Northwest, 136; 
 South Africa, 298; south- 
 ern California, 140; 
 Southern States, 106; 
 Spain and Portugal, 238; 
 Switzerland, 223; Utah, 
 126; Washington (state), 
 135. 
 
 Fuel, as a necessity, 2; im- 
 portance of coal as, 77-78. 
 
 Furniture, of pioneers, 17. 
 
 Fumitixre making, Grand 
 Rapids, 86. 
 
 Furs, sealskin, 145; Siberia, 
 264. 
 
 Gai'i-Iee, Sea of, 264. 
 
 Gai'ves-ton (Texas), 114, 
 156. 
 
 Gfin'ges River, 267, 268. 
 
 Gardeners, 3. 
 
 Garden of the Gods, Colo- 
 rado, 124. 
 
 Ga'ry (Ind.), 92, 93. 
 
 Gas, natural, 77-78, 115. 
 
 Ge-ne'va, 223. 
 
 Gen'6-a, 245, 246-247. 
 
 Geor'gi-a, 58. 
 
 Ger'ma-ny, 215-219. 
 
 Geysers, New Zealand, 286; 
 Yellowstone Park, 134. 
 
 Gi-bral'tar, 242, 291. 
 
 Gibraltar, Strait of, 239. 
 
 Gla'cier National Park, 
 142. 
 
 Glaciers, Alaska, 143, 144; 
 New Zealand, 286; Swit- 
 zerland, 219, 222. 
 
 Glfis'gow {or -ko), 198, 202. 
 
 Glass making, Belgium, 
 226; Pittsburgh, 78. 
 
 Glassware, Czecho-Slova- 
 kia, 250; Venice, 245. 
 
 Glouces'ter (Mass.), 82. 
 
 Go'bi, Desert of, 274. 
 
318 
 
 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Gold, Alaska, 144; Austra- 
 lia, 286; California, 121- 
 122; Colorado, 126; Mex- 
 ico, 165; South Africa, 
 298, 299; Washington 
 (state), 135. 
 
 Golden Gate, San Francisco 
 harbor, 132, 133. 
 
 Gon 'do-las, 245. 
 
 Goth 'en-burg (got'en-bftrg) , 
 229. 
 
 Government, 27-31; local, 
 29; reason for, 27; state, 
 29-30; United States, 30- 
 31. 
 
 Governor of state, 30. 
 
 Grains, Argentina, 187; 
 Australia, 284-285; Cali- 
 fornia, 132; Canada, 157; 
 Chile, 185; China, 272; 
 Czecho-Slovakia, 252; 
 East Indies, 287; Egypt, 
 297; France, 211; Ger- 
 many, 216; Great Brit- 
 ain, 207; India, 267; 
 Italy, 245; Kongo region, 
 301; Mexico, 165; Neth- 
 erlands, 225; North Cen- 
 tral States, 92-93, 96; 
 Nonvay, 229; Pacific 
 Northwest, 136; Russia, 
 232; Siberia, 264; South 
 Africa, 298; southwestern 
 Asia, 262; Utah, 126; 
 Washington (state), 135. 
 
 Gra-na'da, 239. 
 
 Grand Can 'yon of the Colo- 
 rado, 139. 
 
 Grand Rap'ids (Mich.), 86. 
 
 Grapefruit, Florida, 107; 
 Southern States, 106. 
 
 Grapes, Australia, 285; Bul- 
 garia, 253; California, 
 132 ; Canada, 157 ; France, 
 211, 213; Greece, 253; 
 Hungary, 252; Italy, 245; 
 Michigan, 90; Northeast- 
 ern States, 81 ; Spain, 238. 
 
 Grass, Great Britain, 207; 
 Netherlands, 225; North 
 Central States, 97. 
 
 Gravity, 38. 
 
 Great American Desert, 
 121, 125. 
 
 Great Brit'ain, trade of 
 United States with, 309. 
 See British Isles. 
 
 Great Dipper, 33. 
 
 Great Lakes, 73, 75, 78; 
 importance as transpor- 
 tation system, 156; 
 steamers on, 84. 
 
 Great Plains, 96, 123, 134. 
 
 Great Pyramid, 291. 
 
 Great Salt Lake, 122, 126, 
 127, 257. 
 
 Great Valley of Cal-i-for'- 
 ni-a, 132. 
 
 Greece, 248, 253-254. 
 
 Gua-dal-quiv'ir River (gad- 
 al-kwiv'er), 237, 238. " 
 
 Gua-te-ma'la City (ga-te- 
 ma'la), 170. 
 
 Guay-a-quil' (gwi-a-kel'), 
 
 179. 
 Guayaquil, Gulf of, 179. 
 Gui-a'na, 195. 
 
 Hague, The, 224. 
 Hail, 15. 
 Hai'ti, 171. 
 
 Halibut. See Fisheries. 
 Hall'stadt, 249. 
 Ham'barg, 215, 218, 224. 
 Hamp'ton, 198. 
 Harbors, 50-51. 
 Har-dang'er Fiord, 228. 
 Hardwoods, Southern 
 
 States, 116. 
 Hat manufacturing, Flor- 
 
 GiiCG 244 
 Ha-vSn'a, 161, 168, 169. 
 Havre (ha'ver), 210. 
 Ha-wai'ian Islands, 133, 
 
 146, 147, 276, 288. 
 Hay, Russia, 232. See 
 
 Hel-sing-fors', 229, 234. 
 Hem'i-spheres, 46. 
 Hemp, Cuba, 170; Philip- 
 pine Islands, 147, 148; 
 
 Russia, 232. 
 Herring. See Fisheries. 
 Hib'bing (Minn.), 90. 
 Hides, Australia, 286; South 
 
 America, 192. 
 Highlands, 66. 
 Highways, 22; rivers as, 22- 
 
 25. 
 Hills, 10. 
 Hi-mS'la-y^ Mountains, 
 
 258 
 Hin-dus, 266-267. 
 Hoi 'land, 224-226. 
 Ho'ly Land, 262. 
 Homespun, 17. 
 Hon-du'ras. British, 171. 
 Hong'kong', 272, 273. 
 H6-n6-lu'lu, 146, 147. 
 Hood, Mt.,' 137, 141. 
 Hops, Czecho-Slovakia, 252. 
 Horn, Cape, 186. 
 Horses, North Central 
 
 States, 95. 
 Houses, in frigid zones, 43; 
 
 need for, 1-2; of pioneers, 
 
 17. 
 Hous'ton (Texas), 102, 106, 
 
 119. 
 Hudson River, 71, 72, 73, 75. 
 Hun'ga-ry, 250. 
 Hu'ron, Lake, 86. 
 Hurricanes, West Indies, 
 
 170. 
 
 Icebergs, 49. 
 
 I'da-ho, 122. 
 
 Ig'loo, Eskimo hut, 43, 46. 
 
 il-U-nois' (noi' or noiz'), 
 
 28, 92, 96. 
 Immigrants, 74. 
 In'cas, 184. 
 India, 35, 257, 266-269; 
 
 trade with United States, 
 
 309. 
 in-di-an'a, 96. 
 
