^k 
 
A 
 
 NEW UNIVERSAL 
 
 FRENCH GRAMMAR; 
 
 BEING 
 
 AN ACCURATE SYSTEM 
 
 OF 
 
 FRENCH ACCIDENCE 4ND SYNTAX, 
 
 ON I 
 
 A METHODICAL PLAN. 
 
 BY NICOLAS HAMEL, 
 
 GRADUATE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAEN, AND RECTOR OF 
 THE TOWN OF I/AIGLE IN NORMANDY. 
 
 A NEW EDITION: 
 
 CAREFULLY CORRECTED ANI> GRF.ATLY IMPROVED. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 
 LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME,, BROWN, AND GREEN, 
 
 PATERNOSTER-ROW ; 
 
 AND G. AND W. B. WHITTAKER, AVE-MARIA-LANE.' 
 1825. 
 
H3 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 JLT is universally allowed that the only sure, and at the 
 same time the shortest, method to attain the perfection of a 
 language, is to study its principles after the most strict and 
 exact rules of Grammar. 
 
 Conformably to this truth, generally acknowledged and 
 confirmed by daily experience, I have composed this work 
 on sound principles and exact definitions ; and in order to 
 promote as much as possible the learning of this useful 
 tongue, I have made a parallel of the French and English 
 languages, which at the same time will confirm the English 
 Student in the principles of his native tongue, greatly facili- 
 tate the understanding of the French rules, and point out 
 the different genius of each language with accuracy and 
 precision. 
 
 145 
 
V PREFACE. 
 
 The first part of this Grammar, which has for its object 
 Pronunciation and Orthography, treats of the sound of let- 
 ters, vowels and consonants. The different sorts of accents, 
 the proper manner of using them, and their effects upon 
 vowels, are put in the clearest light ; the use of the apos- 
 trophe and capital letters ; the different sorts of punctua- 
 tion and abbreviations ; are treated in a method simple and 
 concise, but at the same time so comprehensive, that 1 know 
 not any thing which could be added on the same subject. 
 
 The idea that it would be an encouragement to a pupil, 
 if he could easily treasure in his mind a great collection of 
 words, prompted me to compare the analogy between the 
 two languages ; and after a mature consideration I have de- 
 vised four fundamental rules, whereby the scholar may, in 
 a few lessons, and without much trouble, acquire several 
 thousand French words (page 24.) 
 
 The rules by which we distinguish the gender of nouns 
 are simple and comprehensive ; the masculine substantives, 
 which cannot be reduced under any rule of termininations, 
 are set in alphabetical order : thus, in a short time, that 
 important point may be perfectly attained fc in which most 
 Grammarians are very defective and which many do not 
 even attempt to explain. 
 
 The formation of the plural of nouns, and of the feminine 
 of adjectives, is placed in a new light (the first page 41 and 
 42 ; and the second page 45 and 46). 
 
 On the verb I have bten very extensive and methodical : 
 
.PREFACE. V 
 
 having explained its nature and different species, I have fully 
 conjugated a verb of each regular and irregular conjuga- 
 tions; to this explanation I have added page (120 and 122) 
 a new method grounded upon principles by which all regu- 
 lar and irregular verbs may be learnt with uncommon fa- 
 cility. 
 
 Having explained the different parts of speech, in the 
 Banner which seemed the most natural, simple, and me- 
 thodical, I proceed to the syntax, in which 1 treat of the 
 union, concord, and disposition of words, in the same order 
 as I had previously adopted in treating of their nature, de- 
 clension, and conjugation. 
 
 This part, as the most essential and difficult, I have ex- 
 plained at large in a series of clear, short, and accurate 
 rules for the most part illustrated by instructive examples 
 from good authors. The principles depend successively on 
 each other, and the knowledge of the preceding leads usually 
 to the understanding of that which follows. The rules which 
 I have given for the construction of the language are set in 
 numerical order, and so disposed, that they may be found 
 as easily as a word in a dictionary ; an advantage peculiar 
 to this Grammar. 
 
 The most difficult points of the language, such as the con- 
 struction of pronouns, the different modes of negation and 
 interrogation, the distinction of tenses, the use of the sub- 
 junctive mood, the government of verbs, &c. are particu- 
 larly and fully explained. 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 'The Grammar concludes with an alphabetical series of the 
 French verbs most in use, denoting, at once, of what con- 
 jugation they are, and the case they govern, by which two 
 great difficulties in the French language will be removed. 
 
 My first object was to render this work fit for the use of 
 schools, and so to adapt it to the capacities of the youngest 
 learners, that in beginning to learn French, they may begin 
 it grammatically. For this purpose I have used my utmost 
 endeavours to unite simplicity of method with clearness and 
 precision; and having, in some measure, succeeded in this 
 point, I may assert, from experience, that most of the rules 
 and principles of this Grammar may, with the help of a good 
 master, be understood and learnt by a child of six" or seven 
 years of age. Of this those will be easily convinced who 
 will attend to the natural order which exists in the different 
 parts, to the precision of the rules, to the clearness of the 
 style, and in a word, to the work taken altogether, which; 
 according to the opinion of several learned Gentlemen, is 
 executed on a plan, new, simple, and much improved. 
 
 %* The present edition of this Grammar has undergone a 
 thorough revision : such corrections have been made, and 
 such observations and explanations added as appeared ne- 
 cessary to the improvement and the utility of the work. 
 
TABLE OF THE CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 THE true definition of Grammar, . . . 1 
 
 Division of this work, . ... & 
 
 PART I. Of Pronunciation and Orthography. 
 
 CHAP, 1. Of pronunciation, ... 2 
 
 Of the French alphabet, .... ib. 
 
 Of the French accents, .... 3 
 
 Of vowels, * 6 
 
 Of diphthongs, ..:... ib. 
 
 Of consonants, ...... 8 
 
 Observations upon some consonants, . . . 10 
 
 Remarks on the pronunciation of some words, 14 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of orthography, **. . . 15 
 
 Of the apostrophe, . . . . . 17 
 
 Of the hyphen and cedilla, . . . . ib. 
 
 Of the parentheses, quotations, and abbreviations, 18 
 
 Of punctuation, 19 
 
 Of capital letters, 20 
 
 An alphabetical series of kingdoms, provinces, and 
 
viii TABLE OF THE CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 towns, which have a different denomination in 
 
 French and in English, . . . . 21 
 
 A method to learn the French denomination for the 
 
 proper names of persons taken from the Latin and 
 
 Greek, . . . . . . .23 
 
 A method toiearn easily a great collection of French 
 
 words, '24 
 
 PART II. Different Parts of Speech. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Of the French articles, 
 
 CHAP. 2. Of substantives, 
 
 Of the nature and kinds of substantives, 
 
 Of the declension of nouns, .... 
 
 How to distinguish when a noun is masculine or fe- 
 minine, . . . . . . .- 31 
 
 Of substantives masculine in one signification, and 
 
 feminine in another, . . . .38 
 
 Rules to form the plural of nouns, . . . 41 
 
 How compound words form their plural, 42 
 
 Of substantives which have no plural, . . 43 
 
 Of substantives which have no singular, . . 44 
 
 CHAP. 3. Of adjectives, . . , . ib. 
 
 How to form the feminine of adjectives, . . 45 
 
 Oflhe plural of adjectives, . . . . 47 
 
 Of comparatives and superlatives, . . . ib. 
 
 Of cardinal numbers, . . 48 
 
 Of ordinal numbers, . . . . . 52 
 
 CHAP. 4. Of personal pronouns, . . . 54 
 
 Of possessive pronouns, s . . . . 56 
 
 Of demonstrative pronouns, .... 59 
 
TABLE OF THE CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Page 
 
 Of relative pronouns, 6*1 
 
 Of interrogative pronouns, , / ib. 
 
 Of indeterminate pronouns, . . 02 
 
 CHAP. 5. Of verbs and their species, . 04 
 
 Of moods, tenses, numbers, and persons of verbs, 6*6* 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary avoir, . . 6 7 
 
 Conjugation the auxiliary $tre t . . o.Q 
 Verbs conjugated with to have in English, and with 
 
 etre in French, . ..71 
 
 Of regular conjugations, . .. * 
 
 Conjugation of reflected verbs, . . 9-* 
 
 Observations on the reflected verbs, , .. 9^ 
 
 Verbs reflected in French, . 97 
 
 Several methods of conjugating a verb, 9& 
 
 Conjugation of the irregular verbs, . iGO 
 
 Conjugation of the impersonal verbs, , 119 
 A new method to learn easily all verbs, regular and 
 
 irregular, . . . 120 
 
 Of adverbs, . . . . 124 
 
 Different sorts of adverbs, . . . 125 
 
 Of prepositions, , . 1 26 
 
 Of conjunctions, . . . 130 
 
 Of interjections, . . . . 132 
 
 PART HI. Of Syntax. 
 
 CHAP. 1. Use of the French articles, * 134 
 
 Articles used in French and in English,- . 135 
 
 Articles used in French, and not in English, 136 
 
 Articles used in English, and not in French, 139 
 
 No article used either in French or in English, 140 
 
X TABLE OF THE CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 CHAP. 2. Syntax of substantives, . 144 
 
 CHAP. 3, Syntax of adjectives, , . . 140 
 
 Of the concord and position of adjectives, . ib. 
 
 Of the government of adjectives, . . 140 
 
 Of the adjectives of dimension, . . 151 
 
 Of comparatives and superlatives, . . 1,52 
 
 CHAP. 4. Of personal and impersonal pronouns, 156 
 
 When they are conjunctive or disjunctive, . ib. 
 
 Of the impersonal pronouns, it, they, them, . 1 59 
 
 Of the right placing of pronouns, . . 163 
 
 When the personal pronouns are to be repeated, 166 
 
 Distinction between lui, elle, and soi , . 1 67 
 
 CHAP. 5. Of possessive pronouns, . 169 
 
 CHAP. 6. Of demonstrative pronouns . 174 
 
 CHAP. 7. Of relative pronouns, . . 178 
 
 CHAP. 8. Of interrogative pronouns, . 181 
 
 CHAP. 9. Different sorts of interrogations, 183 
 
 CHAP. 10. Different sorts of que, . is6 
 
 CHAP. 11. Of indeterminate pronouns, . 189 
 
 Of tout and its various constructions, . 194 
 
 Of the different sorts of quelque, . . 196 
 
 CHAP. 12. Several modes of negation, . 202 
 
 Distinction between pas and point, . . 205 
 
 Negative expressions in French and not in English, 206 
 
 Syntax of verbs, . 208 
 
 CHAP. 13. Of the government of verbs, . ib. 
 
 CHAP. 14. Of the infinitive mood, . 214 
 
 Of the infinitive present, . . . 215 
 
 Of the gerund, .... 222 
 
 Of the participle, . . , 224 
 
TABLE OF THE CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Page 
 
 Concord of verbs with their nominative case, . 226 
 
 CHAP. 15. Of the indicative mood, . . 229 
 
 CHAP. 16. Of the use of the subjunctive, . 234 
 
 Words which govern always the subjunctive, . it. 
 Words which govern sometimes the indicative, and 
 
 sometimes the subjunctive, . . . 238 
 
 Which tense of the subjunctive must be used, . 241 
 
 CHAP. 17- Of the irregular verbs, . . 242 
 
 CHAP. 18. Of the impersonal verbs, .. . 245 
 
 CHAP. 19. Syntax of adverbs, . . . 249 
 
 CHAP. 20. Syntax of prepositions, . . 250 
 
 CHAP. 2J. Of the< French idioms, . . 253 
 
 Idioniaticai expressions of to have and to be, . 254 
 
 Idiomatical significations of several verbs, - . 257 
 
 A series of the most curious French Idioms, . 260 
 
 CHAP. 22. The French Proverbs most in use, 26l 
 
 CHAP 33. Which parts of speech agree together, 266 
 
 Tire rig&t arrangement of the words of a sentence, 267 
 
 Which words must be repeated, . . . 270 
 
 WhicK words may be elegantly repeated, . . 271 
 CHAP. 24. Distinction in French between many 
 
 words which are expressed in the same manner iu 
 
 English, 274 
 
 An alphabetical series of the French verbs most in 
 
 use, 281 
 
 Dialogue sur i'Histoire de France, . . 328 
 
 Dialogue sur I'Histoire d'Angleterre, . . 331 
 
A 
 
 NEW GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. 
 
 GRAMMAR is the art of reading, speaking, and writing 
 correctly ; or, according to the definition of a celebrated 
 author, Grammar is tire art of reducing into rules the 
 manner of speaking of a nation.. 
 
 A Grammar ought to treat of the sounds and characters 
 of a language ; of the nature of the words of which it is 
 composed ; and of the union and arrangement which is to 
 be made of them in speech. 
 
 As I propose to consider these objects in their different 
 points of view, this work is naturally divided into three 
 parts. The first has for its object Pronunciation and Or- 
 thography. The second explains the nature or etymology 
 of th different parts of speech, the declension of Nouns 
 and Pronouns, and the conjugation of Verbs. The third 
 contains a series of clear, short, and accurate rules for the 
 construction or syntax of the language, and is completed 
 by a collection of the most curious French idioms and 
 proverbs. 
 
PART I. , 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION.* 
 
 PRONUNCIATION is the right expression of the 
 sounds and articulations of the words of a language. 
 
 Words are composed of syllables, and syllables of 
 letters; the letters of the French tongue are the following, 
 sounded nearly according to the letters in English placed 
 below each. 
 
 FRENCH^ALPHABET. 
 
 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, 
 aw, bay, say, day, a, eff, gey, aush, e, jee, kaw, el, emme, 
 N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z, <fe. 
 enne, o, pay, qu, er, s, tay, u, vay, ex, egrec, zed, &. 
 
 These five, a y e, t, o, u t are called vowels, because they 
 form alone a distinct sound ; we will speak of y hereafter. 
 
 The others are called consonants, because they cannot 
 be sounded with a vowel. 
 
 * As the English cannot of themselves learn the French pronuncia- 
 tion (because the true sounds cannot be conveyed by rules ) ? and as 
 they easily obtain this very essential point with the'help of a good 
 master, a long treatise would be useless ; therefore I will only give the 
 rules, and make the observations, which to this day have been found 
 the most clear, simple, and useful, and which I have selected from 
 the authors most generally esteemed. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 3 
 
 The vowels and consonants can be joined together as 
 follows : 
 
 ba, be, bi, bo, bu, ...... ab, eb, ib, ob, ub, 
 
 ca, ce,- ci, cb, cii; ...... ac, ec, ic, oc, uc, 
 
 3, - ^O, U, ...... 
 
 da, de, di, do, du, ...... ad, ed, id, od, ud, 
 
 fa, fe, fi, fo, fu, ...... af, ef, if, of, uf, 
 
 ha, he, hi,, ho, hu, ...... ah, eh, ib, oh, ub, 
 
 . 
 
 ka, ke, ki, ko, ku, ...... ak, ek, ik> ok, uk, 
 
 la, le, li, lo, lu, ..... al, el, il, ol, ul, 
 
 ma, me, mi, mo, mu, ...... am, em, im, om, inn, 
 
 na, ne, ni, no, nil, ...... an, en, in, on, un, 
 
 pa, pe, pi, po, pu, ... ---- ap, ep, ip, op, up, 
 
 qua, que, qui, quo, qu, * ..... 
 
 ra, re, ri, ro, ru, ...... ar, er, ir, or, ur, 
 
 sa, se, si, so, su, ...... as, es, is, os^ us, 
 
 ta, te, ti, to, tu, ...... at, et, it, ot, ut, 
 
 va, ve, vi, vo, vu, ..... av, ev, iv, ov, uv, 
 
 xa, xe, xi, xo, xu, ...... ax, ex, ix, ox, ux, 
 
 za, ze, zi, zo, zu, ...... az, ez, iz, x>z, uz. 
 
 OF THE FRENCH ACCENTS.* 
 
 There are three different accents in French, called acute, 
 grave, and circumflex. 
 
 The acute accent ( ' ) gives to the vowel under it an acute 
 sound, much resembling that of a in the English alphabet, 
 as in the words vtrite, truth, probite, probity, premeditc, 
 premeditated. 
 
 The grave accent ( v ) gives lo the vowel under it a broad 
 and open sound, as in the words acces, access, progres, pro- 
 gress, succts, success. 
 
 The circumflex accent (* ) gives a long sound to the vowel 
 
 r * I treat here of accents, because they give to the yowels several 
 sounds which cannot be easily distinguished without some notion of 
 them. 
 
4 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 under it, as in the words dme, soul, t&te, head, gite, lodg- 
 ing, dome, cupola? flute, flute. 
 
 THE ACUTE ACCENT IS USED, 
 
 1. Over the e final, in a substantive which ends in te in,, 
 French, and in ty in English ; such are, impiete, impiety, 
 charite, charity, humanite, humanity, &c. 
 
 2. Over the first e, when there are two joined at the end 
 of a noun, as in the words armee, army, pensee, thought, 
 annee, year, trophee, trophy, mausolee, mausoleum. 
 
 3. Over e followed by another vowel, which does not 
 belong to the same syllable, as in the words reel, real, crta- 
 teur, creator, reunion, reunion, preoccuppe, prepossessed, 
 &c. 
 
 4. Over the e final in the participles of all verbs of the 
 first conjugation, that is, which end in er in the infinitive 
 mood, such are parle, chanle, achete, aime, donne, from 
 parler, to speak, chanter, to sing, acheter, to buy, aimer, to 
 love, donner, to give. 
 
 5. Over the e final of the first person singular of the in- 
 dicative present in all verbs of the first conjugation, when 
 they are used interrogatively, but not in other cases ; thus 
 we write je donne, I gwe,je porte, I carry, je prefer e, I pre- 
 fer, &c. without accent, and donne-je, porte je, prtfert-je, 
 with an accent. 
 
 THE GRAVE ACCENT IS USED, 
 
 1. Over the open e, followed by the final s, as in the 
 words aupre&, near, exprts, express, progres, progress, &c. ; 
 but practice alone can teach when e is open or not. 
 
 2. Over a preposition, to distinguish it from the third 
 person of the verb avoir, il a, he has. Example: il y a 
 moins de gloire a vaincre un ennemi qu' f d lui pardonner, 
 quand on /'a vaincu. There is less glory in conquering an 
 enemy, than in pardoning him after he has been conquered. 
 
 3. Over la adverb, to distinguish it from la article or 
 pronoun. Example, oil la vertujinit, la le vice commence, 
 where virtue ends, th.ere vice begins. 
 
 . 4. Over des preposition or conjunction, to distinguish it 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 from des article. Example ; des que j'aurai de 
 facheterai des livres ; as soon as I have meney, 1 will buy 
 books. 
 
 5. Over ou adverb, to distinguish it from ou conjunction ; 
 as, ou etes vous? where are you? vous ou moi nous irons , 
 you or I shall go there. 
 
 THE CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT IS USED, 
 
 1. Over the penultimate or last vowel but one of all 
 verbs, in the first and second persons plural of the preterite 
 of the indicative. Example: nous par lames, we spoke, 
 rous parldtes, you spoke, nous agimcs, we acted, vous agites, 
 you acted, nous resumes, we received, vous refutes, you re- 
 ceived. 
 
 2. Over the last vowel of the third person singular of the 
 preterite of the subjunctive, but not of the preterite of the 
 indicative : thus, il agit, he acted, iljit, he did, il vendit, 
 he sold, il reput, he received ; without accent in the pre- 
 terite of the indicative ; and il agit, he might act, ilfil, he 
 might do, il vendit, he might sell, il re$ut, he might receive, 
 with a circumflex accent in the preterite of the subjunctive,. 
 
 3. Over the syllables which are long, and were formerly 
 written with an s ; such are honnete, honest, tempfat, storm, 
 impot, tax, gite, lodging. 
 
 4. Over du, participle of devoir, to owe, to distinguish it 
 from du t of the, article. Over cru, participle of eroitre, to 
 grow, to distinguish it from cru, participle of croire, to be- 
 lieve. Over sur, sure, adjective, to distinguish it from sur, 
 upon, preposition : as, je suis sur que le livreest sur la table, 
 I am sure that the book is upon the table. 
 
 5. Over i when followed by t in the verbs which 
 have their infinitive in oitre or aitre ; as, crottre, to grow, 
 paroitre, to appear, disparoitre, to disappear, connoitre, to 
 know, naitre, to be born, &c. 
 
 The other circumstances in which these accents must be 
 used in French, cannot be explained by any general rules* 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 OF VOWELS. 
 
 When the vowels have an accent, they have a sound either 
 acute, open, or long, according as the accent is acute, grave* 
 or circumflex. 
 
 When they have no accent, they generally keep their na- 
 tural sound, that is, the sound we have given them in the 
 alphabet, except e t which is often mute at the end of a word 
 of several syllables, such asmodestie, modesty, justice, jus- 
 tice, il ttudie, he studies, &c. and also in the future and 
 conditional of many verbs ; thus, je serai, I shall be,je se- 
 rois, I should be, je prierai, I shall pray, je prierois, I 
 should pray, are pronounced pretty nearly as if they were 
 written Je srai, je srois, je prirai, je prirois. 
 
 Y has the sound of t simple between two consonants ; 
 thus the word mystere, mystery, asyle, asylum, are pro- 
 nounced as if they were written mistere, asilc. 
 
 When y is between two vowels, it has usually the sound 
 of : thus essayer, to try, employer, to employ, are pro- 
 nounced as if they were written, essaiier, emploiier. 
 
 OF DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 A Diphthong is the meeting of two or more vowels in the 
 same syllable, which convey to the ear a double sound, as, 
 Dieu, God, miel, honey, in which we distinctly hear the 
 sound of i, and the sound of eu t and e grave ; but being pro- 
 nounced rapidly, they form only one syllable. 
 
 Diphthongs ought not to be confounded with a coalition of 
 two or more vowels, which produce only one single sound, 
 as vous, you, deux, two, &c. they are called compound 
 vowels. The following are sounded in French as follows : 
 
 1 . AO is sounded like a in the words paon, paone, peacock 
 or peahen ; and like o in the words aoriste, an aorist, and 
 taon, a dun-fly. Aout, August, is sounded like oo in book. 
 
 2. EAland Al are sounded like an acute in the prete 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 7 
 
 rite of all verbs of the first conjugation; thus, jeparlai, I 
 spoke, jemangeai, I did eat, je donnai, I gave,Je changeai, 
 I changed, are pronounced as if they were written, jepa r- 
 le,je mange, je donne,je change. 
 
 3. AI, EAI,AIE, in the middle or at the end of nouns, 
 are sounded pretty much like an e with a grave accent; such 
 are the words maison, house, demangeaison, itching, haie, 
 hedge, plaie, wound. 
 
 4. OI and EOT have the sound of an e grave in the im- 
 perfect and conditional of verbs; thusfaimois, I was lov- 
 ing, j'aimerois, I would love, je dansois, I was dancing, je 
 danserois, I would dance, are pronounced nearly as if they 
 were written f dimes, j'aimereSyje dames, je danser es ; oi has 
 the same sound in all the tenses and persons of verbs in ottre, 
 which have more than two syllables in the infinitive mood. 
 They are sounded in one emission of voice, but distinctly 
 pronouncing the two sounds o and e grave in the words end- 
 ing in 01, 6ie,oir, oire: such are the words moi, I, emploi, 
 employ, vote, way, vouloir, to be willing, oratoire, oratory. 
 
 5. IE is sounded like an i, and ue like an u, in the differ- 
 ent tenses and persons of the verbs which end in ier and tier, 
 in the infinitive present : thus, je prie, I pray,jeprierai t I 
 shall pray, je prierois, I should pray, are pronounced, je 
 pri,je prirai,je prirois ; andj'e renmc, I move, je remue- 
 rai, I shall move, il remueroit, he should move, are pro- 
 nounced as if they were written jt remu, je remurai, ilre- 
 muroit. 
 
 6. AU and EAUat the end of a word, have the sound of 
 6 long ; thus, couteau, knife, chapeau, hat, are pronounced 
 couto, chapo. 
 
 7. GEA t GEO, GEURE, without an accent over e t 
 are always sounded ja, jo, jure; thus, George, il changed, 
 he changed, nous jugeons, we judge, gageure, wager, arc 
 pronounced as if they were written, Jorge, chanja, jujons, 
 gdjure. 
 
8 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 "*"' 
 
 RULE 1 
 
 When the following consonants, cc,ff, II, mm, nn, pp, rt 
 ss, tt, meet together, we most frequently pronounce but one : 
 thus, accabler, to overwhelm, offenser, to offend, aller, to 
 go, commettre, to commit, opposer, to oppose, arroser, to 
 water, attirer, to attract, are pronounced as if they were 
 written, acabler, ofenser, aler, cometre, oposer, aroser, 
 atirer. 
 
 CC when followed by e or t, and dd are both sounded, as 
 i4i the words, accts, accident, addition, reddition. 
 
 LL, mm, and rr are both sounded, when they are pre- 
 ceded by an i at the beginning of a word ; such are illegi- 
 time, illegal, immobile, immoveable, irresistible, irresistible. 
 
 RULE H. 
 
 When either of these four consonants, d, s, t, x, is thfc 
 final of a word, and the next begins with a vowel or h mute 
 without a comma between them, it is usually sounded on the 
 next word as follows : 
 
 D is sounded as a; thus, grand ami, great friend, 
 guand il viendra, when he will come, il attend d la porte, 
 he is waiting at the door, are pronounced gran tami, quan 
 til viendra, il^atten td la porte. 
 
 S is sounded as a z, thus, des d present, from this mo- 
 ment, favois tte, I have been, are pronounced de zd present, 
 *'avoi zete. 
 
 T is sounded on the next vowel, thus, un savant homme, a 
 man of learning, Je suis tout d vous, I am quite your's, 
 s'il vient d la ville, if he come to town, are pronounced un 
 savan thomme, je suis ton td vous, s'il men td la ville. 
 
 X is sounded like a z, thus six amis, six friends, heureux 
 evenement, happy event, are pronounced si xamis, heureu, 
 zevenement. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. O, 
 
 N in the words en, of it, on, they, when they precede 
 a verb, in bien, well, rien, nothing, followed by an ad- 
 jective or a participle, in adjectives, ending in n, placed 
 before a substantive, and in the preposition en, in, is sounded 
 on the next word, when it begins with a vowel; thus, 
 o apprend en etudiant avec methode, people learn, 
 when studying methodically, mon ban ami, vous n'avez rien 
 appris, my good friend, you have learned nothing ; are pro- 
 nounced as if they were written, on napprenden netudiant 
 vec methode, mon bon nami, vous n'avez rien nappris. 
 
 When the letter n is the final of a substantive, it is not 
 sounded on the next word, though it begins with a vowel ; 
 thus the following, une intention excellente, an excellent in- 
 tention, un pain exquis, excellent breaJ, un vin agreable, 
 an agreeable wine, are pronounced in two distinct words. 
 
 RULE til 
 
 These consonants b, : c, d,f, g, p, i, are not sounded at 
 the end of a word, when the next begins with a consonant, 
 in plomb, lead, accroc, rent, bane, a bench, broc, a large jug, 
 clerc, clerk, eric, a crane, to lift burthens, croc, a hook, esto- 
 mac, stomach, fianc, flank, jonc, rush, marc, eight ounces, 
 tabac, snuff, U vainc, he conquers, nceud, knot, nid, nest, 
 v;ond, hinge, muid, a hogshead, cerf, a stag, eteuf, a tennis 
 l>all, coing, quince, etatig, poud, faubourg, suburb, hareng, 
 herring, poing, fist, seing, signature, camp., camp, champ, 
 field, drop, cloth, galop, gallop, loup, wolf, strop, syrup, 
 and et, and. 
 
 However, these six, b, c, d, m, r, s, are strongly sounded 
 at the end of the names of heathen gods, and of proper 
 names of persons, taken from ancient history, thus, Job, 
 Jacob, Isaac, David, Sem, Cesar, Darius, Jupiter, Venus, 
 Marius, are pronounced Jobe, Jacobe, Isaaque, &c. 
 
10 QN PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Observations upon some Consonants. * 
 
 C has the sound of an s before e and t, thus, ceci, this, 
 cela, that, are sounded sesi, sela. C has the sound of an 5 
 before a, o, and u, when it has a cedilla under it, and of a 
 k, when not; thus, facade, front, franpois, french, re?u, 
 received, are pronounced fassade, fransois, ressu ; and ca- 
 binet, closet, cochon, pig, cuisinier, cook, are pronounced 
 kabinet, kochon, kuisinier. * 
 
 C has the sound of a ft before /, r, or t ; thus, clair, clear, 
 crayon, pencil, actuel, actual, are pronounced klair, krayon, 
 aktuel. 
 
 C has the sound of g*, in second, and its derivatives ; 
 it is not sounded before e and i, when preceded by an s 
 which belongs to the same syllable, thus, science, science, 
 scene, scene, &c. are pronounced sience, sene. 
 
 Ch are generally sounded in French as sh are in English. 
 
 Ch followed by a, o, u, are sounded ka, ko t ku, in the 
 words taken from the Greek or Hebrew : thus, Achab, Cha- 
 naan, eucharistie, are pronounced, Akab, Kanaan, euka- 
 risiie. 
 
 F is pronounced like v in neuf, nine, when it is placed be- 
 fore a substantive or an adjective beginning with a vowel or 
 h mute : thus, neuf hommes, nine men, neuf enfans, nine 
 children, are pronounced neu vhommes, neu venfans. 
 
 G 
 
 G is sounded like j before e and f; thus, genou, knee, 
 gibier, game, mangeant, eating, are pronounced jenou, ji- 
 bier, manjant. 
 
 * The letters not mentioned hereafter, are sounded as'in the alpha- 
 bet, except in the cases expressed in the three preceding rules. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 11 
 
 G has a strong and harsh sound when it is followed by a, 
 o, M, /, r, as in the words, gateau, cake, gosier, gullet, aigu, 
 acute, glorieux, glorious, grandir, to grow tall, &c. 
 
 Gn has a liquid sound resembling the last syllable of the 
 English word onion. As this sound is attended with some 
 difficulty, it must be heard from the master. 
 
 H 
 
 H is mute in the following words, their derivatives, and 
 proper names, except, la Hollande, la Hongrie, and a few 
 others : it is aspirated in others. 
 
 habile, 
 
 able. 
 
 he"trogne, 
 
 heterogenous. 
 
 habit, 
 
 a dress. 
 
 heure, 
 
 hour. 
 
 habiter, 
 
 to inhabit.' 
 
 heureux, 
 
 happy. 
 
 habitude, 
 
 habit. 
 
 hexag6ne, 
 
 hexagon. 
 
 haleine, 
 
 breath. 
 
 hexametre, 
 
 hexameter. 
 
 hamecon, 
 
 a fish-hook y 
 
 hier, 
 
 yesterday. 
 
 harmonic, 
 
 harmony. 
 
 hieroglyphe, 
 
 hieroglyphic. 
 
 hebdomadaire 
 
 , weekly. 
 
 hirondelle, 
 
 siAallow. 
 
 be*berger, 
 
 to harbour. 
 
 histoire, 
 
 history. 
 
 h6bet6, 
 
 block-head. 
 
 histrion, 
 
 buffoon. 
 
 hcatombe, 
 
 hecatomb. 
 
 hiver, 
 
 winter. 
 
 hegire, 
 
 hegira. 
 
 holocauste, 
 
 burnt-offering. 
 
 heliotrope, 
 
 sun-flower. 
 
 home'lie, 
 
 a homily. 
 
 hemisphere, 
 
 hemisphere. 
 
 homicide, 
 
 homicide. 
 
 hemistiche, 
 
 hemistich. 
 
 hommage, 
 
 homage. 
 
 he*rnorragie, 
 
 hemorrhage. 
 
 homme, 
 
 man. 
 
 herbage, 
 
 pasturage. 
 
 homog^ne, 
 
 homogeneous. 
 
 herbe, 
 
 grass. 
 
 honnte, 
 
 honest. 
 
 h Writer, 
 
 to inherit. 
 
 honneur, 
 
 honour. 
 
 he're'sie, 
 
 heresy. 
 
 h6pital, 
 
 hospital. 
 
 heme'tique, 
 
 alchymy. 
 
 horizon, 
 
 horizon. 
 
 hermine, 
 
 ermine. 
 
 horloge, 
 
 clock. 
 
 hermite, 
 
 a hermit. 
 
 horoscope, 
 
 horoscope. 
 
 heroine, 
 
 'a heroine. 
 
 horreur, 
 
 horror. 
 
 ,he*roique, 
 
 heroic. 
 
 horrible, 
 
 horrid. 
 
 heroisme, 
 
 heroism. 
 
 hospice, 
 
 hospital. 
 
 hsiter, 
 
 to hesitate. 
 
 hospitaller, 
 
 hospitable. 
 
 Ii6te*rodoxe, 
 
 heterodox. 
 
 hostie, 
 
 victim. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 hostilit6, 
 
 hostility. 
 
 h6te, 
 
 landlord. 
 
 h6tel, 
 
 hotel. 
 
 Ji6tellerie, 
 
 inn. 
 
 h6tesse, 
 
 landlady. 
 
 huile, 
 
 oil. 
 
 huissier, 
 
 usher. 
 
 huitre, 
 
 oyster. 
 
 humain, 
 
 human. 
 
 humble, 
 
 humble. 
 
 humecter, 
 
 to moisten. 
 
 huineur, 
 
 humour. 
 
 humidite, 
 
 dampness. 
 
 hu mi lite, 
 
 humility 
 
 hyacinthe, 
 
 hyacinth 
 
 hydre, 
 
 hydra. 
 
 hydromel, 
 
 mead. 
 
 hydropisie, 
 
 dropsy. 
 
 hymen, 
 
 hymen. 
 
 hymne, 
 
 hymn. 
 
 hyperbole, 
 
 hyperbole. 
 
 hypocrisie, 
 
 hypocrisy. 
 
 hypotheque, 
 
 mortgage. 
 
 hypothese, 
 
 hypothesis. 
 
 There are some more words in which h is mute, but they 
 are so seldom used, that I have thought proper to omit 
 them. 
 
 L preceded by f, when doubled or final, is ordinarily li- 
 quid, and is sounded as in the English words, brilliant, va- 
 liant. That sound being rather difficult, must be heard 
 from the master. 
 
 M . 
 
 M is sounded as an n, when it is followed by b, or p, thus, 
 ambition, ambition, comparer , to compare, are pronounced 
 anbition, conparer. 
 
 P is not sound. -\ at all in bapteme, baptism, baptiser, to 
 baptize, baptistaire, certificate of baptism, compte, ac- 
 count, and its derivatives; in corps, body, exempt, exempt, 
 exempter, to exempt, prompt, quick, and its derivatives ; 
 in sculpter, to carve, and its derivatives ; in sept, seven, 
 septieme, seventh, septitmement, seventhly, temps, time, 
 and in the persons of the verb rompre, to break, and its de- 
 rivatives, in which it is followed by s or t, as je romp$, I 
 break, it corrompt, he corrupts. 
 
^ c* 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 13 
 
 PH are always sounded as an/, thus, philippe, philoso- 
 phic, are pronounced filippe,jilosojie. 
 
 Q 
 
 QU have commonly the sound of a k, thus quatre, four, 
 qualite, quality, marque, mark, are pronounced fazfre, 
 
 & has generally the sound of az between two vowels, and 
 after the syllable tran ; thus, oser, to dare, raisonner, V 
 reason, transition, transition, are pronounced ozer, raizon- 
 ner, transition, &c. 
 
 In other circumstances, s has the hissing sound assigned 
 to it in the alphabet, and particularly when it is double, or 
 begins a word, as, assiduvte, superstition, &c. 
 
 TI not preceded by x, or s, are sounded as si, 1. in all 
 words ending in t ion ; 2. in adjectives, ending in tial, tiel, 
 fient, tieux, and their derivatives ; 3. in the names of per- 
 sons or people, ending in ties*. : 4. in all the tenses of the 
 verbs balbutier, to stammer, and initier, to initiate ; 5. in 
 the following words ending in tie; f acetic, pleasantry, im- 
 pvritie, ignorance, ineptie, folly, inertie, idleness, minvtie, 
 trifle, primatie, primacy, prophvtie, prophecy, and su- 
 prtmatie, supremacy. 
 
 X 
 
 X is sounded, 1. like ks, in the midde of wo*ds, and in 
 words beginning with ex, followed by a consonant, as maximc, 
 maxim, extase, extasy ; 2. like gz, in words beginning with 
 ex, followed by a vowel, as exemple, example, exiger, to ex- 
 act ; 3. like k in all words beginning with exc followed by 
 e or t, as excellent, excellent, exciter, to excite. 
 
OF PRONUNCIATION". 
 
 Remarks on the Pronunciation of some words . 
 
 1. The final oient, which is in the third person of the plu- 
 ral in the imperfect and conditional tenses of all verbs, is 
 sounded like ois of the first person of the same tense, only a 
 little longer: thus, fetois and ih 6t oient, je pensois, and Us 
 pensoient, are pronounced nearly alike. 
 
 2. The final ent, in the third person of the plural in the 
 present and preterite of the indicative and subjunctive moods, 
 th\is,je park, and ils par lent, je par lasse and ils parlassent , 
 are pronounced alike. 
 
 3. There are several substantives or adjectives which are 
 spelt absolutely like the third person plural of some verbs. 
 They are not to be mistaken, as in the substantives and ad- 
 jectives the final ent is pronounced like ant t and in the verbs 
 it is entirely mute. Such are the following. 
 
 SUBST. OR ADJECT. 
 
 adherent, adherent, 
 
 affluent, flowing. 
 
 content, content. 
 different, different. 
 
 parent, relation. 
 
 president, president, 
 
 violent, violent 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 ils adherent, they adhere, 
 they resort, 
 they relate, 
 they differ, 
 they adorn, 
 they preside. 
 
 ils affluent, 
 ils content, 
 ils different, 
 ils parent, 
 ils president, 
 ils violent, 
 
 they violate. 
 
 4, Some other words spelt alike, differ by the pronuncia- 
 tion, on account of the accent, or of oi, being pronounced 
 in some like oe, and in some others like ai. Such are 
 
 he beats. J un Francois, a Frenchman, 
 
 a pack-saddle. \ Fraiifois, Prancis. 
 
 jeune, young. 
 
 jefine, fast. 
 
 matin, morning. 
 
 \ ma* tin, mastiff-dog. 
 
 C paroisse, parish. 
 
 \ il paroisse, he mayappear. 
 
 C tache, a spot. 
 
 | tache, task. 
 
 C tacher, to spot. 
 
 \ tocher, to endeavour 
 
 il bat, 
 un bat, 
 
 il boite, he limps. 
 une boite, a box. 
 il chasse, he hunts. 
 une cMsse, a shrine. 
 un foret, a gimlet. 
 une for&t, a forest. 
 pecher, to sin. 
 pecher, to fish. 
 un pecheur, a sinner, 
 un pecheur, a fisherman 
 
OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Remarks on the Pronunciation of Poetry. 
 
 In poetry and in orations delivered in public, the finals 
 of words are sounded much more strongly than in common 
 conversation ; and we may here establish it as a nearly gene- 
 ral rule, that all the final consonants are sounded on the 
 next word, wken it begins with a vowel or h mute. 
 
 The following diphthongs ia, ie, io, ian, ion, are gene- 
 rally sounded with one emission of voice in prose, and with 
 two in poetry : thus, for instance, diademe, passion, make 
 two syllables in prose, and three in poetry. 
 
 In reading poetry we commonly pause a little in the 
 middle of a long verse ; and again at the end of every line, 
 though there should be neither stop, nor comma, provided 
 the sense does not suffer by it. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of using proper letters and 
 figures in writing the words of a language. 
 
 In this chapter I will speak, 1. of the proper spelling of 
 words ; 2. of the apostrophe; 3. of the hyphen, and cedilla ; 
 
 4. of the parenthesis, quotations, diaeresis, and abbreviations ; 
 
 5. of punctuation; and 6. of the use of capital letters. 
 
 . /. Of the proper Spelling of French Words. 
 
 Orthography in the French language consists in the proper 
 spelling; 1. of substantives in the plural number; 2, of ad- 
 jectives in the plural and feminine ; 3. of verbs in their dif- 
 ferent tenses and persons. These objects are fully explain- 
 ed in the second part of this grammar. The plurals of sub- 
 stantives and adjectives are found in chapter the 2d, section 
 the 4th ; the feminine of adjectives is described in chapter 
 
16 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 the 3d, section the 1st; and in the conjugation of verbs 
 will be found the different terminations 6f their tenses and 
 persons. 
 
 I will here only make some observations which are con- 
 formable to the practice of good authors. 
 
 1. A simple or radical word has usually for its final that 
 consonant which begins the next syllable of the word de- 
 rived from it; thus, plomb, lead, has b for its final, blanc, 
 white, c, camp, camp, p, &c. because the second syllable of 
 plomber, to lead, begins with b, of blanchciir, whiteness, 
 with c, and of camper, to encamp, with p. 
 
 2. We usually write am, em, im, om, urn, and pronounce 
 (to, r?z, in, on, un, in the words in which m is followed by 
 b, p, or another m f . such are chambrt, room, emporter, to 
 take away, emmener, to carry away, &c. 
 
 3. We write dont wkh a t, when it is a relative pronoun, 
 and with a c when it is a conclusive conjunction: as, les 
 avantages dcwit nous jouissons viennent de Dieu ; nous 
 devons done lui en rendre des actions de grace. The advan- 
 tages which we enjoy come from God, we ought then to 
 thank him for them. 
 
 4. The word quand has a d for its final, when it signi- 
 fies when, as quand viend;*ez-vous? ivhen will you come ? 
 and a t when it signifies as for. Example : quant a inoi, 
 je ie blame: as for me, I blame him. 
 
 5. We double the consonants in most words derived from 
 the Latin, when they are double in that language; thus, 
 approuver, to approve, is spelt with pp, and qff'rir, to offer, 
 with ff t because they come from the Latin verbs approbare, 
 efferre, in which these consonants are double. 
 
 6. The consonants /, m, n, t, are often doubled after a 
 and e, when the syllable is to be sounded short or open, 
 whether the words are derived from the Latin or not. 
 Tli us we write with a double consonant, salle, chandelk, 
 femme, canne, colonne, patte, assiette, &c. 
 
 7. P is often double when it comes after a or o as ap- 
 prendre, to learn, opprimer, to oppress, &c. 
 
OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 //. Of the Apostrophe. 
 
 The apostrophe is a kind of comma, formed thus (') 
 which is put between two letters, to denote the elision of 
 one vowel before another. 
 
 A and e suffer elision in the monosyllables le, la,je, me, 
 te, se, de, ce t ne, que, when the word following begins with 
 a vowel or h mute: thus we write Voiseau, bird, Vamitie^ 
 friendship, Ihomme, man, fai, I have, &c. instead of It 
 oiseau, la amitie, le homme,je ai. 
 
 They do not suffer elision before out, yes, huit, eight, 
 huitieme, eighth, onze, eleven, onzidme, eleventh, nor after 
 a verb in the imperative mood : thus we write il n'y a que 
 oui ou non; there is nothing but yes or no: de onze, ilrien 
 resta que huit, out of eleven, eight only remained; ditesk 
 a mon pcre, tell it to my father; and not il n'y a qu'oui ou 
 non ; nor d'onze, il n'en resta qu'huit ; dites Id mon ptre. 
 
 /suffers elision in the conjunction si, if, before the per- 
 sonal pronouns il, he, or Us, they, but not before elle, she, 
 nor any substantive whatever: thus we write sil vient, if 
 he conies, with an apostrophe ; and si elle vient, if she 
 conies, without elision. 
 
 A vowel never suffers elision in a word of more than one 
 syllable, unless it be a conjunction composed of que, as 
 quoiqiiil dise, though he says, la vertu est aimable, virtue 
 is amiable; uoi la vert 1 est aimable. 
 
 ///. Of the Hyphen and Cedilla. 
 
 The Hyphen, (in French le trait d'union,) is a line across 
 thus, (-), which is used : 
 
 1. After a verb followed by the pronouns, je, moi, tu, toi, 
 nous, vous, il, Us, elle, elles, le, la, les, lui, leur, y, en, ce, 
 on: as parleje, do I speak, viens-tu, dost thou come, <&V 
 moi, teil me, voyez-les, see them, &c. 
 
 2. Between several words so joined, that they make but 
 oue; as avant-coureur, forerunner, arc-en-ciel, rainbow, 
 cure-dent, toothpick. 
 
18 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. Between the particles ct, or Id, and the word which 
 precedes them: as celui-ci, this, celui-ld, that, cet homme- 
 ei t this man, cettcfemm* Id, that woman. 
 
 N. B. When a verb interrogatively used ends with a vowel, 
 we put a t with two hyphens, between it and the pronoun 
 t7, elle, or on; thus, A-t il? Has he? Parle-t-elle? Does 
 she speak t Fiendra-t-on? Will they come, &c. 
 
 4. The hyphen is used at the end of a line, when *here is 
 no room to write the whole word. The syllables of a word 
 are then divided, but not the letters of the same syllable : 
 thus, for instance, if you cannot write the word moment in 
 the same line, you may end it with mo-, and begin the other 
 with ment ; but you cannot end one line with mom, and 
 begin the other with ent. 
 
 The Cedilla is a little comma, thus (,) which is put un- 
 der ^a, $o, cu, when they must be sounded sa, so, su ; thus, 
 menapant, threatening, concu, conceived, k$on, lesson, with 
 a cedilla, are pronounced as if they were written menassa, 
 consu, lesson. 
 
 When c has the sound of an 8, in the present of the infini- 
 tive, it has the same sound in all the tenses and persons of 
 the same verb, and therefore must have a cedilla, when it 
 is followed by a, o, or M. 
 
 IF. Of Parentheses,Quotations,Di<ereses,and Abbreviations. 
 
 1. A Parenthesis is made thus ( ), and is used to enclose an 
 occasional sentence, interposed in the middle of the principal 
 one. The use of parentheses must not be too frequent. 
 
 2. A Quotation is a double inverted comma (") put at 
 the beginning, and at the end, or at the beginning of each 
 line of a passage extracted from another author. Example: 
 U avarice est un vice infdme ; void ce qu'en dit Bourdaloue : 
 " l f avarice corrompt tout, elle renverse tout, elle domine 
 " les hommes, elle en fait des esclaves, Sf les abrutit." 
 
 3. The Diuresis, (in French le trima) is two dots, thus, 
 (), put over the vowels e, i, or u, when they are not of the 
 same syllable as the vowel preceding; such are Noel, 
 Christmas, hdi, hated, Said. 
 
OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 4. The Abbreviations the most used in French are Mr 
 or M. for Monsieur. Mde. for Madame. Mile, for Ma* 
 demoiselle. MM. for Messieurs. S. M. for Sa Majesti. 
 S. M. Imp. for Sa Majesti Tmptriale. S. M. T. C. for Sa 
 Mcjeste Trts-Chrttitnne. S. M. Cath. for Sa Majeste Ca- 
 tkolique. S. M. Brit, for Sa Majeste; Britannique. S. A. 
 R, for Son Altesse Royale. S. A. E. for Son Altesse Elec- 
 torate. J. C. for Jesus-Christ. CP. for Constantinople. 
 MS. for Manuscript. Sept. or 7bre. for Septembre. Oct. 
 or Sbre. forOctobrs. Nov. or Qbre. for Novembre. Dec. 
 or lObre. for Dscembre. 
 
 V. Of Punctuation. 
 
 Punctuation is used in writing and printing, to denote the 
 place where the reader should stop to take breath, or to dis- 
 tinguish more easily the different parts of a sentence. 
 
 The stops are of six sorts,] of which the names and figures 
 are as follow : 
 
 (,) une virgule a comma. 
 
 (:) un point et une virgule a semicolon. 
 
 (:) deux points a colon. 
 
 (.) un point a full stop. 
 
 (1) un point d'interrogation <z note of interrogation. 
 
 (!) un point d'admiration. ........ note of admiration. 
 
 These stops are necessary to avoid obscurity, to prevent 
 misconstructions, and for the better understanding of what 
 we read or write. 
 
 A Comma is used, 1. in an enumeration, to distinguish the 
 things enumerated, as : Les parties du discours sont t le sub- 
 stantif, Vadjectif, le pronom, le verbe, I'adverbe, &c. the 
 parts of speech are, the substantive, the adjective, the pro- 
 noun, the verb, the adverb, &c. 2. to distinguish the differ- 
 ent parts of a sentence, and to give the reader a proper time 
 for breathing, as, // est bien difficile, quelque philosophic qu'on 
 ait 9 de souffrir long- temps sans se plaindrc. It is very diffi- 
 cult, whatever philosophy we may have, to suffer long 
 without complaining. 
 
20 OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 We do not use a comma between the different parts of a 
 short sentence, which can be sounded at one breath, as, 
 dites-moi sijeme suis trompe, tell me if I am mistaken. 
 
 A Semicolon is used to distinguish the two parts of a sen- 
 tence of a pretty good length when the first has a complete 
 sense of itself, as, on est coupable quand on garde son argent 
 sans vouloir s'en servir au besoin ; c'est Id ce qu'on appelle 
 avarice, men are guilty when they keep their money, with- 
 out being willing to apply it to the supply of their wants; 
 this is what is called avarice. 
 
 The Colon is used after a sentence which might stand 
 alone, because it makes a complete sense of itself, but which 
 is, however, followed by another, which explains or extends 
 it, as, il nefaut point se moquer des malheureux : peut-on 
 se flatter de ne Vttrejamais soi-meme? people ought not to 
 laugh at the unfortunate: can they flatter themselves that 
 they shall never be so themselves? 
 
 A Full Stop is used when the sentence is complete, as, 
 la charite est la premiere des vertus Chrttiennes, charity is 
 the first of Christian virtues. 
 
 A Note of Interrogation is used at the end of a sentence 
 which expresses a question, as Mr. votre pere est-il a la 
 maison? is your father at home ? 
 
 A Note of Admiration is put at the end of a sentence 
 which expresses admiration or surprise, as, que vous ties 
 heureux ! how happy you are ! 
 
 N. B. In reading a book, you must stop a little at every 
 comma, a little longer at a semicolon, more at a colon than 
 at a semicolon, and more at a full stop than at a colon. 
 
 VI. Of Capital Letters. 
 
 Capital or great letters are used, 
 
 1. At the beginning of every sentence in prose: they are 
 besides used at the beginning of every verse in poetry. 
 Examples : 
 
 p r C La vertu est aimable. Le vice est odieux. 
 Virtue is amiable. Vice is odious. 
 
p . 
 < tr y- 
 
 OF PRONUNCIATION. 
 C Choissisez des amis de qui la piet6, 
 
 Vous soil un stir garant de leur fideiite. 
 
 2. All Christian and proper names of persons, kingdoms, 
 provinces, towns, places, rivers, ships, mountains, and also 
 the names of heathen gods and goddesses, are written with 
 a capital -letter ; as Mars, Venus, Ciceron, Cesar, Londres, 
 la Tamise, les Alpes, la France, VAngleterre, la Bour- 
 gogne, &c. 
 
 AN ALPHABETICAL SERIES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Kingdoms, Republics, Provinces, and principal Towns, 
 ttkich have a different Denomination in French and in 
 English. 
 
 The Letter E denotes an Empire, K a Kingdom, P a Pro 
 vince, Ta Town, and R a Republic. 
 
 English. French. 
 
 Africa, Afrique. 
 
 America, Amdrique. 
 
 Antioch, T. Anticehe. 
 
 Antwerp, T. Anvers. 
 
 Apulia, P. la Pouille. 
 
 Athens, T. Atkencs. 
 
 Attica, P. Aiiique. 
 
 Austria, P. Autriehe. 
 
 Babylon, T. Babylone. 
 
 Basil, T. Bale. 
 
 Bavaria, P. Bavitre. 
 
 Bern, T. Berne. 
 
 Bohemia, K. BoMme. 
 
 Bologna, T. Bologne. 
 
 Brasil, P. Brcsil. 
 
 Bremen, T. Breme. 
 
 Brittany, P. Bretagne. 
 
 Britain, K. Bretagne. 
 
 Brussels, T. Bruxelles. 
 
 English. French. 
 
 Cairo, T. Caire. 
 
 Calabria, P. Calabre. 
 Canterbury, T.. Cantorbery. 
 Cappadocia, P. Cappadoce. 
 Calcedonia, T. CalcMoine. 
 Cologn, T. Cologne. 
 Copenhagen, T. Copenhague. 
 Corinth, T. Corinthe. 
 
 Cornwall, P. 
 
 Cornouaille. 
 
 Corsica, 
 
 Corse. 
 
 Corunna, T. 
 
 Corogne. 
 
 Cracow, T, 
 
 Cracovie. 
 
 Cyprus, 
 
 Cypre. 
 
 Damascus, T. 
 
 Dam as. 
 
 Dauphiny, P. 
 
 Dauphine. 
 
 Denmark, K. 
 
 Danemark. 
 
 Dover, T. 
 
 Douvres. 
 
 Dunkirk, T. 
 
 Dunkerque. 
 
 Edinburgh, T. Jdimbourg> 
 
 Burgundy, P. Bourgogne. Egypt, K. Egypte, 
 
22 FRENCH NAMES OF KINGDOMS, TQWNS, &C. 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 England, K. 
 
 Angleterre. 
 
 Morocco, E. 
 
 Marec. 
 
 Ephesus, T. 
 
 Ephese. 
 
 Muscovy, E. 
 
 Moscome. 
 
 Epidaurus, T. 
 
 Epidaure. 
 
 Nantz, T. 
 
 Nantes. 
 
 Epirus, K. 
 
 Epire. 
 
 Nuneguen, T. 
 
 Nimtgue. 
 
 Flanders, P. 
 
 Flandres. 
 
 Nineveh, T. 
 
 Ninive. 
 
 Frankfort, T. 
 
 Francfort. 
 
 Normandy, P. 
 
 Normandie. 
 
 Gascony, P. 
 
 Gascogne. 
 
 Norway, K. 
 
 Norvege. 
 
 Geneva, R. 
 
 Geneve. 
 
 Odenburg, T. 
 
 Odembourg. 
 
 Genoa, R. 
 
 Genes. 
 
 Ostend, T. 
 
 Ostende. 
 
 Germany, E. 
 
 Allemagne. 
 
 Otranto, T. 
 
 Otrante. 
 
 Ghent, T. 
 
 Gand. 
 
 Padua, T. 
 
 Padoue. 
 
 Greece, 
 
 Grece. 
 
 Palermo, T. 
 
 Palerme. 
 
 Guelderland, P. 
 
 Gueldres. 
 
 Persia, K. 
 
 Perse. 
 
 Hague, T. 
 
 La Hate. 
 
 Pharsalia,;T. 
 
 Pharsale. 
 
 Hanover, P. 
 
 Hanovre. 
 
 Picardy, P. 
 
 Picardie. 
 
 Holland, R. 
 
 Hollande. 
 
 Poland, K. 
 
 Pologne. 
 
 Hungary, K. 
 
 Hongrie. 
 
 Prussia, K. 
 
 Prusse. 
 
 Japan, E. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Ratisbon,T. 
 
 Ratisbonne. 
 
 Iceland, 
 
 Islande. 
 
 Saguntum, T. 
 
 Sagonte. 
 
 Ireland, K. 
 
 Irlande. 
 
 Sardinia, K. 
 
 Sardaigne. 
 
 Italy, 
 
 Italic. 
 
 Sardis, T. 
 
 Sardes. 
 
 Lacedremon, T. 
 
 Lacedemone. 
 
 Savoy, 
 
 Savoie. 
 
 Lancaster, T. 
 
 Lancastre. 
 
 Saxony, P. 
 
 Saxe. 
 
 Leghorn, T. 
 
 Livourne. 
 
 Scotland, K. 
 
 Ecosse. 
 
 Levden, T. 
 
 Leyde, 
 
 Sicily, K. 
 
 Sidle: 
 
 Lisbon, T. 
 
 Lisbonne. 
 
 Sluys, T. 
 
 L'Ecluse* 
 
 Lisle, T. 
 
 Lille. 
 
 Spain, K. 
 
 Espagne. 
 
 Lombardy, P. 
 
 Lombardie. 
 
 Sparta, T. 
 
 Sparte. 
 
 London, T. 
 
 Londres. 
 
 Suabia, P. 
 
 Souabe. 
 
 Lorrain, P. 
 
 Lorraine. 
 
 Sweden, K. 
 
 Suede. 
 
 Lucca, R. 
 
 Luqms. 
 
 Tarsus, T. 
 
 Tarse. 
 
 Lyons, T. 
 
 Lyon. 
 
 Thebaid, P. 
 
 Theba'ide* 
 
 Mantua, T. 
 
 Mantoue. 
 
 Thessaly P. 
 
 Thessalie. 
 
 Mecca, T. 
 
 La Mtque, 
 
 Toledo, T, 
 
 ToMe. 
 
 Mechlin, T. 
 
 Malines. 
 
 Triers, T. 
 
 Trtves. 
 
 Mentz, T. 
 
 Mayence. 
 
 Troy, T. 
 
 Troie. 
 
 Mexico, P. 
 
 Mexique. 
 
 Turkey, E, 
 
 Turquie* 
 
 Miletus, T. 
 
 Mikt. 
 
 Tuscany, 
 
 Toscane 
 
 Minorca, 
 
 Minorque. 
 
 Valencia, T. 
 
 Valence. 
 
 Mogul, Ev 
 
 Mogol, 
 
 Venice, R. 
 
 Wnise. 
 
PROPER NAMES OF THE ANCIENTS. 23 
 
 English. French. English. French. 
 
 Vicenza, T. licence. Warsaw, T. Varsovie. 
 
 Wales, P. Galles. York,T. Yorck. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. All other names of kingdoms, provinces, and towns, 
 ending in a in English, become French by changing a into c 
 niute. Examples : 
 
 English: Asia, Arabia, Cesarea, Carolina, &c. 
 French ': Asie, Arabic, Ccsaree, Caroline. &c. . 
 
 2. The other names of towns ending in burg, become 
 French by changing burg into bourg, thus : 
 
 English: Ausburg, Friburg, Hamburg, Brandeburg, &c. 
 French : Ausbourg,Fribourg,Hambourg,Brandebourg>&c. 
 
 3. Most of the other names not here specified, are th* 
 same in both languages. 
 
 A METHOD 
 
 To learn the French Denomination of Heathen Gods, and oj 
 Names taken from the Greek or Latin : and in what they 
 , differ from the English. 
 
 1. The proper names of men ending in English in a, are 
 the same in both languages : thus we say, 
 
 English : Agrippa, Dolabella, Nerva, Caligula, &c. 
 French: Agrippa, Dolabella, Nerva, Caligula, &c. 
 
 2. The proper names of women and goddesses ending in 
 a, become French by changing the final a into e mute. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 English : Julia, Cleopatra, Octavia, Agrippina, Diana, &c. 
 French : Julie, CUopatre> Octavie, Agrippine, Diane, &c. 
 
 3. The greatest number of proper names ending in Eng- 
 lish in as, become French by changing as into e mute. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 English: Mecenas, Eneas, Pythagoras, &c. 
 Enee P^thayore t &c. 
 
24 METHOD TO LEARN MANY THOUSAND FRENCH WORDS. 
 
 4. The proper names ending in English in es, become 
 French by changing that final into t mute. Examples ; 
 
 English : Demosthenes, Ulysses, Socrates. &c. 
 French : Demosthtne, Ulysse, Socrate, &c. 
 
 5. The proper names ending in o in English, become 
 French by changing o into on. Examples : 
 
 English : Dido, Cicero, Cato, Plato, ScSpio, &c. 
 French : Didon, Ciceron, Caton, Platon, Scipion, &c* 
 
 6 The proper names ending in English in us or ius, are 
 the same in French when they are of two syllables only. 
 Examples : 
 
 English: Brutus, Cyrus, Croesus, Venus, &c. 
 
 French: Brutus, Cyrus, Croesus, Venus, &c. 
 
 7. Most proper names ending in us, eus, or ius, become 
 French by changing that final into e route, when they are 
 composed of three or more syllables. Examples: 
 
 English : Camillus, Orpheus, Esculapius, &c. 
 French : Camille, Orphee, Esculape, &c. 
 
 8. Most proper names ending in English in is or al, are 
 the same in both languages. Examples : 
 
 English : Sesostris, Juvenal, Annibal, Asdrubal, &e. 
 French: Sesostris, Juvenal, Annibal, Asdrubal,, &c. 
 
 p. Most proper names ending in English, in ander, be- 
 come French by changing ander into andre : as 
 English : Alexander, Leander, Lysander, &c. 
 French: Alexandre, Leandre, Lysandre, &c. 
 
 A METHOD 
 
 For learning with euse, several Thousand French Words. 
 RULE I. 
 
 Most nouns, substantive and adjective, which end in Eng- 
 lish with any of the seven following syllables, ble, ce y de, ge, 
 ne, ion, and ent, are the same in French as in English. 
 Thus we say in both languages, but without accents in 
 English. 
 
METHOD TO LEARN MANY THOUSAND FRENCH WORDS. 26 
 
 1. b?e, Fable, visible, incapable, noble, sensible, &c. 
 
 2. ce t Province, distance, vice, evidence, force, &c. 
 
 3. de, Servitude, habitude, prelude, &c. 
 
 4. gt, Charge, passage, siege, febrifuge, &c. 
 
 5. ne, Machine, scene, famine, doctrine, &c. 
 
 6. ion, Nation, opinion, union, education, religion, &c 
 
 7. ent, Prudent, diligent, patient, content, &c. 
 
 RULE H. 
 
 Most English words ending in any of the seven following 
 syllables ary, ory, cy, ty, ous, our, and or, become French 
 by changing the final, thus : 
 
 1 . ary, into aire, as military, militaire, &c. 
 
 2. ory, oire, as glory, gloire, &c. 
 
 3. cy, ce t as clemency, cUmence, &c. 
 
 4. ty, " te, as humanity, humanitc, &c. 
 
 5. ous, - eux t as dangerous, dangereux, &c. 
 6\ our, eur, as favour, faveur,&c. 
 
 7. or, eur, as doctor, docteur, &c. 
 
 RULE [II. 
 
 Most English verbs ending in ise, use, ute t become French 
 Ay adding an r to the final, thus : to 
 
 1 . ise, add r, as baptise, realise, baptiser, realiser, &c. 
 
 2. use, r, as abuse, excuse, abuser, excuser, &c. 
 
 3. ute, r, as dispute, refute, disputer, refuter, &c. 
 
 RULE W. 
 
 Most English verbs ending in ate, fy, or ish, become 
 French by changing the final as follows : 
 
 English. French. 
 
 1. ate, into er t as accelerate, abrogate, acc^ltrer t abroger^&c. 
 
 2. fy, jfor,as justify, liquefy, justifier, liquejier^c. 
 
 3. ish, ir, as abolish, accomplish, abolir, accomplir,&c. 
 
 Note 1. Most nouns which end in y, except those 
 
2(3 MklHOD TO LEARN MAN? THOUSAND FRENCH WORDS, 
 
 tioned in Rule 2, become French by changing that final in 
 to *>, and have the plural alike in both languages, thus : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 English : folly, tragedy, fury; follies, tragedies, furies. 
 French: folie, tragedie,furie ; folies, tragedies, furies. 
 
 Note 2. The verbs ending in bute and tute, are excepted 
 from Rule 3, and become French by changing ute into ucr, 
 as : to attribute, attribuer, to substitute, substituer. 
 
 Note 3. There are some exceptions to these four rules, 
 particularly to the words ending in ty ; but they are very- 
 few, and a great advantage will certainly be derived from 
 learning these finals by heart. 
 
 
( 27 ) 
 
 PART II. 
 
 OF THE NINE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 JL HERE are in French, as in other languages, nine parts 
 of speech, called article, substantive, adjective, pronoun, 
 verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection : the 
 first five ate declinable, and the four others indeclinable. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 Of the Article. 
 
 The article is a little word, placed before a substantive, 
 to specify the extent of the signification in which it is taken. 
 There are in French three sorts of articles, viz. 
 
 1. definite: le, m. la, L Ies 9 pi. the. 
 
 2. indefinite : MM, m. une, f. no pi. a or an. 
 
 3. partitive: du, m. de Ia 9 f. des, pi. some or any. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of Substantives. 
 
 This chapter is divided into four sections : thejlrst ex- 
 plains the nature and the different kinds of substantives ; the 
 second speaks of their cases and declension ; the third treats 
 of their gender, and shews how to distinguish the masculine 
 from the feminine ; the fourth has for object the plural of 
 nouns, and its formation from the singular number 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 
 Of the Nature and Kinds of Substantives. 
 
 A Substantive is a word which expresses the name of a 
 person, or a thing, material, spiritual, or ideal; such as 
 
28 OF ARTICLES AND SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 man ; femme, woman ; cheval, horse ; maison, 
 house ; vertu, virtue, &c. 
 
 There are three sorts of substantives, viz. proper, com- 
 mon, 'and collective. 
 
 The substantive proper expresses some individual per- 
 son or thing which cannot be divided into species; such 
 are, Pierre, Peter; Londres, London; Cat on, Cato; 
 Paris, Paris, &c. 
 
 TJie substantive common comprehends all objects of the 
 same kind ; such are, royaume, kingdom ; riviere, river ; 
 soldat, soldier. 
 
 The substantive collective is a word which presents to the 
 mind several persons or things. The nouns collective are 
 general or partitive. 
 
 A noun collective general represents the whole object ; 
 such are, la nation, the nation ; larmee, t\\ e army ; la 
 fiotte, the fleet ; te parlement, the parliament. 
 
 A noun collective partitive represents only a part of the 
 whole object ; such are, un grand nombre, a great number ; 
 unefoule, a crowd; la plupart , the most part. 
 
 N.B. See the use of substantives, Rule 21, and follow- 
 ing, in the syntax. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of the Declension of Nouns. 
 
 As the French nouns do not change their termination in 
 the same number, many grammarians pretend, that there 
 are no cases in our tongue ; but I think it is more simple 
 and natural to give the same names, in all languages, to the 
 same relation of things ; and the rather because many of 
 those who learn French, learn at the same time Latin or 
 -Greek: therefore I admit of six cases, called, nominative, 
 genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, arid ablative. How- 
 ever, as there can never be any mistake about the vocative, 
 for brevity sake, we will decline our nouns with five cases 
 only. 
 
 N. denotes the nominative, G. the genitive, D. the 
 dative, Ac. the accusative, Ab. the ablative. 
 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 2<J 
 
 DECLENSION 
 
 OF NOUNS WITH THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 V 
 
 1. A Noun Masculine. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 N. Ac. le roi, the king. les rois, the Icings. 
 
 G. Ab. du roi, of or from the king, des rois, of or from the. 
 D. au roi, to the king. aux rois, to the kings. 
 
 2. A Noun Feminine. 
 
 N. Ac. la reine, the queen. les reines, the queens. 
 
 G. Ab. de la rcine, of or from the. des reines, of or from the. 
 D a I'd reine, to the queen, aux reines, to the queens. 
 
 3. A Noun beginning with a Vowel. 
 
 N. Ac. Tumi, the friend. les amis, the friends. 
 
 G. Ab. de Tami, of or from the. des amis, of or from the. 
 D & Tami, to the friend. aux amis, to the friends. 
 
 4. A Noun beginning with an h mute. 
 
 N. Ac. rbonime, the man. les hommes, the men. 
 
 G. Ab. derhornme,o/'or/rom^e.des homines, of or from.' 
 D. a 1'homme, to the man. aux hommes, to the men. 
 
 5. A Noun preceded by tout. 
 
 SINGULAR, 
 
 N. Ac. tout le monde, every body. 
 G. Ab. de tout le monde, of or from c^Ty 1/ody. 
 D a tout le monde, to every body. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 N. Ac. tous les enfans, all the children. 
 G. Ab. de tous les enfans, of or from all the children. 
 D. a tous les enfans, to all the children. 
 
30 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 DECLENSION 
 
 OF NOUNS WITH THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. 
 
 N. Ac. un jardin, a garden. une maison, a house. 
 G. Ab. d'un jardin, of or from a. d'une maison, of or from. 
 D. a un jardin, to a garden, a une maison, to a house. 
 
 DECLENSION 
 
 \ OF NOUNS WITH THE PARTITIVE ARTICLE. 
 
 SINGULAR, MASC. PLURAL, MASC. 
 
 N. Ac. du pain, some bread. des poissons, fishes. 
 D. a du pain, to some bread. des poissons, to fishes. 
 
 SINGULAR, FEM. PLURAL, FEM. 
 
 N. Ac. de la viande, some meat des oranges, oranges. 
 D. a de la viande ,to some meat. & des oranges, to oranges 
 
 DECLENSION OF PROPER NAMES. 
 
 N. Ac, Londres, London. Paris, Paris. 
 
 G. Ab. de Londres, of or from, de Paris, of or from. 
 
 D. Londres, to London, a Paris, to Paris. 
 
 N. Ax;. Pierre, Peter. Annibal, Annibal. 
 
 G. Ab. de Pierre, o/'or/romPeter.d'Annibal, oforjrom. 
 D. a Pierre, to Peter. . & Annibal, to Annibal. 
 
 Observe, 1. Du and des t which ape in the genitive, are 
 used by a contraction for de le, de les; and au, aux, for 
 A le , d les, which contraction does not take place, when a 
 noun is preceded by tout, as above. 
 
 Observe, 2. That all the nouns which begin with a 
 vowel or h mute, take V in the nominative or accusative, 
 de r in the genitive, and a I in the dative, whether they be 
 masculine, or feminine, in order to avoid the hard sound 
 which would result from the meeting of two vowels; thus, 
 we say, lame, the soul, instead of la time, I' ambition, the 
 ambition, instead of la ambition, &c. 
 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 31 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 How to distinguish when a Noun is masculine or feminine. 
 
 The distinction of genders in substantives originates in 
 the distinction of sexes, by imitation the masculine or fe- 
 minine gender have been given to all substantives though 
 they have no reference to any sex : thus, for instance, pain, 
 bread, couteau, knife, jardin, garden, &c. are masculine, 
 and cuiller, a spoon, fourchette, a fork, table, a table, &c. 
 are feminine. 
 
 A GENERAL RULE. 
 
 The nouns which have reference to males are of the 
 masculine gender, and those which have reference to fe- 
 males are feminine. Thus, un homme, a man ; un cheval, 
 a horse ; are masculine : and une femme, a woman ; une 
 jument, a mare ; are feminine. 
 
 The gender of other nouns is known by their termina- 
 tion, as follows : 
 
 N. B. Fishes, reptiles, and insects, both male and female, 
 are known in French by one gender only, which is generally 
 distinguished by their final, as are the inanimate objects, 
 of which hereafter ; many birds and wild beasts are also 
 ef one gender only. 
 
 MASCULINE TERMINATIONS. 
 
 RULE /. 
 
 Nouns which end in a consonant, are of the masculine 
 gender, when they have any other final than x, eur, and 
 ion, to which must be added son, preceded by a vowel, of 
 which we shall speak hereafter. 
 
 This rule, which comprehends many thousand words, has 
 no other exceptions than the thirty-one following words: 
 
 la boisson, drinking, de la chair, flesh. 
 
 une brebis, sheep, une chanson, a song. 
 
GENDER OF NOUNS. 
 
 une clef, 
 
 a key, 
 
 la cour, 
 
 the court. 
 
 une cuiller, 
 
 a spoon. 
 
 la cuisson, 
 
 baking. 
 
 une dent, 
 
 a tooth. 
 
 une dot, 
 
 a portion. 
 
 la faon, 
 
 making. 
 
 la faim, 
 
 hunger. 
 
 la fin, 
 
 the end. 
 
 une fois, 
 
 once. 
 
 une fort, 
 
 a forest. 
 
 la hart, 
 
 halter. 
 
 une 169011, 
 
 a lesson, 
 
 la main, 
 
 the hand. 
 
 Id maman, 
 
 mamma. 
 
 la mer, 
 
 the sea. 
 
 la niort, 
 
 , death. 
 
 la moisson, 
 
 harvest. 
 
 la mousson 
 
 , the monsoon. 
 
 la nef, 
 
 C the body of the 
 \ church. 
 
 la nuit, 
 
 the night. 
 
 la part, 
 
 the part. 
 
 la rai^on, 
 
 the ransom. 
 
 la soif, 
 
 thirst. 
 
 une souris, 
 
 a mouse. 
 
 une tour, 
 
 a tower. 
 
 une vis, 
 
 a screw. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 All trees, and also all adjectives and verbs subslaniively 
 used, are. masculine, whatever be their termination ; such 
 are, for trees, un houx, an holy-oak ; un chene, an oak ; un 
 hetre, a beech : for adjectives, un impie, an impious man, 
 un sot, a fool, un brave, a brave man ; and for verbs, le 
 boire, the drinking, le manger, the eating, &c. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 The names of days, months, seasons, shrubs, towns, co- 
 lours, metals, mountains, and winds, are masculine, except, 
 Vautomne, the autumn, of both genders, les Alpes, les 
 Pyrenees, les Cordillieres. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Nouns which end in the vowels a, i, o, u, are masculine ; 
 and also those which end in e accented, and not preceded 
 by a t : as un opera, an opera ; un oubli, oblivion ; un cha- 
 peau, a hat ; le the, tea ; un prc, a meadow. 
 
 These four, lafoi, faith; lafourmi, the ant; la lot, the 
 law; la merci, mercy; are excepted from the final t. 
 
 These fi ve ; de belle eau, fine water ; de la glu, bird-lime ; 
 lapeau, the skin; unetribu, a tribe; lavertu, virtue; are 
 
GENDER OF NOUNS. 33 
 
 excepied from the final u. The finals a, o, e, have no 
 exceptions. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Nouns ending in any of the following terminations, age, 
 ege, uge, oire, acle, aume, $rne, isme, and 6me, are mas- 
 culine ; as un paysage, a landscape ; un piege, a snare ; 
 le deluge, the flood, &c. 
 
 La gloire, glory ; une ecritoire, an inkstand ; I'histoire, 
 the history ; une racloire, a strickle ; la machoire, the jaw ; 
 la nageoire, the fin ; une passoire, a colander ; la victoire, 
 victory ; are excepted from the final oire. 
 
 The word creme, cream, is excepted from the final $me. 
 
 The words page, page, rage, rage, cage, cage, image, 
 image, are excepted from the final age. 
 
 FEMININE TERMINATIONS. 
 RULE I. 
 
 All nouns which end in x, eur, ion, and also in son, when 
 s is preceded by a vowel, are feminine ; as la pah, peace ; la 
 ckaleur, heat ; la nation, the nation; la ma'tson, the house. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 1. Le choix, choice, un crucifix, a crucifix, le flux, 
 the flux, le reflux, the reflux, fc prix, the price. 
 
 2. Le bonheur, happiness, le cocur, the heart, le deshon- 
 neur, dishonour, lequateur, the equator, r/wnneur, honour, 
 lelabeur, labour, levnalheur, misfortune, lespleurs, tears. 
 
 S. Le bastion, the bastion, un champion, a champion, 
 un croupion, a rump, un lampion, a lamp, un million, a mil- 
 lion, un scorpion, a scorpion, le septentrion, the north. 
 
 4. Le blazon, heraldry, un gazon, a green turf, I'horizon, 
 the horizon, un oison, a gosling, un peson, a steelyard, 
 le poison^ the poison, un tison, a brand. 
 
34 A LIST OF NOUNS MASCULINE. 
 
 RULE II. , 
 
 All nouns which end in te, tie, ee, ie, ue, ace, ade, ude, 
 ance, ence', anse, ense, iere., vre, lie, mme, nne, rre, sse, tie, 
 are feminine. Examples: la charite, charity, la pensee, 
 thought, la vie, life, la vice, sight, la glace, ice, &c. 
 
 Exceptions to these finals. 
 
 Un arrtte, a resolution, un athee, an atheist, nn augure, 
 an augury, du beurre, butter, un carrosse, a coach, un 
 chevre-feuille, a honeysuckle, un cimetiere, a churchyard, 
 un codicille, a codicil, un colosse, a colossus, un comite, a 
 committee, un comte, a county, le cote, the side, le derritre, 
 the back, lefoi, the liver, un espace, a space, le genie, ge- 
 nius, un grade, a degree, un incendie, a conflagration, un 
 intervalle, an interval, un libelle, a libel, un mausolee, a 
 mausoleum, le mercure, mercury, un murmure, a murmur, 
 un parterre, a flower-garden, un parjure, perjury, unpara- 
 pluie, an umbrella, un pate, a pie, le prelude, the prelude, 
 le silence, silence, le tonnerre, thunder, le trait e, treaty, 
 un trophee, a trophy. 
 
 RULE III 
 
 All nouns ending in e mute, are feminine, when they 
 have any other final than those mentioned in rule the fifth 
 of the masculine terminations. Examples: la colere, anger, 
 la face, the face, la racinc, the root, la bouche, the mouth, 
 lajambe, the leg, &c. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 
 
 albiitre, 
 
 alabaster. 
 
 
 
 ambre, 
 
 amber. 
 
 Ablme, 
 
 abyss. 
 
 ange, 
 
 angel. 
 
 acte, 
 
 act. 
 
 angle, 
 
 angle. 
 
 adverbe, 
 
 an adverb. 
 
 antidote, 
 
 antidote. 
 
 adultere, 
 
 adultery. 
 
 antre, 
 
 a cave. 
 
 aigle, 
 
 eagle. 
 
 arbitre, 
 
 umpire. 
 
A LIST OF NODTfS MASCULINE. 
 
 arbre, 
 
 a tree. 
 
 cigne, 
 
 a swan. 
 
 arbuste, 
 
 shrub. 
 
 cilice, 
 
 hair-cloth. 
 
 artifice, 
 
 artifice. 
 
 cylindre, 
 
 cylindei\ 
 
 asthme, 
 
 asthma. 
 
 cimeterre, 
 
 cimeter. 
 
 astre, 
 
 star. 
 
 clistere, 
 
 a clyster. 
 
 asile, 
 
 sanctuary. 
 
 cloitre, 
 
 cloister. 
 
 auspice, 
 
 auspice. 
 
 code, 
 
 code. 
 
 axe, 
 
 axis. 
 
 coffre, 
 
 a trunk. 
 
 
 
 colloque, 
 
 a conference. 
 
 
 B 
 
 commerce, 
 
 trade. 
 
 
 
 concile, 
 
 council. 
 
 Benefice, 
 
 a living. 
 
 concombre, 
 
 cucumber. 
 
 bl&me, 
 
 blame. 
 
 c6ne, 
 
 a cone. 
 
 bitume, 
 
 bitumen. 
 
 congre, 
 
 a conger. 
 
 branle, 
 
 motion. 
 
 compte, 
 
 an account. 
 
 bronze, 
 
 cast copper. 
 
 conte, 
 
 tale. 
 
 buste, 
 
 bwt. 
 
 contraste, 
 
 contrast. 
 
 
 
 coude, 
 
 elbow. 
 
 
 
 couvercle, 
 
 lid. 
 
 
 C 
 
 crepuscule, 
 
 twilight. 
 
 
 
 cr^pe^ 
 
 a crape. 
 
 Cable, 
 
 cable. 
 
 crible, 
 
 sieve. 
 
 cadavre, 
 
 a corpse. 
 
 crime, 
 
 crime. 
 
 cadre, 
 
 frame. 
 
 cube, 
 
 cube. 
 
 calibre, 
 
 size. 
 
 cuivre, 
 
 copper. 
 
 calice, 
 
 chalice. 
 
 culte, 
 
 worship. 
 
 cahne. 
 
 calm. 
 
 
 
 caniphre, 
 
 camphire. 
 
 
 D 
 
 cantique, 
 
 spiritual song. 
 
 
 
 caprice, 
 
 whim. 
 
 Decompte, 
 
 discounting. 
 
 caractere, 
 
 character. 
 
 dedale, 
 
 maze. 
 
 casque, 
 
 a helmet. 
 
 deli re, 
 
 delirium, 
 
 catalogue, 
 
 a catalogue. 
 
 demerite, 
 
 demerit. 
 
 caute-rre, 
 
 a cautery. 
 
 d^sastre, 
 
 disaster. 
 
 centre, 
 
 centre. 
 
 d^sordre, 
 
 disorder. 
 
 cercle, 
 
 circle. 
 
 diable, 
 
 devil. 
 
 chanvre, 
 
 hemp. 
 
 dialogue, 
 
 dialogue. 
 
 chapitre, 
 
 a chapter. 
 
 diametre, 
 
 diameter 
 
 c hi flip, 
 
 a cypher. 
 
 dilemme, 
 
 dilemma. 
 
 cidre, 
 
 cyder. 
 
 diocese, 
 
 diocese. 
 
 cierge, 
 
 wax taper. 
 
 divorce, 
 
 divorce. 
 
36 
 
 A LIST OF NOUNS MASCULINE. 
 
 dogme, 
 
 dogma. 
 
 gouffre, 
 
 whirlpool* 
 
 domaine, 
 
 domain. 
 
 
 
 
 domicile, 
 
 abode* 
 
 
 H 
 
 doute, 
 
 doubt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Havre, 
 
 haven. 
 
 
 E 
 
 homicide, 
 
 a murder. 
 
 
 
 h6te, 
 
 landlord. 
 
 Ebene, 
 
 ebony. 
 
 
 
 change, 
 
 exchange. 
 
 
 I 
 
 edifice, 
 
 edifice, 
 
 
 
 eloge, 
 
 praise. 
 
 Jetine, 
 
 fast. 
 
 emetique, 
 
 emetic. 
 
 insecte, 
 
 insect. 
 
 empire, 
 
 empire. 
 
 interregne, 
 
 interregnum. 
 
 emplatre, 
 
 plaister. 
 
 isthme, 
 
 isthmus. 
 
 Episode, 
 
 episode. 
 
 
 L 
 
 equilibre, 
 
 equilibrium. 
 
 
 
 equinoxe, 
 
 equinox. 
 
 Labyrinthe, 
 
 labyrinth. 
 
 esclandre, 
 
 a bustle. 
 
 legume, 
 
 pulse. 
 
 escompte, 
 
 discount. 
 
 lierre, 
 
 ivy. 
 
 6vangile, 
 
 gospel. 
 
 lievre, 
 
 hare. 
 
 exercice, 
 
 exercise. 
 
 linge, 
 
 linen. 
 
 exode, 
 
 exodus. 
 
 lucre, 
 
 profit. 
 
 
 
 lustre, 
 
 lustre. 
 
 
 F 
 
 luxe, 
 
 luxury. 
 
 Falte, 
 
 top. 
 
 
 M 
 
 faste, 
 
 ostentation. 
 
 
 
 fiacre, 
 
 hackney-coach. Male, 
 
 male. 
 
 flegme, 
 
 phlegm. 
 
 malfice, 
 
 witchcrajt. 
 
 fleuve, 
 
 river. 
 
 manifeste, 
 
 manifesto. 
 
 frontispice, 
 
 frontispiece. 
 
 niarbre, 
 
 marble. 
 
 
 
 martyre, 
 
 martyrdom. 
 
 
 G 
 
 masque, 
 
 a mask. 
 
 
 
 massacre, 
 
 a slaughter. 
 
 Genievre, 
 
 juniper. 
 
 mem b re, 
 
 member. 
 
 genre, 
 
 gender. 
 
 melange, 
 
 mixture. 
 
 germe, 
 
 bud. 
 
 mensonge, 
 
 a lie. 
 
 geste, 
 
 gesture. 
 
 merite, 
 
 merit. 
 
 glaive, 
 
 a sword. 
 
 merle, 
 
 a blackbird. 
 
 globe, 
 
 a globe. 
 
 meteore, 
 
 meteor. 
 
 globule, 
 
 globule. 
 
 me.uble, 
 
 furniture. 
 
A LIST OF NOUNS MASCULINE. 
 
 meurtre, 
 
 murder. 
 
 pouce, 
 
 thumb. 
 
 ininistere, 
 
 ministry. 
 
 pr6cepte, 
 
 precept. 
 
 mobile, 
 
 motion. 
 
 precipice, 
 
 precipice. 
 
 modele, 
 
 model. 
 
 prejudice, 
 
 prejudice. 
 
 monarque, 
 
 monarch. 
 
 prestige, 
 
 an imposture. 
 
 monde, 
 
 the world. 
 
 pr6texte, 
 
 a pretence. 
 
 monastere, 
 
 monastery. 
 
 principe, 
 
 a principle. 
 
 monopole, 
 
 monopoly. 
 
 prodige, 
 
 prodigy. 
 
 monstre, 
 
 monster. 
 
 proverbe, 
 
 proverb. 
 
 mystere, 
 
 mystery. 
 
 pupitre, 
 
 a desk. 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 ;R 
 
 Navire, 
 
 ship. 
 
 Regime, 
 
 a diet. 
 
 n6goce, 
 
 trade. 
 
 regne, 
 
 reign. 
 
 nombre, 
 
 number. 
 
 remede, 
 
 remedy. 
 
 
 
 reptile, 
 
 a reptile. 
 
 
 O 
 
 reproche, 
 
 reproach. 
 
 
 
 reste, 
 
 rest. 
 
 Ongle, 
 
 nail. 
 
 rfcve, 
 
 a dream. 
 
 opprobre, 
 
 reproach. 
 
 rhufiie, 
 
 a rheum. 
 
 ordre, 
 
 order. 
 
 risque, 
 
 a risk 
 
 organe, 
 
 ail organ. 
 
 
 
 orge, 
 
 barley. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 
 P 
 
 Sable, 
 
 sand. 
 
 
 
 sabre, 
 
 broad-sword 
 
 Pacte, 
 
 a bargain. 
 
 sacrifice, 
 
 sacrifice. 
 
 paradoxe, 
 
 a paradox. 
 
 sacerdoce, 
 
 priest-hood. 
 
 parricide, 
 
 parricide. 
 
 salpetre, 
 
 salt-petre. 
 
 participe, 
 
 participle. 
 
 scandale, 
 
 scandal. 
 
 patrimoine, , 
 
 patrimony. 
 
 sceptre, 
 
 a tceptre. ' 
 
 peigne, 
 
 a comb. 
 
 schisme, 
 
 a schism. 
 
 pene, 
 
 a bolt. 
 
 scrupule, 
 
 a scruple. 
 
 peuple, 
 
 people. 
 
 seigle, 
 
 rye. 
 
 piienomene, 
 
 phenomeno 
 
 service, 
 
 service. 
 
 p&tre, 
 
 plaister. 
 
 sexe, 
 
 a sea. 
 
 ponrre, 
 
 pepper. 
 
 siecie, 
 
 an age. 
 
 p6le, 
 
 pole. 
 
 signe, 
 
 a sign. 
 
 portique, 
 
 portico. 
 
 songe, 
 
 dream. 
 
Substantives Masc. in one Signification, and Fern, in another 
 
 souffle, 
 
 breath. 
 
 trouble, 
 
 trouble. 
 
 soufre, 
 
 sulphur. 
 
 tube, 
 
 tube. 
 
 spectre, 
 
 a ghost. 
 
 tumulte, 
 
 tumult. 
 
 style, 
 
 a style. 
 
 
 
 subside, 
 
 subsidy. 
 
 - 
 
 V 
 
 sucre, 
 
 sugar. 
 
 
 
 supplice, 
 
 a torment. 
 
 Vacarrae, 
 
 uproar. 
 
 sy in bole, 
 
 a symbol. 
 
 venire, 
 
 belly. 
 
 synode, 
 
 a synod. 
 
 verbe, 
 
 verb. 
 
 synonyme, 
 
 a synonima. 
 
 verre, 
 
 glass. 
 
 
 
 vestibule, 
 
 entry. 
 
 
 T 
 
 vice, 
 
 vice. 
 
 
 
 vinaigre, 
 
 vinegar. 
 
 Telescope, 
 
 telescope. 
 
 volume, 
 
 volume. 
 
 terrae, 
 
 a term. 
 
 ulcere, 
 
 ulcer. 
 
 texte, 
 
 a text* a 
 
 
 
 theatre, 
 
 theatre. 
 
 
 Z 
 
 triangle, 
 
 triangle. 
 
 
 
 trftne, 
 
 & throne. 
 
 Zele, 
 
 zeal. 
 
 tropique, 
 
 tropic. 
 
 z6phyre, 
 
 zephir. 
 
 N. B. There are some more, but they "are so little used, 
 that I have not thought proper to insert them. 
 
 SUBSTANTIVES 
 
 Masculine in one Signification, and Feminine in another. 
 
 un aune, 
 une aune, 
 
 un barbe, 
 une barbe, 
 
 un basque, 
 une basque, 
 
 un coche, 
 une coche, 
 
 un couple, 
 une couple, 
 
 an alder, 
 an ell. 
 
 a Barbary horse, 
 a beard. 
 
 a Basque, 
 a skirt. 
 
 a travelling coach, 
 a sow. [wife*) 
 
 tf couple, (a husband and his 
 a couple, (of things.) 
 
 
Substantives Masc. in one Signification) and Fern, in another. 39 
 
 un enseigne, 
 
 an ensign. 
 
 une enseigne, 
 
 a sign. 
 
 un exemple, 
 
 a pattern. 
 
 une exemple, 
 
 a copy. . 
 
 un garde, 
 
 a keeper. 
 
 une garde, 
 
 a guard. 
 
 le greffe, 
 
 registry. 
 
 la greffe, 
 
 the graft. 
 
 un guide, 
 
 a guide. 
 
 une guide, 
 
 a guidance. 
 
 un iris, 
 
 a rainbow. 
 
 une iris, 
 
 an iris, (precious stone.) 
 
 un livre, 
 
 a book. 
 
 une livre, 
 
 a pound. 
 
 un raanche, 
 
 a handle. 
 
 uue manche, 
 
 a sleeve. 
 
 un m6moire, 
 
 a memorandum. 
 
 une m6moire, 
 
 a memory. 
 
 un mode, 
 
 a modality. 
 
 une mode, 
 
 a fashion. 
 
 un mole, 
 
 a mole. 
 
 une m61e, 
 
 a moon-calf. 
 
 un moule, 
 
 a mould. 
 
 une moule, 
 
 a muscle? 
 
 un mousse, 
 
 a ship-boy. 
 
 la mousse, 
 
 the moss. 
 
 un ceuvre, 
 
 a work, (of music.) 
 
 une ceuvre, 
 
 a work. 
 
 un page, 
 
 a page, (to a king.) 
 
 une page, 
 
 a page, ( of a book. ) 
 
 un paillasse, 
 
 a clown. 
 
 une paillasse, 
 
 a straw-bed. 
 
 un~parallele, 
 
 a comparison. 
 
 une parallele, 
 
 a parallel-line. 
 
40 Substantives Masc. in one Signification) and Fern, in another. 
 
 le pendule, 
 une pendule, 
 
 le pe* riode, 
 une pSriode, 
 
 le plane, 
 la plane, 
 
 le platine *, 
 la platine, 
 
 le ponte, 
 la ponte, 
 
 un pique, 
 une pique, 
 
 un poele, 
 une po&le, 
 
 un poste, 
 la poste, 
 
 le pourpre, 
 la pourpre, 
 
 un quadrille, 
 une quadrille, 
 
 un Satyre, 
 une satyre, 
 
 le solde, 
 la solde, 
 
 un somme, 
 une somme, 
 
 un tour, 
 une tour, 
 
 un triomphe, 
 une triomphe, 
 
 un trompette, 
 une trompette, 
 
 the pendulum, 
 a clock. 
 
 pitch, 
 a period, 
 
 the plane-tret, 
 the plane. 
 
 platina, (a metal.) 
 platen. 
 
 punter. 
 
 the laying of eggs. 
 
 a mattock, 
 a pike. 
 
 a stove. 
 
 a frying pan. 
 
 an employment, 
 the post-office. 
 
 purples, (a sort of illness.) 
 the purple. 
 
 quadrily (game.) 
 a troop of horses. 
 
 a Satyr. 
 a satire. 
 
 the balance of an accompt. 
 pay. 
 
 a sleep, 
 a sum. 
 
 a trick, 
 a tower. 
 
 a triumph. 
 
 a trump at cards. 
 
 a trumpeter, 
 a trumpet. 
 
 * Masculine, according to the last edition of the Dictionary of Ui 
 French Academy, and the actual use. 
 
OF THE PLURAL OF NOUNS. 41 
 
 une vas, , a vase. 
 
 la vase, the mud. 
 
 un voile, a veil. 
 
 une voile, a sail. 
 
 personne, M. when pronoun. 
 
 personne, F. when substantive. 
 
 Other substantives belong exclusively to the masculine 
 or feminine gender. 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH. 
 Of the Number of Substantives. 
 
 The number of nouns denotes the distinction between 
 one and several objects. 
 
 There are two numbers, called singular and plural. A 
 noun is in the singular, when it denotes but one person or 
 thing, as un homme, a man ; une maison, a house : a noun 
 is in the plural, when it denotes several persons or things, 
 as des hommes, men ; des maisons, houses. 
 
 HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL OF NOUNS. 
 
 A general Rule. 
 
 The plural of nouns is formed by adding an s to the sin- 
 gular. Example : 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 un homme, a man. des hommes, men. 
 
 un ami, a friend. des amis, friends. 
 
 une maison, a house. des maisons, houses. 
 
 1. Exception. 
 
 Nouns which end in u in the singular, take an x when u 
 is preceded by another vowel ; as le lieu, the place, le cA- 
 
^2 OF THE PLURAL OF NOUNS. 
 
 peau, hat, singular: les lieux, les chapeaux, plural. Trou, 
 hole, clou, nail,j/0M, sharper, maiou, ram-cat, licou, halter, 
 follow the general rule. 
 
 2. Exception. 
 
 Nouns which end in s, x, or z, in the singular, have both 
 numbers alike, as lefils, the son, la voix, the voice, le ntz, 
 the nose, singukr; lesjils, les voix, les nez, plural. 
 
 3. Exception. 
 
 Most nouns which end in at or ail, in the singular, become 
 plural by changing a/ or ail into aux ; as cheval, horse, tra- 
 vail, work, singular; chevaux, travaux, plural. 
 
 4. Exception. 
 
 Nouns which end in nt t in the singular, become plural by 
 the addition of an s, if the word is of one syllable only : as 
 pont, bridge, dent, tooth, singular: ponts, dents, plural; 
 and most commonly by changing t into s t if the word be of 
 several syllables; as enfant, child, parent \ relation, singu- 
 lar; enfans, parens, plural. 
 
 The words a'ieul, del, ceil, tout, make in the plural, dieux, 
 deux, yeux, tons. 
 
 How Compound Words form their Plural. 
 
 Rule 1. When a word is composed of a substantive and 
 an adjective, both take the mark of a- plural. Example: un 
 gentil-homme, a nobleman, des gentils-hommes ; un arc-bou- 
 tant, buttress, des arcs-boutans. 
 
 Rule 2. When a word is composed of a substantive and a 
 pronoun, both take the mark of a plural; as Monsieur, Sir; 
 Madame, Madam, singular j Messieurs, Mesdames, plural. 
 
 Rule 3. When a word is composed of two substantives not 
 separated by a preposition, both take also the mark of th 
 
OF THE PLURAL OF NQtfNS. 43 
 
 plural; as' un Garde-Suisse, singular; des Gardes-Suitses, 
 plural. 
 
 Rule 4. When a word is composed of two substantives 
 separated by a preposition, the first alone takes the mark of 
 the plural : as un arc-en-ciel, a rainbow, un chef-d'oeuvre, a 
 master-piece, singular ; des arcs-en-ciel, des chefs-d'oeuvre, 
 plural. 
 
 Rule 5. When a word is composed of a substantive and a 
 verb, or a preposition ; the substantive alone takes the mark 
 of the plural: asww garde-manger, a larder, un avant-cou- 
 reur t a forerunner, singular; des gardes-manger, des avant- 
 coureurs. 
 
 Substantives which have no Plural in French. 
 
 The nouns which have no plural are, 1. the names of me- 
 tals, taken in general; as lor, gold; I'argent, silver; le 
 cuivre, copper ; le plomb, lead ; lefer, iron. Indeed we 
 sometimes say lesf&rs, lesplombs, &c. but then we consider 
 these metals as wrought, and do not speak of them generally. 
 
 2. The names of habitual virtues and vices, such as lafoi- 
 faith ; Vesptrance, hope ; la charite, charity ; la prudence 
 prudence ; I'orgueil, pride ; / 'avarice, covetousness, &c. 
 
 3. The infinitives substantively used, as le boire, the 
 drinking ; le manger, the Beating, &c. ; not les boires, Us 
 
 mangers. 
 
 4 The following substantives hate no plural : 
 
 1'absinthe, wormwood. 
 
 le lait, milk. 
 
 1'artillerie, artillery. 
 
 le miel, honey. 
 
 le courroux, wrath. 
 
 la molesse, effeminacy. 
 
 la d-iaette, scarcity. 
 
 la noblesse, nobility. 
 
 1'enfance, infancy. 
 
 Todorat, swelling.^ 
 
 1'estime, esteem. 
 
 Touie, hearing. 
 
 k faim, hunger. 
 
 la pauvrete, poverty. 
 
 la gloire, glory. 
 
 le pourpre, red fever. 
 
 Tencens, incense. 
 
 le prochain, our neighbour 
 
 Teucharistie, eucharist. 
 
 la renoramee, fame. 
 
 la jeunesse, youth. 
 
 le repos rest. 
 
44 OF THE PLURAL OF NOUNS. 
 
 le salut, salvation. le sommeil, sleep. 
 le sang, blood. la vieillesse, old age. 
 
 la soif, thirst. la virilite", manhood. 
 
 Substantives which have no singular in French. 
 
 les accordailles, espousals. les entrailles, bowels. 
 les annales, annals. les epousailles, espousals. 
 
 les anc&tres, ancestors. les frais, expenses. 
 
 les armoiries, coa o/* arms, les fun6railles, funerals. 
 les arrearages, arrears. les gens, people. 
 
 les atotirs, elegant dress.les materiaux, materials. 
 les brossailles, briars. les moeurs, manners. 
 
 les calendes, calends. les mouchettes,sww/Fers. 
 les catacombes, catacombs, les munitions, ammunition. 
 les ciseaux, scissors. les obseques, obsequies. 
 ks confins, fAe confines, les pleurs, fear*, 
 les d6combres, rubbish. les proches, relations. 
 les depens, co$. les prmices, \first-J ruits. 
 
 les 6crouelles, fA king's evil.les represailles, reprisals. 
 les entraves, shackles. les vivres, victuals. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 THE substantive is the name of a person or thing ; a^'fc- 
 ires, on the contrary, express the qualities of a person or 
 thing ; as la vertu est aimable, le vice est odieux : virtue is 
 amiable, vice is odious. Vertu and vice are two substantives ; 
 odieux and aimable two adjectives. 
 
 A noun which makes good sense with the word person or 
 thing, is an adjective ; a noun which cannot make any sense 
 with them is a substantive. This is an infallible rule to 
 distinguish them from one another : for instance, the word 
 good is an adjective, because we may say a good person, a 
 
OF ADJECTIVES. 45 
 
 good thing ; but the word man is a substantive, because we 
 cannot say, a man person, a man thing. 
 
 The substantives, few excepted, are of one gender only ; 
 but the adjectives which qualify them, admit of two genders 
 and numbers, because they must agree with the substantives 
 to which they have reference. They form the feminine from 
 the masculine termination, as follows. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 How to form the Feminine of Adjectives. 
 
 Rule I. Adjectives which end in e mute in the masculine 
 singular are alike in both genders, as sage, wise, brave, 
 brave, celebre, famous, masculine ; sage, brave, ctlebre, fe- 
 minine. 
 
 Rule 2. Adjectives which, in the masculine gender, end 
 in any of the following vowels, t- accented, f, or u, become 
 feminine by the addition of an e mute ; as poll, polite, nu t 
 naked, sense, sensible, masculine; polie, nuc, senste, femi- 
 nine. 
 
 The adjectives beau, fine, mou soft,/0w, foolish, nouveau, 
 new, are written bel, mol, fol, nouvel, before a substantive 
 masculine which begins with a vowel or h mute, and make 
 in the femine belle, molle,folle, nouvelle. 
 
 Rule 3. Adjectives which end in /in the masculine, be- 
 come feminine by changing/ into ve ; as vif, quick, actif, 
 active, neuf, new, masculine; vive, active, neuve, feminine. 
 
 Rule 4. The adjectives of the ten following terminations, 
 el, eil, nt, ien, on,a$, ais, os, et, ot, commonly double their 
 final consonants, and take an e mute for the final in the 
 feminine gender : as cruel, cruel, pareil, alike, nul, no one, 
 ancicn, ancient, ban, good, gras, fat, epais, thick, gros, 
 big, net, clean, sot, stupid, masculine; cruelle, pareilh, 
 nulle, ancienne, bonus, grasse, epaisse, grosse, nette, sotte, 
 feminine. 
 
 Ruiz 5, Adjectives which erxl in $ in the masculine, be- 
 
46 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 come feminine by changing x into se ; as jaloux, jealous, 
 heureux, happy, masculine ; jalouse, heureuse, feminine. 
 
 These four, doux, sweet, faux, false, vieux, old, raux, 
 red, make in the feminine, douce, fausse, vieille, rousse. 
 
 Rule 6. Of the seven adjectives which end in c, these 
 three, blanc, white, franc, frank, sec, dry, make, in the fe- 
 minine, blanche, franche, seche; the four others, caduc, de- 
 cayed, Grec, Greek, public, public, Turc, Turkish, make, in 
 the feminine, caduque, Greque, publique, Turque. 
 
 Rule 7. Those ending in eur, become feminine by chang- 
 ing eur into eure, when they are not derived from verbs ; as 
 interieur, interior, exterietir, exterior, masculine ; interieurt, 
 exterieure, feminine : but trompeur, deceitful, makes tram- 
 peuse, grandeur, grumbling, grondeuse, &c. 
 
 REMARK. Several substantives in . eur, have both gen- 
 ders, as they may apply to men and women, but they must 
 not be mistaken for adjectives, though they may sometimes 
 be used as such. Like the adjectives of the preceding rule, 
 some form their feminine only by the addition of an e, as 
 prieur, prior, prieure, prioress ; some change eur, into euse, 
 asjoueur, gamester, joueuse; and some others change eur 
 into rice, as acteur, actor, actrice, actress ; pecheur, sinner, 
 makes pecheresse ; cnchanteur, enchanter, enchantress* ; 
 vengeur, avenger, vengeresse. 
 
 Rule 8. Adjectives of all finals not mentioned before, be- 
 come feminine by adding anr to the masculine termination ; 
 as grand, great, divin, divine, savant, learned, masculine ; 
 grande, divine, savante, feminine. 
 
 These four, absous, absolved, dissous, dissolved, frais, 
 fresh, long, long, are excepted, and make in the feminine, 
 absoute, dissoute,fraiche, longue. 
 
 N. B. Observe, from the preceding rules, that all adjec- 
 tives end in e mute in the feminine singular ; and as those 
 which end in e mute form their plural by the addition of an 
 *; all adjectives, without any exception, end in es in the fe- 
 minine plural. 
 
OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 47 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of the Plural of Adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives form their plural like the substantives of which 
 we have before spoken, and the rules given in page 41, can 
 be applied to adjectives without any exception. 
 
 Tfie following Adjectives have no Plural in the Masculine 
 Gender : 
 
 austral, 
 
 southern. 
 
 lustra!, 
 
 lustral. 
 
 boreal, 
 
 northern. 
 
 litteral, 
 
 literal. 
 
 canonial. 
 
 canonical. 
 
 matinal, 
 
 etrly. 
 
 conjugal, 
 
 conjugal. 
 
 naval, 
 
 naval. 
 
 diametral, 
 
 diametrical. 
 
 pastoral, 
 
 pastoral. 
 
 fatal, 
 
 fatal. 
 
 pascal, 
 
 pascal. 
 
 filial. 
 
 filial. 
 
 pectoral, 
 
 pectoral. 
 
 final, 
 
 final. 
 
 special, 
 
 special. 
 
 frugal, 
 
 frugal. 
 
 vfcnal, 
 
 venal. 
 
 jovial, 
 
 jovial. 
 
 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 Of Comparatives and Superlatives. 
 
 A Comparative is a comparison of two or more objects, 
 in order to know what proportion they bear to one another: 
 now as two objects can either be equal, superior, or inferior 
 to one another, there are three sorts of comparatives, called 
 of equality, superiority, *n& inferiority. 
 
 The Comparative of equality is formed by prefixing the 
 word aussi to an adjective; as je tvtVaussi riche que vous; 
 I am as rich as you. 
 
 The Comparative of superiority is formed by prefixing the 
 \vord plus to an adjective ; as je suis plus grand que vous ; 
 I am taller than you. 
 
 The Comparative of inferiority is formed by putting a ne- 
 gation before the verb, and si before the adjective, or only 
 by prefixing the word moins to an adjective ; as je suit 
 
48 OF CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 moins heureux que vous, or je ne suis pas si heureux que 
 vans; I am not so happy as you. 
 
 The Superlatives increase or diminish to the utmost de- 
 gree the signification of adjectives. They are of two sorts ; 
 the one relative, and the other absolute. 
 
 The first is formed by prefixing the article le, la, les, with 
 plus, to the adjectives ; -asfai vu la plus belle femme d'An- 
 gleterre ; I have seen the handsomest woman in England. 
 
 The second is formed by prefixing the adverbs tres or fort 
 to the adjective; as je suis tres-malheureux ; I am very 
 unfortunate. 
 
 Comparatives and Superlatives formed irregularly. 
 
 These three adjectives, Ion, good, mauvais, bad, petit, 
 little, as well as their corresponding adverbs, deviate from 
 others in the formation of their comparatives and superla- 
 tives, which are as follows : 
 
 ^v 
 
 POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 C bon, good, meilleur, better, le meilleur, the best. 
 adj. < mauvais, bad. pirc, worse . le pire, the worst* 
 petit, little, moindre, less, le moindre, the least. 
 
 bien, well, mieux, better, le mieux, the best. 
 mal, bad. pis, worse, le pis, t/ie worst. 
 
 peu, little, mains, less. le moins, the least. 
 
 We say also plus mauvais, plus petit, plus mal ; but never, 
 plus bon, phis bien, plus peu. 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH. 
 