 In'di-an-ap'6-lis (Ind.), 95, 
 119. 
 
 Indian Ocean, 48. 
 
 Indians, 36; Mexico, 167; 
 New Mexico and Ari- 
 zona, 139; Peru, 178, 184; 
 South America, 178. 
 
 Indigo, East Indies, 287. 
 
 In'do-Chi'na, 266-269. 
 
 I'6-wa, 122. 
 
 I-qui'que (e-ke'ka), 184. 
 
 I-qui'tos, 191. 
 
 Ire 'land, 208-209; trade of 
 United States with, 309. 
 See British Isles. 
 
 I'rish Sea, 208. 
 
 ir-kutsk', 265. 
 
 Iron manufacturing, 78; 
 Belgium, 226; Birming- 
 ham, Ala., 115; Chicago, 
 92; effect on density of 
 population, 153-154; 
 France, 212; Germany, 
 217; Great Britain, 203, 
 206; Northeastern States, 
 78; Poland, 235. 
 
 Iron ore, Belgium, 226; 
 Cuba, 170; Czecho-Slo- 
 vakia, 249; France, 212; 
 Germany, 217; Great 
 Britain, 203; Lake Supe- 
 rior region, 87; Mexico, 
 165; Michigan, 87; Min- 
 nesota, 78, 87, 90; New 
 York State, 78; Ontario, 
 159; Pennsylvania, 78; 
 relation to population, 
 153; Russia, 231; Scandi- 
 navia, 229; Spain and 
 Portugal, 238. 
 
 Ir-ri-ga'tion, Chile, 185; 
 China, 275; Colorado', 
 125-126; Ganges Valley, 
 268; Italy, 245; Japan, 
 278; southern California, 
 140; Spain, 238. 
 
 It-a'li-ans, in Argentina, 
 187. 
 
 it'a-ly, 242-247; posses- 
 sions in Africa, 296. 
 
 Ivory, Kongo region, 301. 
 
 Jack'son-ville (Fla.), 101, 
 
 119. 
 Ja-mai'ca, 168, 169, 171. 
 Japanese Empire, 276-278; 
 
 trade with United States, 
 
 308. 
 Ja'va, 287. 
 
 Jersey City (N. J.), 74. 
 Je-ru'sa-lem, 259, 262. 
 Jewelry manufactures, 
 
 Switzerland, 223. 
 Jews, among immigrants 
 
 to New York, 74. 
 Jo-han'nes-burg (yo-han'- 
 
 nes-burg), 298, 299. 
 Jor'don River, 264. 
 Jugosla'via (yu-go-sla'vi- 
 
 a), 251, 252^253. 
 Ju-neau' (joo-no'), 143- 
 
 144. 
 Ju'ra Moimtains, 223. 
 
 KS'fir com, 130. 
 Kangaroos, 283. 
 Kan'sas, 95, 96. 
 Kansas City (Mo.), 94. 
 Kar'nak, Temple of, 296. 
 Kay'aks (ki'aks),42. 
 Kerosene oil, 78. 
 Khi'va, 265. 
 Kiel Canal, 218, 230. 
 Kil-lar'ney Lakes, 208- 209. 
 Kim'ber-ley, 299. 
 Kings'ton, 168, 169. 
 Kod-iak' Island, 145. 
 Kon'go River, 294, 300. 
 K6-re'a, 277. 
 Krem'lin, 232. 
 
 Lace making, Venice, 245. 
 
 Lakes, the largest, 313. 
 
 Land of the Midnight Sim, 
 227. 
 
 Lar'a-mie (Wyo.), 122. 
 
 Las'sa, 2.59. 
 
 Lat'in A-mer'i-ca, trade of 
 United States with, 306- 
 307. 
 
 Latitude and longitude, 47. 
 
 Lat'vi-a, 235. 
 
 Laws, 27. 
 
 Lead, Colorado, 126; Mex- 
 ico, 165; Spain and Por- 
 tugal, 238; Washington 
 (state), 135. 
 
 Lead'ville (Colo.), 126. 
 
 Leather manufactures, 2; 
 New England, 79; St. 
 Louis, 95. 
 
 Leeds, 206. 
 
 Legislatures, 30. 
 
 Leip'zig (lip'sik),215. 
 
 Lemons, Egypt, 297; Flor- 
 ida, 107; France, 211; 
 Italy, 243, 246; southern 
 California, 140; Southern 
 States, 106; Spain, 238. 
 
 Le'6-pold-ville, 300. 
 
 Les'ser An-til'les, 170. 
 
 Lev'ees, 116-117. 
 
 Life-saving stations, 53. 
 
 Lighters, 71, 72. 
 
 Lighthouses, 51. 
 
 Lightships, 52. 
 
 Li'ma, 183. 
 
 Limes, Florida, 107; South- 
 ern States, 106. See 
 Fruits. 
 
 Linen manufacture, 2, 21; 
 France, 212; Ireland, 208. 
 
 Lis'bon, 237. 
 
 Lith-u-a'ni-a, 235. 
 
 Liv'er-pool, 198, 202. 
 
 Lobsters. See Fisheries. 
 
 Local questions, voting on, 
 29. 
 
 Locks, canal, 86, 87; Barge 
 Canal, 73; illustrative 
 diagrams, 86; Panama 
 Canal, 148, 149. 
 
 Lodz, 235. 
 
 Lon'don, 197, 198-199, 202. 
 
 Long Island, 71. 
 
 Long-leaf pine, 116. 
 
 Longshoremen, 72. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 319 
 
 Lds An'g61-6s {or fin'jfil-es), 
 139, 140, 141. 
 
 Lou-ise', Lake, 159. 
 
 Lou-i-si-fi'na {or &'na), 104, 
 i05, 115. 
 
 Lou'is-ville (Ky.), 119. 
 
 Louvre (loovr'), 211. 
 
 Low Countries, The, 224, 
 See Netherlands, The. 
 
 Lu-ceme', Lake, 222, 223. 
 
 Liunber, chief source of 
 supply, 154. See For- 
 ests and forest products. 
 
 Ly-on', 213, 214. 
 
 Mac-ad 'am pavement, 22. 
 
 Mackerel fishing. See Fish- 
 ©riGS. 
 
 McKin'ley.Mt. (ma-kin'li), 
 144. 
 
 Ma-drid', 238, 239. 
 
 Mag-da-le'na River, 182. 
 
 Ma-gel'lan, explorer, 36. 
 
 Magellan, Strait of, 185-186. 
 
 Magnetism, 33. 
 
 Main River {or min), 219. 
 
 Maine, 158, 160. 
 
 Mal'a-ga, 238. 
 
 Ma-lay' Peninsula, 266, 
 267. 
 
 Ma-na'os (ma-na'oosh), 
 191, 192. 
 
 Min'ches-ter, 202, 206. 
 
 Manchester Ship Canal, 
 202, 206. _ 
 
 Man-chu 'ri-a (man-choo '- 
 ri-a), 274, 277. 
 
 Min-hat'ton Island, 70, 71. 
 