 Of the Cardinal Numbers. 
 
 The Cardinal numbers denote the quantity of persons or 
 things, and answer to the question how much? how many? 
 They are called cardinal, because they are the root of all 
 others; they are as follows: 
 
OF CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 1, 
 
 un, m. une,/. 
 
 one, 
 
 I. 
 
 2, 
 
 deux, 
 
 tw&, 
 
 H. 
 
 3, 
 
 trois, 
 
 three, 
 
 III. 
 
 4, 
 
 quatre, 
 
 four, 
 
 IV. 
 
 5, 
 
 cinq, 
 
 five, 
 
 V. 
 
 6, 
 
 six, 
 
 six, 
 
 VI. 
 
 7, 
 
 sept, 
 
 seven, 
 
 VII. 
 
 8, 
 
 1m it, 
 
 eight, 
 
 VIIL 
 
 9, 
 
 neuf, 
 
 nine, 
 
 IX. 
 
 10, 
 
 dix, 
 
 ten, 
 
 X. 
 
 11, 
 
 onze, 
 
 eleven, 
 
 XL 
 
 12, 
 
 douze, 
 
 twelve, 
 
 XII. 
 
 ^3, 
 
 treize, 
 
 thirteen, 
 
 XIII. 
 
 14, 
 
 quatorze, 
 
 fourteen, 
 
 XIV. 
 
 15, 
 
 quinze, 
 
 fifteen, 
 
 XV. 
 
 16", 
 
 stizp, 
 
 sixteen, 
 
 XVI. 
 
 17, 
 
 dix-sept, 
 
 seventeen, 
 
 XVII. 
 
 18, 
 
 dix-huit, 
 
 eighteen, 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 19, 
 
 dix-neuf, 
 
 nineteen, 
 
 XIX. 
 
 20, 
 
 vingt, 
 
 twenty, 
 
 XX. 
 
 21, 
 
 vingt et un, 
 
 twenty -one, 
 
 XXI. 
 
 22, 
 
 vingt*deux, 
 
 twenty -two, 
 
 XXII. 
 
 23, 
 
 vingt-trois, 
 
 twenty-three, 
 
 XXIIL. 
 
 24, 
 
 vingt-quatre, 
 
 twenty-jour, 
 
 XXIV/' 
 
 25, 
 
 vingt-cinq, 
 
 twenty -five, 
 
 XXV. 
 
 26, 
 
 vingt-six, 
 
 twenty -six, 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 27, 
 
 viugt-sept, 
 
 twenty -seven t 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 23, 
 
 vingt-huit, 
 
 twenty eight, 
 
 XXVIII. 
 
 29, 
 
 vingt-neuf, 
 
 twenty-nine, 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 30, 
 
 trente, 
 
 thirty, 
 
 XXX. 
 
 31, 
 
 trente et un, 
 
 thirty -one, 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 32, 
 
 trente-deux, 
 
 thirty-two, 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 53, 
 
 trente-trois, 
 
 thirty-three, 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 34, 
 
 trente-quatre, 
 
 thirty-four, 
 
 XXXIV. 
 
 35, 
 
 trente-cinq, 
 
 thirty-five. 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 36', 
 
 t rente-six, 
 
 thirty-six, 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 37, 
 
 trente-sept, 
 
 thirty-seven, 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 38, 
 
 trente-huit, 
 
 thirty-eight, 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 39, 
 
 trente-neuf, 
 
 thirty-nine, 
 
 XXXIX. 
 
 40, 
 
 quarante, 
 
 forty, 
 
 XL. 
 
 41, 
 
 quarante et un, 
 
 forty-one, 
 
 XLI 
 
50 
 
 OF CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 42, 
 
 quarante-deux, 
 
 Jorty-lwo, XLII. 
 
 43, 
 
 quarante-trois, 
 
 forty-three, XLIII. 
 
 44, 
 
 quarante-quatre, 
 
 forty -four, t XLIV. 
 
 45, 
 
 quaranle-cinq, 
 
 forty-jive, XLV. 
 
 46, 
 
 quarante-six, 
 
 forty -six, X L VI . 
 
 47, 
 
 quarante-sept, 
 
 forty-seven, XLVII. 
 
 48, 
 
 quarante-huit, 
 
 forty-eight, XLVIII. 
 
 49, 
 
 quaranle-neuf, 
 
 forty -nine, XLIX. 
 
 50, 
 
 cinquante, 
 
 fifty, 'L. 
 
 51, 
 
 cinquante et un, 
 
 fijty-one, LI. 
 
 52, 
 
 cinquante-deux, 
 
 fifty-two, LIT. 
 
 53, 
 54, 
 
 cinquante-trois, 
 cinquante-quatre, 
 
 fifty-three, LIII. 
 fifty-four, LIV. 
 
 55, 
 
 cinquante-cinq, 
 
 fifty-five, LV. 
 
 56, 
 
 cinquante-six, 
 
 fifty-six, LVI. 
 
 57, 
 
 cinquante-sept, 
 
 yifty-seven , L V I L 
 
 58, 
 $9, 
 
 cinquante-huit, 
 cinquante-neuf, 
 
 fifty -eight, LVI 1 1. 
 fifty-nine, LIX. 
 
 60, 
 
 so i \ante, 
 
 sixty, LX. 
 
 61, 
 
 soixanteetun, 
 
 sixty -one, LXI. 
 
 62, 
 
 soixaute-deux, 
 
 sixty-tivo, LXI I. 
 
 63, 
 
 soixante-trois, 
 
 sixty -three, LX 1 1 1 . 
 
 64, 
 
 soixante-quatre, 
 
 sixty -four, LXIV. 
 
 65, 
 
 soixante-cinq, 
 
 sixty-five, LXV. 
 
 66, 
 
 soixante-six, 
 
 sixty-six, LXVI, 
 
 67. 
 
 soixante-sept, 
 
 sixty-seven, LXVI I. 
 
 68, 
 
 soixante-huit, 
 
 sixty-eight, LXVIII. 
 
 69, 
 
 soixante-neuf, 
 
 sixty-nine, LXIX. 
 
 70, 
 
 soixante-dix, 
 
 seventy, LXX. 
 
 71, 
 
 soixante et onze, 
 
 seventy-one, LXX I. 
 
 72, 
 
 soixante-douze, 
 
 seventy-two, LXXII. 
 
 73, 
 
 soixante-treize, 
 
 seventy -three, LXX II I. 
 
 74, 
 
 soixante-quatorze, 
 
 seventy-four, LXXIV. 
 
 75, 
 
 soixante-quinze, 
 
 seventy -five, LXXV. 
 
 76, 
 
 soixante-seize, 
 
 seventy-six, LXXVI. 
 
 rr. 
 
 soixante-dix-sept, 
 
 seven ty-seven, LX XVI L 
 
 78, 
 
 soixante-dix-huit, 
 
 seventy-eight, LXXVIII, 
 
 79, 
 
 soixante-dix-neuf, 
 
 seventy-nine, LXXIX. 
 
 8t>, 
 
 quatre-vingr, 
 
 eighty, LXXX. 
 
 t 
 
 quatre-vingt-un, 
 
 eighty-one, LXXXI. 
 
 82, 
 
 quatre-vingt-deux, 
 
 eighty-two, LXXXIL 
 
OF CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 S3, 
 84, 
 
 quatre-vingt-trois, 
 quatre-vingt-quatre, 
 
 eighty-three, 
 eighty-four, 
 
 LXXXIII. 
 LXXXIV. 
 
 85, 
 
 quatre-vingt-cinq, 
 
 eighty-five, 
 
 LXXXV. 
 
 86, 
 
 quatre-vingt-six, 
 
 eighty -six, 
 
 LXXXVI. 
 
 87, 
 
 quatre-vingt-sept, 
 
 eighty-seven, 
 
 LXXXVII. 
 
 88, 
 
 quatre-vingt-huit, 
 
 eighty -eight, 
 
 LXXXVIFI. 
 
 89, 
 
 quatre-vingt-neuf, 
 
 eighty-nine, 
 
 LXXXIX. 
 
 90, 
 
 quatre-vingt-dix, 
 
 ninety, 
 
 XC. 
 
 91, 
 
 quatre-vingt-onze, 
 
 ninety -one, 
 
 xcr. 
 
 92, 
 
 quatre-vingt-douze, 
 
 ninety -two, 
 
 XCII. 
 
 93, 
 
 quatre-vingt-treize, 
 
 ninety-three, 
 
 XCIII. 
 
 94 
 
 quatre-vingt-quatorze 
 
 , ninety four, 
 
 XCIV. 
 
 95, 
 
 quatre-vingt-quinze, 
 
 ninety -five, 
 
 xcv. 
 
 96, 
 
 quatre-vingt-seize, 
 
 ninety-six, 
 
 XCVI. 
 
 97, 
 
 quatre-vingt-dix-sept, 
 
 ninety-seven, 
 
 XCV1I. 
 
 98, 
 
 quatre-vingt-dix-huit, 
 
 ninety-eight, 
 
 xcviir. 
 
 99, 
 
 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf, 
 
 ninety-nine, 
 
 XC1X. 
 
 100, 
 
 cent, 
 
 hundred, 
 
 c. 
 
 200, 
 
 deux cents, 
 
 two hundred, 
 
 cc. 
 
 300, 
 
 trois cents, 
 
 three hundred, 
 
 ccc. 
 
 400, 
 
 quatre cents, 
 
 four hundred, 
 
 cccc. 
 
 500, 
 
 cinq cents, 
 
 five hundred, 
 
 D. 
 
 600, 
 
 six cents, 
 
 six hundred, 
 
 DC. 
 
 700, 
 
 sept cents, 
 
 seven hundred, 
 
 DCC. 
 
 800, 
 
 huit cents, 
 
 eight hundred^ 
 
 DCCC. 
 
 900, 
 
 neuf cents, 
 
 nine hundred, 
 
 DCCCC, 
 
 1000, 
 
 mille, 
 
 one thousand, 
 
 M. 
 
 Observations upon Cardinal Numbers. 
 
 1. When two or more numbers are joined together, the 
 greatest goes first in French : thus we say, -vingt-cinq, vingt- 
 six, &c. and not cinq Sf vingt, five and twenty, six 4* vingt, 
 six and twenty, as the English sometimes do. 
 
 2. When several numbers meet together, we do not put 
 in French any conjunction between them : thus we say> 
 cent vingt, cent trente, and not cent fy vingt, cent fy trente, 
 hundred and twenty, hundred and thirty. 
 
 3. The English word thousand, is rendered in French by 
 mil, with one / only, when it is used for the date of the year, 
 end by mille with lle t in other circumstances : thus, we say> 
 
52 OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 Van mil huit cent huit, in the year one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and eight. 
 
 4. When the words cent and mille, are followed by a 
 number, they are never preceded by the word un in French, 
 as they are in English by the word one: thus we say, cent 
 cinquante, for one hundred and fifty; mil sept cent, for one 
 thousand and seven hundred ; and not un cent cinquante, nor 
 un mil sept cent. 
 
 5. These numbers, quatre-vingt, sixvingt, and cent, are 
 written with an s, only when they are followed immedi- 
 ately by a substantive: thus we write quatre-vingts livres, 
 eighty pounds ; trois cents soldats, three hundred soldiers, 
 with an s; and quatre-vingt-dix livres, ninety pounds; 
 trois cent vingt-six soldats, three hundred and twenty-six 
 soldiers, without an s. 
 
 6. The word million is a true substantive, and takes the 
 mark of the plural, as deux millions, dix millions. 
 
 7. Mille, when meaning a thousand, never takes an s, so 
 ve say deux mille, two thousand : but when mille means a 
 mile, it takes s in the plural, "as un mille, one mile, deux 
 milles, two miles, &c. 
 
 8. All numbers not mentioned in the preceding observa- 
 tions are always indeclinable. 
 
 SECTION THE FIFTH. 
 Of Ordinal Numbers. 
 
 Ordinal numbers denote the order and disposition of 
 things ; they are as follows : 
 
 ler, 
 
 3e,' 
 4e, 
 5e, 
 6e, 
 7e, 
 8e, 
 9e, 
 
 premier, m. 
 
 second, m. 
 
 troisieme, 
 
 quatrieme, 
 
 cinquieme, 
 
 sixieme, 
 
 septieme, 
 
 huitieme, 
 
 neuvieme, 
 
 premiere, /. 
 seconde,/ 
 
 1st, 
 
 first. 
 
 M 
 
 second. 
 
 3d, 
 
 third. 
 
 4th, 
 
 fourth. 
 
 5th, 
 
 fifth. 
 
 6th, 
 
 sixth. 
 
 7th, 
 
 seventh. 
 
 8th, 
 
 eighth. 
 
 9lb, 
 
 ninth. 
 
OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 53 
 
 10e, dixieme, 10th, tenth. 
 
 lie, onzieme, llth, eleventh. 
 
 12e, douzieme, 12th, twelfth. 
 
 13e, treizieme, 13th, thirteenth. 
 
 14e, quatorzieme, 14th, fourteenth. 
 
 I5e, quinzieme, 15th, fifteenth. 
 
 l6e, seizieme, l6th, sixteenth. 
 
 17e, dix-septieme, l?th, seventeenth. 
 
 ISe, dix-huitieme, 18th, eighteenth. 
 
 19e, dix-neuvieme, 19th, nineteenth. 
 
 20e, vingtieme, 20th, twentieth. 
 
 C vingt et unieme, et 1 . $ twenty -first, 
 
 ' \ ainsi de suite. 3 \ and so on. 
 
 Observations upon Ordinal Numbers. 
 
 1. Except le premier and le second, the ordinal numbers 
 are formed from the cardinal, by changing e mute into time, 
 for those which end with a vowel : as quatre, quatrivme ; and 
 by adding ieme to those which end in any other consonant 
 than/: as trois, dix, cardinal ; troisitme, dixivme, ordinal, 
 except cinq which takes u before time, cinquitme. 
 
 2. Those which end in/, change that final into vitme : 
 as neuf, dix-neuf, cardinal ; neuvidmc, dix-ncuvieme, or- 
 dinal. 
 
 i 3. The English always use the ordinal numbers, when 
 they put a date to any thing ; the French, on the contrary, 
 most commonly use the cardinal in this case, (except the first 
 which is ordinal) : thus we say, le premier de Janvier , le 
 deux de Fevrier, le trois de Mars, le quatre d'Avril, le cinq 
 de Mai,&c. the first of January, the second of February* 
 the third of March, the fourth of April, the fifth of May, &c. 
 
 4. The English use the ordinal numbers, with an article 
 after the Christian name of a sovereign ; the French, on the 
 contrary, use the cardinal, (the two first excepted), and, 
 never put any article before them. Example : Henri pre- 
 mier, Henri second, Henri trow, Henri quatre, &c. Hen- 
 ry the first, Henry the second, Henry the third, Henry the 
 fourth, &c, we say also nevertheless, Henri deux, Charles 
 deux. 
 
 5. The adverbs of number are formed from the ordinal, 
 
54 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 by adding wze??< to the final: as quatricme, dixicmi, ordinal; 
 quatri&mement, dixiemement, adverbs. 
 
 There are again three other sorts of nuiivbers, called col- 
 lective, distributive and proportional; the collective denotes 
 a certain quantity of things joined together : tfs une douzaine, 
 a dozen ; une cinquantaiiie, fifty, The distributive express 
 a part of the whole : as la mottle, the half ; le tiers, the 
 third part; le dixivme, the tenth part, &c. The propor- 
 tional express the same quantity, multiplied, as double, 
 double, triple, triple^ centuple, centuple. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of Pronouns. 
 
 Pronouns are words used instead of nouns. If we were 
 obliged to use a substantive before or after every verb, the 
 repetition would be extremely tedious ; we avoid this in- 
 convenience by the help of some little words used instead of 
 them, which are called pronouns. They are of six sorts, 
 called personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interro- 
 gative and indeterminate, of which as follows : 
 
 1. Of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 The personal pronouns denote the persons ; there are three 
 persons: the first is that who speaks, the second is that to 
 whom one speaks, and the third is the person of whom one 
 apeaks. The pronouns of the first person,^, me, moi, nous, 
 and those of the second tu, te, toi, vous, are said of persons 
 only, or of personified objects ; but those of the third, il, 
 Us ; elle, tiles ; lui, leur, le, la, les ; se, soi ; y, en, are said 
 of persons, animals, and things. 
 
 As the same pronoun is expressed one way when it is con- 
 junctive, (that is to say, indispensably joined to a verb), and 
 another when disjunctive, (that is to say, which may be used 
 without any reference to a verb) ; strict attention must he 
 given to the following declensions, in which they are care- 
 fully distinguished. 
 
OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 55 
 
 DECLENSION OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONQUNS. 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 m.f. 
 
 
 m.f. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 Je, /. 
 
 .N. 
 
 Nous, 
 
 We. 
 
 G. 
 
 En, Of me. . 
 
 G. 
 
 En, 
 
 Of us. 
 
 D. 
 
 Me, Tome. 
 
 D. 
 
 Nous, 
 
 To us. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Me, Me. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Nous, 
 
 Us. 
 
 i 
 
 - SECOND 
 
 PERSON 
 
 
 
 
 m.f. 
 
 
 j*./. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 Tu, 7%ow. . 
 
 N. 
 
 Vous, 
 
 You. 
 
 G. 
 
 En, Of thee. 
 
 &. 
 
 En, 
 
 Of you. 
 
 D. 
 
 Te, To thee. 
 
 D. 
 
 Vous, 
 
 To you. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Te, TAee. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Vous, 
 
 You. 
 
 
 THIRD 
 
 PERSON, 
 
 
 
 N. 
 
 11, m. He. 
 
 N. 
 
 Us, m. 
 
 Thw. 
 
 G. 
 
 En, O/Azw. 
 
 G. 
 
 En, 
 
 Of them 
 
 D. 
 
 Lui, To him. 
 
 D. 
 
 Leur, 
 
 To them 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Le, Him. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Les, 
 
 Them. 
 
 N. 
 
 Elle,/. SAe. 
 
 N. 
 
 Elles, /. 
 
 They. 
 
 Gb, 
 
 En, O/ Aer. 
 
 G. 
 
 En, 
 
 Of them 
 
 D. 
 
 Lui, To her. 
 
 D. 
 
 Leur, 
 
 To them 
 
 Ac. 
 
 La, Her. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Les, 
 
 Them. 
 
 
 OF THE DISJUNCTIVE 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 Moi, /. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nous, 
 
 We. 
 
 G. 
 
 De moS, Of me. 
 
 G. 
 
 De nous, 
 
 Of us. 
 
 D. 
 
 A moi, To me. 
 
 D. 
 
 A nous, 
 
 To us. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Moi, Me. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Nous, 
 
 Us. 
 
56 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 SECOND PERSON. 
 
 Singular. 'Plural. 
 
 N. Toi, Thou. N. Vous, You. 
 
 G. Dctoi, Ofthee. G. De vous, Of you. 
 
 D. A toi, To thee. D. A vous, To you. 
 
 Ac. Toi, . Thee. Ac. Vous, You. 
 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 
 N. 
 
 Lui, m. 
 
 He. 
 
 N. 
 
 Eux, m. 
 
 They. 
 
 G. 
 
 De lui, 
 
 Of him. 
 
 G. 
 
 D'eux, 
 
 Of them. 
 
 D. 
 
 A lui, 
 
 To him. 
 
 D. 
 
 A eux, 
 
 To their* 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Lui, 
 
 Him. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Eux, 
 
 Them. 
 
 N. 
 
 Elle,/. 
 
 She. 
 
 N. 
 
 Elles,/. 
 
 They. 
 
 G. 
 
 D'elle, 
 
 Of her. 
 
 G. 
 
 D'elles, 
 
 Of them. 
 
 D. 
 
 A elle, 
 
 To her. 
 
 D. 
 
 A elles, 
 
 To them, 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Elle, 
 
 Her. 
 
 Ac. 
 
 Elles, 
 
 Them. 
 
 Pronouns used with reference to animals and things. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 N. II, elle, or ce, it. N. Ils/elles, or ce, them. 
 
 G. En, of it. G. En, of them. 
 
 D. Lui, y, to it. D. Leur, y, 1 o fAew, 
 
 Ac. Le, la, it. Ac. Les, them.] 
 
 N. B. The compound pronouns moi-me'me, myself; toi- 
 meme, thyself; lui-mdme, himself ; elle-m$me t herself; nous- 
 mtmes, ourselves ; vous-memes, yourselves ; eux-nicmes, 
 themselves ; take the preposition de in the ; gemtive case, and 
 ^ in the dative. 
 
 2. Of Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 The possessive pronouns denote possession. They are 
 called conjunctive, when they are joined to a noun, and 
 
OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 57 
 
 disjunctive when they are used with reference to a noun an- 
 tecedent. Both are declined as follows: 
 
 DECLENSION OF CONJUNCTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 Singular, 
 m. /.. 
 
 N. Ac. mon, ma, 
 G. de mon, de ma, 
 D. & mon, a ma, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 m. &f. 
 
 mes, my. 
 
 de mes, of my. 
 
 & mes, to my. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 . / 
 
 m.&f. 
 
 N.Ac. 
 
 ton, ta, 
 
 tes, thy. 
 
 G. 
 
 de ton, de ta, 
 
 de tes., of thy. 
 
 D. 
 
 a ton, a ta, 
 
 a tes, to thy. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 *w f 
 
 N. Ac. son, sa, 
 G. de son, de sa, 
 
 D. a son, a sa, 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Singular, 
 m. &/. 
 Ac. notre, 
 de notre, 
 a notre, 
 
 Singular. 
 m. &/. 
 Ac. votre, 
 de votre, 
 a votre, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 m. &/. 
 N. Ac. leur, 
 G. de leur, 
 D. a leur. 
 
 Plural. 
 m. & f. 
 
 ses, his, her, its. 
 de ses, of his, fyc. 
 & ses, to his, fyc. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 m. &/. 
 
 nos, our. 
 
 de nos, of our. 
 
 k nos, to our. 
 
 Plural. 
 m. &/. 
 vos/ 3/0Hr. 
 de vos, of your. 
 & vos, f o your. 
 
 Plural." 
 
 m. &/. 
 
 leurs, 
 
 de leurs, o/* /ejr. 
 
 & leurs, f fair. 
 
58 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 DECLENSION OF DISJUNCTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Singular. Plural. , 
 
 m. /. m. f. 
 
 N. Ac. le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes, mine. 
 G. du mien, de la mienne, des miens, des miennes, of mine. 
 D. au mien, a la mienne, aux miens, aux miennes, to mine. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. m. f. 
 
 N. Ac. le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes, thine. 
 G. du tien, de la tienne, des tiens, des tiennes, of thine. 
 D. au tien, a la tienne, aux tiens, aux tiennes, to thine. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. m. f. 
 
 N. Ac. le sien, la sienne, les siens, les siennes, his, her, Us. 
 G. du sien, de la sienne, des siens, des siennes, of his, &c. 
 D. au sien, a la sienne, aux siens, aux siennes, to his t &c . 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. m. & f. 
 
 N. Ac. le n6tre, la n6tre, les n6tres, ours. 
 
 G. du n6tre, de la n6tre, des n6tres, of ours 
 
 D. au notre, la n6tre, aux n6tres, to ours 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. m. & f. 
 
 N. Ac. le v6tre, la v6tre, les votres, yours. 
 
 G. du votre, de la votre, des v6tres, of yours. 
 
 D. au v6tre, a la v6tre, aux v6tres, to yours. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m /. m. & /. 
 
 N. Ac. le leur, la leur, les leurs, theirs. 
 
 G. du leur, de la leur, des leurs, of theirs. 
 
 D. au leur, a la leur, aux leurs, to theirs. 
 
OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 59 
 
 Observations f upon these Pronouns. 
 
 1. The possessive pronouns agree in gender and number 
 with the substantive which they precede* or to which they 
 have reference. 
 
 2. Mon, ten, son, are used in the feminine instead of ma, 
 ta, sa, before a vowel or h mute ; as, mon ante, my soul, 
 son humeur, his humour. 
 
 3. The conjunctive take the preposition de in the geni- 
 tive case, and a in the dative, like proper names. The 
 disjunctive are preceded by le, la, les, in the nominative ; 
 by du, de la, des, in the genitive ; and by au, a la, aux, 
 in the dative, like a substantive. 
 
 4. Leur, to them, must not be confounded with leiir, 
 their. The first is a personal pronoun which goes before a 
 verb, and never takes an s, as ilkur park, he speaks to them. 
 The second is a possessive pronoun which goes before a sub- 
 stantive, and take an s in the plural, as leurs freres sont 
 venus, ttueir brothers are come. 
 
 5. Notre and votre, conjunctive, are sounded short; 
 le notre, le votre, disjunctive, are sounded long, and have 
 a circumflex accent over 6: as notre pere est mort ; le 
 votre est en bonne sant ; our father is dead ; yours is in 
 good health. 
 
 3. Of Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 < Demonstrative pronouns denote precisely, and point out, 
 as it were, to the eye, the noun which they precede, or to 
 which they have reference. They are called conjunctive de- 
 monstrative when they are joined to a substantive, ancL.dftf- 
 junctive when they have reference to a substantive antecedent. 
 
 Pronouns used before a substantive. 
 
 m. f. 
 
 N. Ac. sing, ce, cet*, cette, this or that. 
 
 G. de ce, de cet, de cette, of this or of that. 
 
 D, & ce, & cet, & cette, to this or to that 
 
 * This pronoun is used before a noun masculine, which begins witfa 
 a vowel or an A mute. 
 
60 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 Ne Ac. pL ces, m. &f. these or those. 
 
 G. de ces, of these or of those. 
 
 D. a ces, to these or 
 
 Demonstrative Pronouns followed by a genitive or a rela* 
 tive Pronoun. 
 
 m. f. 
 
 N.Ac. sing*. celui, celle, that. 
 
 G. de celui, de celle, of that. 
 
 D. a\ celui, & celle, to that. 
 
 N. Ac.pl. ceux, celies, those. 
 
 G. de ceux, de celies, of those. 
 
 D. & ceux, & celies, to those. 
 
 Pronouns used with reference to the last noun spoken of 
 
 /. 
 
 N. Ac.swg** celui-ci, celle-ci, this. 
 
 G. de celui-ci, de ceile-ci, of this. 
 
 D. & celui-ci, celle-ci, to this. 
 
 ; N, Ac.jp/. ceux-ci, (celles-ci, 
 
 G. de ceux-ci, de celles-ci, (?/* f hese. 7 , 
 
 D. ^ ceux-ci, celles-ci, fo f Acs*. 
 
 L " Pronouns used with reference to the first noun spoken of. 
 
 N. Ac. sing, celui-1^, celle-1^, that. 
 
 G. decelui-lt, de celle-1^, of that. 
 
 D. & celui-te, k celle-1^, ^o that. 
 
 N.Ac. pi. ceux-l&, celles-la, those. 
 
 G. de ceux-1^, de celles-la, of those- 
 D. 
 
 Pronouns used to point at an object without naming it. 
 
 N. Ac. sing, ceci, this. cela, that . 
 
 G. de ceci, of this. de cela, of that. 
 
 D. & ceci, to this. & cela, that. 
 
OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 01 
 
 4. Of Relative Pronouns. 
 
 Though every pronoun has reference to a substantive, and 
 might be, on that account, called relative, yet the following, 
 qui, que, dont, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, espe- 
 cially bear that denomination, being more particularly re- 
 lated to their antecedent than any other. Of the relative 
 pronouns, some have reference only to persons or personi- 
 fied objects, and some to animals and things. They are de- 
 clined as follows : 
 
 Pronouns relative to persons. 
 
 m. f. sing. plur. 
 N. qui, who. 
 
 G. dequi, ordont, of whom. 
 D. & qui, to whom. 
 
 Ac, qui, or que, whom. 
 
 Pronouns relative to animals and things. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 m.f. m. f. 
 
 N. qui or lequel, laquelle, which. 
 
 G. dont or duquel, de laquelle, of which: 
 
 D. auquel, k laquelle, to which. 
 
 Ac. que or lequel, laquelle, which. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 m.f. m. f. 
 
 N. qui or lesquels, lesquelles, which. 
 
 G. dont or desquels, desquelles, of which. 
 
 D. auxquels, auxquelles, to which. 
 
 Ac. que or lesquels, lesquelles, which. 
 
 5. Of Interrogative Pronouns. 
 Interrogative pronouns are those used to ask a question; 
 
6% OP INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 viz. who? which ? and what! expressed and declined in 
 French as follows.: 
 
 Pronouns used with reference to persons. 
 
 N. qui? who? 
 
 G. de qui 1 of whom ? 
 
 D. a qui ? to whom ? 
 
 Ac. qui? whom? 
 
 Pronouns used with reference to persons and things. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. m. f. 
 
 N. Ac. lequel, laquelie, lesquels, lesquelles, which ? 
 G. duquel, de laquelle, desquels, desquelles, of which ? 
 D. auquel, a laqueile, auxquels, auxquelles, to which ? 
 
 What? followed by a substantive. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 m. f. m. f. 
 
 N. Ac. quel, quelle, quels, quelles, what ? 
 G. de quel, de quelle, de quels, de quelles, of what ? 
 D. a quel, & quelle, a quels, a quelles, to what ? 
 
 What ? not followed by a substantive. 
 
 N. quoi, what ? 
 
 G. de quoi, of what? 
 
 D. a quoi, to what ? 
 
 Ac. que, what ? 
 
 6. Of Indeterminate Pronouns. 
 
 Indeterminate pronouns are so called, because they express 
 a vague and indeterminate object ; they are divided into 
 four classes. 
 
OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 63 
 
 1. Those which are never joined to a noun. 
 
 on, one, people, they. lun I'autre, one another. 
 
 quelqu'un, somebody. autrui, others. 
 
 quiconque, whoever. personne, nobody. 
 
 chacun, every one. rien. nothing. 
 
 2. TJwse which^are always joined to a noun. 
 
 quelque, some. qudconque, whatever. 
 
 chaque, every. certain, some. 
 
 3. Those which are sometimes joined to a noun and 
 
 sometimes not. 
 
 nul, not one. ni lun ni /'0wrf,neither. 
 
 pas un, not one. le mime, the same. 
 
 aucun, not one. tel, such. 
 
 autre, another, plusieurs, many. 
 
 I'un et lautre, both. tout, every, everything. 
 
 run ou I' autre, either. 
 
 4. Those which are followed by the conjunction que. 
 
 qui que, whoever. quelque que, whatever. 
 
 quoi que, whatever. tel que, such as. 
 
 quel que, whoever or whatever, tout que, however. 
 
 hquel que, whichever. 
 
 Observe, 1. After the indeterminate pronoun on, and 
 other, in the singular, we express the personal pronouns 
 which relate to them, by de sot, d soi, se, soi, as on doit 
 veillcr sur soi, one must watch over one's self, chacun doit 
 penset a soi, every one ought to take care of himself.] 
 
 2. L'un I'autre makes lun de lautre, in the genitive, and 
 lun cL lautre, in the dative ; lun et lautre, I'un ou lautre, 
 ni lun ni lautre, make de lun et de lautre, de lun ou de 
 I'autre, ni de lun ni de lautre, in the genitive, and a lun et 
 ci lautre, a lun ou a lautre, ni & lun ni a lautre, in the 
 dative, le mhne makes du meme, au meme. 
 
OF VERBS. 
 
 3. All other pronouns take only the preposition de in the 
 genitive, and d in the dative. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF VERBS. 
 
 This chapter is divided into eight sections : the first speaks 
 of the nature and species of verbs ; the second treats of their 
 different moods, tenses, numbers, and persons ; the third gives 
 the conjugation of the auxiliaries avoir and fare, and contains 
 a list of those conjugated with to have in English, and with 
 fare in French ; the fourth comprehends the twelve regular 
 conjugations ; the fifth explains the conjugation of reflected 
 verbs ; the sixth teaches the method of conjugating all verbs 
 with negations, interrogations, and pronouns ; the seventh 
 has for object the irregular conjugations; and the eighth 
 treats of the impersonal verbs. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 Of the nature and species of verbs. 
 
 A verb, according to the Latin etymology, verbum, signi- 
 fies wordy to denote that the verb is the word by excellence, 
 and the principal part of speech. 
 
 A verb expresses an action done, or received ; or denotes 
 only the state of its nominative case ; hence arise three 
 distinct sorts of verbs which are called, 
 
 1, active, actif. 
 
 2, passive, passif. 
 
 3, neuter, neutre. 
 
 The active verb expresses the action of its nominative upon 
 some persons or things ; as Dieupunira les mtchans, God 
 
DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS. 65 
 
 wiil punish the wicked. Punish is a verb active, which 
 expresses the action of God over the wicked. 
 
 The passive verb expresses an action received by its no- 
 minative case ; as les mtchans seront punis de Dieu, wicked" 
 people will be punished by God. 
 
 The neuter verb expresses merely the state of its nomina- 
 tive case ; as Je suts, I am : je dors, I sleep ; je languis, 
 1 languish. It expresses also an action, but which remains 
 in the subject, which produces it; asjemarche, I walk, 
 i'agis, I act. 
 
 Verbs are again subdivided into six classes which ar* 
 called, 
 
 VERBS, 
 
 1, auxiliary, auxiliaires. 
 
 2, reflected, refltchis. 
 
 3, personal, personnels. 
 
 4, impersonal, impersonnels. 
 
 5, regular, rtguliers. 
 
 6, irregular, irreguliers. 
 
 1 . The auxiliary verbs are these two, avoir, to have ; and 
 fare, to be ; they are called auxiliaries, because they help 
 to conjugate all other verbs in their compound tenses. 
 
 2. The reflected verbs are those which have for subject 
 and object the same person or thing; asje me leve, I rise; 
 je m'habille, I dress myself; jemerepens, I repent. 
 
 3. The personal verbs are those which are conjugated 
 with three persons in the singular number, and three in the 
 plural, in all the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive 
 moods; asjeparle, tu paries, il parle, nous par Ions, vous 
 parlez, &e. 
 
 4. The impersonal verbs are those which are used only in 
 the third person singular of each tense; as ilpleut, it rains; 
 il neige, it snows ; il gele, it freezes. 
 
 5. The regular verbs are those which are conjugated in 
 all their tenses and persons, like the verb of t&e same final 
 
66 OF MOODS, TENSES, NUMBERS, &C. 
 
 in the infinitive, which is given for example in regular conju- 
 gations ; thus, for instance, chanter and danser, to sing, and 
 to dance, are regular of the first conjugation, because they 
 are conjugated like parler in all their tenses and persons. 
 
 The irregular verbs are those which deviate in some tenses 
 or persons, from the verb regular of the same conjugation 
 which is given for example; thus, oiler, to go, is irregular, 
 because it is not conjugated, like parler, though it has the 
 same final in the infinitive mood. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of Moods, Tenses, Numbers and Persons of Verbs. 
 
 Verbs are necessarily subject, 1. to moods, whereby they 
 express in what manner a thing comes to pass ; 2. to tenses, 
 by the help of which they represent the thing spoken of, 
 as present, past or future; 3. to numbers and persons, that 
 they may agree with their nominative case. What is called 
 conjugation is the method of varying these different moods, 
 tenses, numbers, and persons. 
 
 1. OF MOODS. 
 
 Moods are the different manners of using a verb. There 
 are four moods ; the infinitive, the indicative, the subjunc- 
 tive and the 'imperative. 
 
 The infinitive mood, which is the root of a verb, and by 
 which the conjugations are distinguished from each other, 
 expresses an action, but in an indeterminate manner, with- 
 out specifying any particular agent : as parler, to speak ; 
 dormir, to sleep ; agir, to act, &c. 
 
 The indicative mood shews directly and positively the dif- 
 ferent tenses of a verb : it forms a sense of itself independ- 
 ently of what precedes or follows ; asjeveux, I am willing ; 
 j'ecris, I am writing; jeparle, I speak. 
 
 The subjunctive mood denotes also different tenses, but 
 dependently on the verb or conjunction antecedent; as, il 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 67 
 
 faut que nous soyons modestes, quelque merite que nous 
 ayons : if you take out ilfaut que, quelque merite que, the rest, 
 nous soyons, nous ayons, have not a complete sense. 
 
 The imperative mood expresses the action of desiring, com- 
 manding, exhorting, &c. as, repondez-moi, answer me : 
 
 Tenez votre parole inviolablement, 
 Mais ne la donnez pas inconsider&ment. 
 
 2. OF TENSES. 
 
 Tenses indicate the time ; and are expressed by different 
 terminations ; a verb has reference to, present, past, or fu- 
 ture. Their names are found in the following conjugations, 
 and their use is fully explained in the Syntax, chapters 15, 
 16, and 17- 
 
 3. OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 
 
 There are two numbers in a verb, which are the singular 
 and plural; the singular is used when we speak of one, as, 
 votrc frtre est mort, your brother is dead ; and the plural, 
 when we speak of more than one, as, vosfrercs sont morts, 
 your brothers are dead. 
 
 There are three persons in each number ; the first is used 
 when we speak of ourselves, the second when we speak to 
 another, and the third when we speak of another. 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb avoir, to have. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, avoir, to have. 
 
 Get*und, ay ant, having. 
 
 Participle, eu, m. cue,/, had. 
 
 Compound of the present, avoir eu, to have had. 
 
 Compound of the gerund, ayant eu, having had. 
 
8 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. J'ai*, I have. Nousavons, we have. 
 
 2. tu as, thou hast. vous avez, you have. 
 
 3. i! a, he has. ils oirV they have. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 J. J'avoist, I had. Nous avions, we had. 
 
 2. tu avois, thou hadst. vous aviez, you had. ^ 
 
 3. il avoit, he had. ils avoient, they had. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 1. J'eus, / Afl</. Nous eumes, we had. 
 
 2. tu eus, thou hadst. vous elites, you had. 
 
 3. II cut, he had.jT&g$^/ih eurent, they had. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 1. J'aurai, I shall or will ^ ^ Nous aurons, we shall 
 
 2. tu auras, thou shalt > | vous aurez, #<w sAa// 
 
 3. ii aura, he shall } ^ ils auront, they shall 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 1. J'aurois, I would 1 ^Nousaurions,^^e^^o^^/</ 1 ^. 
 
 2. tu-aurois, f Aew wouldest > | vous auriez, ^OM would > g 
 
 3. il auroit, he would. } ^ ils auroient, they would ) ^ 
 
 Compound of the present, J'ai eu, <fec. / have had. 
 Compound of the imperfect, J'avois eu, &c. I had had. 
 Compound of the preterite, J'eus eu, &c. / had had. 
 
 * The figures 1, 2, 3, denote the first, second, and third persons. 
 
 t Many authors write, j'arais, w arais, il avait, ils avaient, &c. and 
 use cti instead of ot, for the imperfect and conditional of all verbs, 
 and in general whenever oi has the sound of e grave. 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 69 
 
 Compound of the future. J'aurai eu,&c. I shall hawked. 
 
 j ,., ,... j C J'auroiseu, orj'eusseeu, &c. 
 Compound of the cotxlitional. I f oM ^ Md 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 1 . J'aie, "' / may have. Nous ayons, we may have. 
 
 2. tu aies, thou mai/est have, vous ayez, you may have. 
 o lt 3. il ait, he may have. iis-.aient, they may have. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 1 . J'eusse, / might have. Nous eussions, we might have. 
 
 2. tu eusses, thou mightcst. vous eussie^ you might have. 
 
 3. il eftt, hemigfit have. Us euspent, they might have. 
 
 Compound of the present t J'aie eu, I may have had. 
 Compound of the preterite, J'eusse eu, I might have had. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Ayons, let us have. 
 
 2. aies, have thou. ayez, have ye. 
 
 3. qu'il ait, let him have. qu'ils aient, let them hair. 
 
 N. B. Though I have only put the first person of the 
 compound tenses, the pupil must repeat all the persons by 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb, etre, to be. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, tre, to be. 
 
 Gerund t 6tant, being. 
 
 A 
 
70 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 Participle, t6 been. 
 
 Compound of the present, avoir 6te to have been. 
 Compound of the gerund, ay ant et6, having been. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. Je suis, lam. Nous sornmes, ive are . 
 
 2. tu es, thou art. vous tes, you are. 
 
 3. il est, he is. ils sont, they are. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 1. J'etois, I was. Nous etioris, we were. 
 
 2. tu etois, thou wast. vous tiea, yow 20e?'. 
 
 3. il etoit, he was. fls Stoient, they were. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 1. Je fus, I was. Nous fumes, we were. 
 
 2. tu fut, JA0M zra^f . vous ffttes, yow u?ere'. 
 
 3. il fut, he was. ils furent, they were. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 1. Je serai, I shall or a;z7/ fo. Nous serons, we shall or a?t'// 6e. 
 3. tu sera, ^AoM sAa/? or wilt be. vous serez, you shall or zz?i7/ ^e, 
 3. il sera, he shall or will be. ilsseront, they shall or will be. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 1 . Je serois, / would be. Nous serions, we would be. 
 
 2. tu serois, thouwouldestbe. vous seriez, you would be. 
 
 3. il seroit, fo would be. ils seroient, f Aei/ would be. 
 
 Compound of the present, J'ai et6, /Aave been. 
 
 Compound of the imperfect, J'avois 6te, / had been. 
 
 Compound of the preterite, J'eus te, / had been. 
 
 Compound of thefuture 9 J'aurai 6t^, I shall have been, 
 
OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 71 
 
 e, or j'eusse ete, 
 1 would have been. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 I. Je sois, I may be. Nous soyons, we may fa. 
 
 '2. tu sois, thou mayest be. vous soyez, you may be. 
 
 3, il soit, he may be. ils soient, they may be. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 1. Je fusse, I might be. Nous fussions, we might be. 
 
 2. tu fusses, thoumightest be. vous fussiez, youmight be. 
 
 3. il fut, Ae wag-fa be. ils fussejit, J&?^ might be. 
 
 Compound of the present, J'aie ete, 
 
 Compound of the preterite, J'eusse ete, Imight have been. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Soyons, let us be. 
 
 2. sois, be thou. soyez, be ye. 
 
 3. qu'il soit, let him be. qu'ils soieut, kt them be. 
 
 These two verbs, avoir and tire, help to conjugate all 
 others in their compound tenses, and therefore must be learnt 
 perfectly. All verbs conjugated with the verb to be in 
 English, take ttre in French; but all those conjugated 
 with to have in English, do not take avoir in French ; the 
 following are excepted. 
 
 Verbs conjugated with to have in English, and etre in 
 French. 
 
 1. All reflected and reciprocal verbs, without exception, 
 take, in their compound tenses, the auxiliary fare in French, 
 and the auxiliary to how in English. 
 
72 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 2. The sixteen following are conjugated with fart ia 
 French, and to have in English : 
 
 aller, to go. tomber, to fall. 
 
 arriver, to arrive. venir, to come. 
 
 d^choir, to decay. de venir, to become. 
 
 d6c6der, to die. disconvenir, to disagree. 
 
 entrer, to come in. intervenir, to intervene. 
 hiourir, to die. parvenir, to attain. 
 
 liattre, to be born. revenir, to come back. 
 
 partir, to set out. survenir, to happen. 
 
 These six accourir, to run to; accroitre to increase: 
 apparoitre, to appear; croitre, to grow ; disparoitre, to dis- 
 appear ; and perir, to perish ; which are always conjugated 
 with the auxiliary to have in English ; are indifferently con- 
 jugated in French with avoir , or etre. 
 
 ; Verbs which take avoir in one signification, and &tre in 
 another. 
 
 These six verbs, accoucher, convenir, demeurer, descendre, 
 monter and passer, take avoir, or etre, in their compound 
 tenses, according to the following distinctions : 
 
 1. Accoucher takes avoir, when used in an active sense, 
 and fare, when used as a verb neuter; as votre mere est ac- 
 coucMe,monfrereVa accoucMe; your mother is brought to 
 bed ; my brother has delivered her. 
 
 2. Convenir takes avoir, when it means to be convenient : 
 and etre, when it signifies to agree; as votre maison aurdit 
 convenu d monpere,je suisfach&que vous ne soyez pas con- 
 venus du prix ; your house would have suited my father, I 
 am sorry that you have not agreed upon the terms. 
 
 3. Demeurer takes avoir, when it signifies to live inj and 
 fare, when it signifies to remain ; asj'ai demeure & Londres, 
 I have lived in London ; 7est demeure inebranlable, hejias 
 remained immoveable. 
 
 4. Descendre takes avoir, when it governs an accusative 
 case, and etre in other cases ; as iladescenduVescalier; he 
 has gone down stairs; il est descendu d'une bonne familh , 
 he is descended from a good family. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. - 73 
 
 5. Monter takes avoir, when it governs the accusative 
 and fare in other cases; asj'ai monte la colline, I have as- 
 cended the hill ; je suis montd par degres aux charges mili- 
 taires y I have ascended by degrees to military employments. 
 
 6*. Passer takes avoir, when it is followed by a nou or a 
 pronoun, and etre when not ; as,j"ai passe par la France, I 
 have passed through France ; cette mode est passee, that 
 fashion is past. 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH. 
 
 Of Regular Conjugations. 
 
 The respective conjugations are formed by the different 
 terminations of verbs in their tenses and persons, and particu- 
 larly in the infinitive mood ; now, the infinitive of all our 
 verbs ends either in ER, 1R, OTR, or RE; as parler, agir, 
 recevoir, p^aire, which form four general conjugations ; how- 
 ever, as the verbs which end in 1R andRE ; are conjugated 
 differently in the same tenses and persons, I admit of twelve 
 regular conjugations; one in ER, four in [R, one in OIR, 
 and six in RE, which will greatly diminish the number of 
 the irregular, and consequently facilitate the learning of 
 verbs. They are as follows : 
 liner parler, t speak, fplaire, to please. 
 
 Tagir, to act. \ craindre, to fear. 
 
 j sentir, to smell. r . I connoitre.fo know 
 
 j . o i n re -^ 
 
 j ouvnr, to open. \ mstruire, toinslr 
 
 (jenir, to hold. | vendre, to sell. 
 
 r rpi^pvnir. fn rfT.e.ire. I rrirp tn i/wift 
 
 First Conjugation. Parler. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, parler, to speak. 
 
 Gerund,* parlant, speaking. 
 
 Participle, parl, spoken. 
 
74 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Compound of the present, avoir parle, to have spoken. 
 Compound of the gerund, ayant parle, having spoken. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je parle, I speak. Nous parlous, we speak* 
 
 tu paries, thou speakest. vous parlez, you speak. 
 
 il parle, he speaks. ils parlent, they speak. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je parlois, 7 was 1 ^ Nous parlions, we were 
 tu parlois, thou wast >| vous parliez, you were 
 il parloit, he was J | ils parloient, they were 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 }1 
 
 Je pa rial, / spoke. Nous parlames, we' spoke. 
 
 tu parlas, thou spokest. vous pariates, you spoke. 
 \\ parla, he spoke. iis parlerent, they spoke. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 V_ 
 
 Je parlerai, /shall speak. Nous parlerons, we shall speak. 
 tu puileras, thou shalt speak. vous parlerez, you shall sptak* 
 ii patlera, he shall speak, ils parlerour, they shall speak. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 would 
 
 is,/^OM/rf -j^Nousparerons,^^ would -\ . 
 is,^oz wouldest > | vous parleriez, you would > | 
 il parleroit, he would 3 ^ils parleroient, they ivould* * 
 
 Compound of the present, J'ai parle, I have spoken. 
 Compound of the imperfect, J'avois parl, / had spoken. 
 Compound of the preterite, J'eus parle, / had spoken. 
 Compound of the future, J'aurai parle, I shall have spoken. 
 Compound of the eondi- C J'aurois or j'eusse parl^, 1 would 
 tional, \ have spoken. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS/ 75 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 Je parle, / may speak. Nous parlions, we may speak. 
 tu paries, thoumayest speak, vous parliez, you may speak. 
 il parle, he may speak. ils parlent, they may speak. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je pnrlasse, I might speak. Nous parlassions, we might speak. 
 tu parlasbes, thou mightest speak, vous parlassiez, you might speak. 
 ii parlat, he might speak. ils parlasseut, they might speak. 
 
 Compound of the present , J'aie par!6, I may have spoken. 
 Compound of the prefer it e,J'eusse parle, Imight have spoken. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Parlons, let us speak. 
 
 2. parle, speak thou. parlez, speak ye. 
 
 3. qu'il parle, let him speak, qu'ils parlent, let them speak. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. Was, with the gerund, is the mark of the imperfect in 
 all verbs, shall or will of the future, would, could, or should 
 of the conditional, may of the present subjunctive, might of 
 the preterite, and let of the imperative mood. 
 
 2. Most French verbs have the infinitive in er, and are 
 conjugated the same as parler, except allcr, envoy er, and 
 renvoyer, which are irregular. 
 
 3. Verbs which end in ayer, oyer, or uyer, in the infini- 
 tive mood take an i after y in the firs^t and second persons 
 of the plural of the imperfect of the indicative, and present 
 of the subjunctive : as, essay er, employer, essuyer, inf. nous 
 essayiom, vous essay iez, nous employ ions, vous employ icz, nous 
 esmyions, vous esswyiez, imperfect indicative, andpres. subj. 
 
 4. Verbs which in the infinitive end in ier, are written 
 with double ii in the first and second persons plural of the 
 imperfect of the indicative, and of the present of the subjunc- 
 tive : as, prier, plier, inf. nous priions, nous pliions, vous 
 priiez, vous pliiez, imperfect indicative, and pres. subj. 
 
76 REGULAR "CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 5. We put an e between g and a or o through the whole 
 conjugation of verbs which end ingerin the infinitive mood. 
 Thus we szy,juger,jugeant,jejugeois, nous jugeons ; par- 
 tager,jepartageois,&c. notjugantfjugois, as wesay,p#r- 
 lant, parlois. 
 
 N. B. As the compound tenses of all verbs, regular and 
 irregular, are nothing else than the conjugation of the verbs 
 avoir or fare, and the participle of the verb conjugated ; the 
 scholar knowing well the auxiliaries, knows how to conjugate 
 the compound tenses of all verbs ; therefore we may dispense 
 with inserting them in the following conjugations. 
 
 Secon d Conjuga I ion . A gir. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, agir, to act. 
 
 Gerund^ agissant, acting. 
 
 Participle, agi, acted. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 J'agis, 
 
 I act. 
 
 Nous agissons, 
 
 we act. 
 
 tu agis, 
 
 thou actest. 
 
 vous agissez, 
 
 you aet. 
 
 ii agit, 
 
 he acts. 
 
 iis agissent , 
 
 they act 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 J'agissois, / ivas 1 ^ Nous agissions,M> were 1 ^ 
 tu agissois, thou wast >-J vous agissiez, you were >-5 
 il agissoif^ lie was j c ils agissoient, they were ) 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 J'agis, / acted. Nous agimes, we acted. 
 
 tu agis, thou actedest. vous agltes, you acted. 
 
 il agit, he acted. ils agirent, they acted. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 77 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 T'agirai, / shall or will act. Nous agirons, we shall act. 
 
 tu agiras, t hou shalt, &c. act . vous agirez, you shall act. 
 
 il agira, he shall, &c. act. ils agiront, they shall act. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J'agirois, I would, &c. act. Nous agirions, we would act. 
 tu agirois, thou wouldest act. vous agiriez, you would act. 
 il agiroit, he would act. ils agiroient, they would act 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 J'agisse, I may act. Nous agissions, we may act. 
 
 tu agisses, thou mayest act. vous agissiez, you may aitJ 
 
 ii agisse, he may act. ils agissent, they may act. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 J'agisse, I might act.' Nous agissions,M?e might act. 
 tu agisses, thou mightest act. vous agissiez, you might a*t. 
 il agtt, he might act. ils agisstnt, they might act . 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Agissons, let us act. 
 
 2. agte, act thou. agissez, act ye. 
 
 3. qu'il agisse, let him act. qu'ils agissent, let them act. 
 
 All verbs which end in the infinitive mood in tr, except 
 those mentioned at the end of the three following conjuga- 
 tions, are regular in French, and conjugated after agir. HoAr, 
 to hate, is conjugated in the same manner, but in the singular 
 of the indicative present it makes je hais, tu hais, il hait, 
 pronoun ced,Je Aes, tu hes, ilhtt. 
 
78 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Third Conjugation. Sentir. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, sentir, to smell. 
 
 Gerund, sentant, smelling. 
 
 Participle, senti, smelt. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je sens, I smell. Nous sentons, we smelL 
 
 tu sens, thou smellest. vous sentez, you smell. 
 
 il sent, he smells. ils sentent, they smelL 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Jc sentois, I was ^ ^ Nous sentions, we were ") * 
 tu sentois, thou wast >S vous sentiez, you were >i| 
 il sentoit, he was J g ils sentoient, they were ) I 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je sentis, I smelt. Nous sentimes, we smelt. 
 
 tu sentis, thou smelttst. vous sentltes, you smelt. 
 il sentit, he smelt. ils sentirent, they smelt. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je sentirai, / shall smell. Nous sentirons, we shall smell. 
 tu sentiras, that shalt smell, vous sentirez, you shall smell. 
 il sentira, he shall smell, ils sentkont, they shall smell. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je sentirois, / could smell. Nous sentirions, we could smell. 
 tu sentirois, thou couldeat smell.vous sentiriez, you could smell. 
 il sentiroit, he could smell, ils sentiroient, they could smell 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 79 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 Je sente, / may smell. Nous sentions, we may smell. 
 
 tu sentes, t hou mayest smell, vous sentiez, you may smell. 
 il sente, he may smell. ils sentent, they may smell. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je sentisse, 1 might smell. Nous sentissions> we might smell. 
 
 tu se-sCisses thou might est smell, vous sentissiez, you might smell. 
 il sentit, he might smell. ils sentissent, they might smell. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Sentons, let us smell. 
 
 2. sens, smell thou. sentez, smell ye. 
 
 3, qu'il sente, let him smell, qu'ils sentent, let them smell. 
 
 The sixteen following verbs are conjugated like sentir: 
 
 Consentir, to consent. se rendormir, to fall asleep 
 
 ddmcntir, to give the lie. [again. 
 
 desservir, to clear the repartir*, to set out a- 
 
 [table. gain, to reply. 
 
 dormir, to sleep. se repentir, to repent. 
 
 cndormir, to lull asleep, ressentir, to resent. 
 
 mentir, to lie. ressortir*, to go out again. 
 
 partir, to set out. servir, to serve. 
 
 pressentir, to foresee. sortir, to go out. 
 
 re< i o rm i r , to sleep again. 
 
 * Repartir, to set out again, to reply, and restvrtir to go out a^ain, 
 must not be confounded with rtpartir, to distribute, and riMorttr, to 
 belong to, \vhich two last are conjugated like ogir. 
 
80 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Fourth Conjugation. Ouvrir. 
 
 Present tense, ouvrir, to open. 
 
 Gerund, ouvrant, opening. 
 
 Participle, ouvert, opened. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 J'ouvre, I open. Nousouvrons, we open. 
 
 tu ouvres, thou openest. vous ouvrez, you open. 
 
 il ouvre, he opens. ilsjaiuzsent, they open. 
 
 1 IMPERFECT. 
 
 J'ouvrois, J was opening. Nous ouvrions, we were opening. 
 tu ouvrois, thou wast opening.vous ouvriez, you were opening. 
 il ouvroit, he was opening, ils puvypignt T they were opening. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 J'ouvris, I opened. Nous ouvrimes, we opened. 
 tu ouvris, thou openedest. vous ouvrltes, you opened. 
 i) ouvrit he opened. ils ouvnmit, they opened. 
 
 ) 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 J'ouvrirai, / shall open. Nous ouvrirons, we shall open. 
 tu ouvriraX thou shalt open, vous ouvrirez, you shall open. 
 il ouvrira, he shall open, ils ouvriront, they shall open. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J'ouvrirpls, I should open. Nous ouvririons, zee should 9pen. 
 
 tu ouvrirois, thou shouldest open, vous ouvririez, you should open. 
 ii ouvriroit, he should open. ils ouyriroilnt, they should open. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 81 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 J'ouvre, / may open. Nous ouvrions, we may open, 
 
 tu ouvres, thou mayest open, vous ouvriez, you may open. 
 \\ ouvre, he may open. ^ ils ouvrent, they may open. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 J'ouvrisse, 1 might open. Nous ouvrissions, we might open. 
 tu ouvrisses^Aow mightest open.vous ouvr-issiez, you might open, 
 ii ouvrlt, he might open. ils ouvrissent, they might oven. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Ouvrons, let us open 
 
 2. ouvre, open thou. ouvrez, open ye. 
 
 3. qu'il ouvre, let him open, qu'ils ouvrent, let them open. 
 
 N. B. All the verbs which end in vrir, or frir, are 
 regular, and conjugated after ouvrir, in all their tenses gnd 
 persons. 
 
 Fifth Conjugation. Tenir. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, tenir, to hold. 
 
 Gerund, tenant, holding. 
 
 Participle, tenu, held. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je tiens, I hold. Nous tenons, we hold. 
 
 tu tiens, thou holdest. vous tenez, you hold. 
 
 il tient, he holds. ils tiennent, they hold. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je tenois, I was holding. Nous tenions, we were holding. 
 tu tenois, thou wast holding. vous teniez, you were holding. 
 iltenoit he was holding, ilstenoient, they were holding. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je tins, / held. Nous tf nines, we held. - 
 
 tu tins, thou heldest. vous tintcs, you held. 
 
 il tint, he held. ils tinrent, they held. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je tiendrai, I shall hold. Nous ticndroas, we shall hold. 
 tu tiendras, thou shalt hold, vous tiendrez, you shall hold. 
 il tiendra, he shall hold, ils tiendront, they shall hold. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je tiendrois, I would hold. Nous tiendrions, we would hold. 
 tu tiendrois, thou zeouldest hold, vous tiendriez, you would hold. 
 il tiendroit, he would hold. iis tiendroient, they would hold. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TEENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 Je tienne, I may hold. Nous tenions, we may hold. 
 
 tu tiennes, thou may est hold, vous teniez, you may hold. 
 
 il tienne, he may hold. ils tiennent, they may hold. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je tinsse, / might hold. Nous tinssions,we might hold. 
 tu tinsses, thou mightest hold.vous tinssiez, youmight hold. 
 51 tint, he might hold. ils tkissent, they might hold. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Tenons let us hold. 
 
 2. tiens hold thou. tenez, hold ye. 
 
 3. qu'ii tienne, let him hold, qu'ils tiennent, let them hold. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 83 
 
 N. B. All the verbs which end in enir, without an accent 
 upon the e, are regular, and conjugated after tenir in all 
 their tenses and persons. 
 
 Sixth Conjugation. Recevoir. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, recevoir, to receive. 
 
 Gerund, recevant, receiving. 
 
 Participle, recu, received, 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je recois, / receive. Nous recevons, we receive.' 
 
 tu recois, thou receivest. vous recevez, you receive. 
 il recoit, he receives. ils re oivent, they receive. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je recevois, I was 1 Nous recevions, we were ") g 
 
 turecevois, thou wast >| vous receviez, you were >| 
 
 1 
 
 >| v 
 
 ) i 
 
 , 
 il recevoit, he was ) ils recevoient, they were }% 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je repus, I received. Nous recumes, we received. 
 
 tu recus, thou receivedest. vous refutes, you received' 
 il recut, he received. ils re^urent, they received. 
 
 \ 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je recevrai, I shall receive. Nous recevrons, we shall receive. 
 tu recevras, thou shalt receive, vous recevrez, you shall receive* 
 il recevra, he ihall receive. Us recevront, they shall receive* 
 
84 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je recevrois, I would receive. Nous recevrions, we would, &c. 
 tu recevrois, thouwouldest,&c. vous recevriez, you would, &c. ' 
 il recevroit, he would receive, ils recevroient, they would, &c. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que j That 
 
 Je repoive, I may receive. Nous recevions, we may, &c. 
 
 tu receives, thou mayest receive, vous receviez, you may, &c. 
 
 il repoive, he may receive, ils resolvent, they may, &c. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je recusse, I might receive. Nous re9tissions, we might, &c. 
 tu recusses, thoumightest,&c.\ous repussiez, you might, &c. 
 il reUt, he might receivers refussent, they might, &c. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Recevons, Itt us receive. 
 2. Re^ois, receive thou. recevez, receive ye. 
 
 S. qu'il resolve, let him rec cive. qu'iis repoivent, let them receive. 
 
 N. B. All the verbs which end in evoir, in the infinitive 
 mood are regular, and conjugated after recevoir : and ah 
 those which end in oir, not preceded by ev t are irregular : 
 such are, pouvoir, savoir, vouloir. &c. 
 
 Seventh Conjugation . Plaire. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, plaire,' to please. 
 
 Gerund, plaisant, pleasing. 
 
 Participle, plu> pleased. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 85 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Jc plais, I please. Nous plaisons, we please. 
 
 tu plais, t hou pleasest. vous plaisez, you please. 
 
 il plait, he pleases. ils plaisent, they phase. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je plaisois, / was ") Nous plaisions, we were 1 ^ 
 tu plaisois, thouwast >| vous plaisiez, you were > | 
 il plaisoit, he was ) ^ ils plaisoient, theij were ) i. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je plus, I pleased. Nous plumes, we pleased. 
 
 tu plus, thou pleasedest. vous plutes, you pleased. 
 il plut, he pleased. ils plurent, they pleased. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je plairai, I shall please. Nous plairons, we shall please. 
 tu plairas, thou shall plcase.vous plairez, you shall please. 
 il plaira, he shall please, ils plairont, they shall please. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je plairois,/200M/c? ") ^ Nous plairions,z^ would 1 , 
 
 tu plairois,f^oM wouldest > * vous plairiez,, you would > \ 
 il plairoit, he would j "a,ils plairoienf, they would } ^ 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 Je plaise, / may please. Nous plaisions, ive may please. 
 
 tu plaises, thou mayest please, vous plaisiez, you way please. 
 ii plaise, he may please, ils plaisent, they may please. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je plussej might please. N*us plussions, we might please. 
 tu plusses, thou mightcsrt please.vous plussiez, you might please. 
 i! pldt, he might please, ils plussent, they might please. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Plaisons, let us please. 
 
 2. plais, , please thou. plaisez, please ye. 
 
 3. qa'il plaise, let him please, qu'ils plaisent let them please, 
 
 N. B. So are conjugated the compounds of plaire, and 
 the verb taire, to conceal. 
 
 Eighth Conjugation. Craindre. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, * craindre, to fear. 
 
 Gerund, craignant, fearing. 
 
 Participle, craint, feared. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je crains, Jfear. Nous'craignons, we fear. 
 
 tu crains, thoufearest. vous craignez, ytu fear. 
 
 \\ craint, he fears. ils craignent, they fear. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Ie craignois, / was ~) g) Nous craignions, we were 1 g 
 tu craignois, thtuwastft vous craigniez, you were > g 
 il craignoit, he was. J ^ ils craigntient, they were } ^ 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 87 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je craignis, I feared. Nous craignimes, we feared. 
 tu craignis, thoufearedest. vous craignltes, you feared, 
 il craignit. he feared. ils craignirent, they feared. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je craindrai, I shall fear. Nous craindrons,t0e s&z//, &c. 
 " tu craindras, thou shaltfear.vous craindrez, you shall fear. 
 il craindra, he shall fear, ils craindront, they shall fear. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je craindrois, Iwouldfear. Nous craindrions, we would: 
 
 tu craindrois, thou wouldest fear, vouscraindriez, you would. 
 il craindroit, he would fear, il craindroient, they would. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE.? 
 
 Que That 
 
 Je craigne, I may fear. Nous craignions, we may, &c. 
 tu craignes, th*u mai/estfear. vous craigniez, you may t etc. 
 il craigne, he may fear. ils craignent, they may> &c. 
 
 <n^> n 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je craignisse, / might fear. Nous craignissions,we might 
 tu craign1sses,#AoM mightest^c.vous craignissiez,^?^ might. 
 il craignit, he might fear. ils craignissent, they might. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 &* Craignons, let us fear. 
 
 2. crains, fear thou. craignez, fear ye. 
 
 3. qu'il craigne, let him fear, qu'ils craignent, let them fear. 
 
 N. B. All the verbs which end in the infinitive, in aindre, 
 eindre, or oindre, are regular and conjugated on craindre. 
 
8$ REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Ninth Conjugation. Connoitre. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, connoltre, to know. 
 
 Gerund, connoissant, knowing. 
 
 Participle, connu, known. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je connois, / know. Nous connoissons,tre know. 
 
 tu connois, thou knowest. vous connoissez, you know. 
 
 il connoit, he knows. ils connoissent^ /, they know. 
 
 ... * 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je connoissois, / was ^ ^Nous connoissions, we were ^ *5 
 tu connoissois, thou wast '| vous connoissiez, you were J> 
 il connoissoit, he was Jjjils connoissoient, they were) \ 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je connus, I knew. Nous conntiines, we knew. 
 
 tu connus, thou knewest. vous contufttes, you knew. 
 il con-nut, he knew. ils connurent, they knew. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je connoitrai, I shall know. Nous connoitrons,tt;e shall,&c. 
 .tu connoitras, thou shalt know.vous conno1trez,yoM^a//,&c. 
 il connoltra, he shall know. ilsconnoitront,#e# shall know. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je connoitroiSj I should know. Nous connoltrions,wf should. 
 tu conwoitrois, thou shouldest know, vous connottriez, you should, 
 il connoltroit, he should know. ils connoitroient, they should. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 89 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That fa 
 
 Je connotsse,/wzfl# know. Nous connoissions, we may, &c. 
 
 tu connoisses, thournayestfac, vousconnoissiez, youmay,&c. 
 't\ connoisse, he may, &c. ils connoissent, they may, &c. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je connusses, I might know. Nous connussions, we might. 
 
 tu connusses, t/iou mightest, &c. vous connussiez, you might:, 
 il connut, /g might know, ils comiussent, /ie^ might ,&e. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 ^ Connoissons, let us know. 
 
 2. connois, A*OM> <^OM. connoissez, Arwow ^e. 
 
 i>. ^u'il connoisse, let him know, qu'ils connoissent, let them, &c. 
 
 N. B. All verbs which end in aitre or oitre, in the pre- 
 sent infinitive, are regular, and conjugated onconnoitrc, 
 e \cept naitre, to be born, which is irregular. 
 
 Conjugation. Instruire. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, instruire, to instruct. 
 
 Gerund, instruisant, instructing. 
 
 Participle, instruit, instructed. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 J'instruis, I instruct. Nous instruisons, we instruct. 
 
 tu instruis, thou instruqtest. vous instruisez, you instruct. 
 ill instruit, he instructs. ils instruisent, they instruct. 
 
<K> REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 J'instruisois, / was ") jfNous instruisions, we were } |f 
 tu iristruisois, thou wast >lvous instruisiez, you were > a 
 il instruisoit, he was } |ils instruisoient, they were } | 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 . 
 
 J'inatruisis, 1 instructed. Nous instmis'imes, we instructed. 
 
 tu mstruisis,AoM instructedest.vous instruisites, you instructed. 
 il instriiisityAf instructed, ils instruisirent, they instructed. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 J'instriiirai, I will instruct. Nousinstruirons, wewill t &c. 
 tu instruiras,<7iOM wilt instructions instruirez, you will t &c. 
 il instruira, he will instruct. Hs instruiront, they will,&c. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J'instruirois, / tcould instruct. Nous instruirions, we would. 
 tu instruiiois tncu wouldtst, &c. vous instruiriez, you would t &c. 
 il Histruiro t t ? he woiiid induct, ils instruiroient, they would,&L 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD../- 
 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 J'instruise, I rivy instruct. Nous instruisions^f may,&c. 
 tu iristruises^Aow. mayest t &C.VGUS instrumez,^OM may,&c. 
 il instruise, he may instruct, ils inslruiseQtJheymayinstruct . 
 
 \ f - . . 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 
 tu instruisisses^Aow mightest. vous instruisissiez, you might. 
 il instruisit, he might instruct, ils instruisissent, they might. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Instruisons, let us instruct. 
 
 2. instruis, instruct thou. instruisez, instruct yc. 
 
 3. qu'il instru\se,/e him instruct, qu'ils instruiseut, let t/tem, o. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 9-1 
 
 Al] verbs which end in wire, in the infinitive mood, are re- 
 gular and conjugated on instruire; except luire, to shine; 
 "eluire, to glitter; and nuire, to hurt; which make, in the 
 participle, lui, relui, and nui ; their other tenses are regular. 
 
 Eleventh Conjugation. Vendre. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, vend re, to sell. 
 
 Gerund, vendant, selling. 
 
 Participle, vendu, sold. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Je vends, 
 tu vends, 
 il vend, 
 
 Singular. 
 I sell, 
 thou sellest. 
 he sells. 
 
 Plural. 
 Nous vendons, we sell. 
 vous vendez, you sell. 
 ils vendent, they sell. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je vendois, / was selling. Nous vendions,20e were selling 
 tu vendois, thou wast selling.vous vendiez, you w&re selling 
 il vendoit, he was selling, ils vendoient, they were selling 
 <i* &-> 
 
 PRETERITE, 
 
 Je vendis, Isold. Nous vendimes, we sold. 
 
 tu vendis, thousoldest. vous vendites, y&u sold. 
 il vend it, he sold. ils vendirent, they sold. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je vendrai, / shall sell. Nous vendrons, we shall sell. 
 tu vendras, thou shalt sell, vous veodrez, you shall sell. 
 il veudra, he shall sell. ils vendront, they shall sell. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je vendrois, I would sell. Nous vendrions,^e would sell. 
 tu vendrois, thou wouldest sell.vous vendriez, you would sell. 
 il vendroit, he would sell. ils vend roient, they would sell. 
 
92 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 j 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 
 Je vcnde, I may sell. Nous vendions, we may sell. 
 
 tu vendes, tkou mayest sell, vous vendiez, you may sell. 
 
 il vende he may sell. ils veudent, they may sell. 
 
 .: h 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je vendisse, / might sell. Nous vendissions,u>e might sell. 
 tu vendisses, thournighteSt sell.vous vendissiez, you might sell. 
 il vendii^, he might sell, iis veiKiissent, they might cell. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Vendons, let us sell. 
 
 2. vends, sell thou. vendez, sell ye. 
 
 3. qu'il vende, let him sell, qu'ils vendeut, let them sell. 
 
 N. B. All verbs ending in andre, endre, erdre, ondre, or 
 ordre, are regular, and conjugated onvendre, except pren- 
 dre, to take, and its compounds, which are irregular. 
 
 Twelfth Conjugation. Ecrire. 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, crire, to write. 
 
 Gerund, 6crivant, writing. 
 
 Participle, esrit, written. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 .Singular. Plural. 
 
 J'ecris, I write. Nous ecrivons, we write. 
 
 tu 6cris, thou writest. vous ecrivez, you write. 
 
 il ecrit, he writes, ils 6crivent, they write. 
 
J'ecrivois, 
 tu ecrivois, 
 il ecrivoit, 
 
 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 I was 
 thouwast 
 
 he was 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 93 
 
 J'ecrivis, 1 wrote. Nous 6crivimes, we wrote. 
 
 tuecrivis, thouwrotest. vous ecrivites, you wrote. 
 JI ecrivit, he wrote. i!s jecrivirent, they wrote, 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 J'ecrirai, / shall write. Nous ecrirons, we shall write 
 
 tu ecriras, thou shalt write, vous ecrirez, you shall write. 
 
 *1 ecrira, he shall write. ils criront, they shall write. 
 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 J'eorirois, I would write. Nous ecririons, we would write. 
 tit ecrirois, thouwouldest, YOUS ecririez, you ivould write. 
 i\ ecriroit, he would write, ils ecriroient, they would write. 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Que That 
 J'ecrive, I may write. 
 tu ecrives, thou mayest write, 
 il ecrive, he may write. 
 
 Nous ecrivions, 
 vous ecriviez, 
 ils crivent, 
 
 we may write. 
 
 you may write, 
 they may write. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 J'ecrivisse, I might write, Nous Remissions, we might. 
 
 tu ecrivisses^Aow mightest write, vous ^crivissiez, you might. 
 il ecrivit he might write, ils 6crivissent, they might. 
 
 1 * i > 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Ecrivons, let us write. 
 
 t. ccns, write thou. ecrive z, write ye. 
 
 3. qu'il ecrive, let him write, qu'ils ecriveitf, It t them write. 
 
94f REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 All the verbs which end in crire, are regular, and con- 
 jugated like ecrire. 
 
 SECTION THE FIFTH. 
 
 Conjugation of a reflected verb. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present tense, se lever, to rise. 
 
 Gerund, se levant, rising. 
 
 Participle, lev, risen. 
 
 Compound of the present, s'6tre Iev6, to have risen. 
 
 Compound of the gerund, s'6tant Iev6, having risen. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Je me lve, / rise. Nous nous levons, we rise. 
 
 tu te leves, thou risest. vous vous levez, you rise. 
 
 il se l&ve, he rises. ils se levant, they rise. 
 
 JjtSLtf"^ ' '"^Ck 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Je me levois, 7 was ") tJoNous naus levions, we were C &i 
 tu te levois, thou wast >-| vous vous leviez, you were 3 
 il se levoit, he was J ' ^s se levoiept, t hey were ( ' 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je me levai, / rose. Nous nous levmes, we rose. 
 
 tu te levas, thou didst me.vous vous levates, you rose. 
 il se leva, he rose. ils se leverent, thty rose. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Je me leverai, 7 shall rise. Nous nous leverons,0 shall rite. 
 tu te leveras, thou shalt me.vous vous leverez, you shall rise. 
 il se ievera, ke shall rise, ils se leveront, they shall rise. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 CONDITIONAL. 
 
 ; 
 5e me leverois, 7 would rise. Nous nous \everions,wewould. 
 
 tu te leverois, thou wouldest rise, vous vous leveriez, you would. 
 i\ se leveroit, he would rise, ils se leveroient, they would. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. 
 
 JTe me suis leve*, I have risen. Nous nous sommes levels, we, &c. 
 
 tu t'es leve*, thou hast. vous vous tes leves, you have. 
 
 'A s'est Iev6, he has risen, ils se sont levds, they have risen. 
 
 clle s'est leve'e she has risen, elleslse sont levees, they have, &c. 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE IMPERFECT. 
 
 Jc m'e"tois leve", I had risen. Nous nous Olsons leve"s, we had. 
 tu t'tois lev^, thouhadst. vous vous tfez Iev6s, you had. 
 il s'Stoit Iev6, he had risen, ils s'etoieut leves, they had, &c . 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE PRETERITE. 
 
 Je me fus leve", 1 had risen. Nous nous fumes leves, we had. 
 tu te fus leve*, thou hadst risen, vous vous fStes ievc's, you had. 
 il se fut leve*, he had risen, ils se fureut leves,/Aey had, &c. 
 
 COMPQUND OF THE FUTURE. 
 
 Je me serai Iev6, I shall have. Noas nous serous levels, wt shall. - 
 141 tu seras Iev6, thou thalt. vous vous serez Iev6s, you shall. 
 3Te sera lev, he thall hate, ils se seront leve*s, they shall. 
 
 COMPOUND OP THE CONDITIONAL. 
 
 Je me serois leve", I should, &c. Nous nous serious levds, ?,&<:. 
 tu'te serois Iev6, thou shouldcst. vous vous seriea lev^s, you, c. 
 il se seroit leve*, he should, &c, ils se seroieni levds, 
 
96 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. ' 
 
 Que 4 That 
 
 Je me l&ve, / may rise. Nous nous levions, we may rise. 
 tu te l&ves, thou mayest me. vous vous leviez, you may rise. 
 il se leve, he may rise. ils se levent, they may rise. 
 
 PRETERITE. 
 
 Je me levasse, I might rise. Nou nous levassions, we might. 
 tu te levasses, thou mightest. vous vous levassiez, you might. 
 il se levt, he might rise, ils se levassent,to/ might rise. 
 
 COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT 
 
 Je me sois leve, I may, &c. Nous nous soydiis le v, we ,&c . 
 tu te sois lev, thou mayest. vous vous soyez leves, you,&.c. 
 H se soit Iev6, he may, &c. ils se soient Iev6s, 
 
 COMPOUND OF THE PRETERITE. 
 
 Je me fusse leve, Imight,&c. Nous nous fussions leves,tt'e,&e. 
 tu te fusse leve, thou, &c, vous vous fussiez leves,, ; 
 il se fut Iev6, he might, &c.i\s se fussent Iev6s, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Levons-nous, let us rise. 
 
 2. l^ve-toi, rise thou. levez-Vous, rise you. 
 
 3. qu'il se leve, let him rise, qu'ils se. levent, let them rise. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1. All reflected verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary 
 frc in French, and to have in English, in their compound 
 tenses. 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 2. They are also conjugated with two pronouns relative 
 to the same object; je me is used for the first person of the 
 singular number ; tu te for the second ; il or ellese, for the 
 third; nous nous, for the first of the plural number, vous 
 vous, for the second ; Us or dies se, for the third, as before. 
 
 3. Most passive verbs, which have an inanimate object 
 for their nominative case, are reflected in French ; as, les 
 mauvaises nouvelles se r6pandent plus promptement que les 
 bonnes, bad news are sooner spread about than good. 
 
 4. The verbs which are followed in English by the pro- 
 nouns myself, thyself, himself, &c. answer exactly to the 
 French reflected. The following have no pronouns in 
 English, and, as they cannot be easily distinguished, must 
 be learnt by heart : ' 
 
 VERBS REFLECTED IN FRENCH. 
 
 s'abonner, to compound. 
 s'abstenir, to abstain. 
 s'accorder, to agree. 
 s'accouder, to lean upon. 
 s'asseoir, to sit down. 
 s'attacher, to stick. 
 se baigner, to bathe. 
 se baisser, to stoop. 
 se cantonner, to canton. 
 se coucher, to go to bed. 
 se debattre, to struggle. 
 se debofder, to flow over. 
 se dedire, to retract. 
 se defier, to distrust. 
 se dpcher, to make haste. 
 se demettre, to resign. 
 se desister, to desist. 
 s'elancer, to leap upon. 
 s'en aller, to go away. 
 s'emparer, to seize upon. 
 s'empresser, to be eager. 
 s'endormir, to fall asleep. 
 s'enfuir, to run away. 
 s'enhardir, to grow bold. 
 
 s'enraciner, to take root. 
 s'enrhunier, to catch cold. 
 s'enrichir, to grow rich. 
 s'entretenir, to discourse with. 
 s'envoler, to flyaway. 
 s'epanouir, to blow. 
 s'esquiver, to steal away. 
 s'etonner, to wonder. 
 s'6vanouir, to faint away. 
 s'evaporer, to evaporate. 
 s'evertuer, to strive. 
 se farder, to paint. 
 se fier, to trust. 
 se figurer, to fancy. 
 se fl^trir, to fade away. 
 se fond re, to melt. 
 se formaliser, to find fault. 
 se glisser, to creep in. 
 se hater, to make haste. 
 s'imaginer, to fancy. 
 s'ingrer, to intermeddle. 
 s'insinuer, to steal in. 
 se lever, to rise. 
 se liqufier, to liquefy. 
 
98 REGULAR CONJUGATIONS 
 
 se marier, to marry. se repentir, to repent. 
 
 se mefier, to distrust. se reposer, to rest. 
 
 se meprendre, to mistake. s* ressouvenir, to remember. 
 
 se moquer, to laugh at. se revolter, to rebel. 
 
 se mutiner, to mutiny. se saisir, to seize upon. 
 
 se piquer, to pretend to. se soumettre, to submit. 
 
 se plaindre, to complain. se souvenir, remember. 
 
 se promener, ww/A:. se vanter, to boast. 
 
 se rejouir, to rejoice. 
 
 SECTION THE SIXTH. 
 
 Several manners of conjugating a verb. 
 
 1. WITH NEGATION. Infinitive present: Ne pas 
 donner, not to give; ne donnant pas y not giving. 
 
 Jnd. pres. Je ne donnepas, I do not give; tu ne donnes 
 pas, thou dost not give; il ne donne pas, he does not give ; 
 nous ne donnons pas, we do not give ; vous ne donnez pas, 
 you do not give ; Us ne donnent pas, they do not give : and 
 so on for all the other tenses of the indicative and subjunc- 
 tive moods. 
 
 Compound tenses : Je n'ai pas donne, I have not given ; 
 tu nas pas donnt, thou hast not given ; il rfa pas donne, 
 fie has not given, &c. and so on for all compound tenses 
 and persons. 
 
 2. WITH INTERROGATION. Imperfect of the 
 indicative: Punissois-je t did I punish? punissois-tu, didst 
 thou punish 1 punissoit-il, did he punish ? puniss ions-nous, 
 did we punish? punissiez-vous, did you punish? punis- 
 soient-ils, did they punish ? 
 
 Compound tenses : Ai-je puni, have I punished? as-tu 
 puni, hast thou punished ? a-t-il puni, has he punished ? 
 and so on for other tenses. 
 
 3. WITH NEGATION AND INTERROGATION. 
 Preterite of the indicative: Ne marchai-je pas, did I not 
 walk? ne marchas-tupas, didst thou not walk? ne marcha- 
 t-il pas, did he not walk ? ne marchames^nous pas f did we 
 
REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 9 
 
 not walk ? ne marchdtes-vous pas, did you not walk ? ne 
 marchdrent-ils pas, did they not walk? 
 
 Compound tenses : N'ai-je pas marche, have I not walk- 
 ed ? n'as-tupas marche, hast thou not walked ? n'a-t-il pas 
 marche, has he not walked 1 and so on for all other persons. 
 
 4. WITH PRONOUNS. Future: Je lej vendrai, I 
 will sell them ; tu les vendras, thou wilt sell them ; il les 
 vendra, he will sell them ; nous les vendrons, we will sell 
 them; vous les vendrez, you will sell them ; Us les vendront, 
 they will sell them. 
 
 Compound tenses : Je les ai vendus, I have sold them ; 
 tu les as vendus, thou hast sold them; Hies a vendu, he has 
 sold them, &e. 
 
 5. WITH NEGATION AND PRONOUNS. Con- 
 ditional : Je ne le connoitrois pas, I should not know him ; 
 tu ne le connoitrois pas , thou shouldest not know him ; il ne 
 le connoitroil pas, he should not know him ; nous ne le con- 
 noitrions pas, we should not know him ; vous ne le con- 
 nottriez pas, yo should not know him ; Us ne le connoi- 
 troient pas, they should not knew him. 
 
 Compound tenses : Je ne I'aipas connu, I have not known 
 him ; tu ne Vaspas connu, thou hast not known him ; il ne 
 Va pas connu, he has not known him, &c. 
 
 6. WITH INTERROGATION AND PRONOUNS. 
 Future indicative: Les verrai-je, shall I see them? les ver- 
 ras-tu, shalt thou see them ? les verra-t-il, shall he see them ? 
 les verrons-nous, shall we see them ? les verrez-vous, shall 
 you see them ? les verront-ils, shall they see them ? 
 
 Compound tenses : Les ai-je vus, have I seen them ? les 
 as-tu vus, has thou seen them ? les a-t-il vus, has he seen 
 them ? 
 
 This method of conjugating verbs is very useful for.uiir 
 derstanding the rules of the syntax ; therefore I recommend 
 it particularly to children. 
 
100 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 SECTION THE SEVENTH. 
 
 Conjugation of all the irregular verbs. 
 I. ABSOUDRE. To absolve*. 
 
 Inf. Absoudre, to absolve. Ger. absolvant, absolving 
 Part, absous, absolved. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 1 . 2 3 
 
 Pres. J f absou -s, s, t; absolv -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. J 'absolv -ois, ois, oit; absolv -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Fut. J'absoud -rai, ras, ra ; absoud -rons, rez, rout. 
 
 Cond. J'absoud -rois, rois, roit; absoud -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. J'absolv -e es, e ; absolv -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Jmper. abso us, Ive; absolv -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Abattre, to pull down, on baltre 5. 
 
 Abstraire, to abstract, on traire 35. 
 
 Acrourir, to run to, on courir 11. 
 
 Accueillir, to welcome, on cueillir 13. 
 
 IT. AcguERiR, to acquire. 
 
 Inf. Acquerir, to acquire. Ger. acquerant, acquiring. 
 Part, acquis, acquired. 
 
 Pres. J'acquie -rs, rs, rt ; acqu -erons, erez, ierent. 
 
 Imp, J'acqu6r -ois, ois, oit; acquer -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Ptet. J'acqu -is is, it; acqu -imes, ites, irent. 
 
 rut. J'acquer -rai, ras, ra; acquer -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. J'acquer -rois, rois, roit; acquer -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 * The pupil must learn to repeat the English words which answer 
 to every tense and person of the French verbs : this will be an easy 
 task, it he remembers that to is the mark of the present of theintim- 
 tive , ws with the -erund, the mark of the imperfect of the indica- 
 tive ; shall or will of the future ; would, could, or should, of the condi- 
 tional ; may, of the present of the subjunctive; might of the preterite ; 
 said id of the imperative mood. The figures 1, 2, 3, denote- the first, 
 iecond, and third persons of the singular and plural. 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 101 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 123 
 
 & P. J'acquier-e, es, e; acqu -erions, eriez/ierent. 
 
 Pret. J'acqu -isse, isses,it ; acqu -issons, issiez, issent. 
 
 Imper. acqui " -ers, ere; acqu -erens, rez, ierent. 
 
 Admettre, to admit, on mettre 1$. 
 
 III. ALLER, to go. 
 Inf. Aller, to go. Ger. allant. going. Part, alle, gone. 
 
 Prcs. Je 
 
 vais, 
 
 vas, 
 
 va; 
 
 
 allons, 
 
 allez, 
 
 vont. 
 
 
 Imp. J'all 
 
 -ois, 
 
 oir, 
 
 oit; 
 
 all 
 
 -ions 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 
 Pret. J'all 
 
 -ai, 
 
 as, 
 
 a ; 
 
 all -&mes, 
 
 ates, 
 
 erent. 
 
 
 Fut. J'i 
 
 -rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra; 
 
 i 
 
 -rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 
 Cond.J'i 
 
 -rois, 
 
 rois, 
 
 roit ; 
 
 i 
 
 -rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 reient 
 
 
 S. P. J'aiil 
 
 -e 
 
 es 
 
 e; 
 
 all 
 
 -ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 aillent 
 
 . 
 
 Pret. J'all 
 
 -asse, 
 
 asses, 
 
 at; 
 
 all 
 
 -assions, 
 
 assiez, 
 
 assent, 
 
 
 Imper. 
 
 
 va, 
 
 aille; 
 
 
 allons, 
 
 allez, 
 
 ail lent 
 
 
 Apprendre, to learn, on prendre 27. 
 Assaillir*, to assault, on cueillir 13 
 
 IV. S' ASS EOT R, to sit down. 
 
 Inf. S'asseoir, to sit down. Ger. s'assyant, sitting. 
 Part, assis, sat. 
 
 Pres.Je m'ass -ieds, ieds, ied ; asse ^yons, yez, yent. 
 
 Imp. Je m'assey -ois, ois, oit ; assey-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 PretJe m'ass -is, is, it ; ass -lines, ites, irent. 
 
 Fiit. Je m'assie -rait, ras, ra ; assie -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 -Cond.Je m'assie -roisf,rois, roit ; assi^ -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 .S. P. Je m'assey-e, es, e ; asse -yions, yiez, yent. 
 Pret.Je m'ass -isse, isses,lt; ass -issions,issiez,issent. 
 
 Imper. ass ieds, eye ; asse -yons, yez, yent, 
 
 Attraire, to attract, on t rai re 35. 
 
 * Assaillir makes in the future and conditional j'assttilliraii f 
 
 ois. 
 
 t We also say, jt m'asseyeraijjem'asteyercis. 
 
102 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 V. BATTRE to beat. 
 
 Inf. Battre, to beat. Ger. Battant, beating. Part. 
 battu, beaten. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 123 
 
 Pres. Je ba -ts ts, t ; bait 
 
 Imp. Je batt -ois, ois, oil ; batt 
 
 Pret. Je batt -is, is, it ; batt 
 
 Fut. Je batt -rai, ras, ra ; batt 
 
 Cond. Je batt -rois, rois, roit ; batt 
 
 S. P. Je batt -e, es, e ; batt 
 
 Pret . Je batt -isse, isses, It ; batt 
 
 Imper. ba -ts, tte; batt 
 
 VI. Bo I RE, to drink. 
 
 Inf. Boire, to drink. Ger. buvant, drinking. Part. 
 bu, drank. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 -ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 -ions, 
 -lines, 
 
 iez, 
 ites, 
 
 oient. 
 irent. 
 
 -rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 -rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient, 
 
 -ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 -issions, 
 
 issiez, 
 
 issent. 
 
 -ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Pres. Je boi -s s, t; buv 
 
 Imp. Je buv -ois, ois, oit ; buv 
 
 Pret. Je b -us, us, ut ; b 
 
 Fut. Je boi -rai, ras, ra; boi 
 
 Cond. Je boi -rois, rois, roit ; boi 
 
 S. P. Je boiv-e, es, e ; buv 
 
 Pret. Je b 
 
 Imper. 
 
 -usse, usses, tit ; b 
 bois,boive ; 
 
 -ons, 
 
 -ions, 
 
 -times, 
 
 -rons, 
 
 -rions, 
 
 -ions 
 
 -usions, 
 
 buvons, 
 
 ez, boivent. 
 iez, oient. 
 tites, urent. 
 rez, ront. 
 riez, oient. 
 iez, boivent. 
 ussiez, ussent. 
 buvez, boivent. 
 
 VII. BOUILLIR, to boil. 
 
 Inf. Bouiilir, to boil. Ger. bouillant, boiling. Part. 
 bouilli, boiled. 
 
 Pres. Je bou -s, s, t ; bouill -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je bouill -ois, ois, oit ; bouill -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je bouill -is, is, it ; bouill -imes, ites, irent. 
 
 Fut. Je bouilli -rai, ras, ra; bouilli -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je bouilli -rois, rois,roit ; bouilli -rions, riez, roient, 
 
 S. P. Je bouill -e, es, e; bouill -ions, iez, ent. 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 103 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 1 2 -, 3 
 
 Pret. Jebouill -isse, isses, it; bouill -issions, issiez, issent. 
 Imper. bous, bouille ; bouill -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Circoncire*, to circumcise, on confire 9. 
 
 Combattre, to fight, on battre 5. 
 
 Comprendre, to undwstand, on prendre 27. 
 
 Commettre, to commit, on mettre 19. 
 
 Compromettrc, to expose, on mettre 19 
 
 VIII. CONCLURE, to conclude. 
 
 hij. Gonclure, to conclude. Ger. concluant, concluding. 
 Part, conclu, concluded. 
 
 Pres. Je concl -us, us, ut ; conclu-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je conclu-ois, ois, oit ; concl u-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je concl -us, us, ut; concl -umes, tites, urent. 
 
 Put. Je conclu-rai, ras, ra; conclu-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je conclu-rois, rois, roit ;conclu-rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je conclu-e, es, e; conclu-ions, iez, ent. 
 Pret. Je concl -usse,usses, At ; concl -ussions,ussiez,ussent. 
 
 Imper. concl -us, ue ; conclu-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Concurir, to concur, on courir 1 1 . 
 
 IX. CONFIRE, to pickle. 
 
 Inf. Confire, to pickle. Ger. confisant, pickling. 
 Part, confit, pickled. 
 
 Pres. Jeconf -is, is, it; confis -ons, ez, ent* 
 
 Imp. Je confis -ois, ois, oit ; confis -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je conf -is, is, it ; conf -Imes, ites, went. 
 
 Put. Jeconfi -rai, ras, ra; confi -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cone?. Je confi -rois, rois, roit ; confi -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S.-P. Je confis -e, es, e ; 
 Pret. Je conf -isse, isses,it ; 
 
 confis -ions, iez, ent. 
 conf -issions, issier, issent. 
 
 * But the participle is circoncu. 
 
104 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 23 1 2 3 
 conf -is, ise; confis -ons, ez., ent. 
 
 Conquerir, to conquer, on acquerir 2 
 
 Contredire *, 
 
 to contradict, 
 
 on dire 14. 
 
 Contrefaire, 
 
 to mimic, 
 
 on faire \6. 
 
 Convaincre, 
 
 to convince, 
 
 on vaincre 36'. 
 
 Corrompre, 
 
 to corrupt, 
 
 on rompre 32. 
 
 X. COUDRE, to sew. 
 
 Inf. Coudre, to sew. Ger. cousant, sewing. Part. 
 cousu, sewed. 
 
 ^res. Je con -ds, ds, d ; cous -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 jmp. Je cous -ois, ois, oit ; cous -ions, iez, oienr, 
 
 Pretf. Je cous -is, is, it; cous -lines, ites, irent. 
 
 Fat. Je coud -rai, ras, ra ; coud -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je coud -rois, rois, roit; coud -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je cous -e, es, e ; cous -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pret . Je cous -isse, isses, tl ; cous -issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 Imper. cou s, se; cous -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 XT. COURIR, to run. 
 
 Inf. Courir, to run. Ger. courant, running. Part. 
 couru, run. 
 
 Pres. Je cou -rs, rs, rt ; cour -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je cour -ois, ois, oit ; cour -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je cour -us, us, ut; cour -times, fttes, urent. 
 
 Put. Je cour -rai, ras, ra ; cour -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je cour -rois, rois, roit ; cour -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je cour -e, es, e ; cour -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pret. Je cour -usse, usses, At; cour -ussions, ussiez, ussent. 
 
 Imper. cour -s, e; cour -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 * But it makes in the second person plural of the indicative and of 
 ihe imperative contredisez. 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 105 
 
 XII. CROIRE, to believe. 
 
 Inf. Croire, to believe. Ger. croyant, believing. 
 cru, believed. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Pres. Je croi 
 
 -s, 
 
 s, 
 
 t; 
 
 cro 
 
 -yons, 
 
 yez, 
 
 ient, 
 
 Imp. Jecroy 
 
 -ois, 
 
 ois 
 
 oil; 
 
 croy -ions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Pret. Je cr 
 
 -us, 
 
 us, 
 
 ut; 
 
 ctf 
 
 -times, 
 
 files, 
 
 urent. 
 
 Fut . Je croi 
 
 -rai, 
 
 ras, 
 
 ra; 
 
 croi 
 
 -rons 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Cond.Je croi 
 
 -rois, 
 
 rois, 
 
 roit; 
 
 croi 
 
 -rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 S. P. Je croi 
 
 -_-_-. T- _ 
 
 -e 
 
 es, 
 
 e; 
 
 -A A 
 
 croi 
 
 -yions, 
 
 y iez > 
 
 ient. 
 
 Pret. Jeer -usse, usses,ftt; cr -ussions, ussiez, ussent, 
 Imper. croi -s, e ; cro -yons, yez, ient. 
 
 XIII. CUEILLIR, to gather. 
 
 Inf. Cueillir, to gather. Ger. cueillant, gathering. 
 Part, cueilli, gathered. 
 
 Prts. Je cueill -e, es, e; 
 
 Imp. Je cueill -ois, ois, oit; 
 
 Pret . Je cueill -is, is, it ; 
 
 Fut. Je oueille-rai, ras, ra; 
 
 Cond. Je cueille-rois, rois, oit ; 
 
 S. P. Je cueill -e, es, e; 
 Pret. Je cueill -isse, isses,it; 
 
 Imper. cueill -e e; 
 
 cueill -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 cueill -ions, iez, oient, 
 
 cueill -imes, ites, irent. 
 
 cueiile-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 cueille -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 cueill -ions, iez, ent. 
 cueill -issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 cueill -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Decoudre, 
 
 to unseiv. 
 
 on coudre, 
 
 10. 
 
 Dedire *, 
 
 to unsay. 
 
 on dire, 
 
 14. 
 
 Defaire, 
 
 to undo. 
 
 on faire, 
 
 16'. 
 
 Demettre, 
 
 to put out. 
 
 on mettre, 
 
 1.9. 
 
 Se Demettre, 
 
 to resign. 
 
 on mettre, 
 
 19- 
 
 Se Deprendre, 
 
 to loose. 
 
 on prendre, 
 
 27. 
 
 Desapprendre, 
 Devetir 
 
 to unlearn, 
 to divest. 
 
 on prendre, 
 on revetir, 
 
 27. 
 30. 
 
 * Sfe the observation upon contredire. 
 
106 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS, 
 
 XIV. DIRE, to say. 
 Inf. Dire, to say. Ger. disant, saying. Part, dit, said. 
 
 Singular. 
 1 2 
 
 Pres. Je d -is, is, 
 Imp. Je dis -ois, ois, 
 Pret. Je d -is, is, 
 Put. Je di -rai, ras, 
 Co/zdf.Jedi -rois, rois, 
 S. P. Je dis -e, es, 
 Pret. Je d -isse, isses, 
 Imper. d -is, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 3 123 
 
 it; di -sons, tes, sent, 
 
 oit; dis -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 it; d -imes, ' ites, irent. 
 
 ra ; di -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 roit; di -rions, riez, roierit. 
 
 e; dis -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 it ; d -issions, issiez, issent. 
 ise; -disons, dites, disent. 
 
 Discourir, 
 
 Dissoudre, 
 
 Distraire, 
 
 S'battre*, 
 
 Ebouillir, 
 
 Elire, 
 
 Emoudre, 
 
 Emouvoir, 
 
 Encourir, 
 
 S'enfuir, 
 
 S'enquerir, 
 
 S'ensuivre, 
 
 S'entremettre, 
 
 Entreprendre, 
 
 Entrevoir, 
 
 to discourse, 
 
 to dissolve, 
 
 to distract, 
 
 to rejoice, 
 
 to boil down, 
 
 to elect, 
 
 to grind, (knives.) 
 
 to stir up, 
 
 to incur, 
 
 to run away, 
 
 to inquire, 
 
 to follow, 
 
 to interpose, 
 
 to undertake, 
 
 to have a glimpse, 
 
 on courir, 11. 
 on absoudre, 1. 
 on traire, 35. 
 on battre, 5. 
 on bouillir, 7. 
 on lire, 18. 
 on nioudre, 20. 
 on mouvoir, 22. 
 on courir, 11. 
 on fuir, 17. 
 on acqurir, 2. 
 on suivre, 34. 
 ow mettre, 19. 
 on prendre, 27- 
 on voir, 39. 
 
 XV. ENVOYER, to send. 
 
 Inf. Envoyer, to send. Ger. envoy ant, sending. Part. 
 envoy6, sent. 
 
 Pres. J'envoi -e, es, e ; envo -yons, yez, ient. 
 Imp. J'envoy -ois, ois, oit ; envoy -ions, iez, oient; 
 
 * An old expression almost out of use. 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 Singular 
 
 1 
 
 Pret. J'envoy-ai, 
 Fut. J'enver -rai, 
 Cond. J 'enver, -rois, 
 S. P. J'envoi -e, 
 Pret. J'envoy-asse, 
 Imper. envoi 
 
 Equivaloir, 
 
 Exclure, 
 
 Extraire, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 23 123 
 
 as, a ; envoy -ames, tes, erent. 
 ras, ra; enver -rons, rez, rent, 
 rois, roit; enver -rions, riez, roient. 
 es, e; envo -yitns, yiez, ient. 
 asses, t ; envoy -assions,assiez, assent, 
 -e, e; envo -yons, yez, ient. 
 
 to be equal, on valoir 37. 
 
 to exclude, on conclure 8. 
 
 to extract, on traire 35. 
 
 XVI. FAIRE, to do. 
 Inf. Faire, to do. Ger. faisant, doing. Part, fait, done. 
 
 Pres. Je fa -is, is, it ; fai, -sons, 
 
 Imp. Je fais, -ois, ois, oit ; fais, -ions, 
 
 Pret. Je f -is, is, it ; f -imes, 
 
 Fut . Je fe -rai, ras, ra ; fe -rons, 
 
 Cond. Je fe -rois, rois, roit ; fe -rions, 
 
 S. P. Je f -asse, asses, asse ; f -assions, assiez,assent. 
 
 Pret. Je f -isse, isses, it; f -issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 -ais, asse; f 
 
 tes, font, 
 
 iez, oient. 
 
 ites, irent. 
 
 rez, rent, 
 
 riez, roient. 
 
 Imper. f 
 
 -aisons, aites, assent. 
 
 XVII. FUIR, to shun. 
 
 Inf. Fuir, to shun. Ger. fuyant, shunning. Part, fui, 
 shunned. 
 
 it ; fu -yons, 
 
 oit ; fuy -ions, 
 
 it ; ftT -imes, 
 
 ra; fui -rons, 
 
 Pres. Je fu -is, is, 
 
 Imp. Je fuy -ois, ois, 
 
 'Pret. Je fu -is, is, 
 
 Fut. Je fui -rai, ras, 
 
 Cond. Je fui -rois, rois, roit ; fui -rions, 
 
 5. P. Je fui [-e, es, e ; 
 
 Pret. Je fu -isse, isses, it ; 
 
 fniper. fu is, ie; fu -yons, 
 
 Interdire*, to forbid, on dire, 14. 
 
 Interrompre, to interrupt, on rompre, 32. 
 * See the observation upon coniredirt. 
 
 yez, ient. 
 
 iez, oient. 
 
 ites, irent. 
 
 rez, ront. ' 
 
 riez, roient. 
 
 fu -yioiis, yiez, ient. 
 
 fu -issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 yez, ient. 
 
108 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 XVIII. LIRE, to read. 
 Inf. Lire, to read. Ger. lisa-nt, reading. Part, lu, read. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 123 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 Pres. Je 1 -is, is, it ; lis 
 
 -ons, ez, 'it. 
 
 Imp. Je lis -ois, ois, oit ; lis 
 
 -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je 1 us, us, ut; 1 
 
 -times, tales, urent. 
 
 Fut. Je li -rai, ras ra ; li 
 
 -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je li -rois, rois, roit ; li 
 
 -rions, riez, rpient. 
 
 ce^ S. P. Je lis -e, es, e ; lis 
 
 -ions, iez, ^ntt 
 
 Pres. Je 1 -usse,usses,tit; 1 
 
 -ussions, ussiez, usssent. 
 
 Imper. 1 ,-is, 'ise; lis 
 
 / 
 -ons, fiiez, -lent. 
 
 y*< 
 
 /""* /i\s 
 
 Maudire*, to curse, 
 
 on dire 14. 
 
 M6diret, to slander, 
 
 on dire 1 4. 
 
 Se meprendre, to mistake, 
 
 on prendre '27- 
 
 XIX. METTRE, to put. 
 Inf. Meltre, to put. Ger. mettant, putting. Part, mis, put. 
 
 Pres. Je me -ts, ts, 
 /wj^. Jemett-ois, ois, 
 Pret. Je m -is, is, 
 Fut. Jemett-rai, ras, 
 Cond. Je mett -rois, rois, roit 
 -S. P. Je mett -e, es, e; 
 Pret. Je m -isse, isses, it ; 
 
 t;^ melt -ons, ez, ewT 
 
 oif ; melt -ions, iez, oient, 
 
 it; m -Imes, ites, irent. 
 
 ra; mett -rons, rez, rout. 
 
 mett -rions, riez, rojent. 
 
 mett -ions, iez, ~ 
 
 m -issions, issiez, 
 
 -ts, tte; mett -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 XX. MOUDRE, to grind. 
 Inf. Moudre, to grind. Ger. moulant, grinding. Part. 
 
 Pres. Je mou. -ds, 
 
 moulu, ground. 
 ds, d; moul -ons, 
 
 ez, ent. 
 
 * Maudire makes in the Gerund, maudissant ; in the plural of the 
 id4calive present, nous mandissong. vous maudissez, Us maudissent ; in 
 tln^ Iinperlect,.;V matidusoif, in the Pres. and Pret. Subj. je maudissc ; 
 and in the Imperative qtfil maudtsse, maudissons, maudissez, ' 
 wcmdissent, 
 
 ^ See the observation upon contredire. 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 109 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1 2 
 
 Imp. Jemoul -ois, ois, 
 
 Pret. Je moul -us, us, 
 
 Fut. Jemoud-rai, ras, 
 
 3 
 oit; 
 
 Plural. 
 1 2 
 moul -ions, iez, 
 
 ut; moul -Ames, tites, 
 ra; moud-rons, rez, 
 
 Cond. Je moud -rojs, rois, roit ; moud -rions," riez, 
 . P. Je moul -e, es, e ; moul -ions, iez, 
 
 3 
 
 oient. 
 
 urent. 
 
 ront. 
 
 roient. 
 
 ent. 
 
 Pret. Jemoul -usse,usses,ut; moul -ussions,ussiez,ussent. 
 Imper. mou -ds, le; nvoul -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 XXL MOURIR, to die. 
 
 Inf. Mourir, to die. Ger. mourant, dying. Part. 
 
 mort, dead. 
 
 Pres. Je meu -rs, rs, rt ; mour 
 
 Imp. Je mour -ois, ois, oit ; mour 
 
 Pret . Je raur -us, ut, ut ; mour 
 
 Fut. Jemour-rai, ras, ra; mour 
 
 Cond. Je mour -rois, rois, roit ; mour 
 
 5. P. Je meur -e, es, e ; mour 
 Pret . Je mour -usse, usses,ut ; mour 
 
 Imper. meur -s, e; mour 
 
 ons, ez, meurent. 
 
 -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 -times, utes, urent. 
 
 -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 rions, riez, roient. 
 
 -ions, iez, meurent* 
 -ussions,ussiez,ussent. 
 
 -ons, ez, meurent. 
 
 XXII. MOUVOIR, to move. 
 
 Inf. Mouvoir, to move. Ger. mouvant, moving. Part. 
 mu, moved.- 
 
 Pres. Je m -eus, eus, eut ; mouv -ons, ez, meuvent. 
 
 Imp. Je mouv -ois, ois, oit ; mouv -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je m -us, us, ut ; m -times, utes, urent. 
 
 Fut. Je mouv -rai, ras, ra ; mouv -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 CondJe mouv -rois, rois, roit ; mouv -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je meuv -e, es, e ; mouv -ions, iez, meuvent. 
 
 Pret. Jem -usse,usses,tit ; muss -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Imper. rn -eus, meuve; mouv -ons, ez, meuvent. 
 