 Ma-nil'a, 146, 147, 148. 
 
 Man-i-to'ba, 160. 
 
 Manufactiires, Austria, 250; 
 Belgium, 226; British 
 Isles, 203, 206-207, 208; 
 Canada, 159; Chicago, 
 92; China, 269; France, 
 212-213; Germany, 217- 
 218; Ireland, 208; Italy, 
 245, 246; Japan, 278; 
 New England, 78-79; 
 New York City, 73-74; 
 North Central States, 84- 
 85; Northeastern States 
 74, 78-79; Poland, 235 
 Russia, 232, 234; South 
 ern States, 114-115 
 southwestern Asia, 262 
 Switzerland, 222, 223 
 Western States, 126, 135! 
 
 Manufacturing, beginning 
 of, 18-19; development 
 of, 19; difference among 
 states in, 78-79; impor- 
 tance as an occupation, 
 73-74, 76; importance in 
 New York City, 73; in- 
 fluence on development 
 of cities, 19; relation to 
 density of population, 
 154. 
 
 Maps, directions on, 33-34; 
 how drawn, 32; how to 
 study, 174; physical, 66, 
 174; political, 68, 174; 
 
 relief, 66, 174; scale on, 
 32-33; used by sea cap- 
 tains, 52. 
 
 Marble, 244, 245. 
 
 Mar-quette' (Mich.), 87. 
 
 Mar-seille' (mar-sa'y or 
 mar-sal'), 213, 214. 
 
 Mfir-ti-nique', 170. 
 
 Mar'y-land, 58, 81. 
 
 Mas-sa-chu'setts, 55, 58, 
 75, 79. 
 
 Mayor, office of, 30. 
 
 Meat packing.Buenos Aires, 
 188; Chicago, 93; St. 
 Louis, 95; St. Paul, 95; 
 San Francisco, 133. 
 
 Med'K-ter-ra'ne-on Sea, 
 211, 214, 248, 251, 253, 
 295, 296. 
 
 Mel-a-spi'na Glacier, 144. 
 
 Mem'phis (Tenn.), 116. 
 
 Men-do'za, 186, 187. 
 
 Mercury, 165, 238. 
 
 Mes-6-p6-ta'mi-a, 263. 
 
 Metal goods, Czecho-Slo- 
 vakia, 249 ; Germany, 217; 
 New England, 78. 
 
 Mex'i-c6, 55, 161-167. 
 
 Mexico City, 161, 164. 
 
 Mexico, Gulf of, 166. 
 
 Mi-am'i (Fla.), 101. 
 
 Mich'i-gan, 86. 
 
 Michigan, Lake, 91. 
 
 Mil 'on {or mil-Sn'), 246. 
 
 Miles City (Mont.), 134. 
 
 Milk, 2. See Dairying. 
 
 MilTet, Egypt, 297; India, 
 267. 
 
 Mn-wau'kee (Wis.), 90. 
 
 Minerals and mining, Alas- 
 ka, 144; Australia, 286; 
 Belgium, 226; Canada, 
 159; Colorado, 126; Cuba, 
 170; France, 212; Great 
 Britain, 203; Mexico, 165; 
 Montana, 135; North 
 Central States, 87, 90; 
 Peru, 183; relation be- 
 tween density of popula- 
 tion and, 153; Siberia, 
 264; South Africa, 299; 
 South America, 184; 
 southern California, 140; 
 Spain and Portugal, 238; 
 Washington (state), 135. 
 
 Min-ne-Sp'6-Us (Minn.), 
 94, 95, 250; Odessa com- 
 pared with, 234. 
 
 Min-ne-s6'ta, 90, 96. 
 
 Mis-sis-sip 'pi (state), 116. 
 
 Mississippi River, 22, 55, 76, 
 93, 116-118. 
 
 Mis-sou 'ri (state), 93, 94. 
 
 Missouri River, 93. 
 
 Mixed farming. North Cen- 
 tral States, 98-99; South- 
 ern States, 107, 110-111. 
 
 Mo-bUe' (Ala.) (mo-bel'), 
 119. 
 
 Mo'cha, 262. 
 
 Mo-ham 'med-ans, 296. 
 
 Mo'hawk River, 73. 
 
 Molasses, 110. 
 
 M61-len'd6, 184. 
 
 M6n-g6'U-a, 274. 
 
 M6-n6n'-ga-he la River, 76. 
 
 Mon-ta'na, 121, 134. 
 
 M6n-te-vi-de'6, 187. 
 
 M6nt-g6m'er-y (Ala.), 102. 
 
 M6nt-re-al', 55, 58, 158, 
 159, 160, 306. 
 
 Mor'mons, 126. 
 
 M6-r6c'c6, 214, 295, 296. 
 
 Mos'cow, 230, 232-234. 
 
 Mosques, 296. 
 
 Mountains, height of prin- 
 cipal, 313. 
 
 Moving-picture industry, 
 139, 140. 
 
 Mules, 95. 
 
 Mxmimies, 297. 
 
 Mu'nich,215. 
 
 Mur'ray River (mtir'ry), 
 284, 285. 
 
 Na'ples, 242-243, 246. 
 
 Naples, Bay of, 243. 
 
 Nish'ville (Tenn.), 116. 
 
 Nas'sau (nas's^), 168, 169. 
 
 Natural gas, 77-78; South- 
 ern States, 115. 
 
 Naval stores, 116. 
 
 Ne-brSs'ka, 96, 123. 
 
 Ne'groes, Africa, 40, 295; 
 Southern States, 105-106. 
 
 Neth'er-lands, The, 224- 
 227; East Indian posses- 
 sions, 288. 
 
 Ne-va'da, 136. 
 
 Ne'va River, 234. 
 
 New'ark(N.J.) (nu'erk),74. 
 
 New Bruns'wick, 157. 
 
 New En 'gland, 96; manu- 
 facturing in, 78-79. 
 
 New'foimd-land (nu'fund- 
 land), 58, 160-161. 
 
 New Guin'ea (gin'e), 288. 
 
 New Himp 'shire, 58, 79. 
 
 New Jer'sey, 58, 71, 74, 81. 
 
 New Mex'i-c6, 139. 
 
 New Or^le-ans, 22, 55, 58, 
 101, 102, 113, 116-119, 
 156, 172. 
 
 New South Wales, 285. 
 
 New Spain, 55. 
 
 Newspapers, New York 
 City, 71. 
 
 Newsprint, wood pulp for, 
 159. 
 
 New World, 36, 46; rank of 
 United States in, 303. 
 
 New York Central Railroad, 
 73. 
 
 New York City, 66, 67-74. 
 
 New York Harbor, 51, 70, 
 71, 72, 74. 
 
 New York State, 58, 81. 
 
 New Zea'land (ze'land), 
 286; area and population, 
 310. 
 
 Ni-Sg'a-ra Falls, 77, 84; 
 power supplied by, 78. 
 
 Niagara River, 84. 
 
 Nickel, 159. 
 
 Ni'ger River, 294. 
 
 Nile River, 294, 297-298. 
 