 XXIII. NAITRE, to be lorn. 
 
 Inf. Naitre, to be born. Ger. naissant, being born. 
 Part, ne, born. 
 
 Pres, Jenai s, s, t, naiss -ons, ez, ent. 
 
110 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 Imp. Jfc naiss, -ois, ois, oit-; naiss -ions,' iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je naqu, -is, is, it ; naqu -imes, ites, irent. 
 
 Put . Je nait, -rai, ras, ra ; nait -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je nait, -rois, rois, oil; nait -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je naios, -e, es, e ; naiss, -ions, iez, ent. 
 Pret. Je naqu -isse, isses, it; naqu -issions,issiez, issent, 
 
 Imper. nai -s sse; naiss -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Omeitre, to omit, on mettrc 19. 
 
 XXIV. PAITRE, to graze. 
 
 /;?/. Paitre, to graze. Ger. paissant, grazing. Paft.pu, 
 grazed. 
 
 Pres. Jepai -s, s, t; paiss -ons, ez, ent. ^ 
 
 Imp. Je paiss -ois, ois, oit; paiss -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Fut.. Je pait -rai, ras, ra; pait -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 <mc?,Jepait -rois, rois, roit; pait -rions, riez, roient, 
 
 S. P. Je paiss, -e, es, e; paiss -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Imper. pai -s, sse; paiss -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Parcourir, to run over, on courir, 11. 
 PermeUre, to permit, on mettre, 19. 
 Poursuivre, to pursue, on suivre, 34. 
 
 XXV. POURVOIR, to provide. 
 
 Inj. Pourvoir, to provide. Ger. pourvoyant. 
 pourvu. 
 
 Part. 
 
 Pres. Je pourvoi -s, s, t ; 
 Imp. Je pourvoy -ois, ois oit; 
 Pret. Jepourv -us, us, ut; 
 Fut. Je pourvoi -rai, ras, ra; 
 Cond.Je pourvoi -rois, rois, roit 
 S. P. Je pourvoi -e es, e ; 
 Pret . Je pourv -usse,usses,ut ; 
 Imper. .pourvoi -s, e; 
 
 * pourvo -yons, yez, ient, 
 
 pourvoy -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 pourv -umes, utes,urent. 
 
 pourvoi -rons rez, ront. 
 ; pourvoi -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 pourvoi -yions, yiez, ient. 
 pourv -ussions,ussiez,ussentv 
 pourvo-yons* yez,. ient. 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. Ill 
 
 XXVI. PouvpiR, to be able. 
 
 " Inf. Pouvoir, to be able. Ger. pouvant. Part. pu_ 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 123 
 
 Pres. Je pen -x*, x, t ; pour -ons, ez, peuvent. 
 Imp. Je pou -vois, ois, oil ; pouv -ions, iez, oient. 
 Pret. Je p -us, us, ut ; p -urnes, files, nrent. 
 F. Je pour -rai, ras, ra ; % pour -rons, rez, rout. 
 Cond. Je pour -rois, rois, roit; pour -rions, riez, roient. 
 S. P. Je puiss -e, es, e ; puiss -ions, iez, ent. 
 Pret'rjep -usse, usses,ftt; p -ussions, ussiez,e.nt. 
 Prepare t, to foretel, on dire 14. 
 
 XXVII. PRENDRE, to take. 
 
 Inf. Prendrc, to take. Ger. prenaRt, taking. Part* 
 
 pris, taken. 
 
 Pres. Je pren -ds, ds, d ; pren -ons, ez, nent. 
 
 Imp. Je pren -ois, ois, oit; pren -ions,, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je pr -is, is, it ; pr -imes, . ites, irent. 
 
 Put. Je prend -rai, ras, ra; prend-rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je prend -rois, rois, roit ; prend -rions, riez, roient, 
 
 S. P. Je prenn -e, es, e ; pren -ions, iez, nent. 
 Pret, Je pr -is^e, isses, it; pr -issions, issiez, issem, 
 
 fmper. pren -ds, ne; pren -ons, ez, nent, 
 
 Prevaloir|, to prevail, on valoir, 37. 
 
 XXVIII. PREVOIR, to foresee. 
 
 Inf. Prevoir to foresee. Ger. pr^voyant. Part, prevu. 
 
 Pres. Je prevoi -s, s, t; prvo -yons, yez,j lent. 
 
 Imp. Je prevoy-ois, ois, oit; prevoy-ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret, Je prev -is, is, it ; prev 4mes, ites, irent. 
 
 Fut. Je prevoi -rai, ras, ra ; prvoi -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond.Je prevoi -rois, rois, roit; prevoi -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 * We say more commonly jepuis, instead of je peux. 
 
 t See the observation upon contredire. 
 
 $ But it makes in the Subj. pres.je prtvale, tit pftvoles, &c. 
 
112 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS* 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 3 
 
 S. P. Je prevoi -e, 
 
 es, e ; >; prevo 
 
 -yions, ' yiez, 
 
 icnt. 
 
 Pret. Je prev -isse, isses, it ; prev 
 
 -issions, issiez, 
 
 issent. 
 
 fmptr. prevoi 
 
 -s, e ; prevo 
 
 -yons, yez, 
 
 ient. 
 
 Promettre, 
 
 to promise. 
 
 on mettre 
 
 19. 
 
 Promouvoir, 
 
 to promote t 
 
 on mouvoir 
 
 22. 
 
 Rabattre,* 
 
 to abate, 
 
 on battre 
 
 5. 
 
 Rappreudre, 
 
 to learn again, 
 
 on prendre 
 
 27. 
 
 Se rasseoir, 
 
 to sit down again, on s'asseoir 
 
 4. 
 
 Rebattre, 
 
 to beat again, 
 
 on battre 
 
 5. 
 
 Reboire, 
 
 t& drink again, 
 
 on boire 
 
 6. 
 
 Rebouillir, 
 
 to boil again, 
 
 on bouillir 
 
 7- 
 
 Reconqu6rir, 
 
 to reconquer, 
 
 on acquerir 
 
 2, 
 
 Recoudre, 
 
 to sew again, 
 
 07i coudre 
 
 10. 
 
 Recourir, 
 
 to have recourse, 
 
 on courir 
 
 11. 
 
 Recueillir, 
 
 to gather, 
 
 on cueillir 
 
 13. 
 
 ( Rede* faire, 
 
 to undo again, 
 
 on faire 
 
 16, 
 
 Red ire, 
 
 to say again, 
 
 on dire 
 
 14. 
 
 Refaire, 
 
 to do again, 
 
 on faire 
 
 16. 
 
 Relire, 
 
 to read over, 
 
 on lire 
 
 18. 
 
 Reniettre, 
 
 to replace, 
 
 on mettre 
 
 19- 
 
 Remoudre, 
 
 to grind again, 
 
 on moudre 
 
 20 
 
 Renaitre *, 
 
 to be born again, 
 
 on naitre 
 
 23 
 
 Rentraire, 
 
 tvjine-draw, 
 
 on traire 
 
 35. 
 
 Repattre f, 
 
 tofeed, 
 
 on paitrc 
 
 24. 
 
 Renvoyer, 1 
 
 to send back, 
 
 on envoyer 
 
 15. 
 
 Reprendre, * 
 
 to take again, 
 
 on prendre 
 
 27. 
 
 Reque*rir, 
 
 to require, 
 
 on acquerir 
 
 2. 
 
 XXIX. RESQUDRE, to resolve. 
 
 Inf. Resoudre, to resolve. Ger. resolvant. Part. rSsolu. 
 
 Pres. Je r6sou -ds, ds, d ; rsolv -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 ois, oit; resolv -ions, icz, oient. 
 
 us, ut; r6sol -times, utes, urent. 
 
 ras, ra ; rsoud -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Imp. Je resolv -ois, 
 Pret. Je r6soi -us, 
 Fut . Je r6soud -rai, 
 
 * But it has no participle, and consequently no compound tenses. 
 t It makes in the Preterite of the Ind.ji reput, and mthe Pret. of 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 113 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 123 
 
 Cond. Je resoud -rois, rois, roit; rsoud -rions, riez, roient. 
 S. P. Je resolv -e, es, e; resolv -ions, iez, ent. 
 Pre.Jer6sol -usse, usses, ut ; rsol ussions,ussiez,ussent. 
 Imper. rso -uds, Ive ; resolv -OHS, ez, ent. 
 
 Retraire, to redeem, on traire 35. 
 
 Revaloir, to return like for like, on valoir 37. 
 
 XXX. REVETIR, to invest. 
 
 Inf. Revetir to invest. Ger. revetant. Part, revtu. 
 
 Pres.Je reve -ts, ts, t ; revet -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Jerevt -ois, ois, oil; revet -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pref.Jerevt -is, is, it; revet -imes, ites, irent. 
 
 Fut . Je revti -rai, ras, ra ; rev&ti -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Conrf.Je rev^ti -rois rois, roit; reveti -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je revet -e, es, e ; reve" t -ions, iez, ent. 
 Prcl. Je rev^t -isse, isses, it; revet -issions, issez, issent. 
 
 Imper. revet -s e ; revt -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Revivre, to revive, on vivre 38. 
 Revoir to see again, on vcir 39. 
 
 Inf. Rire, to 
 
 Pres.Je r 
 Imp. Je f i 
 Pret.Je r 
 Fut. Je ri 
 Cond. Je ri 
 S.P.Jeri 
 PretJe r 
 Imper. r 
 
 XXXII. ROM PR E, to break. 
 
 Inf. Rompre, to break. Ger. rompant, breaking. Part. 
 
 rompu, broken. 
 Pres. Je romp -s, s, t ; romp -ons, ez ent, 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 RTRE, to 
 
 laugh. 
 
 
 
 laugh. 
 
 Ger. riant, 
 laughed. 
 
 laughing. Part, ri, 
 
 -is, -is, 
 
 it; ri 
 
 -ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 -ois, ois, 
 -is, is, 
 
 oit; ri 
 it; r 
 
 -ions, 
 -Imes, 
 
 iez, 
 
 lies, 
 
 oient. 
 irent 
 
 -rai, ras, 
 
 ra; ri 
 
 -rons, 
 
 rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 -rois,rois 
 
 , roit; ri 
 
 -rions, 
 
 riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 -e, es, e; ri 
 -isse, isses, it; r 
 
 -ions, 
 -issions, 
 
 iez, 
 
 issiez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 issent. 
 
 -is, 
 
 ie; ri 
 
 -ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
114 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 
 123 1 2 
 
 3 
 
 Imp. Je romp -ois, ois, oit-; romp -ions, iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Pret. Je romp -is, is, it ; romp -inies, ites, 
 
 irent. 
 
 Fut. Je romp -rai, ras, ra ; romp -rons, rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 Cond. Je romp -rois, rois, roit; romp -rions, riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 S. P. Je romp -e, es, e ; romp -ions, iez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Pret.Je romp -isse, isses, it; romp -issions, issiez, 
 
 issent. 
 
 Imper. romp s, e ; romp -ons, ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Satisfaire, to satisfy, on faire l6. 
 
 
 XXXIII. SAVOIR, to know. 
 
 
 Jnf. Savoir, to know. Ger. sachant, knowing. 
 
 Part. 
 
 su, known. 
 
 
 Pres. Je sai -s, s, t ; sav -ons, ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Imp. Je sav -ois, ois, oit; sav -ions, iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Pret. Je s -us, us, ut ; s -umes, tiles, 
 
 urent. 
 
 Fut. Je sau -rai, ras, ra ; sau -rons, rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 CondJe sau -rois, rois, roit ; sau, -rions, riez, 
 
 roient. 
 
 S. P. Je sach, -e, es, e ; sach, -ions, iez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Pret.je s -usse, usses, ftt ; s -ussions,ussiez, 
 
 ussent. 
 
 Imper. sach -e, e; sach -ons, ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Secourir, to relieve, on couri.r 11. 
 
 
 S'ensuivre, to follow, on suivre 34. 
 
 
 Soumettre, to submit, on mettre 19. 
 
 
 
 Sourire, to smile, on rire 31. 
 
 
 Soustraire, to subtract, on traire 35. 
 
 
 Suffire*, to suffice, on confire 9. 
 
 
 XXXIV. SUIVRE, to follow. 
 
 
 Inf. Suivre, to follow. Ger. suivant, following. 
 
 Part. 
 
 suivi, followed. 
 
 
 Pres. Je sui -s s, t ; suiv -ons, ez, 
 
 ent. 
 
 Imp. Je suiv -ois, ois, oit; suiv -ions, iez, 
 
 oient. 
 
 Pret. Je suiv -is, is, it ; suiv -imes, ites, 
 
 irent. 
 
 Fut . Je suiv -rai, ras, ra ; suiv -rons, rez, 
 
 ront. 
 
 But the Participle is sujfi* 
 
IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 115 
 
 Singular. - Plural. 
 
 123 1 2 3 
 
 Cond. Je suiv -rois, rois, roit; s'uiv -rions, riez, roiejit. 
 
 S. P. Je suiv -e, es, e; suiv -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pret. Je suiv -isse, isses, it ; suiv -issions,issiez, issent. 
 
 Imper. ui -s, ve; suiv -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Surfaire, to ask too much, 
 
 Surprendre, to surprise, 
 
 Surseoir*, to supersede, 
 
 Survivre, to outlive, 
 
 on fa ire, 16. 
 
 on prendre, 27- 
 
 on pr6voir, 28. 
 
 on vivre, 38. 
 
 XXXV. TRAIRE, to milk. 
 
 Inf. Traire, to milk. Ger. trayant, milking. Part, trait, 
 milked. 
 
 Pres. Je trai -s, s, t; tra -yons, yez, yent, 
 
 Imp. Jetray -ois, ois, oil; tray -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Put. Je trai -rai, ras, ra; trai -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je trai -rois rois, roit; trai -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je tray -e, es, e ; tra -yons, yez, yent. 
 
 Imper. tra -is ye; tra -yons, yez, yent. 
 
 Transmettre, to transmit, on mettre, 19. 
 Tresaillir f, to start, on cueillir, 13. 
 
 XXXVL VAINCRE, to vanquish. 
 
 Inf. Vaincre, to vanquish. Ger. vafnquant, vanquishing. 
 Part, vaincu, vanquished. 
 
 Pres. Je vain -cs, " cs, 
 
 Imp. Je vainqu -ois, ois, 
 
 Pret. Je vainqu -is, is, 
 
 Fut. Je vainc -rai, ras, 
 
 Cond. Je vainc -rois, rois, roit; vainc -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je vainqu -e, es, e $ vainqu -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 c ; vainqu -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 oil ; vainqu -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 it ; vainqu -lines, ites, irent. 
 
 ra; vainc -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 * But its participle is sursis. 
 
 t It makes in the future, je tressaiUirai, and in the conditional, j* 
 tressaiilirois. 
 
116 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 123 
 
 Pret. Je vainqu -isse, isses, it ; vainqu -issions, issiez, issent. 
 Imper. vain ?-cs, que; vainqu -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 XXX VII. V A LOIR, to be worth. 
 
 Inf. Valoir, to be worth. Ger. valant, being worth. Part. 
 valu, been worth. 
 
 Pres. Je vau -x, x, t ; val -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je val -ois, ois, oit ; val -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret. Je val -us, us, ut ; val -Ames, utes, urent. 
 
 Fut. Je vaud -rai, ras, ra ; vaud -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je vaud -rois, rois, roit; vaud -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je vaili -e, es, e ; val -ions, iez, vaillent. 
 
 Pret. Je val -usse, usses, At; val -ussions,ussiez,ussent. 
 
 XXXVIII. VIVRE, to live. 
 Inf. Vivre, to live. Ger. vivant, living. Part, vtcu, lived. 
 
 Pres. Je v -is, is, it ; viv -ons, ez, ent. 
 
 Imp. Je viv -ois, ois, oit; viv -ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Pret . Je vec -us, us, ut ; vec -Ames, Ates, urent. 
 
 Fut . Je viv -rai, ras, ra ; viv -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je viv -rois, rois, roit ; viv -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je viv -e, es, e ; viv -ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Pret. Je vec -usse, usses, At ; vc -ussions, ussiez, ussent. 
 
 Imper. vis, vive; vivons, vivez, vivent. 
 
 XXXIX. VOIR, to see. 
 Inf. Voir, to see. Ger. voyant, seeing. Part, vu, seen. 
 
 '/Pres. Je voi -s, s, 
 
 Imp. Je voy -ois, ois, 
 
 '1 ~Pret. Je v -is, is, 
 
 Fut. Je ver -rai, ras, 
 
 Cond. Je ver -rois, rois, roit ; 
 
 e_ S. P. Je voi , es, e ; 
 
 Pret . Je v -isse, isses, It ; 
 
 Imper. vois, 
 
 t; 
 oit; 
 it; 
 ra; 
 
 vo.y -ons, ez, voient. 
 
 voy -ions, iez, oient. 
 v -fmes, ites, , irent. 
 
 ver -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 ver -rions, riez, , roient. 
 
 vo -yions, yiez, ient. 
 v -issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 voie ; vo -yona, yez, voient. 
 
Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Je 
 
 veu 
 
 -x, 
 
 x. 
 
 t; 
 
 voul 
 
 -ons, 
 
 ez, 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Je 
 
 voul 
 
 -ois, 
 
 ois, 
 
 oit; 
 
 voul 
 
 -ious, 
 
 iez, 
 
 Pret. 
 
 Je 
 
 voul 
 
 -us, 
 
 us, 
 
 ut; 
 
 voul 
 
 -umes, 
 
 ute! 
 
 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 117 
 
 XL. VOULOIR, to be willing. 
 
 Inf. Vouloir, to be willing. Ger. voulant, being willing. 
 Part, voulu, been willing. 
 
 3 
 
 veulent. 
 oient, 
 urent. 
 
 Fut. Je voud -rai, ras, ra ; voud -rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Cond. Je voud -rois, cois, roit ; voud -rions, riez, roient. 
 
 S. P. Je veuill-e, es, e; voul -ions, iez, veuillent. 
 
 Pret. Je voul -usse,usses, ut ; voul -ussions,us5iez,ussent. 
 
 Imper. veuill -e, e; veuill-ons, ez, ent. 
 
 The following Verbs are of common Use only in Ike Tenses 
 and Persons hereafter mentioned. 
 
 fnf. bruire, to rustle. Ger. bruyant. Imp. il bruycifr 
 *Is bruyoient. 
 
 Inf. braire, to bray like an ass. Pres. il brait, ils 
 braient. Fut. il braira, ils brairont. Cond. il brairoit, 
 ils brairoient. 
 
 fnf. Choir, to fall. Part. chu. 
 
 Inf. ecboir, to expire, to fall by lot, to happen. Ger. 
 chearit. Part. echu. Pres. il echoit. Pret. j'echus, 
 &c. Fut. j'echerrai, &c. Cond. j'echerrois, &c. 
 
 Inf. dechoir, to decay ; like choir, except, fnd. pres. 
 je dchois, fec. Imper. d^chois, &c. Sub. pres. je d6- 
 choie, &c. 
 
 Inf. clorre, to close. Part. clos. Pres. ind. je clos, 
 tu clos, il clot. Fut. je clorrai, tu clorras, il clorra. 
 Cond. je clorrois, tu clorrois, il clorroit. 
 
 Inf. enclorre, to inclose, is conjugated like clorre. 
 
118 IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 Inf. e*clore, to be hatched. Part, eclos. Pres. ind. il 
 eclot, ils e*closent. Fut. il e*elora, ils ecl/oront, Cond. il 
 6cloroit, Us Scloroient. Pres. sub}, qu'il close, qu'ils 
 eclosent. 
 
 Inf. faillir, -to fail. Part, failli. Prefer, ind. je fail- 
 
 lis, \&e. Defaillir, to faint, is conjugated in the same 
 
 manner, and makes besides Ind. pres. nous defaillons. 
 Imp. je defaillois, &c. 
 
 //. frire, to fry. Part. frit. Pres. ind. je fris, iu 
 fris, il frit. Fut. je frirai, tu friras, il frira, nous frirons, 
 vous frirez, ils friront. Cond. je fri-rois, rois, roit, fri-rions, 
 riez, roient. 
 
 In other tenses we make use of the verb/flire, and of the 
 infinitive frire, asjefaisoisfrire, tufaisoisfoire, &c. 
 
 Inf. Gjser, to lie. Ger. gisant. Pres. ind. il git, nous 
 gisons, ils gisent. Imp. il gisoit. 
 
 Inf. ou'ir, to hear. Part, ou'i, heard. The participle 
 is often followed by dire f asj'ai ou'i dire. 
 
 Inf. querir, to fetch, is used, in the infinitive, only after 
 the verbs aller, envoy er, and venir. 
 
 Inf. seoir, to become. Pres. ind. il sied, ils silent. 
 Imp. il seyoit, ils seyoient. Fut. il sie*ra, ils sieront. 
 Cond. il sieroit, ils si^roient.J 
 
 Inf. Saillir, to project. Ger. saillant. Part, sailli. 
 Pres. ind. il sailie. /wp. il sailloit. Fut. il saillera. 
 Cond. il sailleroit. Pres. subj. qu'il sailie, Pret. qu'il 
 saillit. 
 
 Inf. veMir, to clothe. Part. \^tu, clothed. 
 
IMPERSONAL VERBS., 119 
 
 SECTION THE EIGHTH. 
 
 Conjugation of the Impersonal Ferbs. 
 NEIGER, to snow. 
 
 Inf. neiger, ger. neigeant, part. neig6, comp.< avdir neige, 
 ay ant neige. 
 
 Pres. ind. il neige, imp. il neigeoit, pret. il neigea, 
 fut. il neigera, cond. il neigeroit, pres. subj. il neige, 
 pret. il neigeat, comp. tenses, il a neige", il avoit neige, 
 &c, 
 
 Geler, to freeze, clairer, to lighten, tonner, to thunder, 
 and greler, to hail, are conjugated on neiger. 
 
 PLEUVOIR, to rain. 
 
 Inf. pleuvoir, ger. pleuvant, part, plu, comp. avoir 
 plu, ayant plu. 
 
 Pres. ind. il pleut, imp. il pleuvoit, pret. il plut, fist, it 
 pleuvra, cend. il pleuvroit, pres. subj. il pleuve,pr. ilplut, 
 comp. tenses, il a plu, il avoit plu, &c. 
 
 FALLOIR, to be necessary. 
 
 Inf. falloir, part . fallu, comp. 'avoir fallu, ayant fallu. 
 
 Pres. ind. il faut, imp. il falloit, pret. il fallut, fut. il 
 faudra, cond. il faudroit, pres. subj. il faille, pret. il fallut, 
 comp. tenses, il a fallu, il avoit fallu, &c, 
 
 Y AVOIR, to be there. 
 
 Inf. y avoir, ger. y ayant, comp. y avoir eu, y ayant 
 eu. 
 
 Pres. ind. il y a, there is, imp. il y avoit, there was, 
 pret. il y eut, there was, fut. il y aura, there shall be, 
 cond. il y auroit, there would be, pres. subj. il yait, there 
 may be, pret. il y eftt, there might be, comp. tenses, il y a 
 eu, there has been, il y avoit eu, Hhtrt had been, &c. 
 
120 A NEW METHOD TO LEARN VERBS. 
 
 An easy method to learn Verbs. 
 
 This method is divided into two sections: the first 
 teaches how to form the tenses of a verb, and the second 
 how to form the persons of a tense. 
 
 I. Rules for the formation of the Tenses of Regular 
 Verbs. 
 
 ' The PRESENT of the infinitive, the GERUND, the PAR- 
 TICIPLE, the PRESENT, and the PRETERITE, of the in- 
 dicative, are called the primitive tenses, because all others 
 are formed from them according to the following rules. 
 
 Rule I. From the present infinitive are formed, 1. The 
 future, by adding ai to the final of those which end with a 
 consonant ; as donner, dormir, infinitive ; je donnerai, je 
 dormirai, future; and by changing the final e into at, in 
 those which end with a vowel ; as lire, vendre, infinitive ; 
 je lirai,je vendrai, future. 2. The conditional, by adding 
 ois to the final of those which end with a consonant ; as 
 chanter, punir, infinitive ; je chanterois, je punirois, con- 
 ditional ; and by changing e mute into ois in those which 
 end with a vowel ; as plaire, repondre t infinitive ; je plai- 
 rois,je repondrois, conditional. 
 
 Rule II. From the gerund are formed, 1. The three 
 persons plural of the present of the indicative, by changing 
 ant into ons, ez, ent ; as parlant, agissant, gerund, nous 
 parlons, vous parlez, Us parlent ; nous agissons, vous 
 agissez, Us agfosent. 2. The imperfect of the indicative, 
 by changing ant into ois; as venant, eonnoissant, gerund, 
 je venois, je connoissois. 3. The present *of the subjunc- 
 tive, by changing ant into e ; as riduisani, ecrivant, ge- 
 rund,,/^ reduise,j'ecrive. 
 
 Rule III. From the participle are formed, in all verbs, 
 regular or irregular, all the compound tenses, by means of 
 the auxiliary verbs avoir, or fare; aime, fini, ouveri, 
 venu, repenti, participle ; j'ai aime, j'avois fini, j'aurai 
 
A NEW METHOD TO LEARN VKRBS. J21 
 
 ouvert,je serois venu f je me sois repenti; no exceptions to 
 this rule. 
 
 Rule IV. From the present of the indicative is formed 
 the second person of the imperative, by suppressing the 
 pronoun je ; asj'aime,jeviens,jeconnois,pres. hid, aime. 
 viens, connois. The first and second persons plural of the 
 tmper. are similar to the same persons in the pres. ind. only 
 suppressing the pronouns nous, vous ; as nousfinissons, vous 
 plaisez, ind. \>ve\.finissons,plaisez, imperative. 
 
 Rule V. From the preterite of the indicative is formed 
 the subjunctive preterite, by changing the final ai into 
 asse, for the verbs of the first conjugation ; as je donnai, 
 j'aimai, pret. [ind. je donnasse, j'aimasse, pret. subj. and 
 by adding se to all those which end in s, as j'agis, je lus f 
 je tins, pret. ind. j'agisse,je lusse, je tinsse, pret. subj. 
 This fifth rule has no exceptions, not even in the irregu- 
 i-ar verbs. 
 
 The exceptions to rule the first are, the verbs of the 
 fourth conjugation, which change enir into iendrai for the 
 future, and into iendrois for the conditional; as tenir, je 
 tiendrai, je tiendrois ; and the verbs of the sixth conju- 
 gation, which change oir into rai for the future, and into 
 rois for the conditional, as recevoir, je recevrai, je re- 
 cevrois. 
 
 The exceptions to rule the second are the same verbs 
 of the preceding exception, which do not form from the 
 gerund, the thir d person pluraVof the pres. ind. nor the 
 three persons singular, and third person plural of the pres. 
 subj. But they form them from the first person singular 
 of the pres. ind, by changing s into nent, ne, nes, ne, and 
 nent, for the verbs in enir; and into vent, ve, ves, ve, vent, 
 for the verbs in evoir; as je viens, Us viennent, que je 
 vienne, que tu mennes, qu'il vienne, qu'ils viennent; je 
 recois, Us recoivent, queje refoive, que tu revives, qu'il 
 revive, qu'ils recoivent. 
 
 Verbs whose gerunds end in oyant, uyant, change y into 
 i before an e mute, as net toy ant , Us nettoient, appuyant 
 quefappuie. 
 
122 
 
 A NEW METHOD TO LEARN VERBS. 
 
 To give the learner a better idea of the foregoing rules, 
 we shall give a table of the primitive tenses of the twelve 
 regular conjugations. 
 
 Inf. pres. 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 Participle. Ind. pres. 
 
 Pret. 
 
 1 Purler, 
 
 parlant, 
 
 parle", je parle, 
 
 je parlai. 
 
 3 Agir, 
 
 agissant, 
 
 ag'"> . j' a gis> 
 
 j'agis. 
 
 2 Sentir, 
 
 sentant, 
 
 senti, je sens, 
 
 je sends. 
 
 4 Ouvrir, 
 
 ouvrant, 
 
 ouvert, j'ouvre, 
 
 j'ouvris. 
 
 5 Tenir, 
 
 tenant, 
 
 tenu, je tiens, 
 
 Je tins. 
 
 t> Recevoir, 
 
 recevant, 
 
 re9u, je refois/ 
 
 je recus., 
 
 7 Plaire, 
 
 plaisant, 
 
 plu, je plais, 
 
 je plus. 
 
 8 Craindre, 
 
 craignant, 
 
 craint, je crains, 
 
 je craignis. 
 
 9 Connoltrc, 
 
 connoissant, 
 
 connu, je connois, 
 
 je connus. 
 
 10 Instruire, 
 
 instruisant, 
 
 instruit, j'instruis, 
 
 j'instruisis. 
 
 11 Vendre, 
 
 vend ant, 
 
 vendu, je vends, 
 
 je vendis. 
 
 12 EC r ire, 
 
 ecrivant, 
 
 e*crit, j'e'cris, 
 
 j'ecrivis. 
 
 II. Rules for the Formation of Persons. 
 RULE 1. Pres. Ind. 
 
 The first person ends either in e, s, or j?. When it ends 
 m e t the second adds an s, and the third is like the first ; 
 asje park, tu paries , il parle. 
 
 When it ends in s or x, the second is like the first, and 
 the third changes the final s or x into t; asj'e Us, tu tis t il 
 lit ; je veux t tu veux> il veut. 
 
 However, s is left out in the third person of verbs which 
 end in cs, ds, or ts, in the first ; asje vaincs, tu vaincs, 
 i il vainc; je perds, tu ptrds, il perd; je mets, tu mets 
 il met. 
 
 The three persons plural end in ons f ez, ent : as parlant, 
 ger. nouz parlons, vous parlez, Us par lent ; plural of the 
 pres. of the indicative. 
 
 The Exceptions are : 
 
 1. The verb alter, which makes je vats, tu vas, il va; 
 nous allons, vous allet, Us vont. 
 
A KEW METHOD TO LEARN VERBS. 123 
 
 2. The verb avoir, which makes j'ai, tu as, il a, nous 
 avons, vous avez, Us ont. 
 
 3 Eire, which makes je suis, tu es t ilest, noussommes, 
 vous foes, Us sont. 
 
 4. Dire, and redire, which makes vous dites, and vous 
 redites. 
 
 5. Faire, and its cempounds which makes, vousfailes, 
 Us font. 
 
 RULE 2. 
 
 The persons of other teases are formed from the first, 
 cither in regular or irregular verbs, by changing the final 
 as follows; 
 
 IMPERFECT OF THE INDICATIVE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 123 123 
 
 ois, ois, oit, ions, iez, oient. 
 
 Preterite of the Indicative. 
 
 ai, as, a; ames, afes, erent. 
 
 is, is, it; imes, ites, irent. 
 
 ins, ins, int ; inmes, intes, inrent. 
 
 us, us, ut; Ames, tites, urent. 
 
 Future. 
 rai, ras, ra; rons, rez, ront. 
 
 Conditional. 
 rois, rois, roit; rions, riez, roicnt. 
 
 Subjunctive Present. 
 e, es, e; ions, iez, ent. 
 
 Preterite of the Subjunctive. 
 asse, asses, at; assions, assiez, assent. 
 
124 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 isse, isses, it; issions, issiez, issent. 
 
 insse, insses, int; inssions, inssiez, inssent. 
 
 usse, usses, ut; ussions, ussiez, ussent. 
 
 The only exceptions are the verb fare, which makes ra the 
 subjunctive present :je sois, lusois, ilsoit, nous soyons, vous 
 soyez, Us soient, and the verb avoir, which make/a^e, tu 
 aye*, il ait, nous ayons, vous ayez, Us aient. 
 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 The word Adverb signifies joined toaVerb. 
 
 The Adverb is a word indeclinable, which modifies a verb, 
 a participle, or an adjective, and serves to give them an ex- 
 act degree of signification. Example : 
 
 Dieu est infiniment juste ; il punira sevdrement lesimpies. 
 God is infinitelyjiwf ; He will punish severely the impious. 
 
 Most of the French adjectives become adverbs by altering 
 their final according to the three following rules : 
 
 RULE 1. 
 
 Adjectives which end in ant or ent become adverbs by 
 changing the final ant into amment, and ent into eminent ; 
 as constant, prudent, patient, adjectives; constamment, 
 prudemmentfpatiemment, adverbs. The only exceptions are 
 lentement, and presentement, from the adjectives lent and 
 present. 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 Adjectives which end in a vowel, become adverbs, by add- 
 ing ment to the final ; as sage, poli, ingenu, adjectives ; sage- 
 ment, poliment, ingenument, adverbs. The adjectives beau, 
 fou, nouveau, and mou, become adverbs by adding ment to 
 their feminine belle, folle, nouvelle, and molle: bellement, 
 jollement, nouvellement, mollement. 
 
OF ADVERBS. 125 
 
 RULE HI. 
 
 Adjectives which end neither in a vowel, nor in ant or ent 
 in the masculine singular, become adverbs by adding went 
 to their feminine termination ; as grand, doux, heureux, ad- 
 jectives masculine ; grande, douce, heureuse, adjectives femi- 
 nine*; grandement, doucement, heureusement, adverbs. 
 
 The e which precedes ment is mute in all adverbs Yormed 
 from adjectives, except in the following, in which it takes 
 an acute accent ; aisement, assurtment, aveuglement, com- 
 modement, communement, conformement, deliberement, de- 
 mesurement, desesper6ment, desordonnement, deter mintment, 
 fffrontement, enormement, expressement,figurement, impor- 
 tunement, impunement, incommo dement, inconsiderement ,fn- 
 determinemtnt, inesperement, inopinement, malaistment, mo- 
 d&rtment, nommement, obscurement, obstinement, opiniatrt- 
 ment, passionn&ment t posement 9 prtcisement t prematurement, 
 privement~profondement, profusement, proportionnement y 
 tenstment, stparement, serrvment, subordonnement. 
 
 DIFFERENT SORTS OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Besides the great num ber of adverbs formed from ad- 
 jectives according to the three preceding rules, there are 
 many others, which may be divided into nine classes, accord- 
 ing to their signification ; they are as follows : 
 
 1. ADVERBS OF ORDER : as the premitrement , first; 
 secondement, secondly; troisitmement, thirdly, &c. de- 
 vant, before ; derriere, behind ; aprts, after ; ensuite, af- 
 terwards, &c. 
 
 2. ADVERBS OF PLACE : as oil, where ; d'oii, from 
 whence ; tct, here ; id, there ; dedans, within ; dehors, 
 without ; en haut, above; en bas, below; loin, far; prts, 
 near, &c. 
 
 3. ADVERBS OF TIME : as a present, now; aujour- 
 d'hui, to-day ; hier, yesterday ; autrefois, formerly ; Men- 
 tot, soon ; dans pen, shortly ;* desormais, hereafter, &c. 
 
 * For the formation of the feminine of adjectives see page 45 and 46. 
 
126 
 
 4. ADVERBS OF QUANTITY: as combien, how 
 much ; beaucoup, much ; pen, little ; assez, enough ; tant, 
 so much ; autant, as much ; trop, too much ; trop pen, too 
 little, &c. 
 
 5. ADVERBS OF COMPARISON: as comme, as; de 
 meme, in the same manner; aussi, as; autant, as much 
 plus, more ; mains , less ; pareillement, likewise, &c. 
 
 6. ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION : as oui, yes ; ^ to 
 verite, indeed, vraiment, truly; sans doute, without doubt; 
 assur6ment, assuredly ; certainement, certainly, &c. 
 
 7. ADVERBS OF NEGATION : as wow, no; ne pas, 
 not ; point du tout, not at all ; nullement, by no means, &c. 
 
 8. ADVERBS OF INTERROGATION: as quand, 
 wiien; pourquoi, why; combien, how much; comment, 
 how ; ow, where, &c. 
 
 9. ADVERBS OF DOUBT: as peut-ttre, perhaps; 
 probabkment f very likely, &c. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions are indeclinable words, so called from the La- 
 * tin verb prteponere, (which signifies to place before,) because 
 they are always put in French before the word they govern. 
 Example : Ce qui se fait dans la passion, se fait souvent 
 contre la raison, et nous donne dans la suite de grands suje.ts 
 de repentir. What is done in passion is often done against 
 reason, and gives us in time great cause of repentance. 
 
 Prepositions are indeclinable. They serve to denote the 
 several relations of nouns, pronouns, or adverbs, with one an- 
 other. They are the following: 
 
 Prepositions which govern the Genitive Case. 
 a cause de, on account of, & la reserve de, excepting that 
 & c6t& de, by, & 1'eg.ard de, with regard to, 
 
 a convert de, secure from, & 1'exception de, excepted, 
 & fleur de, even with, & Texclusion de, excepting, 
 
 & force de, by dint of, & 1'insu de, unknoivn to, 
 
 & i'abri de, sheltered from, & 1'opposite de, over against 
 k la fa veu r de, by means of, & moins de, under, 
 bl&nwmerede^fterthefashionb raison de, at the rate of, 
 
)F PREPOSITIONS. 127 
 
 k rebours de, contrary to, autour de, around, 
 
 au deca de, on this side, an t ravers de, through, 
 
 an dedans de, within, &\\\d?\wi\sdv,attheexpenseof % 
 
 an dehors de, without, aux environs de, roundabout, 
 
 au dela de, ow //w ,w/e, en de^a de, on this side, 
 
 au derriere de, behind, en depit de, in spite of, 
 
 au dessous de, under, en presence de, in presence of 9 
 
 au dessus de, upon, ensuiu* de, afUr, 
 
 au devant de, before, faute de,/0r MMH/ o/, 
 
 au lieu de, instead, liors de, out of, 
 
 au millieu de, in the' middle oj,\v long de, along, 
 
 au moven de, ^ wertrcs of loin de, far from, 
 
 au niveau de, erm /o, pour ramourde,/0rMesrtA:0/ 
 
 au peril de, fl the peril of, prcs de, near, 
 
 aupres de, near, proclie de, nigh, 
 
 au prix de, at the expense of, tout aupres de, close to, 
 
 au risque de, at the danger o/",vis-a-vis de, opposite to. 
 
 Prepositions which govern the Accusative Case. 
 
 apres, after, malgr, in spite of, 
 
 a travers, through, moyennaut,/0r, 
 
 avant, before, nonobstant, notwithstanding,, 
 
 avec, with, outre, besides, 
 
 chez, at, par, by, 
 
 centre, against, parmi, among, 
 
 dans, in, pendant, during, 
 
 depuis, since, pour, for, 
 
 derriere, behind, proche, near, 
 
 des,fram, sans, without, 
 
 devant, before, sauf, safe, 
 
 durant, during, selon, according to, 
 
 en, in, sous, under, 
 
 entre, between, suivant, according to, 
 
 envers, towards, sur, upon, 
 
 environ, about, touchant, concerning, 
 
 excepte, except, vers, towards. 
 
 hoi mis, except, but, 
 
 Observe, that the prepositions preceded in Frerrclrby d, 
 au, or aux, govern the genitive case, and that most 
 require the accusative after them. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 These four conformement d, according to; jusqu'a, as far 
 as; par rapport &, with respect to; quant a, as for; go- 
 vern the dative case. 
 
 Prepositions joined to a Verb. 
 
 Many prepositions come in English after a verb, and make 
 apart of its signification ; such are the following, which 
 are not expressed in French : 
 
 abattre, to pull down. 6ter, to take away. 
 
 abaudonner, to give up. paraphraser,0 comment upon. 
 
 cacheter, to seal up. ramener, to bring back. 
 
 combler, to fill up. trouver, to find out. 
 
 dechirer, to tear off. monter, to go up. 
 
 cleraciner, to root out. descendre, to go down. 
 
 s'envoler, to fly away. entrer, to come in. 
 
 epoudrer, to wipe off. sortir, to go out. 
 s'evanouir, to faint away. regarder, to look out. 
 
 expulser, to turn out. chercher, to look for. 
 
 extirper, to root out. admirer, to wonder at. 
 
 se lever, to get up. attendre, to wait for. 
 mander, to send for. 
 
 VERBS COMPOSED WITH A PREPOSITION. 
 
 The English give to the most part of their verbs a signi- 
 fication quite opposite to the primitive one, by prefixing to 
 them the preposition un or dis. The French do the same, 
 prefixing des to the words which begin with a vowel or h 
 mute ; and de to those which begin with a consonant. 
 Example : 
 
 border, to border. paver, to pave. 
 
 deborder, to unborder* depaver, to unpave. 
 
 charger, to load. apprendre, to learn. 
 
 decharger, to unload. dsapprendre, to unlearn. 
 
 faire, to do. habiller, to dress. 
 
 deTaire, to undo deshabiller, to undress. 
 
OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 129 
 
 friser, to curl. 
 ftefriser, to uncurl. 
 
 laeer, to lace. 
 delacer, to unlace. 
 
 lier, to tie. 
 delier, to untie. 
 
 compter, to count. 
 decompter, to discount. 
 
 se fier, to trust. 
 
 se defier, to distrust. 
 
 couvrir, to cover. 
 dcouvrir, to discover. 
 
 plaire, to please. 
 deplaire, to displease. 
 
 poss6der, to possess. 
 d6poss6der, to dispossess. 
 
 tromper, to deceive. 
 detromper, to undeceive. 
 
 voiler, to veil. 
 devoiler, to unveil. 
 
 tordre, to twist.' 
 detordre, to untwist. 
 
 approuver, to approve. 
 desapprouver, to disapprove. 
 
 armer, to arm. 
 desarmer, to disarm. 
 
 honorer, to honour. 
 deshonorer, to dishonour. 
 
 obeir, to obey. 
 dsobeir, to disobey. 
 
 unir, to unite. 
 d^sunir, to disunite. 
 
 The English put the word again, after a verb, to express 
 the reiteration of a thing. The French express the reitera- 
 tion by prefixing the preposition re to the verb, when it be- 
 gins with a consonant, and r only when it begins with a 
 vowel or h mute. Thus we say, 
 
 appeler, to call. 
 rappeler, to call again. 
 
 cacheter, to seal up. 
 recacheter, to seal up again, 
 
 composer, to compose. 
 recomposer, to compose again 
 
 I demander, to ask. 
 redemander, to ask again. 
 
 faire, to do. 
 Irefeire, to do again. 
 
 embarquer, to embark. 
 rembarquer, to embark again 
 
 lire, to read. 
 
 relire, to read again. 
 
 mesurer, to measure. 
 remesurer, to measure again. 
 
 paroitre, to appear. 
 .reparoltre, to appear again. 
 
 plisser, to plait. 
 replisser, to plait again. 
 
 prendre, to take. 
 reprendre, to take again. 
 
 tomber, to fall. 
 .retomber, to fall again. 
 
130 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 trouver, to find, venir, to come. 
 
 retrouver, to find again. revenir, to cojne~ again. 
 
 vend re, to sell. 
 revendre, to sell again. 
 
 There are many other prepositions which come immedi- 
 ately after a verb in English, and change its signification ; 
 such are away, back, upon, out, for, with, off, c. but these 
 cannot be reduced to rules, and can be learned by practice 
 only. 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions are indeclinable words, used in a sentence 
 to join together the different parts of speech* Example : 
 
 Parlez pen et pcnsez bien, si vous voulez quon vous re- 
 garde comme un homme d'esprit ; 
 
 Speak little and think much, if you \yould be looked upon 
 as a man of sense. 
 
 In this sentence, et, and si, are two conjunctions, which 
 shew the dependency and conjunction of the words which 
 compose it. 
 
 Conjunctions are simple or compound ; the simple con- 
 sist of one word, as et, ou, aussi, ni, &c. the compound 
 are formed of two or more words, such as afin que, an . 
 lieuque, sice n'est que. Both simple and compound may 
 be divided into ten species, called, 
 
 1. Copulative, as et, and ; comme, as; de sorte que, so 
 that, <fec. 
 
 2. Disjunctive; ascu, or; ou Men, else ; ni, neither, &c. 
 
 3. Adversative, as neanmoins, nevertheless, &c. 
 
 4. Conditional, as, si, if; pourvu que, provided, &e. 
 
 5. Concessive, a&d'<accord, granted; eneffet, really, &c. 
 
 6. Comparative, as aussi bien que, as well as, &c. 
 7 Causal, as parceque, because, &c. 
 
 8. Interrogative, as, pourquoi, why ; quand, when, &c. 
 
 9. Continuative, as de phis, moreover; encore, yet, &c. 
 10. Concluding, as done, therefore ; ainsi, thus, &c. 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 131 
 
 The above explanation being too abstract for many young 
 students, I will dispose the conjunctions in three alphabetical 
 lists. The first contains the conjunctions which govern the 
 infinitive inood ; the second enumerates those which govern 
 *'<ie subjunctive; aiad the third comprehends all others. 
 
 1 . Conjunctions ivhich govern the fnfinitive. 
 
 A fin de, in order to. 
 
 a nioins de, unless. 
 
 avant de, befwe. 
 
 a a lieu de, instead of. 
 
 loin de, far from. 
 
 de crainte de, for fear of. 
 
 de peur de, for fear of. 
 
 faute de,/or want of. 
 
 jusqu'a, till. 
 
 plutot que de, rather than. 
 
 pour, for. 
 
 sans, without. 
 
 2. Conjunctions which govern the Subjunctive. 
 
 A fin que, that. 
 
 & moins que, unless, 
 
 avant que, be/ore. 
 
 au cas que, in case that. 
 
 bien que^ though, 
 
 de crainte que, for fear. 
 
 de peur que, lest. 
 
 en cas que, if. 
 
 encore que, though. 
 
 jusqu'a ce que, till. 
 
 loin que, far from. 
 
 3. Conjunctions which l 
 the 
 
 A cau.se que, because. 
 
 \ condition que, provided. 
 
 ainsi, thus. 
 
 ainsi que, as. 
 
 apres que, after. 
 
 au lieu que, whereas. 
 
 ait. moins, at hast. 
 
 aussi, also. 
 
 aussi bien que, as well as. 
 
 malgre que, for all that. 
 nonobstant que, /ore// that, 
 non pas que, not that. 
 pose que, suppose that. 
 pourvu que, provided. 
 quoique, though.. 
 sans que, without. 
 soit que, whether. 
 suppose que, suppose that. 
 Dieu veuille que, God grant. 
 pour que, that. 
 
 govern neither the Infinitive nor 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 aussitot que, as soon as. 
 au surplus, moreover. 
 autant que, as much. 
 car, for. 
 
 cependant, however. 
 c'est pourquoi, therefore. 
 com me, as. 
 
 d'abord que, as soon as. 
 d'ailleurs, besides. 
 
OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 d'autant que, whereas. 
 
 de faon que, so that. 
 
 depuis que, since. 
 
 de plus, moreover. 
 
 de sorte que, so that. 
 
 des que, as soon as. 
 
 done, then. 
 
 durant que, during, 
 
 et, and. 
 
 en effet, indeed. 
 
 en fin, tn short. 
 
 ensuite, afterwards. 
 
 joint a cela, moreover. 
 
 lorsque, u^era. 
 
 niais, to. 
 
 m&me, evew. 
 
 ueanmoins, nevertheless. 
 
 ni, nor. 
 
 non plus, neither. 
 
 non settlement, not only. 
 
 ou bien, or else. 
 
 ou, or. 
 
 outre, besides. 
 
 outre cela, afc? to that. 
 
 parce que, because. 
 
 pendant que, while. 
 
 pour lors, then. 
 
 pourquoi, why. 
 
 pourtant, however. 
 
 puis, then. 
 
 puisque, since. 
 
 quand, when. 
 
 quand me me, although. 
 
 selon que, according as. 
 
 si, if. 
 
 si bien que, so that. 
 
 si ce n'est que, except that. 
 
 sinon, else. 
 
 sit6t que, as soon as. 
 
 suivant que, according as. 
 
 sur quoi, whereupon. 
 
 surtout, especially. 
 
 tandis que, whilst. 
 
 tant que, 0s Zowg- as. 
 
 toutefois, however. 
 
 OBSERVE, that many adverbs become prepositions, 
 when they govern a noun, a pronoun or a verb; as marches 
 devant, walk before, adverb; marchez devant moi, walk 
 before me, preposition. Some prepositions in their turn 
 become conjunctions, when they are used to join different 
 parts of speech, 2&faites cela pour moi t do it for me, prepo- 
 sition ; je leferai pour vous pfaire, I will do it to please you, 
 conjunction. 
 
 OF INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Interjections are some indeclinable words used to express 
 the affections of the mind, either of joy, grief, fear, aversion, 
 derision, surprise, &c. 
 
OF INTERJECTIONS. 133 
 
 1. Of joy, as bon! well! vivelajoie! huzza! 
 
 2. Of grief, as helas ! alas! ah! hah! &c. 
 
 3i Of fear, as ah! ah! he"las ! alas! he! oh! &c. 
 
 4. Of aversion, as fi ! fye upon ! fi done ! .fye upon. 
 & Of derision, oh ! oh ! zest ! pshaw ! 
 
 6. Of surprise, as bon Dieu ! Good God! eh ! lack a day. 
 
 7. Of encouraging, as allons ! come on ! courage ! cheer up I 
 
 8. To stop, as hola! hold! tout beau ! softly! 
 
( 134 ) 
 
 PART III. 
 
 OF SYNTAX*. 
 
 SYNTAXis the regular construction of the different parti 
 of speech, conformably to the rules of grammar, and the ge- 
 nius of a language. 
 
 Construction supposes three things in every tongue : the 
 union of words, their concord, and their disposition : these 
 objects are fully explained in the following Rules, which 
 point out the different genius of each language with accuracy 
 and precision. 
 
 Syntax is here divided into twenty-four chapters : the 
 chapters are again divided into sections when occasion re- 
 quires it. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Use of the French Articles. 
 
 This chapter is divided into four sections, The first ex- 
 plains the several circumstances in which articles are used 
 in both languages ; the second enumerates the cases in which 
 
 * The learner must not beeriii the second chapter of the syntax, till 
 he understands the rules of the first ; nor the third, before he knows 
 the second ; and so on for all others. It is also proper that he should 
 repeat at least once a week the principal rules which he has already 
 karnt, lest he should forget them 
 
SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 135 
 
 the article is used in French, and not in English : the third 
 describes those in which it is used in English and not in 
 French : the fourth contains all the circumstances in which 
 both languages take no article. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 Article used in French and in English. 
 
 RULE 1. un, une, a, an. 
 
 The indefinite article (un, masc. une, fern, in English, a 
 or an) is used in both languages to express a substantive 
 singular in an indeterminate manner. Examples : 
 
 A book, a house, a friend, a philosopher. 
 Un livre, une maison, wn ami, un philosophe. 
 England is a fruitful country. A wise man. 
 L'Angleterre est un pays fertile. Un homme sage. 
 
 RULE 2. le, la, les, the. 
 
 The definite article (le, masc. la, fern. I' of both genders 
 before a vowel or h mute, les for the plural of both genders, 
 in English the) is used in both : languages before a sub- 
 stantive, taken in a particular and specified sense, that is to 
 say, before a noun which denotes an individual distinction. 
 Examples : 
 
 The house of my father. The book which I read. 
 La maison de man pere. Le livre queje Us. 
 The horse which I have sold to you is excellent. 
 Le cheval queje vous ai vendu est excellent. 
 
 RULE 3. a or an rendered by le, la, les. 
 
 The English make use of the indefinite article a or an 
 before nouns of measure, weight, and number, when they 
 want to express how much a thing is worth, or sold for ; 
 the French on the contrary, use the definite article, le, la, 
 les, in such cases. Examples : 
 
136 SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 
 
 C That lace is worth a crown a yard. 
 M 3 CcM 6 dentelle vaut un ecu la verge. 
 
 ' 1 Coals cost two shillings a bushel. 
 Le charbon coute deux schillings le boisseau. 
 
 W 'It $ Butter is sold for ten-pence a pound. 
 1 S l | L e beurre se vend dix sous la livre. 
 
 ^ . j" Eggs are worth fifteen-pence a dozen. 
 ]t} ' Les ceufs valent quinze sous la douzaine. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Article used in French and not in English. 
 
 RULE 4. Ie 9 la, les, not the. 
 
 The definite article (le, la, les,) is used in French and 
 ,ot in English, before all substantives taken in the whole 
 xtent of their signification. Examples : 
 
 Men are mortal ; Les hommes sonl morteh. 
 
 God hates sinners ; Dieu hait les pecheurs. 
 
 Virtue is amiable ; La vertu est aimable. 
 
 Vice is odious ; Le vice est odieux. 
 
 The words men, sinners, virtue, and vice, are taken in a 
 general sense ; because all men are mortal, God hates all 
 sinners, all virtues are amiable, and all vices odious. 
 
 RULE 5. le, la, les, not the. 
 
 The definite article (le, la, les,) is used in French and 
 not in English, before [the names of kingdoms, countries, 
 and provinces. Examples : 
 
 ' France and England are two powerful kingdoms. 
 La France et i'Angleterre sont deux puissans royaumts. 
 I have passed through Spain, Switzerland, and Germany. 
 J'ai passe par YEstopgne, la Suisse, 
 
SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 137 
 
 These nouns usually take no article, when they are in 
 the genitive or ablative case, or after the preposition en. 
 Examples : 
 
 Les royaumes de France et d'Angleterre sont puissans. 
 J'fd voyage en Italic. J' arrive d'Allemagne. Jeviensde 
 Russie. 
 