 Nish, 253. 
 
 Nitrate of soda, Chile, 184, 
 185. 
 
 Nor'folk (Va.), 119. 
 
 N6rth A-mer'i-ca, 55-175; 
 Canada and Newfound- 
 land, 156-161; Central 
 America and West Indies, 
 168-175; countries, 55- 
 67; dependencies of Unit- 
 ed States, 143-149; Mexi- 
 co, 161-167; North Cen- 
 tral States, 84-101; 
 Northeastern States, 67- 
 83; South America com- 
 pared with, 177; Southern 
 States, 101-120; statis- 
 tics of area and popula- 
 tion, 310" Western States, 
 120-142. 
 
 North Cape, 227, 228. 
 
 North Car-6-U'na, 58, 101, 
 103, 104, 113, 116. 
 
 North Central States, 84- 
 101. 
 
 North Da-ko'ta, 9 
 
 Northeastern States, 67-83. 
 
 North Pole, 38, 41. 
 
 North Sea, 202, 203, 219, 
 229. 
 
 North Star, 33, 39. 
 
 NSr'way, 227-230. 
 
 No'treDame' (no'tr* dam')» 
 church, 211. 
 
 No'va Sc6'ti-a, 157,158,198. 
 
 Nuts, Brazil, 191; southern 
 California, 140. 
 
 O-a'hu Island, 147. 
 
 Oak'land (Cal.), 123, 132. 
 
 O'a-ses, 291. 
 
 Oats, Argentina, 187; Cali- 
 fornia, 132; Canada, 157; 
 Czecho - Slovakia, 252; 
 France, 211; Germany, 
 216; Great Britain, 207; 
 Netherlands, 225; North 
 Central States, 93; Rus- 
 sia, 232. 
 
 Ocean liners, 48. 
 
 Ocean movements, 49. 
 
 Oceans, 11-12, 48-49 ; depth, 
 48-49; food from, 82. 
 
 0-des'sa, 233, 234, 250, 
 259. 
 
 5g'de'n (Utah), 122. 
 
 O-hi'6, 96; farming in, 
 98-99. 
 
 Ohio River, 22, 76, 94 
 
 Ohio Valley, 9. 
 
 Oil. See Petroleum. 
 
 Oil refining, California, 140. 
 
 5k-la-ho'ma, 115. 
 
 Oklahoma City (Okla.),150. 
 
 Old World, 36, 46. 
 
 Olives, Bulgaria, 253 
 France, 211; Greece, 253 
 Italy, 243, 244, 246 
 northern Africa, 296 
 southern California, 140 
 southwestern Asia, 262 
 Spain, 238. 
 
 'ma-he (Neb.), 120, 123 
 
320 
 
 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Onions, Spain, 238; Si- 
 beria, 264. See Vege- 
 tables. 
 
 On-ta'ri-6, Lake, 84, 132. 
 
 Ontario, province of, 158, 
 159. 
 
 Opium, Malay Peninsula, 
 267. _ 
 
 O-por'to (6-p6r'too), 237. 
 
 Oranges, California, 121, 
 132; Central America and 
 West Indies, 172; China, 
 272; Egypt, 297; Flor- 
 ida, 106, 107; France, 
 211; Italy, 243, 246; 
 southern California, 140; 
 Southern States, 106; 
 Spain, 238. 
 
 Or'bit of earth, 37-38. 
 
 Or'e-gon, 136, 137. 
 
 O-ri-no'co River, 313. 
 
 0-ri-za'ba, Mt., 313. 
 
 6-r6'ya, 183. 
 
 Ostriches, South Africa, 
 298. 
 
 5s-we'g6 (N. Y.), 84. 
 
 5t'ta-wa, 160. 
 
 Overland Trail, 122. 
 
 Oyster fisheries, 82-83. 
 
 Pa-cif' ic islands, 58, 288. 
 Pacific Northwest, 136-138. 
 Pacific Ocean, 48. 
 Pack trains, 21. 
 Pai'es-tine, 259, 262, 263. 
 Palm Beach (Fla.), 101. 
 Pan-a-ma' (city), 148. 
 Panama, Isthmus of, 55, 
 
 146. 
 Panama, Republic of, 55, 
 
 146. 
 Panama Canal, 55, 146, 
 
 147-149, 178. 
 Panama hats, Ecuador, 179, 
 
 182. 
 Paper manufacttire, Japan, 
 
 278 
 Pa-ra', 190, 191, 192. 
 Pa'-ra-guay {or gwi')» 188. 
 Pa-ra-na' River, 187, 188. 
 Par'is, 210-211. 
 Par'the-non, 254. 
 Pat'er-son (N. J.), 79. 
 Peaches, California, 132; 
 
 Canada, 157; Michigan, 
 
 90; Northeastern States, 
 
 81. See also Fruits. 
 Pears, California, 132; 
 
 Northeastern States, 81. 
 Pea'ry, Admural (pe'ri), 38, 
 
 39 
 Pe-k'ing' (pe-kin'), 259, 
 
 273, 274. 
 Pe-lee', Mt., 170. 
 Pen-in'su-las, 51. 
 Penn-syl-va'ni-a, 58, 81, 
 
 96; coal in, 77. 
 Pepper. See Spices. 
 Per-nam-bu'co, 190. 
 Per'sia (-shia or -zha), 262- 
 
 263. 
 Persian Gulf, 263. 
 Pe-ru', 183-184. 
 
 Pet'ro-grad, 230, 233, 234, 
 259. 
 
 Pe-tro'le-um, 77-78; Loui- 
 siana, 115; Mexico, 165; 
 Oklahoma, 115; Russia, 
 231 ; southern California, 
 140; Southern States, 
 115; Texas, 115. 
 
 Phil'a-del'phi-a, 74, 75, 79. 
 
 Phil'ip-pine Islands, 36, 
 146, 147; imports to 
 United States from, 308. 
 
 Pike's Peak, 124. 
 
 Pi-la'tus, Mt. (pe-la'to6s), 
 222. 
 
 Pilots, 53. 
 
 Pineapples, Florida, 106- 
 107. 
 
 Pine trees, Southern States, 
 116. 
 
 Pioneers, 17. 
 
 Pi-rae'us (pi-re'us),253. 
 
 Pitts'biirgh (Pa.), 76, 84, 
 96, 115; Birmingham 
 (Ala.) compared with, 
 115; iron and steel manu- 
 facturing at, 78. 
 
 Plains, 9. 
 
 Plantations, Southern 
 States, 110-111. 
 
 Plant food, 6. 
 
 Plant life, Australia, 283. 
 See Vegetation. 
 
 Plants, value of soil to, 5-6; 
 water needed by, 11. 
 
 Pla'ta River, 188. 
 
 Plateaus, list of highest, 
 313. 
 
 Plums, California, 132. *See 
 Fruits. 
 
 Po-ca-tel'lo (Idaho), 122. 
 
 Po'lond, 235. 
 
 Po'lar zones, 41. 
 
 Poles of earth, 38; life at, 
 41-46. 
 