 However, the names of distant countries take always the 
 article, such are le Bengal, le Canada, le Japon, le Mexi- 
 que, le Perou, &c. Some names of provinces follow the 
 same rule ; as le Dauphine, le Maine, le Perche, le Man- 
 touan, le Gevaudan, &c. Thus we say, je vais au Japon, 
 and not en Japon ;f arrive du Canada, Vor du Perou. 
 
 N. B. When the names of kingdoms and republics are the 
 same as those of their capital towns, they are considered as 
 proper names, and as such take no article ; of this sort are 
 Naples, Venise, and Genes ; thus we say, Venise est uncre- 
 publique ; not la Venise est une republique. 
 
 RULE 6.le, la, les. 
 
 The definitive article (le, la, les,) is used in French be 
 fore the adjectives substantively used; whether it is used 01 
 not in English. Examples : 
 
 The industrious are praised, and the slothful punished ; 
 Les diligens sont loms et les paresseux punis. 
 Black and white are two opposite colours ; 
 Le noir et le blanc sont deux couleurs oppostes. 
 
 RULE 7- du, de la, des, some. 
 
 The partitive article (du m. sing, de la f.deT before a 
 vowel or h m. and des plur. of both genders) is used in 
 French before a substantive, when we want to express an 
 indeterminate number or portion of a thing; this article 
 answers to the English word some, expressed or understood. 
 Examples : 
 
 Give me some bread, some meat, and some eggs ; 
 
 Donnez moi du pain, de la viande, et des ccufs. 
 
 I have bought paper, ink, and pens ; 
 *J'ai achete du papier, cle I'encre, et des plumes. - 
 
138 . SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 
 
 RULE.^de instead of du, de la, t des. 
 
 If a substantive, taken in a partitive sense as before, is 
 preceded in French by an adjective, the preposition de is 
 ased for both genders and numbers, instead of the partitive 
 article du, de la, des. Examples : 
 
 Donnez-moi de ban pain, de bonne viande, ?t de bons ceufs. 
 J'ai achete de mauvais papier, et de mauvaise encre. 
 
 N. B. Every time the words some or any, are, or can 
 be used in English before a substantive, the partitive arti- 
 cle du, de la, des, or the preposition de, must be used in 
 French, according to the distinction of the two preceding 
 rules. 
 
 RULE 9. Where the Article is required. 
 
 Every noun which is the nominative, or the case of a verb, 
 must have in French one of the three articles, definite, in- 
 definite, or partitive, of which before. Examples: 
 
 Gold and silver cannot render man happy ; 
 L'or et I'argent ne sauroient rendre I'h&mme heureux. 
 Spain produces wine, oranges, and olives ; 
 L'Espagne produit du vin, des oranges, et des olives. 
 
 N. B. I do not comprehend in this rule the proper names 
 of persons and towns, the substantives preceded by a pro- 
 noun or an adjective of number, neither of which have any 
 article, as we shall see in the rules 14th and 15th. 
 
 RULE 10. Repetition of the Articles. 
 
 The articles are repeated in French before every substan- 
 tive, and agree with them in gender and number; in Eng- 
 lish, on the contrary they are indeclinable. Examples : 
 
 The genius of the French tongue consists in clearness, 
 purity, elegance, and strength ; 
 
 Le gtnie de la langue Fran$oise consist e dans la clarte 
 \zpurete, VeUgance, et la force. 
 
 I have bought meat, cheese, and fruits ; 
 
 J'ai achete de la viande, dufromage, et des fruits. 
 
SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 139 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 
 Articles used in English and not in French. 
 
 RULE II. the, not le t la, les. 
 
 The definite article (the) is used in English, and not in 
 French, before the ordinal numbers, the first, the second, the 
 third, the fourth, &c. used in quotations. Examples : 
 
 Book the first, chapter the sixth, section the ninth ; 
 Livre premier, chapitre six, section neuvitme. 
 
 No article is used in French before the ordinal numbers, 
 which come after the Christian names of sovereigns. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Charles the first, Philip the second, George the third ;* 
 Charles premier, Philippe second, George trois. 
 
 RULE 12. a, not un or une. ' 
 
 The indefinite article (a or an) is used in English, and 
 not in French, before nouns which express the titles, pro- 
 fessions, trade, country, or any other attribute of the sub- 
 stantive antecedent. Examples : 
 
 My father was a nobleman ; Man pere ttoit nolle. 
 Your brother is a physician ; Votrefrtre est medecin. 
 Are you a Frenchman? Etes-vous Francois? 
 
 RULE 13. a, not un or une. 
 
 The indefinite article *(a or an) is also used in English, 
 and not in French, in the four following cases : 
 
 1. Before a substantive used to qualify another. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 The King was received in triumph, an honour he deserved ; 
 Le Roifut re$u en triomphe, honneur qu'il meritoit Men. 
 
 * Observe, by the preceding examples, that the ordinal numbers 
 (the two first excepted) are rendered in French by the cardinal, after 
 the names of Sovereigns, and also often in quotations 
 
14V SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 
 
 2. Before a substantive which specifies or explains the 
 thing spoken of. Example : 
 
 I have read to-day the Busy Body, an esteemed comedy ; 
 J'ai hi aiijourclhm VEmpresse, comedie estimee. 
 
 3. In the title of a book, or of any performance. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 A grammar of the French tongue ; 
 Grammaire de la langue Fran$oise. 
 
 4. After the word what, used to express surprise. Ex 
 ample : 
 
 What a noise you make ! 
 Quel bruit vousfaites ! 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH. 
 
 No Article used in French nor in English. 
 
 RULE 14. No Article in either Language. 
 
 No article is used in French or English before the word 
 God (DieUy) nor before the proper names of heathen dei- 
 ties, of men, women, towns, milages, days, or months. 
 Examples : 
 
 God is present every where ; 
 Dieu est present partout*. 
 Cicero and Demosthenes were two great orators ; 
 Ciceron et Demosthenes ttoient deux grands orateurs. 
 London and Paris are two large capital cities ; 
 Londres et Paris sont deux grandes capitales. 
 Jupiter and Venus were heathen divinities. 
 Jupiter et Venus ttoient des divinites paiennes. 
 
 Some (but few) proper names of persons take an article 
 
 * The definite article should be used before the proper names, if 
 they were in the plural, or particularized. Examples : le Dieu des 
 Chretiens est tout -puissant. Les Cicfrons sont rares. 
 
SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 141 
 
 in French, such are, VArioste, le Tasse, I'Arttin, le 
 Titien, &c. * 
 
 Some names of towns take also an article ; such are, la 
 Hate, V Aigle, la Rochelle, le Hdvre, le Mans, &e. 
 
 RULE 15. No Article in either Language. 
 
 No article is used in French or in English, before a sub- 
 stantive preceded by any pronoun whatever. Examples : 
 My friend will come to-mor- Mon ami viendra demain. 
 
 row; 
 
 This house is new ; Cette maison est neuve. 
 
 What's o'clock now 7 Quelle heure est-il a present f 
 
 RULE l6.The Preposition de. 
 
 No article (but the preposition de) is used in French affer 
 " the words esptce, sorte, genre, melange ; or any other of 
 
 the same signification. Examples : 
 
 Man is exposed to all sorts of infirmities ; 
 
 L'homme est sujet d toutes sortes d'tTffirmites. 
 
 Jealousy is a mixture of love and hatred, of fear and de- 
 spair ; 
 
 La jalousie est un melange d 1 'amour et de haine, de crainte 
 it de desespoir. 
 
 RULE 17. Transposition of Words, 
 
 No article (but the preposition de) is used before the 
 latter of two substantives, when it expresses the nature, 
 matter, species, quality, or country of the first. Exam- 
 pies : 
 
 A head-ach, a tooth-ach ; Un ma I de tele, un mal de 
 
 dent. 
 A gold watch, silk stock- Une montre d 'or, des bas de 
 
 igs ; soie. 
 
 Spanish wool, Burgundy wine ; De la laine d'Espagne, du 
 
 vin de Bourgogne. 
 
 * Before French proper names of persons, preceded by the article 
 te, the prepositions de and d. are never contracted \vith tiiat article ; 
 thus we say les tableaux de le Brnn, and not du Brun ; except le 
 Ptusstn, les tableaux du Poussin. 
 
142 SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 
 
 The English often make a transposition of words, and 
 place the genitive case the first ; this transposition is not 
 allowed in French, aLd the order must be reversed ; thus 
 we say, 
 
 The king's guards ; les gardes du roi. 
 A chambermaid ; unejllle de chambre. 
 Diana's anger was the cause of Acteon's death ; 
 La colere (Je Diane causa la mort d'Acteon . 
 
 RULE IS. The Preposition de. 
 
 No article (but the preposition de) is used in French aftei 
 words of quantity, measure, scarcity, or exclusion ; as, 
 abondance t plenty ; assez, enough ; aune, ell ; autarit, as 
 much ; beaucoup, much ; boisseau, bushel ; combien, how 
 many; livre, pound; nombre, number; jamais, never; 
 moins, less ; pas or point, no ; peu, little ; pinte, pint ; 
 pot, pot; plus, more; quantity, quantity ; rien, nothing; 
 tant, so many ; trop 9 too much ; verge, yard, &c. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 You have much wit ; Vous avez beaucoup $ esprit. 
 
 He has no prudence ; // n j a point de prudence. 
 
 You make too much noise ; Vousfaites trop de bruit. 
 
 I have but little money ; Je n'ai que peu ft argent. 
 
 Note 1. The words que and quoi, used in a sentence of 
 admiration, are also followed by de. Example : 
 
 How many sorrows ! Que de chagrins ! 
 What more sad ! Quoi de plus triste! 
 
 Note 2. The word bien is always followed by an article, 
 and beaucoup is never. 
 
 He has a great many friends ; 
 
 // a bien des amis, il a beaucoup ft amis. 
 
 RULE 19. The Preposition fc. 
 
 No article (but the preposition de) is used in French, 
 when the substantive is taken in a general sense. 
 
SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 143 
 
 1. After an adjective which governs the genitive case. 
 Examples : 
 
 You are praise-worthy; Vous etes digne de louanges. 
 Human life is full ofdisappointments ; 
 La vie humaine est pleine de revers. 
 
 . After the verbs and participles which are foHowed in 
 English by the word with. Examples : . 
 You are puffed up with pride ; Vous etes bouffi d'orgueil. 
 Fill up the bottle with wine ; Emplissez la bouteillede vin. 
 
 But when the substantive is specified, the article must 
 be used. Examples : 
 
 He deserves the praises which are given to him ; 
 // est digne des louanges qu'on lui donne. 
 His life was filled up with the most dreadful misfortunes ; 
 Sa viefut remplie des plus affreux revers. 
 
 RULE 20. Cases where no Article is used. 
 
 1. No article is used in either language before nouns 
 which form but one idea with the verb which precedes 
 them ; such may be discriminated by observing that they 
 are, or could be expressed by one word in English, as m 
 the following examples : 
 
 To pity the unfortunate ; Avoir pte& des malhmreux. 
 
 To envy the happiness of others ; 
 
 Porter envie au bonheur d'autrui. 
 
 To visit a friend ; Rendre visile a un ami. 
 
 2. The article is not used after the prepositions sans, 
 avec, or par, when the noun following forms with them a 
 kind of adverb. Examples : 
 
 You speak elegantly ; Vous parlez avec elegance. 
 
 To vanquish without danger, is to triumph without glory ; 
 A vaincre sans peril, on triomphe sans gloire. 
 I have travelled by land and by sea ; 
 J'ai voyage par terre et par mer, 
 
 3. The article is not used before the cardinal numbers, 
 un, one ; deux, two ; trois, three, &c. Examples : 
 
144 SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 Lend me twenty pounds ; Pretez-moi vingt livres. 
 I have six oranges ; J'ai sir oranges. 
 
 Nevertheless, the definite article masculine, ( le, les t ) 
 is used in French as in English before the cardinal numbers, 
 when speaking of cards, of things which have a fixed num- 
 ber, of the date* of the month, or of a particular number 
 specified by a relative pronoun ; thus we say, with an arti- 
 cle in both languages, le huit de caeur, the eight of heart ; 
 Us qiiatre saisons, the four seasons ; rendez-moi les vingt 
 livres que je vous pr&tai le dix de Mars, return me the 
 twenty pounds I lent you on the tenth of March. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 f 
 
 / SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 RULE 21. Two Substantives in the same Case. 
 
 When there is a conjunction between two nouns they 
 fiiust be put in the same case ; and if a substantive is pre- 
 ceded by a preposition, that preposition is usually repeated 
 in French before all otfeer substantives governed by it. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Your advice pleased the king, the minister, and the. par- 
 liament ; 
 
 Vetre conseil pint au roi, au ministre, et au parlement . 
 
 A man without religion is in a state, of doubt and confu- 
 sion, fear and distrust; 
 
 f In homme sans religion est dans un ttat de doute et de 
 confusion, de crainte et de defiance. 
 
 RULE 22. The latter of two Substantives is put in tfo 
 Genitive. 
 
 The latter of two substantives relating to each other is 
 generally put in the genitive case in French, whether it is 
 in the genitive or dative in English. Examples: 
 
SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 145 
 
 Impious men are enemies to virtue ; 
 Les impies sont ennemis de la vertu. 
 The dog is a friend to man ; Le chien est Vami de Vhomme. 
 
 RULE 23. Noun in the Dative. 
 
 When two substantives make a compound word in Eng- 
 lish, their order is inverted in French, and the preposi- 
 tion d intervenes, when the one expresses the use of the 
 other; as 
 
 Gun-powder ; De la poudre a canon. 
 
 Fire-arms ; Des armes a feu. 
 
 A dining-room ; Un salle a manger. 
 
 It is preceded by au, a la, or aux, when it signifies 
 something proper to drink, or to eat ; as 
 
 Call the oyster-woman ; Appelez la femme aux hui- 
 
 tres. 
 Where is the rabbit-man 1 Ou est I'homme aux lapins ? 
 
 RULE 24. A Noun collective general. 
 
 A noun collective general (that is to say, representing 
 the whole object,) such as the wordspew/7/e, nation, armte, 
 flotte, &c. requires that the adjectives, pronouns, and verbs 
 to which it has reference should be always in the singular. 
 Examples : 
 
 The great French army was totally defeated ; 
 La grande armee Francoise fut enticement defaite. 
 The whole fleet is at sea, it set sail yesterday morning ; 
 Toute lajlotte est en mw, elle oartit hier matin. 
 
 RULE 25. A Noun collective partitive. 
 
 A noun collective partitive (that is, which represents 
 only a part of the whole object,) such as/ow/e, nombre, 
 multitude, &c. followed by a genitive plural, governs the 
 verb and the pronoun in the singular, if it is preceded by a 
 definite article ; but if not, it governs them in the plural. 
 Examples : 
 
146 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The multitude of foreigners make bread dear; 
 
 La multitude des etrangers rend It pain chev; singular. 
 
 A multitude of Christians are led astray every day ; 
 
 Une multitude de Chretiens s'egarent tous ks jours ; plural 
 
 The reason of this difference is, that the collective is a 
 substantive when preceded by le t la, les, and a kind of ad- 
 jective when not : in the first case the verb agrees with the 
 collective, and in the second with the substantive which 
 comes after the collective. 
 
 N. B. The verb is always put In the plural after the 
 words la plupart, beaucoup, nombre, unless they are fol- 
 lowed by a substantive singular. Example : la plupart It 
 croient ; la plupart du monde le croit. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES*. 
 
 This Chapter, for the sake of order and perspicuity, is 
 divided into four sections. The first explains the concord 
 and the right placing of adjectives; the second treats of 
 their government ; the third has for object the adjectives of 
 dimension ; and the fourth comprehends whatever concerns 
 the construction of comparatives and superlatives,. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 
 Of the Concord and right Position of Adjectives. 
 RULE 26. All Adjectives are declinable. 
 
 All adjectives are declinable in French, and agree in 
 gender and number with the substantive to which they are 
 
 * For the formation of the feminine of adjectives, see pages 45 and 
 46; their pluralis formed from the singular, like that of substan- 
 tives, of which before, page 41, 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 147 
 
 joined ; in English, on the contrary, they are all indeclin- 
 able. Examples : 
 
 A pious man ; a pious woman ; pious girls ; 
 
 Un homme pieux. unefemme pieuse. desjllles pieuses. 
 This picture cost me dear, but it is fine ; 
 Ce tableau me coute cher, mais il est beau. 
 This house cost me dear, but it isjine ; 
 Cette maison me coute cher, mais elle est belle. 
 
 RULE 27. Adjectives agree with the last Substcentive. 
 
 When an adjective or a participle refers to several sub- 
 stantives of things, and is of the number of those which 
 are placed after the substantives, it agrees with the last, if 
 it is not separated from the substantives by any verb ; but 
 if the adjective were any of those mentioned in the rule 30, 
 it must be repeated before every substantive, and agrees 
 with each. Examples : 
 
 I have found the door and the window shut ; 
 
 J'ai trouve la porte el la f entire fermee ; singular. 
 He has an absolute power and authority; 
 // a un pouvoir et une autoritt absolue. 
 She has a pretty bird, and a pretty cage ; 
 Elle a im joli oiseau, et une jolie cage. 
 
 RULE 28. Adjectives relating to Nouns of different 
 Gender. 
 
 When an adjective refers to several substantives of per 
 sons, or even to several substantives of things, but is sepa- 
 rated from them, it is always put in the plural feminine, if 
 the substantives are feminine, but if they are both masc- 
 or of different genders- it is put in the plural masculine. 
 Examples : 
 
 He made his father and mother happy ; 
 
 II rendit son pdre et sa mere heureux. 
 
 His courage and boldness seem astonishing to me ; 
 
 Son courage et sa hardiesse me paroissent 6tonnans ; pl.m. 
 
 Your mother and sister are learned; 
 
 Votre m$re et votre sceur sont savantes ; pi. f. 
 
148 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 My brother and sister are dead; 
 
 Men fr fort et ma sceur sont morts ; (not sent mwtes.) 
 
 RULE 29. Where Adjectives ought to be placed. 
 
 When two or more adjectives refer to the same substan- 
 tive, they usually follow it in French. Examples : 
 
 An ingenious sensible man; Un homme ingtnieux et sen- 
 sible. 
 
 A long tedious book ; Un livre long et ennuyeux. 
 
 A wise and virtuous woman ; Unefemme sage et vertutuse. 
 A young liberal prince ; Un prince jeune et liberal. 
 
 RULE 30. Adjectives placed before the Substantive. 
 
 The adjectives, beau t fine ; ban, good , grand, great ; 
 groSj big; jeune, young; mauvais, bad; mechant, wick- 
 ed; meilleur, better; moindre, less ; petit, little; saint, 
 holy ; vieux, old ; those of number, and all the possessive, 
 demonstrative, or indeterminate pronouns (which some 
 grammarians consider as mere adjectives,) precede in French 
 as in English the substantive to which they are joined. 
 Examples: 
 
 We have lost a great general in this war; 
 Nous, avons perdu un grand general dans cette guerre. 
 Young men believe they shall live long ; 
 Les jeunes gens croient au'ils vivront long-temps. 
 
 Note 1. The adjective cher, dear, comes before the sub- 
 stantive, when it denotes affection, as mon cher ptre, ma 
 chtremere; my dear father, my dear mother; it comes 
 after when it denotes the price of a thing, as un livre cher, 
 a dear book ; une maison chtre, a dear house. 
 
 Note 2. We say un grand homme, for a great man, and 
 un homme grand, for a tall man ; une grosse femme, fora 
 fat woman; and une femme grosse, fora woman with child; 
 une sage-femme, for a midwife ; and une femme sage, for a 
 modest or wise woman ; un galant homme, for a man of 
 honour, and un homme galant, for a courtier. 
 
 RULE. Adjectives placed after the Substantive. 
 
 The adjectives not mentioned in the preceding rule are 
 usually placed in French after the substantive which they 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 14$ 
 
 qualify ; in English, on tb contrary, they are always placed 
 before. Examples : 
 
 Grateful people are like those fruitful lands which give 
 more than they receive ; 
 
 Les personnes reconnoissantes ressemblent d des terres 
 fertiles, qui donncnt plus gu'elles ne re$oivent. 
 
 Public good is preferable to private interest. 
 
 Le lien public est preferable d Vinteret particulier. 
 
 Note. Adjectives which express some moral qualities, 
 may sometimes be placed before or after the substantive ; 
 we may say, for instance, un amijidele, or unfidele ami, a 
 faithful friend ; but this is not often the case, therefore I 
 advise the learner to put them after. 
 
 Observe, We always put after the substantives, 1-. Tiie 
 adjectives derived from verbs : as, des idees embrouilUts, 
 confused ideas. 2. Those of figure or colour, as une table 
 roude, a round table ; un habit noir, a black coat. 3. Those 
 which end in ique, esque, He, ule, or able, as un esprit 
 pacifique, a pacific mind ; une figure grotesque, an odd 
 figure ; une tdche facile, an easy task ; unefemme cre"dule, 
 a credulous woman. 4. Those of nations, as la constitution 
 Angloise, the constitution of England. 5. Those which 
 may be substantively used, and in general all those not 
 mentioned in Rule 30. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of the Government of Adjectives. 
 
 RULE 32. Adjectives which gavern the Genitive Case. 
 
 I. Adjectives and participles which denote plenty or 
 scarcity, and in general all those which are followed in 
 English by the prepositions of, from, with, or by, govern in 
 French the genitive or ablative case. Examples : 
 
 I am deprived of every thing ; Je suisprive de tout. 
 
150 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The queen is loaded with honour ; 
 La reine est comblee d'honncur. 
 Your sisters are arrived from France ; 
 Vos sceurs sont arrivees de France. 
 
 2. The following: accuse, aise, avide, capable, content, 
 digne,fatigue,furieux, incapable, indigne,joyeux, lasjibre, 
 mecontent, plein, ravi, vide, govern also the genitive case. 
 Example : he is praise-worthy ; il est digne de louanges. 
 
 RULE 33. Adjectives which govern the Dative. 
 
 1. Adjectives which denote aptness, fitness, inclination, 
 ease, readiness, or any habit, govern in French the noun in 
 the dative case, and most commonly the verb in the infini- 
 tive with a. Examples : 
 
 He is fit for any thing ; il est propre a tout. 
 
 That is easy to say ; Cela est facile a dire. 
 
 A disturbed mind is not fit to discharge its duties; 
 
 Une esprit trouble n f est pas propre a remplir son devoir. 
 
 2. The following : adroit, agreable, aise, ardent, beau, 
 bon,conforme, contraire, enclin, facile, habile, ingenieux, inu- 
 tile, lent, prct, propre, scmblable, sujet, utile, govern the 
 noun in the dative case, and the verb in the infinitive with a ; 
 Example : he is liable to mistake ; il est sujet a se tromper. 
 
 3. Some adjectives govern the dative in French, and the 
 genitive in English, such are attc ntif a, heedful of; sensible 
 a, sensible of ; insensible a, insensible of. Example: I am 
 sensible o/*your kindness ;je suis sensible a vos bontts. 
 
 RULE 34. Adjectives followed by & 0r envers. 
 
 Some adjectives are followed in French by the preposition 
 a, and In English by the preposition in ; such are, curieux a, 
 curious in; exact d, precise in ; habile d, skilful in ; patient 
 d, patient in ; tele a, zealous in. Examples : 
 
 You are skilful in doing every thing; 
 Pous ites habile a toutfaire. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 151 
 
 I am precise in my engagements. 
 Je mis exact a mes engagemens. 
 
 Others are often followed in French by the preposition 
 envers, and in English by the preposition to ; such are, affable 
 envcrs, affable to ; bon envers, good to ; cruel envers, cruel 
 to ; poli envers, civil to. Example : 
 
 We must be civil to every body. 
 Ilfaut fare poli envers tout le monde. 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 
 Adjectives of Dimension. 
 RULE 35. de hant, or de hauteur, high. 
 
 The adjectives of dimension can be rendered in French by 
 an adjective, or by a substantive ; thus, high, can be ex- 
 pressed by de haut, or de hauteur ; long, by de long, or dt 
 longeur ; broad, by de large, or de largeur ; deep must be 
 expressed by deprofondeur, not by deprofond,and in general 
 the substantive is more elegantly used than the adjective. 
 
 It must be remembered always to put the preposition de 
 before the words of dimension and number, if they are not 
 preceded by a verb. Examples: 
 
 A tower two hundred feet high : 
 
 Une tour de deux cents pieds de haut, 0r, de hauteur. 
 
 A table six feet long ; 
 
 Une table de six pieds de long, or, de longueur 
 
 A river twenty feet deep ; 
 
 Une riviere de vingt pieds de profondeur, (not de profond.) 
 
 RULE 36. avoir instead of 'to be, before the Adjectives of 
 Dimension. 
 
 To express the height, depth, or breadth of an object, the 
 English make use of the verb to be, and the French of the 
 verb avoir, as they always do before a word of number. 
 
152 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES* 
 
 N. B. The preposition de, is left out sfter the verb atoii 
 but it remains before the word of dimension. Examples : 
 
 This tower is two hundred feet high ; 
 
 Cette tour a deux cents pieds de hauteur. 
 
 That table is six feet long ; 
 
 Cette table a six pieds de longueur. 
 
 That river is twenty feet deep ; 
 
 Cette riviere a vingt pieds dvprofondevr. 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH. 
 
 Of Comparatives and Superlatives*. 
 
 RULE 37. as, expressed by que, after a Comparative 
 
 /rhe word as, used in English after a comparative o 
 equality or inferiority , is always expressed in French by que 
 and never by comme. Examples : 
 
 You are as rich as I am ; Vous $tes aussi riche que moi. 
 I am not so learned as you ; 
 Je ne suis pas si savant que vous. 
 I have as many books as they have ; 
 J'ai autant de livres qu'et&r. 
 
 And not, J'ai autant de livres comme euxj nor je ne sui 
 pas si savant comme vous. 
 
 N. B. The comparatives and superlatives agree in Frencl 
 in gender and number with the substantive, which they qua 
 lify in the same manner as adjectives. Example : 
 
 The most learned man ; the most learned woman ; 
 L'homme le plus savant; lafemme la plus savante. 
 
 RULE 38. by, expressed by de, after a Comparative 
 
 The word by, which is often used after a comparative, t 
 denote how much a thing exceeds another, is always express 
 ed by de, and never by par. Examples : 
 
 * See pare 47 for the different kinds of comparatives and superla 
 fives,- and the mode of forming them from adjectives. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 1 53 
 
 I air. taller than you by the whole head ; 
 
 Je suis plus grand que vous de toute la ttte. (not par.) 
 
 You are younger than I am by four years. 
 
 Vous etes plus jeune que moi de quatre ans. (not par.) 
 
 RULE 39. than, expressed by que or de, after a Com* 
 parative. 
 
 The \vord than, used after a comparative, is expressed by 
 que, when it is followed by a noun or a pronoun. Examples: 
 
 Asia is greater than Europe ; 
 L'Asie est plus grande que V Europe. 
 He is more fortunate than you ; 
 // est plus heureux que vous. 
 
 The word than is always expressed by de before the car- 
 dinal numbers un t deux, trois, &c. instead of que, as in a 
 comparison of objects. Examples : 
 
 I am more than fifteen years of age ; J'ai plus de quinze ans. 
 You have more than a hundred guineas ; 
 Vous avez plus de cent guinees. 
 
 Not fai plus que quinze ans ; nor vous avez plus que cent 
 guinces. 
 
 RULE 40. than expressed by que de, or que ne, aj'ii 
 a Comparative. 
 
 The word than, used in comparatives, is usually expressed 
 by quede before an infinitive mood, and by que ne before a 
 verb in the indicative. Examples : 
 
 It is more noble to forgive than to revenge ; 
 // est plus noble de pardonner que de se venger. 
 Riches are more dangerous than poverty is troublesome ; 
 Les richesses sont plus dangereuses que la pauvrete n'est 
 commode. 
 
 Note 1. If the first infinitive is preceded by the preposi- 
 tion rt, then the word than is expressed by qu'd. Example : 
 
 He is more inclined to hurt than to oblige you ; 
 // est phis dispose a rous nuire qu'a vous obliger. 
 
154 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Note 2. The word than is expressed by que only, befor^ 
 an indicative mood, if there is a conjunction between the 
 word than and the verb. Examples : 
 
 You learn better than when you were in France ; 
 Vous apprenez mieux que quand vous etiez en France. 
 My brother recovers sooner than if he was in town ; 
 Monfrere se retablit plus tot que s'iletoit d la mile. 
 
 RULE 41 % The more, expressed by plus, and not by 
 le plus. 
 
 The English make use of the definite article before the 
 comparatives of proportion, and the French never ; thus, the 
 more is expressed by plus, the less, by moins, and not by le 
 plus or le moins, which are used only in superlatives. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 The more you will study, the more you will improve ; 
 Plus vous etudierez, plus vous profiterez. (not le plus.) 
 The more I know mankind, the less I value life ; 
 Plusje connois les hommes, moins festime la vie. 
 Not leplusje connois leshommes, le moins festime la vie.' 
 
 RULE 42. The more, expressed by plus, and the less 
 by moins. 
 
 If a comparative of proportion is made with two substan- 
 tives or two adjectives, they are placed before the verb in 
 English, and after in French. 
 
 The words of this sort of sentences are disposed in the fol- 
 lowing order : V 1. We put plus or moins. 2. The nomina- 
 tive of the verb. 3. The verb. 4. The adjective or sub- 
 stantive; the rest as in English. Example : 
 
 The more difficult a thing is, the more honourable ; 
 Plus une chose est difficile, plus die est honorable. 
 The less money he gets, the more expenses he incurs. 
 Moins il gagne d' argent, plus ilfait de depcnse. 
 
 In these and the like sort of sentences, the substantive is 
 preceded by de, and the adjective is not. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 156 
 
 RULE 43. The Superlative governs the Genitive and' 
 
 the Subjunctive. 
 
 The superlative always governs, in French, the noun fol- 
 lowing in the genitive case, and most commonly the verb in 
 the subjunctive mood. See the Rule 155. Examples : 
 
 The navy of England is the most powerful of the world ; 
 La marine d'Angleterre est la plus puissante du monde 
 gen. 
 
 You are the most accomplished lady / know. 
 
 Vous etes la dame la plus aimable que je connoisse subj. 
 
 RULE 44.<y the Superlative. 
 
 If the substantive precedes the superlative, both take the 
 definite article, le t la, les ; but the superlative alone takes 
 an article, if it precedes the substantive. Examples : 
 
 The most pleasing company is seldom the best company. 
 La compagnie la plus agreable est rarement la meilleure 
 
 compagnie. 
 
 This is the most beautiful walk ; 
 Voila I* plus belle promenade, ou la promenade \-aplus bellt* 
 
 Note 1. The comparatives and superlatives agree in gen- 
 der and number with the substantive or pronoun to which 
 they refer, as may be observed from the preceding examples. 
 
 Note 2. Le is indeclinable before plus 2^^ moins followed 
 by an adverb, and also by an adjective, when there is no 
 comparison of objects. Example : 
 
 Nous devons parler leplus clairement qu'il nous est pos- 
 sible ; and not les plus clairement adv. 
 
 Nous ne pleurons pas toujours quand nous sommes h 
 plus affliges; and not les plus ajftigfa adj. 
 
 
156 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 
 CHAPTER IV. , 
 
 Of personal and Impersonal Pronouns. 
 
 This Chapter is divided into five sections : the first enu- 
 merates the circumstances in which the personal pronouns are 
 conjunctive or disjunctive, and shews how to express them 
 in both cases : the second treats of the impersonal pronouns 
 it, they, or them, which are used in English with reference 
 to animals or things : the third ascribes to the personal and 
 impersonal pronouns, their proper place in a sentence, and 
 explains the order in which they must be disposed, when 
 they meet "together: the fourth teaches when the pronouns 
 are or are not to be repeated before the verb which they go- 
 vern or are governed by : thefifth informs us when the pro- 
 nouns must be expressed by lui or soi, and shews their dif- 
 ference with accuracy and precision. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 
 When thePersonal Pronouns are Conjunctive or Disjunctive. 
 
 RULE 45. How to express the Personal Pronouns in 
 the Nominative Case. 
 
 The personal pronouns /, thou, he, she, we, you, they, are 
 conjunctive, and expressed byje, tu, il, elle, nous, vous, ils f 
 elles, when they are the nominative case of a verb, provided 
 they are not joined to another noun or pronoun by a con- 
 junction. Examples: 
 
 I read, thou speakest, ne owes, she comes, we have, &c. 
 Je Us, tu paries, il doit, elle vient, nous avons. 
 
 Observe, to use always il or Us, with reference to a noun 
 masculine, and e He or elles with reference to a feminine ; thus, 
 they are rich, is expressed in French by Us sont riches, spek- 
 ing of men ; and by elles sont riches, speaking of women. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRQNOUNS. 157 
 
 The personal pronouns are disjunctive, and expressed 
 by moi, toi, lui, elle, nous, vows, eux, or elles, under the 
 following circumstances : 
 
 1. When they come before or after the words qui, que, 
 or seul. Examples : 
 
 It is I who say so; C'est moi qui h dis, (not c'est je.) 
 He is more learned than I ; ilest plus savant que moi. 
 I am younger than he; Je suis plus jeune que lui. 
 They alone were present there ; Eux seuls y ctoient prtsens. 
 
 2. When they are used in an answer to a question. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Who has done that? I, he, they; 
 
 QMI a fait cela? C'est moi, c'est lui, ce sont eux. 
 
 3. When they are joined to a noun or a pronoun by a 
 conjunction. Example : 
 
 We learn French, my brother and I ; 
 Monfrere et moi nous apprenons Ic Francois. 
 
 4. When they come before a noun, or a verb used in op- 
 position to, or distinction from the first. Example : 
 
 You will return to town, and /will go into the country ; 
 Vous reviendrez d la mile e-t moij'irai d la campagne. 
 
 Observe to repeat nous or vous before the verb, when it 
 has two or more nominative cases which are not both of 
 the third person, as, vous et moi nous irons. Vous et lui 
 vous danserez ensemble. 
 
 RULE, 46. How to express the Personal Pronouns in 
 the Genitive Case. 
 
 When the personal pronouns are in the genitive case, 
 they are disjunctive, and expressed by de moi, de toi, de 
 lui, d'elle, de nous, de vous, d'eux, d' elles. Examples : 
 
 He complains of me, I do not speak of him; 
 II se plaint de moi,je ne park pas de lui. 
 
 They are sometimes, but seldom conjunctive, and ex- 
 uressed by en. Examples . 
 
 H 
 
158 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 You love my cousin, you speak often of her; 
 Vous aimez ma cousine, vous eii parlez souvent. 
 Were you speaking of me ] Yes, \ve were ; 
 Parliez-vous de moi ? Oui, nous en parlions. 
 
 RULE 47. How to express the Personal Pronouns in 
 the Dative Case. 
 
 When the personal pronouns are in the dative case, they 
 are most commonly conjunctive, and expressed by me, te, 
 lut, nous, vous, leur, before the verb. Examples : 
 
 He pleases me; I will do him good ; I will speak to them ; 
 // me plait. Je Imferai du bien. Je leur parlerai. 
 
 They are disjunctive, and expressed by & moi, ft toi, a 
 lui, a die, a nous, d vous, d eux t d elles, after the verb, in 
 three cases. 
 
 1. When they come after a noun or a pronoun to which 
 they are joined by a conjunction. Example : 
 
 I speak to you as well as to them ; 
 Je vous park aussi-bien qu'd eux. 
 
 2. When they are governed by a reflected verb. Ex- 
 ample? \ f 
 
 He applies to me ; I do not trust him ; 
 
 II s'adresse a moi ; je ne me fie pas a lui. 
 Not il me s'adresse, je ne me lui fie pas. 
 
 3. When they are governed by any of the following 
 verbs : aller, to go ; courir, to run ; accourir, to run to ; 
 boire, to drink ; penser, songer, to think ; venir, to come. 
 Examples : 
 
 He comes to us, go to him, I think of you ; 
 // vient k nous, allez a \\\\,je pense a vous. 
 And not il nous vient, allez lui, je vous pense. 
 
 RULE 48. Personal Pronouns in the Accusative Case. 
 
 When the personal pronouns are governed by a verb in 
 the accusative they are generally conjunctive, and expressed 
 by me, te, nous, vous, le, la, les. Examples : 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 15^ 
 
 T know him; I will see her ; I esteem them; 
 Je le connois. Je la verrai. Je les estime. 
 And notje connois lui,je verrai e lie, f estime eux. 
 
 N. B. When le, la, les, stand for the English word the, 
 and come before a noun, they are articles, as, the father, 
 mother, and children are dead ; le pere, la mere, et les en~ 
 fans sent marts: but when le, la, les, stand for him, her, 
 them, and come before a verb, they are personal pronouns, 
 as, I know him, I know her, I know them ; je le connois, 
 je la connois, je les connois. 
 
 RULE 49. Personal Pronouns after a Preposition. 
 
 When the personal pronouns are preceded by a preposi- 
 tion, they are always disjunctive, and expressed by moi, 
 toi t lui, elle, &c. Examples : 
 
 As for me, I think so ; Pour moije pense ainsi. 
 You will speak after them; Vous parlerez apreseux. 
 And not pour me je pense ainsi; vous parlerez aprts les. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of the Pronouns, it, they, them. 
 
 RULE 50. The Pronouns, it, they, or them. 
 
 The pronouns it or they, which the English use with 
 reference to animals or things, are expressed in French by 
 il, m. or elle, f. for the singular, and by Us, in. or elles, f. 
 for the plural, when they are the nominative of a verb. It 
 or them are expressed by le, m. la, f. les, pi. when they are 
 governed by a verb in the accusative case: thus, speaking 
 of a house, we say, 
 
 It is fine, I will not sell it, I will keep it ; 
 
 Elle est belle, je ne la vendrai pas,je la garderai. 
 
 Observe, that these pronouns are expressed in French ia 
 
\60 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 
 
 the same manner for the nominative and accusative as the 
 personal pronouns, of which we have already treated ; and 
 that they also agree in gender and number with the sub- 
 stantive to which they have reference. 
 
 RULE 51* en used in the Genitive, for it or them. 
 
 The pronouns it or them, used with reference to inanimate 
 objects, are expressed by en, when the French verb go- 
 verns the genitive case, whether they be preceded in Eng- 
 lish by the prepositions of, from, with, about, for, upon, 
 or any other. Examples : 
 
 Do not speak any more of it ; TV'en parlezplus. 
 You have done me a service, I thank you for it , 
 Vous m'avez rendu service, je vous en remercie. 
 You have got a good place, I congratulate you upon it ; 
 Vous avez obtenu une bonne place, je vous enfilicite. 
 
 When the words some or any come after a verb, and 
 refer to a substantive antecedent, they are also expressed 
 Dyen. Examples: 
 
 I have some apples, will you have any? Give me a cou- 
 ple of them. 
 
 J'ai des pommes, en voulez-vous? Donnez wVn une 
 couple. 
 
 Take some more. What shall I do with them ? You will 
 give some to y</ur sisters. 
 
 Prenez-en davantage. Qu' en fcrai-je ? Vous en don- 
 nerez a vos sceurs. 
 
 RULE 52. lui or y,/or it or them, in the Dative Case. 
 
 The pronouns it or them, governed by a verb which 
 requires the dative in French, are expressed by lui or leur, 
 as the personal pronouns, when they refer to animals or 
 plants, and usually by y, when they refer to other inanimate 
 objects not personified. Examples : 
 
 Your horses are hungry, give them some oats ; 
 Vos chevmix ont faim, donnez-\eur de Vavoinc, 
 

 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. l6l 
 
 i 
 
 This tree is fine, do not hurt it ; 
 
 Cet arbreest beau, ne lui faites point de mal 
 
 There is a fine picture, put a frame to it ; 
 
 Voild im beau tableau, mettez-y une bordure. 
 
 It is a difficult undertaking, you will not succeed in it; 
 
 Cest une enjtreprise difficile, vous n'y reussirez pas. 
 
 And not mettez-lui une bordure, nor vous ne lui rtussirez 
 
 pas. 
 
 If, however, the impersonal pronouns are used for inani- 
 mate objects personified, or preceded by the verb to owe, 
 or to be indebted, they should be expressed by lui or leur 
 (and not by y). Thus lui and y may be said of the same 
 object, joined to different verbs. Example : 
 
 This house is well situated, have some repairs done to it, 
 
 you are indebted to it for your health ; 
 Cette maison est bien situce, faifes y faire des repara- 
 tions, vous lui devez votre sante; (not vous y devez, 
 &.c. 
 
 The words en and y, of which mention is made in the 
 two preceding rules, are also two adverbs of place ; en 
 s tands for the words hence, from thence ; and y for there, 
 or thither. Examples : 
 
 _ Will you go to London ? No, I come from thence ; 
 Voulez-vous venir d Londres 1 Non, fen viens. 
 Have you been to France ? No, I have never been the&rf ; 
 Avez-vous ete en France? Non,je n'y aijamais bib. 
 
 RULE 53. When it or them come after a Preposition, 
 they are not expressed in French. 
 
 When the pronouns it or them are preceded by a prepo- 
 sition, they cannot Be expressed by lui or elle, eux or elles, 
 which in this case are said only of persons or personified ob- 
 jects; but they are usually left out, and the preposition 
 used in English becomes an adverb when it conveys the 
 idea sufficiently. Examples : 
 
 The king was for the % war, but the parliament wsp 
 against it; 
 
 Le roi etoitpour la guerre, mais le parlementfut contrc. 
 
l62 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Come near the fire ; I am near it ; 
 
 Approchez-vous dufeu. Je suis tout ailpres. 
 
 If the preposition cannot become an adverb, we must 
 give the sentence another turn. Example : 
 
 At first the house was burnt, and after it the church ; 
 D'abordla maisonfut brulee, et ensuite 
 
 RULE 54. Use of the supplementary Pronouns, le. la, 
 les. 
 
 Tiie supplementary pronouns le, la, les, are always used 
 in French before the verb etre, in answer to a question, 
 though there be no pronoun expressed in English. 
 
 JLe is indeclinable: 1. With reference to adjectives of 
 botli genders and numbers. Examples: Are your brothers 
 learned ? No, they are not ; Vos freres .sont-ils savans ? 
 Non, Us ne le sont pas. Are your sisters sick? Yes, they 
 are ; Fos sceurs sont-elles malades ? Out, elles le sont. 
 
 2. With reference to verbs. Example : Do you thj.uk 
 they will come? Yes, we do ; Croyez-vous qu'ils viennent ? 
 Out, nous le croyons. 
 
 3. With reference to substantives adjectively used. Ex.- 
 ample : Mesdames, etes-vous parentes? Out, nous le 
 sommes *. 
 
 Le, inaeclinable is also used with reference to adjec- 
 tives or verbs, for the words it or so, sometimes expressed 
 in English, but for the most part understood. Examples: 
 You are happy, and I am not ; Vous ties heureuse, et moi 
 je ne le suis pas. { said so, but you would not believe it ; 
 Je le disois, mais vous ne vouliez pas le croire. 
 
 But le, la, les, are declinable, and used according to 
 the gender or number when they have reference to a sub- 
 stantive. Examples: Are you Peter's brother? Yes, I 
 am ; Etes-vous le frere de Pierre ? Out, je le suis. Are 
 you Peter's wife? Yes I am; Etes-vous la femme da 
 
 * We may also answer, owi, Monsieur ; oui, Madame, fyc. without 
 repeating the verb the question is asked by. 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 163 
 
 Pierre ? Oui t je la suis. Are these your books ? Yes, 
 they are ; Sont-ce Id vos livres ? Out, ce les sont. Are 
 these your houses? No, they are not;* Sont-ce Id vos 
 maisons ? Non, ce ne les sont pas. 
 
 If the adjectives be substantively used, la should be 
 used for the feminine singular, and les for the plural. Ex- 
 amples : Etes-vous la maladepour laquelle on a fait venir le 
 medecin ? Out, je la suis. Mes demoiselles , gtes-vous les pa- 
 rentes de monsieur ? Oui, nous les sommes. 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 The right placing of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 RULE 55. Place of t,ke Personal Pronouns. 
 
 The personal pronouns, jc, tu, il, elle, nous t vous, Us, 
 or elles, usually precede the verb of which they are the 
 nominative case. Example : Je Us, I read ; tu lis t thou 
 readest, &c. 
 
 They may be separated from it by the particle ne, and 
 the governed pronouns, if there are any ; but never by any 
 adverb. Examples :* 
 
 He has not seen them ; I will not speak to them of it ; 
 II ne les a pas vus. Je ne leur en parlerai pas. 
 You always speak the truth ; He often speaks of you ; 
 Vous dites toujours la verite. Ilparle sou vent de vous. 
 Not vous toujours dites la vtritt. II souvent parle de vous. 
 
 The personal pronouns,^, tu, il, ell*, nous, vous, Us, 
 or elles, are placed immediately after the verb, or its 
 auxiliary, in three cases. 
 
 1. In an interrogative sentence. Examples : 
 
 * Ce is used in answer to a question asked by est-ce Id, or sont-ce 
 W. Example : Est ce-ld votre chapeau 1 Oui, ce Vest. 
 
164 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUSN. 
 
 Do you speak French ? Have you learnt it long ? 
 Parlez-\ous Francois ? L'avez-vons apgris long-temps ? 
 
 2. When they are the nominative case of the verbs dire, 
 rcpondre, repliquer, continuer, poursuivre, or s eerier, used 
 in a sentence as by parenthesis. Examples : 
 
 You see, said he, the condition I am reduced to ; 
 Vous voyez, dit-il, Veldt oiije suis reduit. 
 Why, did I answer him, have you not told it me before? 
 Pourquoi, lui repondis-je, ne me I'avez -vous pas dit plu- 
 tot 'I 
 
 3. Most frequently when the verb is preceded by the con- 
 junctions au mains, aussi, ainsi, en vain, peut-etre, a peine, 
 and some others. Examples : 
 
 In vain you seek for excuses ; Perhaps he will come; 
 En vain cherchez-vous des excuses. Peut-tre viendra-t-il. 
 
 RULE 56. The governed Pronouns placed after tht 
 Verb. 
 
 When the verb is in the imperative affirmative, the go 
 verned pronouns are put after it in French as in English. 
 Examples: 
 
 Speak to them ; write to him ; answer us ; see them. 
 Parlez-leur ; ecrivea-lm ; repondez-nous ; voyez-le&, 
 
 But if there are two imperatives joined by a conjunction, 
 the governed pronouns are put after the first verb, and be- 
 fore the second. Examples : 
 
 Lend or sell it me ; pretez le-moi, ou me le vendez. 
 Forgive or punish t-hem ; Pardonnez-leur, ou les punissez. 
 
 If the verb which is in the imperative affirmative governs 
 two pronouns the accusative goes first. Examples : 
 
 Give it me, sell it them ; donnez-le-moi, vendez-le-\eur. 
 When the pronouns y or en, meet with another pronoun^ 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 165 
 
 they go last, as menez-les-y, menez-nous-y, donuez-teur-en, 
 &c. however, y is placed before moi, and m'en is used in- 
 stead of moi en. Examples : 
 
 Carry me thither ; menez-y-woi ; give ^ me some ; don- 
 nez-m'en. 
 
 (Not menez-moi-s-y, donnez-moi-s-en, as said incorrectly 
 by some persons.) 
 
 But if the verb were in the imperative negative, the go- 
 verned pronouns should go before it, as they do in all other 
 tenses. Examples : 
 
 Do not sell it him; do not give it them; 
 Ne le lui vendez pas ; ne le leur donnez pas. 
 
 RULE 57. The governed Pronouns placed be/ore the 
 Verb. 
 
 When the verb is not in the imperative affirmative, the 
 governed pronouns are always put immediately before it in 
 a simple tense, and before its auxiliary in a compound one. 
 Examples : 
 
 You do not know them ; you have not seen them. 
 Vous ne les connoissez pas ; vous ne les avez pas vus. 
 
 The governed pronouns do not precede any other verbs 
 than those they are governed by, or their auxiliaries: thus 
 we say : 
 
 I wanted to speak to them; he could do it; 
 Je voulois leur parler; ilpouvoit lefaire. 
 (Not Je leur voulois parler ; nor il le pouvoit faire.) 
 
 RULE 58, Order in which Pronouns are put before 
 the Verb. 
 
 When two or more pronouns are governed by a verb, 
 those of the first and second persons precede those of the 
 third ; and if they are both of the third person, the accusa- 
 tive is placed before the dative ; y and en go the last ; or 
 what is the same, the"governed pronouns are invariably, 
 placed before the verb, in the following order: 
 
106 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 Me, te; se, nous, vous, go before eveny other. 
 Le, la, les, go before lui, leur, y or en. 
 
 Lui, leur, go before y or en. 
 
 Y, goes before en. Examples : 
 
 He gives it me, he has lent it you, he has sent them to us ; 
 // me le donne, il vous Va prete, il nous les a envoyes. 
 When he sends them to me, I shall bring them to you ; 
 Quand il me les enverra,je vous les porterai. 
 He gives it to him, he will lend it to them, he has sent 
 
 them to him; 
 
 // le lui donne, il le leur pretera, Us les lui a envoy e$. 
 I will carry you some thither, I have carried some hither 
 
 to them. 
 Je vous y en porterai, je leur y en ai porte. 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH, 
 When the Pronouns are, or are not to be repeated in French. 
 
 RULE 59. The Personal Pronouns, je, tu, il, fyc. re- 
 peated. 
 
 The personal pronouns of the first and second persons^ 
 such as je, tu, nous, vous, are usually repeated in French 
 before every verb of which they are the nominative case, 
 whether they are repeated or not in English. Example : 
 
 You should love God with all your heart, forgive your 
 enemies, and pray for those who persecute you : 
 
 Vous aimer ez Dieu de tout voire cceur ; vous pardonnerez 
 a vos ennemis et vous prierez pour vos persecuteurs. 
 
 The pronouns of the third person are usually repeated. 
 1. When they belong to different tenses. 2. When the se- 
 , cond is preceded by any other conjunction than et, ni, or OH: 
 3. When the first is affirmative and the second negative, or 
 vice versa. 4. When the second verb is separated from 
 the preceding by many words. Examples : 
 
SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. l6*7 
 
 1. She is and will always be modest, I am sure ; 
 
 Elle est modeste, et elle le sera toujours,je euis sur. 
 
 2. They are lovely, since they please you ; 
 
 Elles sfnt aimables, puisqu' elles vous plaisent. 
 
 3. |ie says so, but he does not believe it ; 
 II le dit, metis il ne le croit pas. 
 
 4. He spoke yesterday to his father about his sister's mar- 
 
 riage and obtained his consent ; 
 II parla, /tier d son ptre dn marriage de sa sceur, et il 
 obfint son consentsment. 
 
 xln other circumstances, the pronouns il or die, Us or elles, 
 are not usually repeated before verbs which are in the -same 
 tense. Thus we say : 
 
 He took towns, conquered provinces, and subdued na- 
 tions ; 
 
 II prit des miles, conquit des provinces, et subjugua des 
 nations. 
 
 RULE 60. The governed P ronouns are always re- 
 peated. 
 
 The pronouns, me t te 9 le, nous, vous, lui, letir, It, la, les, 
 are always repeated in French before very verb they are 
 governed by, whether they are repeated or not in English. 
 Examples : 
 
 A son well educated never rebels against his father; he 
 
 loves, honours, and respects him ; 
 Unfils lien tleve ne s'armejarnais contre son pere, il Vaime, 
 
 Vhonore, et le respecte. 
 
 I love him, and always shall, if he behave well ; 
 Je Vaime et je V aimer ai toujour, s'il se conduit bien. 
 
 SECTION THE FIFTH. 
 
 Distinction between lui, cile, se, and soi. 
 RU'LE 6l. himself, herself, expressed by se, lui, elle, 
 
 or soi. 
 
 The compound pronouns, himself, herself, themselves, 
 joined to a verb, are generally expressed by se t if it is re- 
 
l6S SYNTAX QF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 fleeted; but if not, himself is expressed by lui meme, and 
 herself by elle-me'me ;* themselves by eux m&mes, for the mas- 
 culine, by ellcs-me'mes, for the feminine. Examples : 
 
 He submits himself to your orders, but he is not satisfied ; 
 // se soumet d vos ordres, mais il n'est pas content. 
 She always speaks of herself, and never of others ; 
 Elle parle toujours ^Telle-meme, etjamais des aittres. 
 They are come of their own accord into the country ; 
 Us sont venus rf'eux-memes a la campagne. 
 
 The compound pronouns himself and herself, are expres- 
 ed by soi, speaking of persons in general, and after the in- 
 determinate pronouns, on, chacun, quelqu'un, quiconque, 
 eelui or celle qui. Examples : 
 
 The man who loves nobody but himself is not fit for 
 
 society ; 
 
 L'homme qui n'aime que soi n'est pas propre pour la socitte. 
 Every one acts for himself, in this world ; 
 Chacun agit pour soi en ce monde. 
 Whoever thinks only of himself is unworthy to live; 
 Quiconque ne pense qu'a soi est indigne de vivre. 
 The word soi is not used with reference to a noun plural. 
 