 Pom-pei'i (p6m-pa'ye),243. 
 
 Pony Express, 122. 
 
 P6-p6'ca-t6'pet'l, Mt. (or 
 -ta-petl), 164, 167. 
 
 Population, manufacturing 
 and density of, 154; rela- 
 tion between climate and, 
 303; statistics of, 310-313. 
 
 Po River, 245. 
 
 Port Ar'thur, 160. 
 
 Port au Prmce' (p6r-t6- 
 prans' or p6rt-6-prins'), 
 171. 
 
 Port'Iand (Ore.), 136, 137. 
 
 Por'to Ri'co, 146, 168, 171. 
 
 Por'tii-gol, 237-239, 242. 
 
 Postmasters, 31. 
 
 Potatoes, Alberta, 157; Cal- 
 ifornia, 132; Canada, 157, 
 158; Czecho-Slovakia, 
 252; Russia, 232; Siberia, 
 264. See Vegetables. 
 
 P6-t6'mac River, 80. 
 
 Pottery making, Venice, 
 245. 
 
 Poultry, California, 132; 
 Cuba, 169. 
 
 Prague, 249-260, 251. 
 
 Prairies, 96. 
 
 Precious stones, East In- 
 dies, 288. 
 
 President of United States, 
 31. 
 
 Pri-bi-lof Islands (pre-be- 
 lof), 145. 
 
 Pueblo Indians (pweb'16), 
 139. 
 
 Pu'get Sound, 136. 
 
 Pullman cars, 92. 
 
 Pulp mills, 159. _ 
 
 Pim'ta A-re'nas (poon'tS 
 a-ra'nas), 186. 
 
 Pyr'a-mids, Egypt, 294, 
 297. _ 
 
 Pyr'e-nees Mountains, 239. 
 
 Quarrying, 244, 245. 
 Que-bec' (city), 55, 159. 
 Queens'land, 285. 
 Queens 'town, 208. 
 Quicksilver, Mexico, 165; 
 
 Spain and Portugal, 238. 
 Qui'to (ke'to), 179, 182, 
 
 183. 
 
 Railroads, Africa, 299; 
 Alaska, 144; amount of 
 goods carried by, in Unit- 
 ed States, 156; Asia, 257- 
 259; Canada, 160; center- 
 ing at Chicago, 91-92; 
 China, 273; India, 266; 
 Mexico, 166; Peru, 183; 
 Russia, 233-234; Spain 
 and Portugal, 237; Trans- 
 Andean road, 186; trans- 
 continental, 133-134; 
 transportation on, 25-26. 
 
 Raindrops, 15. 
 
 RainfaU, i;^, 16; Africa, 295; 
 annual, in North Amer- 
 ica, 151; Argentina, 187; 
 Asia, 258; Australia, 283, 
 284, 285; California, 132; 
 East Indies, 287; effect 
 on distribution of popu- 
 lation in United States, 
 151; Europe, 195; Ger- 
 many, 215-216; India, 
 266; Malay Peninsula, 
 266; Mexico, 165; North 
 Central States, 97 ; South 
 America, 177; Western 
 States, 121, 136. 
 
 Rai-nier',Mt. (ra-ner'),136, 
 142. 
 
 Raisins, Australia, 285; 
 California, 132; Spain, 
 238 
 
 Ra'm^, 262. 
 
 Ranches, 97. 
 
 Ranchmen, 3. 
 
 Rapids in rivers, 24. 
 
 Red Sea, 291. 
 
 Reefs, 49. 
 
 Representative govern- 
 ment, 31. 
 
 Representatives, national, 
 31; state, 29. 
 
 Republic, form of govern- 
 ment, 31. 
 
 Rhine River, 217, 218-219, 
 224 225. 
 
 Rhode Island, 58, 79. 
 
 Rhode 'sia (ro-de'zhi-a or 
 zi-a),300. 
 
 Rhone River, 214. 
 
 Rhone Valley, 212, 213, 
 214. 
 
 Rice, 105; California, 132; 
 China, 272; East Indies, 
 287; Egypt, 297; Ganges 
 Valley, 268; India, 267; 
 Italy, 246; Japan, 277, 
 278; Kongo region, 301; 
 Mexico, 165; Southern 
 States, 105; southwest- 
 ern Asia, 262; Spain, 238. 
 
 Rich'mond (Va.), 106, 119. 
 
 Rick'i-shas, 272, 277. 
 
 Ri'ga, 236. 
 
 Ri'gi,Mt. (re'ge),222. 
 
 Ri'6 de Ja-nei'ro (zha-na'- 
 ro), 189, 190. 
 
 Ri'6 Gran'de, 166. 
 
 Rivers, hst of largest, 313; 
 mouths of, 23; transpor- 
 tation on, 22-25. 
 
 River systems, 25. 
 
 Ri-vie'ra (re-vya'ra), 211. 
 
 Road-building, 22. 
 
 Roads, 21; China, 274; lack 
 of, in South America 
 182-183; Mexico, 166 
 North Central States, 97 
 replaced by railroads, 26 
 West Indies, 168. 
 
 Rock, soil formed by decay 
 of, 4-5. 
 
 Rock'y Motmtains, 123; 
 Canadian, 159. 
 
 Rome, 242, 243-244. 
 
 Ron'da, 238. 
 
 Roots of plants, 6. 
 
 R6-sa'ri-6, 187, 189. 
 
 Rose growing, Bulgaria, 
 252. 
 
 Rotation of crops, 99. 
 
 Rotation of earth, 37. 
 
 Rot'ter-dam, 224, 225. 
 
 Rubber, Brazil, 191, 192; 
 Central America and 
 West Indies, 172; East 
 Indies, 287, 288; Malay 
 Peninsula, 267; Mexico, 
 165. 
 
 Rug making, Bokhara and 
 Khiva, 265; Philadelphia, 
 79; Smyrna, 262; south- 
 western Asia, 262. 
 
 Ru-ma'ni-a, 253. 
 
 Ris'sia, 230-259. 
 
 Rye, California, 132; Can- 
 ada, 157; Czecho-Slo- 
 vakia, 252; France, 211; 
 Germany, 216; Great 
 Britain, 207; Nether- 
 lands, 225; North Cen- 
 tral States, 93; Russia, 
 232; Southern States, 
 103; Spain and Portugal, 
 238; Washington (state), 
 135. 
 
 Rye bread, 216. 
 
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 321 
 
 Saar Valley (zSr), 213. 
 Sac-ra-men'to (Cal.), 122. 
 Sacramento Valley, 9. 
 Sagebrush, 131, 132. 
 SSg'inaw (Mich.), 86. 
 Saginaw Bay, 86. 
 Sa-ha'ra Des'ert, 291, 296. 
 St. An'tho-ny, Falls of, 94. 
 St. Au'gus-tine (Fla.), 101. 
 St. Joseph (Mo.), 122. 
 St. Law'rence, Gulf of, 160. 
 St. Lawrence River, 55, 
 
 157, 160. 
 St. Lou'is (Mo.) (-loo'is or 
 
 loo'i), 58, 93, 95. 
 St. Ma'ry's River and 
 
 Falls, 86. 
 St. Mi'chael (Alaska) (mi'- 
 
 kcl) 144. 
 St. Paul (Minn.), 94, 95. 
 St. Pe'ter's, Rome, 243. 
 St.Pe'ters-biirg (Fla.), 101. 
 St. Pierre' (san'pyftr'), 170. 
 St. Thom'as (Virgin Is- 
 lands), 172. 
 Salmon fisheries, Alaska, 
 
 145; Pacific Northwest, 
 
 138. 
 Sa-lo-ni'ki(sa-16-ne'ke),253. 
 Salt Lake City, 126-127. 
 Sal-va-dor', 170. 
 San An-to'ni-6 (Texas), 
 
 102, 106, 119. 
 San Ber-nar-di'no Motm- 
 
 tains, 140. 
 Sand, 4. 
 Sand dimes, 90. 
 San Di-e'go (Cal.) (-de-a'- 
 
 go), 141. 
 San Fran-cis'co (Cal.), 122, 
 
 133. 
 San Francisco Bay, 123, 
 
 124, 132, 133. 
 San Ju-an' (Porto Rico) 
 
 (-hoo-an'), 146, 147, 168. 
 San Sal-va-dor', 170. 
 San-ti-a'go (sSn-te-a'go), 
 
 184-185. 
 San'tos (san'toosh), 189. 
 Sao Pau'lo (souN pou'loo), 
 
 190. 
 Sarsaparilla, 191. 
 Sa-vSn'nah (Ga.), 114, 119. 
 Savaimahs, Kongo Basin, 
 
 301. 
 Sawmills, Michigan, 86; 
 
 Minnesota, 87. 
 Scale of maps, 32-33. 
 Scan-di-na'vi-an coimtries, 
 
 227-230. 
 Scheldt River (skelt), 226. 
 Schools, of early settlers, 
 
 17-18. 
 Scot 'lend, 202, 203. 
 Scran'ton (Fa.), 77. 
 Seal fisheries, 145. 
 Se-at'tle (Wash.), 136. 
 Sediment in rivers, 25. 
 Seine River (san), 210. 
 Senators, national, 31. 
 Sep'a-ra-tors, cream, 98,99. 
 Se-quoi'aNationalPark,137. 
 Sev'iUe {or se-vil'), 239. 
 
 Sew'ard (Alaska), 144. 
 
 Shang-ha'i, 272. 
 
 Shan'tung' Peninsula 
 (shan'toongO, 277. 
 
 Shas'ta, Mt., 142. 
 
 Shawls, southwestern Asia, 
 262. 
 
 Sheep raising, 2; Alberta, 
 157; Australia, 285; Cali- 
 fornia, 132; central Asia, 
 265; Colorado, 125; 
 Czecho-Slovakia, 252; 
 France, 211; Great Brit- 
 ain, 206, 207-208; New 
 South Wales, 285; Peru, 
 184; Rhodesia, 300; Spain 
 and Portugal, 238; world 
 distribution, 308. 
 
 Sheffield, 203. 
 
 Shelter, in frigid zones, 43; 
 in torrid zone, 40; ma- 
 terial used for, 2-3; need 
 for, 1-2. 
 
 Shipbuilding, Antwerp, 227 ; 
 Glasgow, 202. 
 
 Shoe making, 79, 95, 159. 
 Sec Leather manufacture. 
 
 Si-im' {or se-am'), 266, 
 267. 
 
 Si-be'ri-a, 259, 264-265. 
 
 Si-er'ra Ne-va'da, 123, 124. 
 
 Silk industry, 212; China, 
 272; France, 212-213; 
 Italy, 245; Japan, 278. 
 
 Silk manufacturing, Flor- 
 ence, 244; France, 212; 
 Germany, 217; Japan, 
 278; Milan, 246; Pater- 
 son, N. J., 79. 
 
 Silkworms, 212-213. 
 
 Si'los, 82, 95. 
 
 Silver, Australia, 286; Col- 
 orado, 126; Mexico, 165; 
 Peru, 183; Spain and 
 Portugal, 238; Washing- 
 ton (state), 135. 
 
 Sln-ga-p6re', 266. 
 
 Si-sal' (se-sal'),165. 
 
 Sit'ka spruce, 137. 
 
 Skag'way (Alaska), 143, 
 144. 
 
 Skars'fos, 228. 
 
 Slopes, necessary in farm- 
 ing, 8. 
 
 Smyr 'na (smer 'na) , 262, 263. 
 
 Snow, 15. 
 
 Snowfiakes, 15. 
 
 Snow Ime, 220. 
 
 So'fi-a(s6'fe-ya),251. 
 
 Soil, carried in rivers, 25; 
 cause of changes in, 9-10; 
 different depths, 5; fer- 
 tile and sterile, 6; fer- 
 tilizing, 7; importance, 
 1-8; origin, 3-4; use for 
 agriculture, 8-10; value 
 to plants, 5-6. 
 
 Soo Canals, 86-87, 90. 
 
 Sor'ghum (sor'giim), 110, 
 130. 
 
 South Africa, Union of, 298- 
 299; trade of United 
 States with, 307-308. 
 
 South America, 177-193; 
 
 comparisons and con- 
 trasts with North Amer- 
 ica, 177-178; statistics of 
 area and population, 310; 
 trade of United States 
 with, 306. 
 
 Southamp 'ton (sflth-hSmp '- 
 tun), 198. 
 
 South Car-6-li'na, 58. 
 
 South Chi-ca'go (111.), 92. 
 
 South Da-ko'ta, 96. 
 
 Southern Pacific Railroad, 
 122-123. 
 
 Southern pines, 115-116. 
 
 Southern States, 101-120. 
 
 South Platte River, 125. 
 
 Southwestern Asia, 259- 
 263. 
 
 Spain (span), 35, 237-239, 
 242 ; settlements in North 
 America, 55. 
 
 Spanish-American War, 
 147. 
 
 Sphinx (sfinks), 291, 297. 
 
 Spice Islands, 288. 
 
 Spices, East Indies, 288; 
 India, 267; Malay Penin- 
 sula, 267. 
 
 Spitz 'ber-gen, 230. 
 
 Spo-kSne' (Wash.), 134- 
 135. 
 
 Spokane River, 135. 
 
 Spring'field (III.), 29. 
 
 Stars, telling direction by, 
 33. 
 
 States, 29; number of, 30; 
 officers of, 30. 
 
 Steamboats, Great Lakes, 
 84; Mississippi River, 76; 
 on rivers, 23; Yukon 
 River, 145. 
 
 Steamships, ocean, 48, 49. 
 
 Steel manufactiu-ing, 78; 
 Belgium, 226; Birming- 
 ham (Ala.), 115; Gary 
 (Ind.), 92, 93; Germany, 
 217; Great Britain, 203, 
 206; Northeastern States, 
 78; South Chicago, 92. 
 
 Stock'hohn, 227. 
 
 Stock raising, 127. See 
 Cattle raising. 
 