 RULE 62. itself is rendered by lui or soi. 
 
 The impersonal pronoun itself \ is usually expressed by soi 
 and not by lui, when it has reference to a pronoun, or to a 
 substantive singular taken in a general sense, which repre- 
 sents an inanimate object. Examples ; 
 
 That is good in itself; cela est bon en soi. 
 Load-stone attracts iron to itself; L'aimant attire If 
 fer a soi. 
 
 When itself has a reference to an animate object, it is 
 expressed by lui-m&me or elle-meme. It is also expressed by 
 lui-meme, elle-meme, and not by soi, when it refers to an in- 
 animate object taken in an individual sense. Example : 
 
 La terre est fertile eTelle-m&me: (not de soi.) 
 Earth is fruitful of itself. 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 16^ 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Of Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 RULE 63. The Possessive Pronouns agree with and are 
 repeated before all their Substantives. 
 
 The possessive pronouns are repeated in French before 
 all their substantives, and agree with them in gender and 
 number ; they are indeclinable in English and need not to 
 be repeated. Example : 
 
 My father, mother, and brothers are in the country ; 
 Monpere, ma mere, et mesfreres sdnt a la campagne 
 
 We nevertheless use the pronouns mon, ton, son, masc. 
 before a noun feminine which begins with a vowel or an h 
 mute, in order to avoid the hiatus which would result from 
 the meeting of two vowels. Examples : 
 
 Mon &me, f. ton ambition, f. son humeur, f. 
 (Not zft*-&me, ta ambition, sa humeur.) 
 
 The English make the pronouns his and her agree with 
 the noun antecedent ; the French, on the contrary, make 
 always son, sa, ses, agree with the noun which follows. 
 Examples : 
 
 Her husband is young ; His wife is handsome ; 
 Son epoux est jeune ; Sa femme est belle. 
 
 RULE 64, The Possessive Pronouns are used in speak- 
 ing to one's Relations. 
 
 When we speak to our relations or friends, we use, in 
 French, the possessive pronouns mon, ma, mes before the 
 wards Jils, fille, frere, sccur, pere, mere, onele, tante, &c. 
 though they are not used in English. 'Examples: 
 
1/0 SYNTAX OF POSSESSJ.VE PBONOUNS. 
 
 Where are you, daughter ? Ou etes-vous, majille ? 
 
 Here I am, father ; Me void, mon perel 
 
 Brother, will you come with me ? Yes, sister. 
 
 Mon frere, voulez-vous venir avec moi? Out, ma sceur. 
 
 RULE 65. When the Qualifications of Mr. and Mde. 
 4*c. are used. 
 
 When we speak to any person respecting their relations 
 or friends, and we mean to pay them some respect, the qua- 
 lifications of Monsieur, Madame, Mademoiselle, &c. are 
 usually prefixed in French to the possessive pronouns votre 
 or vos. Examples : 
 
 How does your uncle do? 
 
 Comment se porte Monsieur votre onch ? 
 
 Are your sisters at home ? 
 
 Mesdemoisolles vous sfjcurs sont elks a la maison ? 
 
 I met with your mother, who told me that your father 
 
 was not well ; 
 J'ai rencontre Madame votre mere, qui m'a dit que 
 
 Monsieur votre ptre ne se porloit pas bien. 
 
 Observe, The possessive pronouns, mon, ma, of which 
 these words monsieur, madame, mademoiselle, are composed, 
 are changed into mes for the plural ; so we say, messieurs, 
 mes dames, mesdemoiselles. 
 
 Monsieur and Messieurs are employed as substantives, 
 and may be preceded by an article, or another pronoun, as 
 le monsieur quefai vu, the gentleman I have seenijepar- 
 lerai a ces messieurs, I will speak to these gentlemen. But the 
 possessive pronoun is always left out before dame, demoiselle ; 
 used si>bstantively ; cette dame, or cette demoiselle, est belle ; 
 that lady is handsome; and not cette madame, cette made- 
 moiselle. 
 
 RULE 66. When the Possessive Pronouns are rendered 
 by the Personal. 
 
 The possessive pronouns (my, thy, his, her, &c.) are ex- 
 pressed in French by the personal pronouns me, te y se % nous, 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 171 
 
 vous, lui, leur, in the dative ; and not by mon y ton, son, &c. 
 when the verb which relates to them denotes an action over 
 any part of the body ; and in this case an article definite 
 takes the ordinary place of the pronoun. Examples : 
 
 You have broke his arm ; Vous\m avez rompu le bras. 
 He has cut his finge/; // s'est coupe le doigt. 
 You tread upon their feet \Vous leur marchezsur lepied, 
 You hurt my hand ; Vous me blessez la main. 
 
 As if it were : you to him have broken the arm ; he to him 
 has cut the finger ; you to them tread upon the feet ; you to 
 me hurt the hand : and so on for all other like sentences. 
 
 Observe, to express his, her, and their, by se t 'when the 
 verb is reflected ; and by lui, or leur, when it is not. 
 
 RULE 67. When the Possessive Pronouns are, or are 
 not to be left out in French. 
 
 If the verb does not express an action over any part of the 
 body, the possessive pronouns (my, thy, his, her, &c.) are 
 expressed by mon, ton, son, &c. when the sentence is meant 
 to express a direct distinction between any one person's arm, 
 & ( c. and another's. Examples : 
 
 I see that my arm swells ; Je vois que mon bras enfle. 
 Do you think my hand will ever be cured? 
 Pensez-vous que ma main se guerisse jamais ? 
 
 But these pronouns are left out in French, and the derl^ 
 nite article le, la, les, used instead of them, if no such direct 
 distinction is intended. Examples: 
 
 I have a pain in my side ; J'ai mal au cote. 
 His eyes are sore ; 77 a mal aux yeux. 
 
 Observe, I put mon bras, ma main, in the first sentences, 
 because I can see another person's arm swelling as well as 
 mine ; but I put au cote, aux yeux, not ti mon cote, & scs 
 yeux, because I cannot feel pains in any other side than mine, 
 nor can he have other eyes sore than his own. This distinc- 
 tion is a nice point, and must be particularly attended to. 
 
T72 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE 6S. When its or their are to be expressed by son, 
 and when by en. 
 
 When the possessive pronouns its or their are used with re- 
 ference to an inanimate object, they are expressed by son, sa f 
 ses, leur, or by en, according to the following distinction : 
 
 They are expressed by son, sa, ses, leur, or leurs, 1 . when 
 they relate to the nominative of the preceding verb. 2. when 
 they are in the genitive or dative, or preceded by any prepo- 
 sition whatsoever. 3. when being in the nominative they are 
 joined to a substantive qualified by an adjective or specified 
 by some other words. 4. when in the nominative, the next 
 verb or its government is immediately, or may be followed 
 by the preposition de. Examples ; 
 
 1. London has its beauties ; Londres a ses beautes. 
 
 2. I admire the size of its streets; 
 
 J* admire la grandeur de ses rues. 
 
 3. Its regular buildings please at the first sight ; 
 
 Ses b&timens rfy>u\i*rg plaisent au premier coup d'ceil. 
 
 4. Its trade produces immense resources; 
 
 $on commerce produit d'immenses ressources. 
 
 Its ships bring the riches of all the countries ; 
 
 Ses vaisseaujc apportent le s richcsses de tousles pays. 
 
 Except on these occasions, its or their are expressed by 
 en before the verb, and the article le, la, les, before the sub- 
 stantive. So we should say speaking still of London : 
 
 Its residence is agreeable ; 
 
 Le stjour en est agreable. 
 
 Its squares appear to me beautiful ; 
 
 Les places w'en paroissent superbts. 
 
 I particularly admire its rich warehouses ; 
 
 J 'en admire surtout les riches mas:asins. 
 
 o 
 
 When its or their have reference to an animate object, 
 they are always expressed by son, sa, ses, leur, law/. 
 Example : . 
 
 Your horse lost its shoe*; Votre cheval a perdu sonjer. 
 
SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 173 
 
 RULE 69. Of the Possessive Pronouns mine, thine, Arc. 
 
 The possessive pronouns (mine, thine, his, hers, c. agree 
 in French, both in gender and number, with the substantive 
 antecedent to which they have reference, and are always pre- 
 ceded by the definite article, le, la> les. Example 
 
 Many iiouses have been destroyed during the siege ; yours 
 and mine have been burnt, but theits has not suffered ; 
 
 Beaucoup (h maisons out etc dvtruitts pendent It siege ; 
 la votre et la raienne ont ctv bruties, niais la leur na 
 point soujfert* 
 
 RULE 70. mine is sometimes expressed by mes. 
 
 When the possessive pronouns (mine, thine, his, hers, &c.) 
 preceded by of, are placed after a substantive to which they 
 .elate, they are expressed in French by mes, tes, ties, nos, 
 vos, leurs, placed before the substantive, and not by h mien,. 
 le ticn, le sien, &c. Examples : 
 
 A friend of mine ; Un de mes amis; (not un ami des miens.), 
 A book of yours ; Un de vos livres; (not un Here des wires.) 
 
 As if it were: one of my friends; one of your books : and 
 in the same way all sentences of this sort, 
 
 RULE 71. mine, thine, expressed by & moi, a toi. 
 
 The disjunctive mine, thine, &c. are expressed by d mot, 
 ti toi, a lui, d elle, d nous, d vous, a eux, or a elles, when they 
 come after the verb to be, which has for its nominative case 
 a substantive, or a personal pronoun. Examples: 
 
 That book is mine ; Ce livre est a moi, 
 
 It is not your's, I think ; // n'est pas a vous,Je crois. 
 
 If, however, Jhe verb fare is preceded by ce; then mine, 
 thine, &c. should be expressed by le mien, le tien, le sien, 
 &c. Example : 
 
 Is that your watch ? Yes, it is mine ; 
 Est-ce 1(1 votre montre? Oui, c'est la mienne. 
 
J74 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 N. B. If a substantive come after or a relative pronoun 
 come before the verb ttre, signifying to, belong, they are 
 put in the dative case in French, and in the genitive in 
 English. Examples : 
 
 This horse is my fa-ther's ; Ce cheval est a mon pere. 
 Whose house is that 1 A qui est cetle maison* 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF DEMONSTRATIVE'PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE 72. ce, cet, cette, that; ces, those 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns ffAi's and that)wtz expressed 
 in French by ce before a substantive singular and masculine, 
 when it begins with a consonant or A aspirated ; as cejardin, 
 this garden ; ce htros, that hero ; and by cet when it begins 
 with a vowel or h mute ; as set oiseau, this bird ; cet homme, 
 this man ; by cette before a substantive feminine ; as cette 
 maison, that house : these and those are expressed by ces, 
 before a substantive plural of both genders ; as ccs homrnes> 
 these men ; cesfemmes, these women. 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns are repeated before every 
 substantive, and agree with each in gender and number. 
 Example : 
 
 This garden, this tree, this house, and all this furniture 
 
 are not worth three hundred guineas. 
 Cejardin, cet arbre, cette maison, et tons ces meubles, 
 
 ne valent pas trois cens guinees. 
 
 To determine more precisely the subject we are speaking 
 of, we add often in French the particle ci or Id to the sub- 
 stantive preceded by ce, cet, cette, or ces. Examples : 
 
 That man is a rogue ; Cet homme-lh est un coquin. 
 These pens are good for nothing ; 
 Ces plumes-ci ne valent rien. 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 175 
 
 RULE 73. cm, cela, this, that. 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns (this and that) are express- 
 i in French by ceci and cela, when they are used to point 
 t some object,, without specifying what it is ; when ccci and 
 >la meet in the same sentence, ceci denotes the nearest ob* 
 ?ct and cela the most distant. Examples: 
 
 This is good, that is bad ; Ceci est Ion, cela est mauvais. 
 You always ask what is this for, what is that for ; 
 Vous demandez toujours pourquoi ceci, pour quoi cela. 
 Why did you do that without my leave? 
 Pourquoi avez-vous fait cela sans ma permission ? 
 
 RULE 74. ce qui, or ce que ; what or that which. 
 
 The pronouns that which or what, signifying that thing 
 ihick % are expressed in French by ce qui, for the nomina- 
 te case, ce dont for the genitive, ce ti quoi, for the dative, 
 <i ce que for the accusative; which are always singular 
 :K! rnasfijjir.e. Examples : 
 
 tWraf; Is agreeable to the taste, is often prejudicial to the 
 
 health ; 
 
 Ce qui est agreable au gout, est souvent contraire a la 
 sante. 
 
 \ do not know of what he is accused; 
 
 Je ne sais pas ce dont on I' accuse. 
 
 You see to what you engage yourself; 
 
 Vcus voyez ce a quoi vous vous engagfz. 
 
 You give me that which you do not like ; 
 
 Vous me donnez ce que vous n'aimez point. 
 I 
 
 -N. B. When ce qui or ce que begins a sentence of two 
 !'',irts, the word ce is repeated before the auxiliary tire, if 
 i. is followed by a substantive, a pronoun, or a verb. Ex* 
 Imples : 
 
 What I fear most is treason ; 
 Ce queje crains le plus, ce sont les trahisons. 
 What I wish for most, is that peace may be made ; 
 Ce quej'e desire le plus, c'est qu'onfasse la paix. 
 
176 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The demonstrative ce must not be repeated, when the 
 verb Gtre is followed by an adjective without a substantive. 
 Example : 
 
 What I have eaten was very good; 
 
 Ce qnefai mange 6toit excellent, (not c'toit excellent, ) 
 
 RULE 75.celui~ci, celui Id; this or that. 
 
 When the demonstrative pronouns have reference to seve- 
 ral substantives, this and these refer to the objects nearest 
 or last spoken of; and are expressed this by celui-ci, or 
 celle-ci ; these by ceux-ci, or celles-ci; that and those have 
 reference to the most distant objects, and are expressed, 
 that by celui-ld, or celle-ld ; those by ceux-ld or celles-ld; 
 according to the gender and number of the substantive to 
 which they have reference. Examples : 
 
 The body perishes, the soul is immortal : however we ne- 
 glect this, and sacrifice every thing for that ; 
 
 Le corps pcrit, I'dme est immortelle ; cependant nous ne- 
 gligeons celle-ci, et nous sacrifions tout pour celui-la. 
 
 Here are good books ; which do you like best, these or 
 those ? 
 
 Void de bons livres ; lesquels aimez-vous le miewx, de 
 ceux-ci, ou de ceux-la ] 
 
 N. B. The former is also expressed by celui-ld Qicelle-ld; 
 and the latter by celui-ci or celle-ci. 
 
 RULE 76. celui de or celle de, &c. that of; celui qui, 
 that which. 
 
 When the demonstrative pronouns are followed imme- 
 diately by the preposition of, they are expressed, that of 
 by celui de or celle de, and those of by ceux de or celles de. 
 Examples : 
 
 He spends all his fortune and that of his wife , 
 // depense tout son bien et celui de safemme. 
 Take these horses, or those of my son; 
 Prenez ces chevaux, ou ceux de monjils. 
 
SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 177 
 
 When the demonstrative pronouns are followed by which, 
 expressed or understood, they are expressed, that by celui 
 or celle t those by ceux or celles, and which by the relative 
 pronoun qui. Examples : 
 
 This house is larger than that which I hare sold ; 
 Cette maison est plus grande que celle quefai vendue. 
 These books are better than those you have lent me ; 
 Ces livres valent mieux que ceux que vous mavez pretes. 
 
 When the word which is used in answer to a question, it 
 is also expressed by celui, or celle qui, if the question is 
 asked by the word which. Example : 
 
 Which of these oranges will you have ; Which you please. 
 Laquelle de ces oranges voulez-vous ? Celle qu'iV vous 
 plaira. 
 
 Observe, In this and the two following rules the relative 
 pronoun qui, is changed into dont, for the genitive, d qui or 
 auquel, for the dative, and que, for the accusative, according 
 to the case governed by the following verb. 
 
 After a preposition, qui or que are only used when speak- 
 ing of persons ; See the next Chapter. 
 
 RULE 77-- he who expressed in French by celui qui. 
 
 When the personal pronouns (he, she, they, or those) are 
 the antecedent of who, that, or which, they are not expressed 
 by ilor elle, as before ; but he who is rendered by celui qui, 
 she who by celle qui, they who by cella qui, or celles qui. 
 Examples : 
 
 He who cannot keep a secret, is incapable of governing*; 
 Celui qui ne sauroit garder un secret, est incapable de 
 
 gouverner. 
 
 They whom you protect, betray you with indignity ; 
 Ceux que vous protegez, vous trahissent indignement. 
 
 RULE 78. celui qui, he who, must be joined in French. 
 When in an English sentence the pronouns he, she, or 
 
 r 
 
178 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 they, are separated from the relative pronouns, wno or 
 which, they must be joined in French, and the second 
 part of the sentence is expressed the first. Examples : 
 
 He is a bad citizen who rebels against his country ; 
 Celui qui se revolte centre sa patriq est un mauvais ci- 
 
 toyen. 
 
 Those are mistaken who believe that kings are happy ; 
 Ceux qui croient que les rois sont heureux, se trompent. 
 
 These pronouns can however be separated as in Eng- 
 lish by adding the particle Id to celui or celle. Examples : 
 
 He is a bad citizen who rebels against his country ; 
 Celui-la est un mauvais citoyen qui se revolte contre as 
 
 patrie. 
 
 They are mistaken ivho tbink that kings are happy ; 
 Ceux-la se trompent qui croient que les rois sont heureux. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.* 
 
 RULE 79. qui, que, who, that, or which. 
 
 The relative pronouns, who, that, or which, are ex- 
 pressed by qui, for all sorts of objects, when they are in the 
 nominative case ; and by que when they are in the accusa- 
 tive. Examples : 
 
 The man who speaks; The book which is on the table ; 
 L'homme qui parle. be livre qui est sur la table. 
 The woman whom I have seen ; The lesson which I have 
 
 learnt ; 
 Lafemme quej'ai vue. La le$on quej'ai apprise. 
 
 N. B. The word to which the relative pronouns have 
 reference rs called the antecedent. 
 
 * See the definition and declension of relative pronouns, page 61. 
 
SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 17p 
 
 RULE 80. dont or de qui, of whom, whose, or of 
 
 which. 
 
 The relative pronouns whose, of whom, or of which, are 
 usually expressed by dont for all sorts of objects, when they 
 follow immediately their antecedent. Examples : 
 
 I have seen the person of whom you speak ; 
 J'aivu lapersonne dont vous parlez. 
 It is ah illness, the cause of which is unknown ; 
 C'est line maladie dont on ne connoit pas la cause. 
 
 But if the relative pronouns be separated from their an- 
 tecedent by another substantive, then whose, or of whom 
 are expressed by de qui, and of which by duquel, de la- 
 quelle, desquels, or desquelles, according to the gender and 
 number of the substantive to which they have reference. 
 Examples : 
 
 He is a man to whose discretion I dare not trust ; 
 
 C'est une personne a la discretion de quije n'oserois me 
 
 /-. 
 
 It is an illness to the progress of which one cannot apply 
 
 too quick remedies ; 
 C'esl une maladie auxprogres de laqirelle on ne peut ap~ 
 
 porter de trop promps remtdes. not aux pr ogres de 
 
 qui or dont. 
 
 N. B. The relative pronoun from whom, which answers, 
 to the Latin ablative, is always expressed by de qui, and 
 never by dont. Thus we say, 
 
 The man from whom I received a letter yesterday is sick ; 
 L'homme de qui (not dont) fai re$u hier une lettre est 
 malade. 
 
 RULE 81. qui or lequd, laqudle ; whom, which. 
 
 When the relative pronouns are in the dative case, or after 
 any preposition ; they are usually expressed by qui, speak- 
 ing of persons, and always by lequdle, or laqudle singular, 
 Izsqueh, or lesqutlles plural, speaking of animals and things. 
 Examples : 
 
180 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Your father is a man to whom I am much obliged ; 
 Votre ptre est un homme a quifai beaucoup d' obligation. 
 The glory to which Heroes sacrifice, is a false glory ; 
 La gloire & laquelle les Heros sacrifient est une fausse 
 
 gloire. 
 
 It is a reason to which there is no reply ; 
 C'est une raison & laquelle il n'y a point de replique. 
 
 RULE 82. When ou can be used for lequel. 
 
 When the relative pronouns are in the genitive, dative, ab- 
 lative, or after, a preposition, and refer to an inanimate ob- 
 ject, they are almost indifferently expressed by ou or by le- 
 quel, laquelle, &c. if the verb denotes some motion or rest, 
 at least figuratively. Examples : 
 
 Avoid the faults into which I have fallen ; 
 Evitez lesfautes ou (or dans lesquelles) je suis tombe. 
 I know the principle/row which all your system is derived ; 
 Je connois leprincipe cfou (or duquel) dtcoule tout votre 
 systeme. 
 
 Note, Ou and d'ou are also verbs of place, and stand fo 
 the words where or whence. Examples : 
 
 Where are you going? Ou alkz-vous? 
 
 From whence do you come ? D'ou venez-vous ? 
 Where have you passed ? Par ou avez-vous passe ? 
 
 RULE 83. The Relative Pronouns are never ommitted 
 in French . 
 
 The relative pronouns who t whom, that, or which, and al- 
 so the conjunction that; arc often understood in English; 
 but qui or que t which answer to them, are never understood 
 in French. Examples : 
 
 I think you are in the wrong ; Je crois que vous avez tort. 
 The man I was speaking to ; L' homme a qui je parlois. 
 The lesson I have learnt ; La le$on que j'ai apprise. 
 The book you read is mine ; Le livre que vous lisez est d 
 
SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRSNOUNS. 181 
 
 RULE 84. Place and Concord of the Relative Pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 The relative pronouns are placed in French immediately 
 after the nouns or pronouns to which they have reference ; 
 and agree with them in gender and number. Examples : 
 
 He rejected an advice, the utility of which he knew ; 
 // rejeta un avis dont il connoissoit Vutilite. 
 The books for which I have subscribed are very good ; 
 Les livres pour lesquelsj'at souscrit sont trvs-bons. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 The interrogative pronouns are in English these three, 
 who, which, and what; they are expressed in French as 
 follows : 
 
 RULE 85. qui? or qui est-ce qui? who? 
 
 The interrogative pronouns who, whose, to whom, &c. 
 which are said of persons only, are expressed in French by 
 qui, or qui est-ce qui, when they are the nominative case of 
 a verb ; they are expressed by qui in all other cases, and 
 never by que or dont, as the relative pronouns, of which 
 before. Examples : 
 
 Who is there? Qui est Id? or qui est-ce qui est Id? 
 Vf whom do you speak ? De qui parlez-vous? not dont. 
 With whom do you live? Avec qui demeurez-vom ? 
 To whom do you write? A qui ecrivez-vous? 
 Whom have you seen? Qui avez-vous vul 
 
 RULE 86. lequel, laquelle, &c. which. 
 
 When the word which is interrogatively used, it is always 
 
 i 
 
182 SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 expressed by lequel or laquelle for the singular, and by ks- 
 quels or lesquelles for the plural. Examples : 
 
 Which of my sisters will you marry ? 
 Laquelle de mes sceurs voulez-vous epouser ? 
 Which of these horses do you advise me to buy't 
 Lequel de ces chevaux me conseillez-vous d'acheterl 
 Which of your brothers learn French and Latin ? 
 Lequel de vosfrtres apprend k Francois et le Latin ? 
 
 RULE 87. quel, quelle? whatl 
 
 When the pronoun what is interrogatively used, it is ex- 
 pressed in French by quel m. or quelle f. before a substan- 
 tive singular, and by quels m, or quelles f. before a substan- 
 tive plural. Examples : 
 
 What crime has this man committed to punish him so? 
 Quel crime cet homme a-t-il commis pour le punir ainsi ? 
 To what passion is he inclined ? A quelle passion est-il 
 
 enclin ? 
 What game shall we play at 1 A quel jeujouerons-nous I 
 
 RULE 88. what, expressedby que, or qu'est-ce que. 
 
 When the interrogative pronoun what, signifies what 
 thing, it is expressed in French by que or by qu'est-ce qui 
 for thi nominative, and by que or, qu'est-ce que for the ac- 
 cusative. Examples : 
 
 What has happened to you ? 
 
 Que vous est-il arrive? or, qu'est-ce qui vous est arrive? 
 What do you blame in that work 1 
 Que bldmez-vous? or, qu'est-ce que vous blamez dans 
 cet ouvrage ? 
 
 RULE 89. what is expressed by quoi after a Preposition. 
 
 When the pronoun what is in the genitive, dative, or after 
 a preposition, and signifies what things, it is always ex- 
 pressed by quoi, whether the sentence be interrogative or 
 not. Examples : 
 
SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIONS. 183 
 
 In what am I guilty? En quoi suis-je coupdble? 
 I know ofivhat he complains ; Je sais de quoi Use plaint. 
 Of what do you accuse me 1 De quoi m'accusez-vous ? 
 It is in what you are mistaken ; C'est en quoi vous vous 
 trompez. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 On the different Sorts of Interrogations. 
 
 RULE 90. Interrogations made with o&, d'ou, 
 
 comment, &c. 
 
 Besides the interrogative pronouns, of which we have 
 treated before ; a question is often asked with the following 
 adverbs, combien, how much, how many ; comment, how ; 
 pourquoi, what for ; qiiand y when ; oft, where ; d'oh, from 
 whence : par oii 9 through what place. Examples : 
 
 How many horses have you got ? 
 
 Combien avez-vous de chevaux ? 
 
 How does your father do to-day ? 
 
 Comment seporte Monsieur votreptre aujourd'hui? 
 
 IVJiydo you not answer 7 Pourquoi ne repondez-vous pas'* 
 
 When will you come to see us 1 Quand viendrez vous nous 
 
 voir ? 
 
 Where are you going ? Ou allez-vous ? 
 From whence do you come ? D'ou venez-vous ? 
 
 RULE 91. The Pronouns je, tu, il, fyc. go after the 
 
 Verb in an interrogation. 
 
 When the following pronouns, jc, tu, il, die, nous, vous t 
 ils t elles, ce, or on, are the nominative case of a verb inter- 
 rogatively used, they are placed immediately after it, or its 
 auxiliary. Examples : 
 
184 SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIONS. 
 
 Are you sick ? Have you been sick to-day ? 
 Etes-vous malade ? Avez-vom ett malade aujourd'hui t 
 Do you learnFrench? Have you learnt Italian ? 
 
 Apprenez-vous te Francois? Avez-\ous appris lltalien ? 
 Is there any news ? Have you heard any news ? 
 
 X)&-on des nouvclles ? Vous a-t-on dit des nouvelles ? 
 
 In an interrogative sentence we put alway a hyphen (-) 
 between the verb and the pronoun ; as parlez-vous ? men- 
 dront-ils? If the verb ends with a vowel, and the pronoun 
 begins with another, we put between them a (-t-) with two 
 hyphens, in order to avoid the hiatus which would result 
 from the meeting of two vowels. Examples : 
 
 Does he speak? Will he come? Does she sing well ? 
 Parle-t4\ ? Viendra-l-\\ ? CAawfe-t-elle bien ? 
 
 A verb which ends in e mute in the first person singular, 
 takes an acute accent, when it is interrogatively used. 
 Examples : 
 
 I speak, do I speak ? I walk, do I walk 1 
 
 Je parle, Parle-je? Jemeprom%ne,Me promene-jet 
 
 N. B. When a verb interrogatively used has but one syl- 
 lable in the first person singular of the present of the indica- 
 tive mood, we ask the question with tst-ce-que. Thus : 
 
 Do I lose? Do I sleep? 
 
 Est-ce-queje perds ? Est-ce-queje dors ? 
 notperds-je? dors-jc? 
 
 RULE 92. In an Interrogation the Substantive g&es 
 before the Verb. 
 
 1 When a substantive, or any of the following pronouns, 
 ceti, cela, aucun, quelqu'un, personne, or rien, are the no- 
 minative case of a verb interrogatively used, they begin the 
 sentence in French, and the verb is always followed by a/or 
 elle ; Us or elles ; as if there was no nominative case before 
 Examples: 
 
SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIONS. 185 
 
 Is the dinner ready ? Le diner est-\\ pret ? 
 
 Is that good to eat? Cela est-\\ bon d manger? 
 
 Did any body ask for me 1 Quel qu'unm'a-t-il demanded 
 Is the company come ? La compagnie est-elle arriveet 
 
 As if it was : the dinner is it ready ? that is it good to 
 eat ? and so on for all others. 
 
 2. However when the sentence begins by an interrogative 
 expression, as who, qui, what, que or quoi, how much, com- 
 bien, where, ou, when, quand, &c. the pronouns il, elle, Us, 
 dies, may be omitted, and the substantive should be placed 
 after the verb, and even after the participle in the compound 
 te^es. Examples : 
 
 Who is that mjan ? Qui est cet homme ? 
 
 What does your son do? Que fait votre fits? 
 Where is your uncle gone ? Ou est alle votre oncle ? 
 
 RULE 93. est-ce Id, is that? rie st-ce pas Id, is not that? 
 
 The English put the demonstrative pronouns this or that 
 for the singular, and these or those for the plural before the 
 possessive pronouns my, his, your, their, &c. when they ask 
 to whom belongs such or such a thing. These sorts of in- 
 terrogation are expressed in French by est-ce Id, or sont-ce 
 Id, if the sentence is affirmative ; and by n'est-cepas.ld, or 
 ne sont-ce pas Id, if the sentence is negative. Examples: 
 
 Is that your house ? Est-ce la, votre maison ? 
 
 Are these your gardens ? Sont-ce la, vosjardins ? 
 Is not that your house ? N'est-ce pas la votre maison? 
 Are not these your gardens? Ne sont-ce pas la vosjardins ? 
 
 All sentences of this kind are expressed in the same 
 manner. 
 
 RULE 94. Interrogations rendered by est-ce que, er 
 
 n'est-ce pas. 
 
 The English often ask a question less to be informed if 
 such a thing is or is not, than to shew their surprise, that it 
 
ISO SYNTAX OF INTERROGAT1QN. 
 
 is so; these sorts of interrogations are expressed in French 
 by est-ce que. Examples : 
 
 It does not rain, does it? Est-ce qu'ilpleut? 
 Your brother is not dead, is he ? 
 Est-ce que votrefrere est mort? 
 
 If the question is negative, the first part of the sentence 
 having positively affirmed that the thing in question is such 
 or such, it is expressed in French by n'est-ce pas que, at 
 the beginning of a sentence, or by n'est-ce pas, at the end. 
 Example : 
 
 It is good weather, is it not ? 
 
 N'est-ce pas qu'ilfait beau temps? or il fait beau temps ; 
 
 n'est-ce pas ? 
 
 We have seen the King, have we not? 
 N'est-ce pas que nous awns vu le Roi? or nous avons vu 
 
 It Roi ; n'est-ce pas ? 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Different sorts of que. 
 
 There are in French five distinct sorts of que, called (qne) 
 relative, (que) interrogative, (que) admirative, (que) con- 
 ditional, and (que) conjunctive. Having spoken at large 
 of the two first in the seventh and eighth chapters, we will 
 next treat of the remaining three. 
 
 RULE 95. que of Admiration, how or how much. 
 
 The que of admiration expresses wonder or surprise ; it 
 answers to the English words how, how much, how many. 
 Examples : 
 
 How happy you are ! Que vous tes heureux f 
 
SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIONS. l87 
 
 How wonderful are the works of God ! 
 Que les ouvrages de Dieu sont admirables! 
 How I hate the impious ! Queje hais les impies ! 
 How much money you have I Que vous avez d' argent ! 
 How many misfortunes he has experienced ! 
 Que de malheurs il a eprouves ! 
 
 Observe, 1. That the adjective which follows how in 
 English, is always put after the verb in French. Example : 
 
 How unhappy I am ! Qutje suis malheureux ! 
 
 2. That if how much, or how many, are followed by a 
 substantive, the que which answers to them is always fol- 
 lowed by de in French. Example : 
 
 How much trouble you take for me ! 
 Que de peine vous prenez pour moi ! 
 
 N. B. If how many was preceded by the preposition of, 
 to, or any other, it should be expressed by combien de, and 
 not by que . Example : 
 
 To how many dangers have I not been exposed in France ; 
 A combien de dangers n'ai-je pas et6 expose en France. 
 
 RULE 96. que conditional, whether, or if, in English. 
 
 The conditional que is used in the beginning of a sentence, 
 for the word whether, and in the middle to avoid the repe- 
 tition of si: in both cases it governs the subjunctive mood. 
 Examples : 
 
 Whether he does it or not, I do not care ; 
 Qu't7 lefasse ou non,je ne men soucie pas. 
 If somebody comes and I am out, send for me ; 
 S'il vient quelqu'un et que je sois sorti, envoy ez-moi 
 chercher. 
 
 RULE 97. que used for several Conjunctions. 
 
 The que conjunctive may be used for many conjunctions, 
 1 particularly for the ten following : 
 
 1. Arm que, that. 3. Avant que, before. 
 
 2. A moins que, unless. 4. Cependant, yet. 
 
188 SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIONS. 
 
 5. De peur que, for fear. 8. Parce que, because. 
 
 6. Depuis que, since. p. Quand, when. 
 
 7. Jusqu'a ce que, till. 10. Pourquoi, why. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 1. Come here, that I may speak to you,; 
 Venez-ici t queje vous park. 
 
 2. I will not go and see him, unless he iuyites me ; 
 Je nirai pas le voir qu'iY ne m'en prie. 
 
 3. You shall not go out before it is light ; 
 Vous ne partirez pas qu'i'/ ne soitjour. 
 
 4. Though he should have all the gold in the world, 
 
 yet he would not be satisfied ; 
 // auroit tout Vor du monde, qu'iY ne seroit pas content. 
 
 5. Go out quickly, for fear the master should come; 
 Sortez prompt erne nt que le maitre ne vienne. 
 
 6. How long is it since your brother is dead ; 
 Combien y a-t-il que votrejrere est mort ? 
 
 7. Wait till the rain is over ; Attendez qu'iY nepleuve plus. 
 
 8. If I did not come yesterday, it was because I had 
 
 business ; 
 Sije ne vins pas hier f c'est c[\iej'avois des affairs. 
 
 9. I was at London the day when he died ; 
 J'etois d Londres lejour qu'i/ mourut. 
 
 10. Why do you not answer when I speak to you? 
 Que ne repondez-vous quandje vous parle I 
 
 Note. The^ conjunction ^wei&placed between two verbs, 
 and serves to particularise the sense of the first; this con- 
 junction must be used in French every time the word that 
 is or could be expressed in English. Examples : 
 
 I think one cannot be happy without practising virtue : 
 Je pense qu'ow ne peut etre heureux sans pratiq uer la 
 
 vertu. 
 I maintain he is in the right ; it appears you are in the 
 
 wrong ; 
 Jt maintiens qu'tV a raison ; ilparoit que VQUS avez terf* 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 189 
 
 Observations. 
 
 The word que is also used, 1. To join the two terms of 
 a comparison ; as, je suis plus jeune que vous; I am younger 
 than you. 2. To restrain a negative sentence, then it 
 stands for but or only ; as, je n'ai que quinze ans ; I am but 
 fifteen years of age. 3. To express a wish, a command, an 
 imprecation or indignation ; as, qu't7 perisse I'impie ; may 
 the impious perish. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 RULE 9$. Use of the Particle on, one. 
 
 All vague and general reports expressed in English by 
 tJiey say, we say, people say, one says, it is said, it is re- 
 ported, and such like, are rendered in French by on, with 
 the verb in the third person singular. Examples : 
 
 People say, it is thought, they maintain every where that 
 
 it is so ; 
 
 On dit, on croit, on soutient partout que la chose est ainsi. 
 One is not always master of oue's passions. 
 On nest pas toujours maitre de ses passions. 
 
 The passive voice is seldom used in French, therefore,when 
 the passive verb is not followed by a substantive and the pre- 
 position by, we often turn the passive into active, putting 
 the pronoun on instead of the nominative used in English; 
 thus it is said, it is reported, &c. are expressed by on dit, 
 on rapporte, &c. Examples : 
 
 It is believed that peace will be made this year ; 
 On croit que la paix se fera cette annee. 
 
IpO SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Have letters been received from France to-day ? 
 A-t-on refit des Itttres de France aujourd'hui ? 
 A courier has been dispatched to Spain ; 
 On a envoye un courier en Espagne. 
 
 On must be repeated before every verb of which it is the 
 nominative case. Example : 
 
 They praise, blame, threaten, punish, &c. 
 On hue, on blame, on menace, on punit, &c. 
 
 Observe, The learner must take care not to express they 
 by on, except when it is employed absolutely without any 
 reference to a substantive plural ; when they relates to a 
 substantive plural, it is expressed by Us or elles. 
 
 RULE^ 99- Cases where Ton is used instead of on. 
 
 On takes elegantly an /' after the words et, si, or ou. 
 Examples : 
 
 If we would practise virtue, we should be happy in this 
 world, and procure ourselves an eternal happiness ; 
 
 Si Ton pratiquoit la vertu, on seroit heureux sur la terre, 
 et Ton se procureroit un bonheur Gternel. 
 
 You have been, or will be soon rewarded ; 
 
 On vous a recompense, ou /'on vous recompensera bientSt. 
 
 L'on is also used after que, when the next verb begins by 
 r, or q. Examples : 
 
 We learn better what we understand, than what we do not ; 
 On apprend mieux ce que Ton comprend, que cc que Ton ne 
 
 comprend pas. 
 
 It seems they quarrel with the servants. 
 // semble que Ton querelle les domestiques. 
 
 N. B. L'on sounds better than on in the above sentences, 
 and is always used by good authors in such cases, provided 
 it be not followed by le, la, les, in which case on never takes 
 an /. Thus we could not say, mettez la votre lettrc, et I'on 
 la lira; but we must say,et on la lira. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. J91 
 
 RULE 100. Different Significations of m&me. 
 
 The words the same are expressed in French by le or la 
 meme for the singular, and by les memes for the plural, 
 whether they be joined or relative to a substantive. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 The same thing does not please every body ; 
 La ineme chose ne plait pas a tout le monde. 
 Customs are not the same in every country ; 
 Les usages ne sont pas les me* mes dans tous les pays. 
 
 The word mvme is often used in French to give more ener- 
 gy to the speech ; in that case it comes after a substantive 
 or a pronoun, and answers to the English expressions, him- 
 self, herself t itself, &c. Examples : 
 
 The king himself opposed it; Le roi mme sy opposa. 
 Religion itself forbids it ; La religion me" me le defend. 
 
 In this occasion we more generally place Iui 9 elle, eux, 
 elks, before vn&me, as, Le roi lui-m&me s'y opposa ; la reli- 
 gion elle-ni&me le defend. 
 
 The word tntim-e, is sometimes an adverb ; a&d answers 
 then to the English words also or even. Example : 
 
 We must love every body, even our enemies ; 
 II faut aimer tout le monde, meme nos ennemis. 
 
 RULE 101. plusieurs, many, or several. 1 
 
 The words many and several are expressed by plusieurs, 
 always plural of both ganders. Examples : 
 
 Many deceive themselves when they want to deceive 
 
 others ; 
 
 Plusieurs se trompent en voulant tromper les autres. 
 Do not apply yourself to several things at once. 
 Ne vousappliquezpas d plusieurs choses d lafois. 
 
 RULE 102. un autre, pronoun and adjective, another* 
 The indeterminate pronouns other > another, are expressed 
 
.92 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONQUNS. 
 
 by un autre for the singular, and by les autres, for the plu- 
 ral. These words are either pronouns or adjectives ; when 
 pronouns, they are always masculine ; and when adjectives, 
 they agree in gender and number with the substantive to 
 which they have reference. Examples : 
 
 Another would not have forgiven you so easily as I did ; 
 Un autre ne vous aureit pas pardonne si facilement que 
 
 moi. 
 Do not speak ill of others, if you would not have other* 
 
 speak ill of you. 
 Ne parlez pas mal des a litres, si vous ne voulez pas que 
 
 les autres par lent mal de vous. 
 
 N. B. When the word others is in the genitive or dative 
 cases, or preceded by a preposition, it is most commonly 
 expressed in French by autrui. Examples : 
 
 We must not covet other men's goods; 
 
 // nefaut point dtsirer le bien d'autrui. 
 
 Do not do by others what you would not be done by ; 
 
 Ne/aites point a autrui ce que vous ne voudriez fas qu'on 
 
 vous fit. 
 People often excuse in themselves what they condemn in 
 
 others ; 
 On excuse souvent en soi ce que Ion condamne en autrui. 
 
 RULE 103. chacun, always singular and masculine, 
 every one. 
 
 The indeterminate pronouns, every one, every body, are 
 generally expressed by chacun, always mascuUne and singu- 
 lar. Examples, 
 
 God will reward every body according to his works ; 
 Dieu rendra d chacun selon ses ozuvres. 
 Every one lives after his own way ; 
 Chacun vit d samamvre. 
 
 Nevertheless, if we speak to some ladies, we must employ 
 chacum in the feminine. Example : 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 193 
 
 Every one will read in her turn ; 
 Chacune lira d son tour. 
 
 The word every before a substantive is expressed by 
 chaque, adjective singular. Examples : 
 
 Every science has its principles ; 
 Chaque science a ses principes. 
 Every country has its customs ; 
 Chaque pays a ses usages. 
 
 The word each employed with relation to a substantive 
 plural expressed before, is always singular, and expressed 
 by ehacun, masc. chacune, fern. Examples : 
 
 Put these books each in its place ; 
 
 Remettez ces livres ehacun a sa place. 
 
 The pictures of great painters have each their merit ; 
 
 Les tableaux des.grands maitres out ehacun leur merite. 
 
 Those two sentences have each a different sense ; 
 
 Ces deux phrases ont chacune un sens different. 
 
 RULE 104. quelqu'un, sing, and masc. somebody 
 
 The indeterminate pronouns somebody, any body, are ex 
 pressed by quelquun singular and masculine. Examples : 
 
 Somebody will come to dine with us ; 
 
 Quelqu'un viendra diner avec nous. 
 
 Has ever any body doubted of the existence of God ? 
 
 Quelqu'un a-t~iljamais doute de Vexisttnce de Dieu ? 
 
 The words some and any before a substantive are expressed 
 by the partitive article du, de la, des, or by quelque. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Give me some ink, some paper, and some pens ; 
 Donnez moi de I'encre, du papier, et des plumes. 
 There are some faults in this work ; 
 j // y a des defauts (or quelques defauts) dans cet ouvrage. 
 
 When some or any are substantively used, they are express- 
 ed by quclques-uns or quelques-unes^lways plural. Examples: 
 
194, SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 I will make use of some of your books ; 
 Je me servirai de quelques-uns de vcs livres. 
 Do you know any of these ladies 1 
 Connoissez-vous quelques-unes de ces dames 1 
 
 When some or any have reference to a substantive used 
 in the preceding sentence, they are usually expressed by en, 
 as we have seen before, rule 51. Example: 
 
 I have some oranges, will you have anyl 
 i des oranges, en voulezvous ? 
 
 O/tout audits various Constructions. 
 
 The word tout admits of a great diversity in the French 
 language, being either a substantive, an adjective, a pro- 
 noun, or even an adverb, according to the following ex- 
 planations. 
 
 RULE 105. le tout, substantive sing, and masc. 
 
 the whole. 
 
 When the English words the whole are not placed before 
 a noun, they are substantives, and expressed by It tout, al- 
 ways singular and masculine. Examples : 
 
 The whole is greater than a part; 
 
 Le tout est plus grand que la partie. 
 
 I will take the whole ; Je prendrai le tout. 
 
 The words all or every thing, followed by a verb, are 
 also substantives, and expressed by tout, but without an 
 article. Examples : 
 
 Alt is vanity in this world ; Tout est vanite en ce monde. 
 Fortune, dignities, honour, every thing disappears when 
 
 we die ; 
 Biens, dignites, honneurs, tout disparoit d la wort* 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 1^5 
 
 RULE 106. tout le, toute la, adj. all or the whole. 
 
 When the words all or the whole come before a substantive, 
 they are adjectives, and expressed by tout le, or toute la, for 
 the singular, and by tous les cr toutes les for the plural. 
 
 I am with all the respect possible, Sir, &c. 
 
 Je suis amc tout le respect possible, Monsieur, fyc. 
 
 The whole fleet is at sea ; Toute I'djlotte est en mei\ 
 
 Note. When tout stands for the word every placed be- 
 fore a substantive, it takes an article in the plural, but not 
 in the singular. Examples: 
 
 Every man is mortal ; Tout homme est mortel. 
 
 Come and see us every day ; Venez nous voir tons les 
 
 jours, (And not tout I' homme est mortel; nor venez 
 
 nous voir tous jours *.) 
 
 RULE 107. tout ce qui, tout ce que, pronoun, all that, 
 every thing that. 
 
 The English words, all that, every thing that, and also 
 whatever, signifying all that, are pronouns, and expressed 
 in French by tout ce qui, or tout ce que, always singular and 
 masculine. Examples : 
 
 All that you say is true ; Tout ce que v ous dites est vrai. 
 It is not all gold that glitters; Tout ce qui Grille n'est 
 
 pas or. 
 
 You have not seen every thing that was curious ; 
 Fous n'avez pas vu tout ce qu'e7 y avoit de curieux. 
 
 RULE 108. tout, declinable and indeclinable, quite. 
 
 When the word tout stands for the adverbs quite, entirely, 
 although, or the first as of a sentence where that word is 
 twice used, it is always indeclinable before an adjective or a 
 participle masculine, singular or- plural. Example : 
 
 * Except, however, tqutlemonde, for every body, and noltout monde. 
 
1K> 'bYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Vhilosophers, as learned as they are, sometimes are mistaken ; 
 Les philosophes tout savans qu'ils sont, setromptnt quelque- 
 fois. 
 
 !t is also indeclinable before an adjective or a participle 
 feminine of both numbers which begins with a vowel or h 
 mute ; but it is declinable before an adjective or a participle 
 feminine which begins with a consonant, and agrees with it 
 in gender and number. Examples: 
 
 Your mother is quite alarmed ; your sisters are quite cast 
 
 down ; 
 Fotre mere est tout alarmte ; vos sceurs sont tout abattues. 
 
 Those above are indeclinable ; the following are declinable : 
 
 Your mother was quite surprised at that news; 
 Votre mcrefut toute surprise d cette nouvelh. 
 Your sisters, as rich and handsome as they arc, do not 
 
 marry ; 
 Vos sceurs, toutes riches et toutes belles qu'elles sont, ne se 
 
 marient point. 
 
 Three sorts of quelque. 
 
 There are three sorts of quelque, which must be carefully 
 distinguished : the first comes before an adjective, and is 
 always indeclinable; the second takes an s when it comes 
 before a substantive plural ; the third- comes before the verb 
 fare, and is spelt in two words ; thus, quel que, masculine 
 singular; quelle que, feminine ; quels que, masculine plural; 
 quelles que, feminine. All of them govern the verb follow- 
 ing in the subjunctive mood. 
 
 The three following rules will explain the arrangement of 
 those sentences in which this word occurs, where the French 
 construction is different from the English. 
 
 RULE 109. quelque, indeclinable, howerer, howsoever 
 When the English words, hotvever, Iwwsoever, though 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 197 
 
 ever so much, or so little, come before an adjective, or a 
 participle, they are expressed in French by quelque inde- 
 clinable. 
 
 The construction of the sentence i* as follows; 1. guelque 
 is put the first; 2. the adjective ; 3. que; 4. the verb in 
 the subjunctive mood ; 5. the substantive ; the rest as in 
 English. Examples : 
 
 Though his fault be ever so great, I will forgive him ; 
 Quelque grande que soit safaute f je lui pardonnerai. 
 However praise-worthy your conduct may be, it will be 
 
 condemned ; 
 Quelque louable que soit votre conduite, elle sera con- 
 
 damnte. 
 
 RULE 110. quelque, adj. and declina Me, whatever. 
 
 The English word whatever, followed by a substantive, 
 and any other verb than to be, is an adjective, and expressed 
 by quelque before a noun singular, and by quelques, with an 
 s before a noun plural. 
 
 The construction is: 1. quelque; 2. the substantive; 3. 
 que; 4. the verb in the subjunctive mood; the rest as in 
 English. Examples.: 
 
 Whatever faults he has committed, I will forgive him ; 
 Quelques f antes qu'il ait commises,je lui pardonnerai. 
 Whatever fortune you have, you are never satisfied ; 
 Quelques biens que vous ayez, vous n'$tesjamais content. 
 
 RULE 111. quelque, quelle que, &c. in two words. 
 
 The English word whatever, followed by a substantive and 
 the verb to be, is expressed in French by quel que, in two 
 words, for the masculine singular, and by quelle que, for 
 the feminine : by quels que for the masculine plural, and 
 by quelles que for the feminine. 
 
198 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The construction is: 1. quet or quelle ; t 2. que; 3. the 
 verb in the subjunctive mood ; 4. the substantive: the rest 
 as in English. Examples : 
 
 Whatever his fault may be, I will forgive him ; 
 
 Quelle que soit safaute,je lui pardonncrai *. 
 
 Whatever your talents may be, you will not succeed with- 
 out application ; 
 
 Quels que soient vos talens > vous ne reussirezpas sans ap- 
 plication. 
 
 RULE 112. quelque chose que, or quoi que ce soit, 
 whatever. 
 
 The English words whatever, whatsoever, meaning all 
 things soever, are usually expressed by quelque chose que, 
 or quoi que, when they are placed at the beginning of the 
 sentence, and by quoi que ce soit, when they are placed 
 after a verb. They govern the next verb in the subjunctive 
 mood. Examples : 
 
 Whatever you do for me, I will reward you for it ; 
 Quelque chose que, or quoi que vous fassiez pour moi, 
 
 je vous en recompenserai. 
 I complain of nothing whatever; I have seen nothing 
 
 whatever ; 
 Je ne me plains de quoi que ce soit ; je n'ai vu quoi qu* 
 
 ce soit. 
 
 1 wish he would apply to any thing whatever; 
 Je dtsire qu'il s'applique d quoi que ce soit. 
 
 RULE 113. quiconque, qui que ce soit, whoever, 
 whosoever. 
 
 The indeterminate pronouns whoever, whosoever, are most 
 usually expressed by quiconque, when they mean all tho&e 
 who. Examples : 
 
 * I have repeated the same sentence in these three rules, to rende 
 more obvious the difference between quelque indeclinable, quelques 
 adjective, and quel que in two words. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 199 
 
 Whoever abandons himself to his passions renders him- 
 self unhappy. 
 
 Quiconque s'abandonne a ses passions, se rend malheureux. 
 God will punish whosoever transgresses his laws ; 
 Dieu punira quiconque transgresse ses lois. 
 I speak to whoever will hear me ; 
 Je parle a quiconque veut m' entendre. 
 
 They are usually expressed by qui que ce soit, qui or que 
 when they mean whatever may be the person, who. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 Of whomsoever you speak, avoid slander ; 
 De qui que ce soit que vousparliez, evitez la mtdisance. 
 Whosoever will ask for me, tell I am not at home ; 
 CJui que ce soit qui me demande, dites queje n'y suispas. 
 Whomsoever you meet with, do not say you have seen me ; 
 Qui que ce soit que vous rencontriez, ne dites pas que vous 
 m'avez vu. 
 
 N. B. Instead of qui que ce soit, we often more elegantly 
 use qui que, except before il or Us ; so in the preceding ex 
 amples we could say: de qui que vous parliez; qui qut 
 vous rencontriez; but we never say qui qui in the nomina 
 tive, for qui que ce soit qui. 
 
 The pronouns any body whatever, when the sentence ex- 
 presses a doubt, and nobody whatever, we almost indifferently 
 expressed by qui que ce soit, or personne. Examples; 
 
 I doubt whether that will please any body whatever ; 
 Je doute que celaplaise a personne, or ft qui que ce soit. 
 
 i He trusts nobody whatever ; 
 
 II ne sejie a personne, or a qui que ce soit. 
 Nobody whatever has spoken to me against you ; 
 Personne (or qui que ce soit) ne m'a parU contre vous. 
 
 RULE 114. Tun Fautre, one another. 
 
 The indeterminate pronouns one another, each other, are 
 expressed in French by Vun I'autre, masc. I'une Taut-re, fern. 
 
2OO SYNTAX OI> INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 
 
 with reference to a noun singular, and by left uns les autres, 
 mas. les unes les autres, fern, with reference to a noun 
 plural. 
 
 The first of these pronouns, is always in the nominative 
 in French; thus, if they are preceded by, a preposition in 
 English, that preposition must come between them in 
 "rench. Example: 
 
 My brother and your sister speak always of one another, 
 they think of one another, they are made for one an- 
 other, they cannot live without one another; 
 
 Monfrtre et votre soeur par lent toujours I'un de I'autre 
 Us pensent I'un a Vautre, Us sont faits Vun pour 
 V outre, Us ne sauroient vivre I'un sans I'autre. 
 
 RULE 115. Fun et Tautre, both. 
 
 I/un et 1'autre, &c. Both, one and another. 
 L/UII ou 1'autre, &c. Either. 
 Ni Tun ni 1'mitre, &c. Neither*. 
 