 Stockyards, Chicago, 93; 
 St. Paul, 95. 
 
 Stones, decay of, 4-5. 
 
 Sub 'ways, 71. 
 
 Su-dan', 299-300. 
 
 Sudan grass, 300. 
 
 Su'ez Canal, 257. 
 
 Sugar, beet, Belgium, 226; 
 California, 132; Czecho- 
 slovakia, 249, 252; Ger- 
 many, 216, 218; Nether- 
 lands, 225; Utah, 127; 
 world production, 307. 
 
 Sugar, cane, 105; Argen- 
 .tina, 188; Australia, 285; 
 Brazil, 190; Central 
 America and West In- 
 dies, 172; China, 272; 
 Cuba, 168, 170, 306-307; 
 East Indies, 287; Egypt, 
 
 297; Hawaiian Islands, 
 147; island dependencies 
 of United States, 147; 
 Kongo region, 301; Loui- 
 siana, 104, 105; Malay 
 Peninsula, 267; Mexico, 
 165; Southern States, 
 152; Spain, 238; world 
 production, 307. 
 
 Sugar refining, 133, 147. 
 
 Su-ma'tra, 288. 
 
 Sun, apparent motion, 37; 
 telling direction by, 34. 
 
 Sunrise and sxmset, 37. 
 
 Su-pe'ri-6r (Wis.), 87, 90. 
 
 Superior, Lake, 86, 160. 
 
 Swamps, 8. 
 
 Swe'den, 227-230. 
 
 Swit'zer-land, 219-223. 
 
 Swords, Damascus, 263. 
 
 Syr'i-a, 259, 263. 
 
 Ta-c6'ma (Wash.), 136. 
 
 Tacoma, Mt., 142. See 
 Rainier, Mt. 
 
 Ta'hoe, Lake {or ta'ho), 
 142. 
 
 Tam'pa (Fla.), 101, 119. 
 
 Tam-pii'co, 165. 
 
 Ta-na-na' River, 144. 
 
 Tar, 116. 
 
 Tea, China, 272; East 
 Indies, 287; Formosa, 
 308; Ganges Valley, 268; 
 India, 267-268; Malay 
 Peninsula, 267-268. 
 
 Temperate zones, 41. 
 
 Temperature. See Climate. 
 
 Ten'e-ments, 70. 
 
 Ten-nes-see', 113. 
 
 Tex'as, 102, 103, 105, 115. 
 
 Textile industries, Belgium, 
 226; Czecho-Slovakia, 
 249; France, 212; Germany, 
 217-218; Great Britain, 
 206-207 ; Milan, 246 ; Mos- 
 cow, 232; New England, 
 79; Poland, 235; Switzer- 
 land, 223. See Cotton, 
 Silk, and Woolen manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 Thames River (temz), 198, 
 199. 
 
 Ti-bet' {or tib'et), 258, 259. 
 
 Ti'gris River, 263. 
 
 Tin, Australia, 286; Bolivia, 
 184; Spain and Portugal, 
 238. 
 
 Tit-i-ca'ca, Lake, 184. 
 
 Tobacco, Australia, 285; 
 Cuba, 170; East Indies, 
 287; Greece, 253; island 
 dependencies of United 
 States, 147; Malay Penin- 
 sula, 267; Mexico, 165; 
 New England, 81 ; Russia, 
 232; Southern States, 
 103-104, 110, 111; Tur- 
 key, 262. 
 
 Tobacco manufactures, 95. 
 
 To'ky-o (to'ke-o), 276. 
 
 Tomsk, 264. 
 
 T6-r6n't6, 159, 160, 306. 
 
322 
 
 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Toy making, Germany, 217. 
 
 Trade, beginning of, 18; 
 development and growth, 
 19; influence on devel- 
 opment of cities, 19 ; 
 relations of United States 
 with other countries, 303- 
 309. 
 
 Trade winds, Brazil, 189. 
 
 Trails, 21. 
 
 Trans-Andean Railway, 
 183, 186. 
 
 Transcontinental lines, 133- 
 134. 
 
 Transportation, 20-27; Af- 
 rica, 299-300; Alaska, 
 145-146; Argentina, 188; 
 Asia, 257-259; Brazil, 
 190-191; by railroads, 
 25-26; by rivers, 22-25; 
 by roads, 21-22; Central 
 America and West Indies, 
 172-173; Chicago, 92; 
 China, 273-274; Ger- 
 many, 218-219; Great 
 Lakes, 84, 85, 87, 90, 
 91, 93, 160; importance 
 as an industry, 76; im- 
 portance in New York 
 City, 72-73; in cities, 70- 
 71, 72; Mexico, 166; on 
 oceans, 49; reason for 
 importance as occupa- 
 tion, 73; review of chief 
 means of, in United States, 
 154, 156; South America, 
 182; Spain and Portugal, 
 237, 238-239. 
 
 Trans-Si-be'ri-an Railroad, 
 258-259, 264, 265. 
 
 Treadwell mines, Alaska, 
 144. 
 
 Tree line, 220. 
 
 Trees, in torrid zone, 40; 
 lacking in frigid zones, 42. 
 
 Tren'ton (N. J.), 74. 
 
 Tributaries of rivers, 24. 
 
 Trin-i-dad', 171. 
 
 Tri'p6-li, 295, 296. 
 
 Tropics, 39-40. 
 
 Troy (N.Y.), 73. 
 
 Truckgardening, California 
 132; Great Britain, 207 
 North Central States, 98 
 Northeastern States, 81 
 Southern States, 107. 
 
 Tu-cu-man' (too-koo- 
 man'), 188. 
 
 Ttm-gu-ra'gua, Mt. (toon- 
 goo-ra'gwa), 179. 
 
 Tu'nis, 214. 
 
 Tftr'key in Asia, 262-263. 
 
 Turkey in Europe, 250-251. 
 
 Turnips. See Vegetables. 
 
 Turpentine, Southern 
 States, 116. 
 
 Tux'pam (toos'pam), 165. 
 
 Two Har'bors (Minn.), 90. 
 
 Tyr'61, 196. 
 
 U-kraine' (u-kran'), 235. 
 Union Pacific Railroad, 122, 
 123, 126. 
 
 United Fruit Company, 171- 
 173. 
 
 United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, 197. 
 
 United States, 55; depend- 
 encies, 143-149; dis- 
 tribution of large cities, 
 150; distribution of popu- 
 lation, 149-150; effect of 
 rainfall on distribution of 
 population, 151; extent, 
 66; farming and its influ- 
 ence on population, 152 ; 
 farming in the South, 
 152; food production 
 greatest in North Central 
 States, 152-153; govern- 
 ment, 30-31; independ- 
 ence secured by, 58; 
 lumber resources, 154; 
 North Central States, 
 84-101; Northeastern 
 States, 67-83; provisions 
 for transportation, 156; 
 relations between indus- 
 tries and population, 153- 
 154; resemblances be- 
 tween China and, 269, 
 272; section of densest 
 population, 153; South- 
 ern States, 101-120; 
 states of, 58; statistics of 
 area and population, 311 ; 
 trade relations with other 
 countries,- 303-309; value 
 of dependencies, 156; 
 Western States, 120-142. 
 
 U'rol Moimtains, 264. 
 
 U-ru-guay' (oo-roo-gwd' or 
 u'roo-gwa), 188. 
 
 Uruguay River, 188. 
 
 U'tah {or u't&), 123. 
 
 Vac'u-um cleaners, 99. 
 
 Val'dai HiUs (-di), 233. 
 
 Va-len'ci-a, 238. 
 
 Valleys, 9, 10; difference in 
 size, 9; followed by trans- 
 portation routes, 26; im- 
 portance for farming, 9. 
 
 Val'pa-ra-i's6, 185,J86. 
 
 Van-cou'ver (vSn-koo'ver), 
 158. 
 
 Vancouver Island, 143. 
 
 Vanilla, Brazil, 191. 
 
 Vapor, 12; water changed 
 to, by heat, 14. 
 
 Vat'i-can, 243-244. 
 
 Vegetables, Argentina, 187; 
 Australia, 285, 286; Cana- 
 da,157, 158 ;Central Amer- 
 ica and West Indies, 168; 
 Chile, 185; China, 272; 
 France, 211; Germany, 
 216; Great Britain, 207; 
 Michigan, 86; Nether- 
 lands, 225; Northeastern 
 States, 81; Norway, 229; 
 Siberia, 264; southern 
 California, 140; Southern 
 States, 107; southwestern 
 Asia, 262; Switzerland, 
 223. 
 
 Vegetation, in frigid zones, 
 42; in torrid zone, 40. 
 
 Ven-e-zue'la, 177. 
 
 V6n'ice, 245, 246. 
 
 Ve'ra Cruz (va'ra krooz or 
 vgr'akrooz), 161,164,166. 
 
 Ver-sailles'(ver-sa'y'), 211, 
 212. 
 
 Ve-su'vi-us, Mt., 243. 
 
 VIc-to'ri-a (Australia), 285. 
 
 Victoria (B. C), 158. 
 
 Victoria Falls, 294, 300. 
 
 Vi-cun 'as ( ve-koon 'y as ) , 
 184. 
 
 Vi-en'na (ve-en'na), 249, 
 260. 
 
 Vl'kings, 228. 
 
 Vir-gin'i-a (ver-jin'i-a), 55, 
 58, 101, 103, 104. 
 
 Virginia (Minn.), 90. 
 
 Vir'gin Islands, 146, 171, 
 172. 
 
 Vla-di-vos-tok' (vla-dye- 
 v6s-t6k'),259,265. 
 
 Volcanoes, Central Amer- 
 ica and West Indies, 170; 
 Ecuador, 179, 182; Mex- 
 ico, 164; New Zealand, 
 286. 
 
 Vol'ga River, 233. 
 
 Voting, 27-29. 
 
 Wagon roads, 21-22; re- 
 placed by railroads, 26. 
 See Roads. 
 
 Wales, 207. See British 
 
 War'saw, 235. 
 
 Wa-satch' Mountains (w6- 
 sach'), 123. 
 
 Wash'ing-ton, George 
 (wosh'ing-tun), 58. 
 
 Washington (D. C), 30, 
 79-80. 
 
 Washington, Mt., 123. 
 
 Washington (state), 135, 
 136, 137, 138. 
 
 Watch making, Switzer- 
 land, 223. 
 
 Water, amount of, com- 
 pared with land, 12; 
 needed by plants, 6. 
 
 Waterfalls, 24. 
 
 Water power, 78; from 
 Falls of St. Anthony, 94; 
 from Niagara Falls, 78; 
 in northern Italy, 246; 
 Southern States, 115. 
 
 Watersheds, 9. 
 
 Water vapor, 13. 
 
 Weather records, 15-16. 
 
 Wel'land Canal, 84. 
 
 Wel'ling-ton, Mt., 284. 
 
 Western States, 120-142. 
 
 West in'dies, 168-173. 
 
 West'mm-ster Ab'bey, 202. 
 
 West Vir-gin'i-a, 106. 
 
 Wharves, 50. 
 
 Wheat, 2; area for raising, 
 in United States, 96; 
 Argentina, 187; Austra- 
 lia, 284-285, 286; CaU- 
 fomia, 132; Canada, 157; 
 
 China, 272; Colorado, 
 130, 131; Czecho-Slo- 
 vakia, 252; Egypt, 297; 
 France, 211; Germany, 
 216; Hungary, 252; In- 
 dia, 267; Italy, 243, 245; 
 Kansas, 96; Mexico, 165; 
 Netherlands, 225; North 
 Central States, 93, 100; 
 northern Africa, 296; 
 Odessa, 234; region of 
 greatest growth, 153; 
 Russia, 232; Saskatche- 
 wan, 157; Siberia, 264; 
 Southern States, 103; 
 Spain and Portugal, 238; 
 Washington (state), 135; 
 world acreage, 307. 
 
 White Horse, 144. 
 
 White House, 31, 80. 
 
 White Moxmtains, 123. 
 
 Whit'ney, Eli, 112. 
 
 Wig 'warns, Indian, 2-3. 
 
 Wilkes '-Bar-re (Pa.), 77. 
 
 Wil-la'mette River, 136. 
 
 Wa'ming-ton (Del.), 75. 
 
 Winds, 11-16; cause of, 12- 
 13; use of, 12. 
 
 Wine making, Australia, 
 285; France, 213; Ger- 
 many, 216, 218; Spain, 
 238. 
 
 Win'ni-peg, 159. 
 
 Wis-con'sin, 90. 
 
 Wood pulp, Alaska, 144 
 Canada, 159. 
 
 Wool, 2, 20; Argentina, 306 
 Australia, 285, 286; cen- 
 tral Asia, 265; Chile, 306, 
 Peru, 184; United States, 
 125, 132. ^ee also Sheep 
 raising. 
 
 Woolen manufacture, Bel- 
 gium, 226; France, 212; 
 Germany, 217; Great 
 Britain, 206; Milan, 246; 
 United States, 79. 
 
 Wool 'worth Buildmg, 67. 
 
 World War, 251, 263; ef- 
 fects on Russia, 234; re- 
 sults in Balkan region, 
 248-249; Turkish losses, 
 251, 263. 
 
 Wy-o'ming, 123, 134. 
 
 Yang'tse River, 273. 
 Yellow fever, 118. 
 Yel 'low-stone Park, 134. 
 Yellowstone River, 134. 
 Yen-e-se'i River (yen-e- 
 
 sa'e),264. 
 Y6-k6-ha'ma, 276. 
 Y6-sem'i-te Valley, 137. 
 Youngs'town (Ohio) (y iingz '- 
 
 toun), 84, 85. 
 Yu-ca-tan', 165, 166. 
 Yti'kon River, 144-145. 
 
 Zam-be'zi River (zam-ba'- 
 
 ze), 294, 299. 
 Zinc, 238. 
 
 Zones of the earth, 39-42. 
 Zu'rich(zoo'rik),223. 
 
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