 These pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun 
 to which they have reference ; if they are preceded by a 
 preposition in English, that preposition must be repeated in 
 French, before I'un and before I'autre. Examples : 
 
 I will do it for them both ; 
 
 Je leferai pour Vun et pour I'autre. 
 
 I will do it for either; 
 
 Je leferai pour Vun eu pour I'autre. 
 
 I will do it for neither of them ; 
 
 Je ne leferai ni pour Vun ni pour I'autre. 
 
 N. B. The word both followed by a substantive is express- 
 ed by les deux ; as, Je me sers des deux mains ; I use both 
 hands. Both followed by and is a conjunction sometimes 
 expressed by tt> but oftener left out in French. Example : 
 
 He is happy both in peace and war ; 
 // est heureux et en paix et en guerre, or il est heureux 
 en paix et en guerre. 
 
 * JVi Vun ni I'autre requires ne before the verb. 
 
SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 201 
 
 RULE 116. personne, nobody. 
 
 The indeterminate pronoun nobody, is expressed by per- 
 sonne, masculine and singular. Personne requires nt before 
 the verb. Examples : 
 
 Nobody knows whether he is worthy of love or hatred ; 
 Personne ne salt silest digne d' amour ou de haine. 
 You please nobody ; Vous ne plaisez d personne. 
 
 Personne is masculine as a pronoun, and feminine as a 
 substantive ; thus we say : 
 
 I know nobody so learned as you ; 
 
 Je ne connois personne si savant que vous. masculine. 
 
 I know a person as learned as you are ; 
 
 Je connois une personne aussi savante que vous. feminine. 
 
 RULE 117. aucun, pas un, none, not one. 
 
 None is expressed by aucun or aucune, and not one by 
 pas un or pas une, adj. both require ne before the verb 
 Examples: 
 
 I had many friends, yet not one has relieved me; 
 J'avois bien des amis, cependant pas un ne m'a sccouru. 
 None of you were there ; Aucun de vous n'y ttoit. 
 That gentleman had six daughters ; none of them has 
 
 married ; 
 
 Cet homme a eu sixfilles ; aucune, or pas une ne s'est 
 mariee. 
 
 RULE 118. rien, nothing. 
 
 The word nothing is expressed by rien, and requires ne, 
 before the verb which agrees with it. Example : 
 
 Nothing is more rare than a true friend ; 
 
 II n'y a rien de plus rare qu'un veritable ami. 
 
 I have seen nothing finer ; Je n'ai rien vu deplus beau. - 
 
 N. B. Rien is always joined by the preposition de to the 
 
$02 SYNTAX OF NEGATIONS. 
 
 following adjectives when they are not separated by the 
 verbs fare, paroitre, sembler. 
 
 Aucun, personne, and Hen, do not require ne before the 
 verb in a sentence interrogative or of 'doubt; but then 
 aucun, stands for any, personne, for any body, and Hen for 
 any thing. Examples : 
 
 Was there ever any body more eloquent than Cict o ? 
 Yeut-iljamais personne plus eloquent que Ciccron? 
 Have you ever seen any thing more curious 1 
 Avez-vous jamais rien vu de plus curieux? 
 I question if there is any author without a fault ; 
 Je doute qu'il y ait aucun auteur sans defaut. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SEVERAL MODES OF NEGATION. 
 
 This? chapter is divided into two sections : the first ex- 
 plains the mode of expressing in French the English nega- 
 tions ; the second shews the several circumstances in which 
 a negative expression is required in French, when there is 
 none in English. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 
 How to express in French the English Negations. 
 
 The English negations are these eight : I. nobody; 2. 
 none or not one; 3. nothing ; 4. neither; 5. never ; 6. by 
 no means; 7. no; 8. not. As we have spoken in the pre- 
 ceding rules of the three first, it only remains to treat here 
 of the five others. 
 
SYNTAX OF NEGATIONS. 203 
 
 RULE 11Q. ni or ni ne, neither and nor. 
 
 The word neither, besides its being an indeterminate pro- 
 noun, (as we said before, rule 115,) is also a negative con- 
 junction when it is followed by nor. When neither and nor 
 come before two nouns, or two verbs in the infinitive mood, 
 they are both expressed by ni and ne before the verb which 
 is in the indicative mood. Examples : 
 
 Neither prayers nor threatenings could move him ; 
 Ni pritres ni menaces nepurent Vattendrir. 
 He knows neither how to read nor write ; 
 // ne sait ni lire ni ecrire. 
 
 If these conjunctions come before two verbs in the in- 
 dicative mood, neither is expressed by ne before the firsf, 
 and nor by ni ne before the second. Examples : 
 
 I neither praise nor blame you ; 
 Je ne vous loue, ni ne vous blame. 
 He neither loves nor hates you ; 
 // ne vous aime, ni ne vous hait. 
 
 RULE 120. ne and jamais, never; nullement, by 
 no means. 
 
 The word never is rendered by jamais ; by no means is 
 expressed by nullement ; jamais and nullement require ne 
 before the verb, without pas after. Examples : 
 
 I have never seen the queen of England ; 
 Je n'ai jamais vu la reine d'Angleterre. 
 I by no means approve of your conduct ; 
 Je n'approuve nullement votre conduite. 
 
 RULE 121. aucun, aucune, point de t or non, no. 
 
 The negative expression no before a substantive is ex- 
 pressed in French by point de, or by the adjective aucun, 
 masculine, aucune feminine, before a noun singular, and by 
 mieuns masculine, aucunes feminine, before a noun plural. 
 Examples : 
 
204 r SYNTAX OF NEGATIONS. 
 
 You have no good qualities ; 
 
 Vous navez aucunes bonnes qualites, (ou point de bonnes 
 
 qualites.) 
 
 He takes no care of his business ; 
 // n'a aucun soin (ou point de soin) de*ses affaires. 
 
 When no is used in answer to a question, it is expressed 
 in French by non. Examples : 
 
 Have you seen the king ; no, sir ; 
 Avez-vous vu le roi ? non, monsieur. 
 Do you learn French 7 no, madam ? 
 Apprenez-vous le Francois? non, madame. 
 
 RULE 122. ne pas, non pas que, or non que, not. 
 
 The negative not is usually expressed by ne before the verb 
 or its auxiliary, and by pas or point after. Examples : 
 
 Do not speak to him ; have you not spoken to him 1 
 Ne luiparlez pas ; ne lui avez-vous pas parlt? 
 
 If the verb, negatively used, is in the present infinitive, 
 ne and pas are usually both placed before it. Examples : 
 
 I go away, not to displease you ; 
 
 Je men vais pour ne pas vous deplaire. 
 
 One must be a fool not to perceive that he is in the wrong. 
 
 Ilfaut ttre insense pour ne pas voir qu'il a tort. 
 
 The word not followed by that, is expressed by non que 
 or non pas que with the following verb in the subjunctive. 
 Example : 
 
 I will do it, not that I am obliged, but to have peace. 
 Je leferoi, non que, (ou non pas que) j'y sois oblige, 
 mais pour avoir la paix. 
 
 RULE 123. ne without pas, before some verbs, not. 
 
 The negative not is expressed by ne, without pas or point, 
 with these four verbs cesser, to cease, oser, to dare: pouvoir, 
 to be able, and savoir, used in the conditional, for, to be, 
 able. Examples : 
 
SYNTAX OF NEGATIONS. 205 
 
 He does not cease complaining ; // ne cesse de se plaindrc. 
 [ dare net speak to him ; Je n'ose lui parler. 
 
 I cannot walk ; Je ne puts marcher. 
 
 You cannot refuse him ; Vous ne sauriez le refuser. 
 
 Note. The words no more, or not any more, are expressed 
 by ne before the verb, and pas plus after, when more is fol- 
 lowed by than ; but they are expressed by plus without pas, 
 when more is not followed by than. Examples : 
 
 I am no more than twenty years of age ; 
 Je nai pas plus de vingt ans. 
 
 It is no more than a week since I saw your brother ; you 
 will see him no more; 
 
 II \\y a pas plus de huit jours quefai vu votrefrwe ; vous 
 ne le verrez plus, (not vous ne le verrez pas plus.) 
 
 RULE 124. Distinction between pas and point. 
 
 1. Point is more exclusive than pas. Tlie first denies 
 absolutely and signifies not at all. The second denies, 
 sometimes but in part. Examples: 
 
 All the accused persons are not guilty ; 
 
 Tons ceux qu'on accuse ne sent point coupables; 
 
 Tous ceux qu'on accuse ne sont pas coupables. : 
 
 The first sentence signifies that none of the accused are 
 guilty; the second signifies only that the accused are riot 
 all guilty. 
 
 2. We make use of point in an interrogative sentence, 
 when we doubt of the thing in question, and of pas when 
 we are persuaded of it. Example: 
 
 Have you not seen my brother to-day ? 
 N'avez-vous point vu monfrere aujourd'huil 
 N'avez-wus pas mi monfrere aujourd'hui? 
 
 In the first sentence, I doubt whether you have seen my 
 brother or not; in the second, I am persuaded you have 
 seen him. 
 
06 SYNTAX OF NEGATIONS. 
 
 3. We make use of point to denote a thing that happens 
 never or very seldom, and of pas to denote that it does not 
 happen in the time we are speaking, though it may happen 
 very often. Example: 
 
 You do not study ; 
 
 Vous rittudiez point ; Vous n'ttudiez pas, 
 
 The first sentence signifies, that habitually you do not 
 study ; and the second, that you do not study at present, 
 though you may be very studious. 
 
 N. B. This distinction is very exact, and conformable to 
 the practice of the best French authors ; there are many 
 circumstances however, in which they can be almost ^dif- 
 ferently used. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Negative Expressions in French, and not in English. 
 
 RULE 125. Negation used in French, and not in 
 
 English* 
 
 The particle ne is used in French after a comparative, 
 and after autre, outrement, otherwise : in all these cases 
 there is no negative expression in English* Examples* : 
 
 Your brother is younger than I thought i; 
 
 Votrefrere est plus jeune que je ne pensois. 
 The affair is quite different from what it had been related 
 to me; 
 
 L'affaire est tout autre qiion ne me Vavoit racontee. 
 
 RULE 1 26. Negation used in French, and not in English. 
 
 The particle ne is used after these four verbs, apprchender, 
 to apprehend ; avoir peur 9 to be afraid ; craindre, to fear ; 
 
 * Ne should be left out if the verb be in the infinitive mood, or if 
 there be a conjunction between qu< and the verb, as we said before, 
 m the second note of rule 40. 
 
SYNTAX OF NEGATIONS. 207 
 
 tmpGcher, to hinder ; and prendre garde, to take care, when 
 they are affirmatively used. Examples : 
 
 I will hinder him from doing you wrong ; 
 
 J'empecherai qu'il ne vousfasse tort. 
 
 I fear he will come ; Je craina qu'il ne vienne. 
 
 Douter, to doubt, on the contrary, requires ne before the 
 next verb, when negatively used, Example : 
 
 We do not doubt that he is come ; 
 Nous ne doutons pas qu'il ne soit arrive. 
 
 RULE 127. Negation used in French, and not in 
 
 English. 
 
 The five following conjunctions, a mains que, unless; de 
 trainte ftn, for fear; depeur de, lest ; que, used for unless, 
 -and que, for before or until ; require the particle ne before 
 the next verb. Examples : 
 
 I will not go there unless you come with me ; 
 Je n'irai pas, a moins que vous ne veniez avec moi. 
 1 will not give you a watch until you speak French ; 
 Je ne vous donnerai pas de montre, que vous ne parliez 
 Francois* 
 
 Observe, That all the verbs and conjunctions mentioned 
 in these two rules govern the verb in the subjunctive mood, 
 (si excepted.) 
 
 RULE 128. n$ before the verb, and qne after, but 
 
 or only. 
 
 When the words but or only after a verb, mean ne more, 
 nothing else, or nobody else than, they are expressed by ne 
 before the verb, and que after, not by mais. Examples : 
 
 I have but twenty guineas ; Je n'ai que vingt guinees. 
 I have but one true friend ; Je n'ai qu'tm veritable ami. 
 
 The word only, after a verb, is expressed by seulement 
 in other circumstances. Example : 
 
208 SYNTAX OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 If you had only two friends, you would succeed ; 
 Si vous aviez seulement deux amis, vous rtussiritz. 
 
 When but begins the second part of a sentence, it is usu* 
 ally expressed by mats. Example : 
 
 I could wish to travel, but I have no money ; 
 
 Je voudrois bien voyager, mmsje nai pas d'argent. 
 
 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 The verb is a part of speech the most extensive, the most 
 essential, and altogether the most difficult either to teach or 
 to learn ; therefore close attention must be given to the fol- 
 lowing pages, in which the construction of verbs is fully 
 explained, and the different genius of the two languages is 
 pointed out with accuracy and precision. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Of the Government of Verbs *. 
 
 RULE 12$. Verbs which govern the Genitive in French* 
 
 1. Most of the reflected verbs not mentioned in the next 
 rule govern the genkive in French, whatever case they 
 govern in English. Examples : 
 
 To perceive a trick, S'apercevoir d'ttw tour. 
 
 To seize upon some thing, S'emparer de quelque chose. 
 To inquire about news, S'enquerir de nouvelles. 
 To remember an history, Se ressouvenir d'une histoire. 
 
 And so on for others. 
 
 * The alphabetical series of verbs at the end of the grammar hav- 
 ing been carefully revised and corrected in this edition, the learner 
 must have recourse to it, whenever he does not find the government 
 of some verbs in the following rules. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 209 
 
 2. The following, abuser, to abuse ; avoir besoin, to want ; 
 avoir pitie, to pity ; fare altere, to thirst after ; heriter, to in- 
 herit ; jouir, to enjoy ; manquer, to want ; medire, to traduce; 
 rendre raison, to account for ; rougir, to blush ; user, to use; 
 govern the genitire in French. Thus we say: 
 
 To want money, Avoir besoin d'argent. 
 
 To pity the unfortunate, Avoir pitit des malheureux. 
 To inherit a large fortune, Htriter d'un grand Men. 
 To enjoy good health, Jouir d'une bonne santL 
 To traduce one's neighbour, Mtdire de son prochain. 
 
 And so on with the rest. 
 
 3. The verbs passive followed in English by the prepo- 
 sitions from or with, govern the genitive case in French. 
 Examples ; 
 
 He is loaded with spoil, // est charge de butin. 
 
 This/book is translated/rom the English ; 
 Ce livre est traduit de VAnglois. 
 
 4. The word by, which conies sometimes after a verb 
 passive, is usually expressed by de, when the verb does not 
 express any action of the body, and by par when it does. 
 Thus we say : 
 
 Your brother has been killed by two thieves; 
 Votrcfrere a it* tub par deux voleurs. 
 Your sister is esteemed by every body ; 
 Votre soeur est estimee de tout le monde. 
 
 However, we make use of par to avoid the repetition of 
 de, though the verb does not express any action of the 
 body. Example : 
 
 Your work will be severely censured by the critics ; 
 Votre ouvrage sera censure d'une manivfe sevdre, par Iff 
 critiques, (not des critiques.) 
 
210 SYNTAX OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS,. 
 
 RULE 130. Verbs which govern the Dative in French. 
 
 I. The twenty-two following reflected verbs govern the 
 dative. 
 
 S'abandonner, To abandon one's self. 
 
 S'accoutumer, To accustom one's self. 
 
 S'adonner, To addict one's self. 
 
 S'amuser, To amuse one's self. 
 
 . S'appliquer, To apply one's self. 
 
 S'appreter, To dispose one's self. 
 
 S'arreter, To stop. 
 
 S'attacher, To stick to. 
 
 S'adresser, To apply one's self. 
 
 Se determiner, To resolve upon. 
 
 Se disposer, To prepare one's self. 
 
 S'endurcir, To inure one's self. 
 
 S'engager, To engage. 
 
 S'exposer, To expose one's self. 
 
 Sefier. To trust. 
 
 S'habituer, To accustom one's self. 
 
 S'obstiner, To be determined. 
 
 S'opiniatrer, To be determined. 
 
 S'occuper, To employ one's self. 
 
 S'opposer, To oppose one's self. 
 
 Se plaire, To take delight in. 
 
 Se preparer, To prepare one's self. 
 
 Examples: 
 
 Accustom yourself to study; Accoutwnez-vouszrttude. 
 
 I apply myselfto mathematics ; 
 
 Je m applique aux mathtmatiques. 
 
 Do not stop in London ; Ne vous arrctez pas a Londres. 
 
 2. The following verbs govern the dative in French 
 whatever case they govern in English : 
 
 Consentir, to consent. D&obeir, to disobey. 
 
 Contrevenir, to infringe. Noire, to hurt. 
 
 Contribuer, to contribute. Obeir, to obey.. 
 
 DSplaire, to displease. Obvier. to obviate. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 211 
 
 Pardonner, 
 Parvenir, 
 Penser, 
 Plaire, 
 Rem&dier, 
 Resembler, 
 
 to for give, 
 to attain, 
 to think of. 
 to please, 
 to remedy. 
 to resemble. 
 
 Register, 
 Songer, 
 Subvenir, 
 Succeder, 
 Survivre, 
 
 to resist, 
 to think of. 
 to relieve, 
 to succeed, 
 to outlive. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 To displease one's master, Dtplaire a son maitre. 
 Do not disobey your parents, Ne desobeissez pas a vosparens. 
 I forgive my enemies, Je pardonne a mes ennemis. 
 
 He pleases every body, // plait a t out le monde. 
 I think of your business, Je pense a votre affaire. 
 
 3. The following, applaudir, to applaud ; insulter, to in- 
 sult ; persuader, to persuade ; renoncer, to renounce ; river, 
 to dream ; trevailler, to work ; sometimes govern the accusa- 
 tive case t but most frequently the dative. Thus we say : 
 
 Dar, Ace. 
 
 You insult every body; You insult my misfortune; 
 Vous insultez tout le monde. Vous insultez a ma mistre. 
 
 RULE 131. Verbs which govern the Accusative in 
 French. 
 
 All verbs which may be used in the passive voice govern 
 the accusative in French. For instance, aimer 9 estimer, 
 punir, recompenser, &c. govern the accusative, because we 
 can say, ilestaimt, ilestestimt, il tst puni, <&c* 
 
 By the same rule the following verbs, 
 
 Abattre r 
 accepter, 
 admirer, 
 approuver, 
 attend re, 
 chercher, 
 critiquer, 
 
 to pull down, 
 to accept of. 
 to wonder at. 
 to approve of. 
 to wait for. 
 to look for. 
 to cavil at. 
 
 d6chirer, 
 
 demander, 
 denoncer, 
 
 deraciner, 
 ^poudrer, 
 examiner, 
 
 to tear off. 
 to ask for.' 
 to inform a- 
 gainst, 
 to root out. 
 to wipe off. 
 to examine into. 
 
212 SYNTAX OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 
 
 huer, to hoot at. 
 
 injurier, to rail at. 
 
 juger, to judge of. 
 
 lorgner, to leer on. 
 
 paraphraser, to comment 
 
 upon. 
 regarder, to look at. 
 
 And some others which are attended by a preposition in 
 English, govern the accusative in French, because they may 
 be used in the passive ; we can say, for instance, 
 
 Your offer has been accepted ; Votre offre a etc acceptee. 
 This tree has been pulled down ; Cet arbre a etc abattu. 
 
 Your conduct has been approved ; 
 
 Votre conduite a etc approuvie. 
 
 And so on wilh the rest. 
 
 RULE 132. Veibs which govern the Accusative and 
 . - Genitive Cases. 
 
 When the following verbs govern two nouns or pronouns, 
 not joined by a conjunction, the first is put in the accusative, 
 and the second in the genitive case in French. 
 
 Absoudre, 
 
 to absolve. 
 
 detourner, 
 
 to divert. 
 
 accabler, 
 
 to overwhelm. 
 
 dissuader, 
 
 to dissuade. 
 
 accepter, 
 
 to accept. 
 
 emplir, 
 
 tofill. 
 
 accuser, 
 
 to accuse. 
 
 exelure, 
 
 to exclude. 
 
 ayertir, 
 
 to warn. 
 
 expulser, 
 
 to turn out. 
 
 bannir, 
 
 to banish. 
 
 informer, 
 
 to inform. 
 
 blamer, 
 
 to blame. 
 
 louer, 
 
 to praise. 
 
 chasser, 
 
 to expel. 
 
 menacer, 
 
 to threaten. 
 
 combkr, 
 
 to fill up. 
 
 obtenir, 
 
 to obtain. 
 
 corriger, 
 
 to correct. 
 
 recevoir, 
 
 to receive. 
 
 d6busquei, 
 
 to drive out. 
 
 priver, 
 
 to deprive. 
 
 degouter, 
 
 to disgust. 
 
 soupconner, 
 
 to suspect. 
 
 d61ivrer, 
 
 to free. 
 
 
 
 Examples : 
 
 To load an enemy with injuries ; 
 Accabler une ennemi d'injuret. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 13 
 
 To accept the offers of a friend : 
 
 Accepter les offres d'un ami. 
 
 To fill a bottle witli wine ; Emplir nne bouteille de vin. 
 
 To blame one's conduct; : Blamer la conduite de quelqu'un. 
 
 To exclude a liar from society ; 
 
 Exclure un menteur de la societe. 
 
 RULE 133. Verbs which govern the Accusative and the 
 Dative. 
 
 When the following verbs govern two nouns or pronouns, 
 that which has reference to persons is to be put in the da- 
 tive in French, and the other in the accusative. If they 
 have both reference to persons, that before which the pre- 
 position to is or could be prefixed is put in the dative and 
 the other in the accusative. No verb governs two accusa- 
 tive cases in French. 
 
 Accorder, to grant. expliquer, to explain. 
 
 adresser, to direct. 6ter, to take away. 
 
 annoncer, to announce, pardonner, to forgive. 
 
 apporter, to bring. predire, toforetel. 
 
 attribuer, to attribute, preferer, to prefer. 
 
 avouer, to own. prendre, to take. 
 
 communiquer, to c0w?w?*mcflJf presenter, to present. 
 
 confesser, to confess. prater, to lend. 
 
 confier, to trust. procurer, to procure. 
 
 conseiller, to advise. proniettre, to promise. 
 
 declarer, to declare. raconter, to relate. 
 
 dedier, to dedicate. rapporter, to bring back. 
 
 deniander, to ask. refuser, to refuse. 
 
 devoir, to owe. rendre, to return. 
 
 dire, to tell. renvoyer, to send back. 
 
 donner, to give. re*peter, to repeat. 
 
 6crire, to write. reprocher, to reproach. 
 
 enseigner, to teach. repondre, to answer. 
 
 envoyer, to send. reveler, to reveal. 
 
 pargner, to spare. vend re, to sell. 
 
 Examples : 
 Grant him that favour; Accordez-lui cette grdct, 
 
2J4 SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Tell me the truth ; Dites-moi la vtritt. 
 To beg the master's leave ; 
 Demander permission an maitre. 
 To reproach one with a fault ; 
 Reprocher unefaute d quelqu'un. 
 
 Observations. 
 
 Jouer governs the genkive, when it signifies to play on 
 some musical instrument ; and the dative, when it signifies 
 to play at some game. Examples : 
 
 You play well on the violin, but you do not play well 
 
 at cards ; 
 Vous jouez lien du violon, gen. mat* wus mjoun pas 
 
 bien aux cartes, dat. 
 
 Some verbs are followed in French by a preposition dif- 
 ferent from that used in English ; such are, 
 
 To spit at one ; Cracker sur quelqu'un. 
 
 To fire at the enemy ; Fairefeu sur I'ennemi* 
 
 To intermeddle with other people's business ; 
 
 S'ing&rcr dans les affaires des autres. 
 
 To struggle with death ; Lutter contre la mort. 
 
 To shoot at a hare ; Tirer sur un lievre : and iome others. 
 
 Most verbs which govern the genitive or ablative in Latin, 
 govern the genitive in French ; and most of those which 
 govern the accusative or dative in Latin, require the same 
 case in French. This observation will be of great use to 
 those who have learnt Latin. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 As there are three tenses in the infinitive mood, called 
 present, gerund, and participle, this chapter is naturally di- 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD, 215 
 
 vided into three sections : the first describes the circum- 
 stances in which a verb is used in the infinitive mood, with* 
 out being preceded by any prepositipn; it explains also the 
 cases in which it is preceded by de> by 0, or by pour ; th* 
 second teaches that a gerund is always indeclinable in French, 
 and furnishes an easy method to distinguish it from a verbal 
 adjective, which is always declinable ; the third establishes 
 two general rules, which explain when a participle is declin- 
 able or indeclinable. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 Of the Infinitive Present, 
 
 The infinitive present is sometimes used in French^ without 
 any preposition before it ; it is sometimts preceded by de, 
 sometimes by d, and sometimes by pour, according to the 
 following rules : 
 
 RULE 134. Infinitive without Proposition. 
 
 A verb in the infinitive present had no preposition be. 
 fore it. 
 
 1. When it is substantially used, and is the nominative 
 case of another verb. Examples : 
 
 To speak too much is dangerous ; 
 
 Trop parler est dangereux. 
 
 To relieve the poor is a praise-worthy action ; 
 
 Secourir lespauvres est une action digne de buange. 
 
 2. When it is governed in the infinitive by any of the 
 following verbs : 
 
 Aller, to go. declarer, to declare. 
 
 croire, to believe. devoir, to owe. 
 
 daigner, to deign. entendre, to hear. 
 
216 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOQD. 
 
 envoyer, 
 
 to send. pou?oir, 
 
 to be able. 
 
 esperer, 
 
 to hope. savoir, 
 
 to know. 
 
 faire, 
 
 to do. sembler, 
 
 to appear. 
 
 falloir, 
 
 to be requisite, souhaiter, 
 
 to wish. 
 
 laisser, 
 
 to let. soutenir, 
 
 to maintain. 
 
 nier, 
 
 to deny. venir, 
 
 to come. 
 
 os er, 
 
 to dare. voir, 
 
 to see. 
 
 paroltre, 
 pretend re, 
 
 to appear. vouloir, 
 to pretend. 
 
 to be willing. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Go and see your friend ; Allez voir vttre ami. 
 Do you believe you are in the right ? 
 Croyez-vous avoir raison ? 
 Deign to answer me ; Daignez me repondre. 
 I will cause your orders to be executed ; 
 Jefairai ex6cuter vos ordres. 
 
 And so on with the rest. 
 
 Note. The verb faire is used for to do, to make t to cause, 
 and to oblige ; in all cases it is immediately followed in 
 French by the next verb, which it governs in the infinitive 
 without a preposition. Examples : jeferai batir une mai&on, 
 je vousfcrai faire votre theme. 
 
 RULE 135.; Infinitive with de. 
 
 We place the preposition de before a verb in the infini- 
 tive mood. 
 
 1 . After a substantive which governs a verb as to be in- 
 separably connected. Examples : 
 
 It is time to set out ; llest temps de partir. 
 You have no cause to be angry with me ; 
 Vous n'avezpas sujet d'etre f ache contre moi. 
 
 2. The English preposition for, with a gerund after a 
 substantive is generally expressed by de with the infinitive ; 
 Example : 
 
SYNTAX OF'fHE INFINITIVE MOOD. 217 
 
 I make you my compliment/or having succeeded ; 
 Je vousfais mon compliment ft avoir reussi. 
 
 3. After an adjective, whenever by inverting the sentence, 
 the infinitive may serve as a nominative to this expression, is 
 to be, c'est fare, followed by the adjective, and likewise after 
 capable, able, incapable, unable, digne, worthy, iudignc, 
 unworthy, and perhaps a few others. Examples : 
 
 You are very clever to have succeeded so well ; 
 Vous ties tres-adroit d 1 'avoir si bien reussi. 
 
 We may say : to have succeeded so well is to be very clever; 
 avoir si bien reussi, c'est tre tres-adroit. 
 
 He is worthy of being preferred for that employment ; 
 // est digne d'e'tre prefere pour cet emploi. 
 
 4. After any adjective preceded by the impersonal verbs 
 il est, it is, il semble, it seems, il par oil, it appears, and af- 
 ter several impersonal verbs which could be expressed by 
 il est t with the adjectives derived from them, as il convient* 
 il importe, il suffit, for il est convenable, il est important, il 
 est suffisant. Examples : 
 
 It will be enough to speak to him ; 
 
 // suffira de lui parler. 
 
 It is dangerous to trust every body ; 
 
 II est danger eux de sejier d tout le monde. 
 
 5. Most commonly when it is governed by any other 
 reflected verbs than those mentioned in the rule 130. 
 Examples : 
 
 I am sorry I spoke of it, since that displeases you; 
 Je me repens d'en avoir parle puisque cela vous dtplait. 
 He has a mind to go and see you to-morrow evening ; 
 // se propose tfaller vous voir demain au soir. 
 
 1 6. When it is governed in the infinitive by any of the 
 following verbs ; 
 
218 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Accuser, 
 
 to accuse* 
 
 menacer, 
 
 to threaten* 
 
 sffecter, 
 
 to affect. 
 
 meriter, 
 
 to deserve* 
 
 avertir, 
 
 to advise. 
 
 nSgliger, 
 
 to neglect. 
 
 blmer, 
 
 to blame. 
 
 offrir, 
 
 to offer. 
 
 cesser, 
 
 to cease. 
 
 omettre, 
 
 to omit: 
 
 commander, 
 
 to command. 
 
 ordonner, 
 
 to ordei . 
 
 conjurer, 
 
 to intreat. 
 
 oublier, 
 
 to for get. 
 
 conseiller, 
 
 to advise. 
 
 parler, 
 
 to speak. 
 
 craindre, 
 
 to fear. 
 
 permettre, 
 
 to permit. 
 
 detourner, 
 
 to deter. 
 
 persuader, 
 
 to persuade. 
 
 defend re, 
 
 to for bid. 
 
 plaindre, 
 
 to pity. 
 
 differer, 
 
 tv differ. 
 
 presser, 
 
 to urge. 
 
 dire, 
 
 to tell. 
 
 prescrire, 
 
 to prescribe. 
 
 dispenser, 
 
 to excuse. 
 
 prier, 
 
 to pray. 
 
 dissuader, 
 
 to dissuade. 
 
 promettre, 
 
 to promise. 
 
 ecrire, 
 
 to write. 
 
 proposer, 
 
 to propose. 
 
 cnipecher, 
 
 to hinder. 
 
 refuser, 
 
 to refuse. 
 
 eqjoindre, 
 
 to enjoin. 
 
 remercier, 
 
 to thank. 
 
 entreprendre, 
 
 to\undertake. 
 
 resoudre, 
 
 to resolve. 
 
 essayer, 
 
 to try. 
 
 sommer, 
 
 to summon.. 
 
 feindre, 
 
 to feign. 
 
 soupconner, 
 
 to suspect* 
 
 finir, 
 
 to finish. 
 
 supplier, 
 
 to beg. 
 
 Examples : 
 
 He does not cease complaining ; // ne cesse de se plaindre. 
 I advise you to stay here ; Je vous conseille de rester id. 
 1 beg of you to forgive him ; Je vous prie de /tit pardonner. 
 
 RULE 136. Infinitive with a. 
 
 We place the preposition a before a verb in the infinitive 
 mood : 
 
 1. After a substantive, when to express something to be 
 done. Examples : 
 
 I have no time to lose ; Je nai point de temps a perdre. 
 I know a house to be sold; Je connois une waison a vendre. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 219 
 
 & After a substantive, when the following verb is or may 
 be expressed by in with the gerund. Example : 
 
 1 have great pleasure to see you ; (in seeing you.} 
 J'ai beaucoup deplaisir a vous voir, (en vous voyant.) 
 
 3. After any adjectives, except in the two cases mentioned 
 in the preceding rule, or when the verb expresses a cause, 
 a motive. Examples; 
 
 I am ready to go out ; This fruit is good to eat ; 
 Je mis pret a partir. Ce fruit est bon a manger. 
 
 But we ought to say : I am glad to see you ; je suis aise 
 de vous voir, as the sentence means : I am glad because I 
 see you. 
 
 4. The following verbs also govern the infinitive with a. 
 
 Accoutuiner, 
 
 to accustom. 
 
 employer, 
 
 to employ. 
 
 admettre, 
 
 to admit. 
 
 encourager, 
 
 to encourage. 
 
 aider, 
 
 to help. 
 
 engager, 
 
 to engage. 
 
 aimer, 
 
 to like. 
 
 exhorter. 
 
 to exhort. 
 
 apprendre, 
 
 to learn. 
 
 inviter, 
 
 to invite. 
 
 autoriser, 
 
 to authorise. 
 
 penser, 
 
 to think of. 
 
 condamuer, 
 
 to condemn. 
 
 persister, 
 
 to persist in. 
 
 chercher, 
 
 to endeavour. 
 
 porter, 
 
 to induce to. 
 
 consjster, 
 
 to consist. 
 
 pousser, 
 
 to excite to. 
 
 disposer, 
 
 to dispose to. 
 
 rester, 
 
 to stay. 
 
 donner, 
 
 to give. 
 
 travail ler, 
 
 10 work. 
 
 * Example : 
 
 I learn to dance, I like to sing, &c. 
 J'apprends a danser, J'aime & chanter ', <fec. 
 
 5. The reflected verbs, s'abandonner, saccoutumer, s'a~ 
 donner, and others mentioned before (rule 130), govern the 
 infinitive with the preposition a. Example ; 
 
 Prepare yourself to answer me ; 
 Disposez-vous a me repondre. 
 
220 SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 RULE 137 .-Infinitive with de or a. 
 
 The verb manquer usually governs the infinitive with dc, 
 when it is negatively used, and with d when affirmatively. 
 Example: 
 
 I will not fail to punish you, if you neglect to do your 
 
 exercise ; 
 Je ne manquerai pas de vous punir, si vous manquez a 
 
 faire votre thenw. 
 
 Taoher governs the infinitive with de when it means to en- 
 deavour, and with a when it means to aim at. Examples : 
 
 I will endeavour to satisfy you ; 
 Je tdcherai de vous satisfaire. 
 He. aims at doing me a prejudice ; 
 // tache a me porter prejudice. 
 
 Tarder governs the infinitive with de, when it signifies to 
 long, and with a when it signifies to delay. Example : 
 
 I long to see your brother, he delays a long time to come ; 
 lime tar de de .voir votre frere, il tarde bien a venir. 
 
 Venir governs the infinitive without a preposition, when 
 it signifies to come ; it governs the infinitive with de, when 
 it is to express a thing just happened; and with d, when it 
 signifies to happen. Examples: 
 
 Come and see me to-morrow ; Venez me voir demain. 
 My father is just gone cut ; Monpttre vient de sortir. 
 If it happens to rain, you will be wet ; 
 S'il vient a pleuvoir, vous serez mouille, 
 
 The following, commencer, continuer, contraindre, forcer, 
 s'ejforcer, and obliger, govern the infinitive with de or a 
 according as it sounds best. 
 
 RULE 138. Infinitive with pour. 
 We use in French the preposition pour before an infinitive, 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 221 
 
 to express the end, the design, or the cause for which 
 thing is done, and, in general, every time the preposition 
 lo could be changed into in order to, without altering the 
 sense of it. Examples : 
 
 I am come to see you ; Je suis venu pour vous voir. 
 
 1 will do every thing to oblige you ; 
 
 Jeferai tout pour vous obliger. 
 
 Men are born to live in society ; 
 
 Les hommes sont nts pour vivre en societe. 
 
 The preposition pour is also used after the words, a&scz, 
 enough ; trop, too much ; suffire, and etre suffisant, to be 
 sufficient. Example : 
 
 You are tall enough lo be a soldier, but you are too great 
 
 a coward to enlist ; 
 Vous etes assez grand pour etre soldat, mais vous ites 
 
 trop Idche pour vous engager. 
 
 J\ r ote. When after a verb the preposition/07* comes before 
 a gerund, it is expressed in French by pour, with the infini- 
 tive present, if the verb has reference to a present or future 
 time, and with the compound of the present, if it refers to 
 a past time. Examples : 
 
 How much do you ask for making me a suit of clothes? 
 Combien me demandez-vous pour me faire un habit ? 
 He was hanged for robbing ; Ilfutpendu pour avoir volt. 
 
 RULE 139. Infinitive instead of the Gerund. 
 
 f We never put a gerund in French after any other prepo- 
 sition than en. Thus we put the present of the infinitive 
 after the preposition de, d, par, apres, pour, sans, and every 
 other. Examples : 
 
 One cannot speak against the truth without being guilty; 
 On ne peut trahir la vtritt sans se rendre coupable. 
 1 must begin by saying my lessons ; 
 Ilfaut queje commence par reciter mes lemons. 
 
2.$$ SYNTAX OF THE GERUND 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND, 
 OJ the Gerund. 
 
 All gerunds end in ant in French and are indeclinable; 
 many adjectives derived from verbs end also in ant, and are 
 declinable ; the following rule teaches how to distinguish 
 them invariably. 
 
 RULE 140. The Gerund is always indeclinable inFrench. 
 
 A word ending in English in ing, and in ant in French, 
 is an adjective when it precedes the substantive in English, 
 and a gerund, when it comes after ; in the firsl case it agrees 
 in French with the substantive to which it is joined; it is 
 always indeclinable in the second. Examples : 
 
 .% r An obliging lady ; Une dame obligeante. 
 
 "I j A convincing proof; Une preuve con vain quante. 
 
 j Bleating sheep ; Des brebit belantes. 
 
 ' Surprising effects ; Des effets surprenans. 
 
 lady obliging her friends; 
 
 j Une dame obligeant ses amis, (not obligeante.) 
 A proof convincing every body ; 
 \Une preuve convainquant tout le monde. (for qui 
 
 convainc.) 
 
 It will be observed from the preceding examples, that a 
 word ending in ant in French, is an adjective when it quali- 
 fies the substantive to which it is joined, and a gerund when 
 it governs a substantive after it. 
 
 RULE 141. When the English Gerund is rcndwed by 
 the Indicative. 
 
 When an English gerund has reference to a substantive 
 which is not in the nominative case, it is rendered in French 
 by a verb in the indicative mood. Example : 
 
 Alexander asked the physicians standing by him! if he 
 should die of bis illness ; 
 
SYNTAX OF THE GERUND. 223 
 
 Alexandre demanda aux mcdecins qui se tenoient autour 
 de lui, s'il mourroit de sa maladie. (not aux mtdecin* 
 e tenant.) 
 
 RULE 142. by, expressed by en. 
 
 An English gerund, preceded by the preposition by, is 
 most commonly rendered in French by the gerund with en, 
 Examples : 
 
 We have obtained peace by making great sacrifices ; 
 Nous avons obtenu la paix en faisant de grands sacrifices. 
 More glory is acquired by defending than by accusi?ig 
 
 one's fellow citizens ; 
 On acquiert plus de gloire en defendant ses concitoyens 
 
 qu'en les accusant. 
 
 Note 1. An English gerund, preceded by the prepositions 
 vf \ from, without, after, for, &c. is rendered in French by 
 the infinitive, with de, d, pour, or sans, (as we have seen 
 before) and not by the gerund. 
 
 Note 2. An English gerund preceded by the verb to be, 
 is expressed in French by the indicative of the principal 
 verb only. Examples : 
 
 I am speaking ; Je parle. 1 was dancing ; Je dansois, 
 What are you doing here? Que faites-vous id? 
 
 Note 3. An English gerund, preceded by the definite arti- 
 cle the, is rendered by a substantive in French. Example : 
 
 The learning of languages is difficult ; 
 L* etude des langues est difficile. 
 
224 SYNTAX OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 
 Of the Participle. 
 RULE US.When the Participle is declinable in French. 
 
 A participle is always declinable in French, and must 
 agree in gender and number with the word to which it re- 
 lates, as an adjective. 
 
 1 . When it is joined immediately to a substantive. Ex- 
 amples: 
 
 v A book well written; a letter well written; 
 Un livre bien crit ; une httre bien ecrite. 
 
 2. After the verbs fare, to be, paroitre, to appear, sembler, 
 to seem, avoir lair, to look. Examples : 
 
 My brother is tired ; my sister is tired ; 
 
 Monfr&rc est fatigue ; ma sceur est fatigu6e. 
 
 Your father appears afflicted ; Votre pere paroit afflige. 
 
 Your mother appears afflicted; Votre mere paroit affligSe. 
 
 That tragedy seems to me well written ; 
 
 Cette tragedie me semble bien Ecrite. 
 
 Your daughter looks very afflicted ; 
 
 Votrefille a lair <m-afflig6e. 
 
 3. In the compound tenses of reflected verbs when the 
 second pronouns me, te, se 9 nous, and vous are in the accu- 
 sative, which is always the case when the reflected verb does 
 not govern another accusative ; so we must say : 
 
 She has wounded herself; die s'est blessee ; 
 because se is in the accusative ; but we should say : 
 
 She has wounded her foot; elle s'est bless& lepied; 
 because se is in the dative, and stands for a elle-meme. 
 
 4. After the verb Avoir, when the noun or pronoun an- 
 tecedent being in the accusative, is governed by the partici- 
 
SYNTAX QF THE PARTICIPLE. 225 ' 
 
 pie, which is known when, by giving the sentence another 
 turn, it could be put immediately after. Examples : 
 
 The land which I have sold is good and fruitful ; 
 La terre quej'ai vendue est bonne et fertile. 
 The books I have bought are new; 
 Lts livres quej'ai achete's sont neufs. 
 The rules which I have explained are difficult ; 
 Les regies quej'at expliquSes sont difficiles. 
 What affair have you undertaken ? 
 Quelle affaire avez-vous ent reprise ? 
 
 The participle agrees in these examples "with the nouns 
 terre, livres, regies, and affaire, since they can be placed im- 
 mediately after, by giving the sentence another turn ; we may 
 say for instance, j'ai vendu une terre, fai achete des livres, 
 j'ai explique des regies, vous avez entrepris une affaire. 
 
 RULE 144. When the Participle is indeclinable. 
 
 The participle is indeclinable after the word avoir in two 
 cases. 
 
 1. When the verb avoir is not preceded by any noun or 
 pronoun in the accusative. Examples : 
 
 He has studied ; She has sung ; They have spoken to her; 
 
 II a 6 tudi ; Elle a ch'ante* ; Elles lui ont parl . 
 
 Your mother has seen the king ; 
 
 Votre mere a vu le Roi. 
 
 Your sisters have learnt French ; 
 
 Vos sceurs ow appris le Francois. 
 
 2. When the noun or pronoun antecedent is not governed 
 by the participle, but by the verb following, which is known 
 when, by giving the sentence another turn, the noun ante- 
 cedent comes after the infinitive, and not after the participle. 
 Examples : 
 
 The house which I have advised you to buy is a new one, 
 La maison queje vous ai conseille d acfater est neuve. 
 
226 SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The rules which I have begun to explain are easy. 
 Les regies que j'ai commence a expliquer sont facile*. 
 
 The participles conseilU and commence are indeclinable, 
 because we could not say, j'at conseille lamaison d'acheter* 
 I have advised the house to buy ; j'ai commence les regies a 
 ejcpliquer, I have begun the rules to explain ; but we must 
 say, j'ai conseille d'acketer la maison, I have advised to buy 
 the house ; j'ai commence a expliquer les regies, I have be- 
 gun to explain the rules. 
 
 N. B. The verbs faire, and laisser, followed by an infini- 
 tive, form with it a sort of compound verb, and the partici- 
 ple is indeclinable. Examples : 
 
 That woman whom you have put to death; 
 Cettefemme que vous avez fait mourir. 
 The opportunity which you have suffered to escape 
 L' occasion que vous avez laisse c happen 
 
 Concord of the Verb with its Nominative. 
 RULE 145. The Verb agrees with its Nominative 
 
 All the personal verbs agree in number and person with 
 their nominative case. Examples : 
 
 I give ; Je donne. We give ; Nous donnons, 3fc. 
 My father is dead ; My brothers are dead ; 
 Mon pere est mort ; Mesfrerts sont morts. 
 
 A verb is put in the third person plural, in both languages, 
 when it has for its nominative case two substantives singular, 
 joined by a copulative conjunction. Examples : 
 
 Homer and Virgil are the princes of Poets ; 
 Homere et Virgile sont les princes des Poetn* 
 The paper and ink are good for nothing ; 
 Le papier et I'encre ne valent rien. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 227 
 
 RULE 146.- The Verb with nominatives of different 
 
 persona. 
 
 When a verb has several nominative cases of different per 
 sons, it is put in the plural, and agrees with the first, in pre- 
 ference to the other two, and with the second in preference 
 to the third, and then it is preceded by nous, if it be in the 
 first person, and by vous^ if in the second. Examples : 
 
 My brother and I will go to-night to the play; 
 Monfrtre et moi, nous allons ce soir a la comtdie, 
 You and your sister will stay at home ; 
 Vous et votre sceur, vous resterez a la maison. 
 
 RULE 147- The Verb when preceded by qui, &c. 
 
 The pronoun qui requires the verb following in the same 
 number and person as the substantive or pronoun antecedent. 
 Examples : 
 
 It is I who have seen him ; C'est moi qui /'ai vu. 
 
 It is he who has done it; C'est lui qui I'afait. 
 
 It is you who have spoken of it ; C'est vous qui en avez par IK. 
 It is they who have taken it ; Ce sont eux qui font pris. 
 
 Some useful Observations. 
 
 1. When the English address God, they put the pronoun 
 and verb in the singular ; the French on the contrary, have 
 them in the second person plural in prose. Example : 
 
 Our father who art in heaven, hallowed be t hy name, &c. 
 Notre ptre qui fctes aux deux, votre nom soit sanvtifit, fyc*. 
 
 2. The pronouns and verbs are usually put in the second 
 person plural in both languages, when we speak to one per- 
 son, but if an adjective follows, it remains in the singular. 
 Example : 
 
 * Not notre pere qui es aux cieux, ton now wit sanctifit, 
 n some prayer-books printed in England. 
 
 as we find 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Sir, you are very obliging ; 
 Monsieur, vous ttes tres-obligeant. 
 
 3. The third person is elegantly used instead of the second, 
 when we speak to persons for whom we have some conside- 
 ration. Example : 
 
 Madam, will you come to the park ? 
 
 Madame, veut-elle venir auparc? for voulez~vous t &c. 
 
 4. The second person singular is often used in French be^ 
 tween intimate friends, and also between brothers and sisters , 
 husband and wife, &c. as viens -tcf, monfrire; come here, 
 brother, (for venez-ici.) 
 
 5. Poets and Orators use the second person singular when 
 they address God, Heroes, or Sovereigns, as in the following, 
 Sonnet of Desbarreaux. 
 
 Grand Dieu ! fe^jugemens sont remplis d'equite: 
 Toujours tu prends plaisir a nous tre propice ; 
 Mais j'ai tant fait de mal, que jamais ta bont 
 Ne me pardonnera, qu'en blessant ta justice. 
 
 Oui, Seigneur, la grandeur de mon impi6te 
 
 Ne laisse a ton pouvoir que le choix du supplice 
 
 Ton inte>t s'oppose a ma felicit^, 
 
 Et ta cl6mence m^me attend que je perisse. 
 
 Contents ton desir, puisqu'il t 'est glorieux ; < 
 
 OJfense-toi des pleurs qui coulent de mes yeux : 
 
 Tonne, frappe, \\ est temps, rewfife-moi guerre pour guerre. 
 
 J'adore en p6rissant la raison qui J'aigrit : 
 Mais dessus quel endroit tombera ton tonnerre, 
 Qui ne soit tout couvert du sang de Jesus-Christ 1 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Of the Indicative Mood. 
 RULE 148. When the present of the Indicative is used. 
 
 The present of the indicative, as, je parle, I speak \ je 
 fais, I <io ; je recois, I receive, &:c. is used in French : 
 
 1. To express a thing which is present at the time we 
 are speaking. Examples : 
 
 It rains, il pleat. I am sick, Je suis malade. 
 
 2. To express a thing which we do habitually, though not 
 at the moment in which we are speaking. Examples : 
 
 I learn French ; J'apprends le Francois. 
 You go often to the play; 
 Vous allez souvent a la comedte. 
 
 3. To express an eternal truth. Examples: 
 
 God is merciful ; Dieu est miser icord'ieux. 
 Men are mortal ; Les hommes sont mortels. 
 
 4. To express in a more lively and emphatical manner a 
 thing happened in a time quite past. Example : 
 
 I have seen your son dragged by his horses ; he called lo 
 
 them to stop ; his cries frightened them ; they ran on, 
 
 till his body was but one wound ; 
 J'ai vu votrejlls entraine par ses chevaux, il vent les rap- 
 
 pefer ; sa VOLT les effraie, Us courent, tout son corps 
 
 nest qu'une plaie. 
 
 5. To express a future time at no great distance, when 
 some other word in the sentence denotes futurity. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 I shall set out to-niglK for London ; 
 
 Je pars ce svir pour Londres ; forje partirai. 
 
 I shall be ready in a moment ; 
 
 Je suis pret dans itn moment. 
 
 L 
 
$30 SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 RULE 149. When the Imperfect of the Indicative is 
 used. 
 
 The imperfect of the indicative, &%jeparlois,jerecevois, 
 &c. is used in French. 
 
 1. To express a present with respect to something past, 
 and then it exactly answers the English expressions, / was 
 doing. Examples : 
 
 I was writing you a letter when I received yours ; 
 Je vous ecrivois une lettre, quandje recus la votre. 
 We were dining when we learnt that sad news ; 
 Nous dinions, quandnous apprtmes cettefdcheuse nouvelle. 
 
 2. To express something past, but habitual, during a time 
 not specified, and then it answers the English expressions, / 
 used to do. Examples : 
 
 The Romans cultivated the arts, encouraged sciences, and 
 rewarded merit ; 
 
 Les Romains cultivoient les arts, encourageoient les sci- 
 ences, et recompensoient le merite. 
 
 Our ancestors went a hunting every day, and lived upon 
 game; 
 
 Nos anc&res alloient tons les jours a la chasse, et ne vi- 
 voicnt que de gibier. 
 
 Caesar was a great general; Cicero was a great orator ; 
 
 Cesar etoit un grand general. Cictron etoit un ground orateur. , 
 
 Lewis the sixteenth was a good king ; 
 
 Louis seize etoit un bon roi. 
 
 RULE 150. When the Preterite of the Indicative is 
 
 used. 
 
 The preterite of the indicative (as t /e parlai, I spoke ; je 
 Jis, I did ; je refus, 1 received, &c.j is used in French, 
 to express a particular fact or event which has happened 
 but once, or very seldom, and in a time quite past, and at 
 the distance of at least a day. Examples : 
 
 The Romans expelled Tarquiu from Rome ; 
 Las Romains chass-erent Tarquin de 
 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 231 
 
 Caesar was killed in the senate; 
 Cesar fut tut dans le senat. 
 Cicero had his head cut off. 
 Cictron cut la tete tranchee, 
 I went yesterday to see your father ; 
 J'allai hier voir votre ptre. 
 
 Useful Observations. 
 
 From the three preceding rules it appears, that a verb 
 which is in the preterite in English, may sometimes be put 
 in three different tenses in French. 
 
 1. In the imperfect, when it expresses a thing habitual, or 
 which was present when another thing happened. Examples : 
 
 When I was in the country, I walked often ; 
 Quandfetois a la campagne,je me promenois souvent. 
 I was sick when you carne ; 
 J'6tois malade quand vous Gtes venu. 
 
 2. In the preterite when it denotes a particular fac.t, 
 which happened at a time quite past. A time is past when 
 the pronouns this or our could not be prefixed to it. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 I walked yesterday ; Je me promenai hier. 
 
 I was sick last week; Je fus malade la semaine dernier e. 
 
 3. In the compound of the present, when the time is not 
 quite past. Examples : 
 
 I walked this morning for two hours ; 
 
 Je me suis promene ce matin pendant deux heures. 
 
 I was very sick this week ; 
 
 J 'ai etc bien malade cette semaine. 
 
 Observe. I have repeated the same examples, to render 
 mo-re obvious the distinction between the imperfect, the 
 preterite, and the compound of the present. 
 
232 SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 RULE }5l.When the Future and the Conditional are 
 used. 
 
 The future (w jt parlerai, jefcrai, je recevrai, &c.) is 
 used in French as in English, to express a future time. 
 Example : 
 
 Our bodies will rise again in the day of judgment; 
 Nos corps ressusciteront aujour dujugement. 
 
 The English often use the present tense, or the compound 
 of the present, after the conjunctions, when, as soon as> or 
 after, when they want to express a thing to come ; the future, 
 however, must always be used in French instead of the pre- 
 sent, and the compound of the future instead of the com- 
 pound of the present. Examples : 
 
 When I am in the country, will you come to see me ? 
 Quandje serai d la campagne, voulez-vous venir me voir? 
 You will play, when you have finished your exercise; 
 Vousjouerez, quand vous aurez^n* votre theme. 
 
 The conditional tense (as je parlerois, I would speak ; 
 jeferois, I would do ; jertcevrois, I would receive, &c.) 
 which some Grammarians improperly call the imperfect of 
 the^ subjunctive, is used in French as in English, to express 
 a conditional sentence. Examples : 
 
 We should be happy, if we knew how to fix our desires ; 
 Nous serious heureux, si nous savions fixer nos desirs ; 
 Though you should be rich, yet you would not' be more 
 
 happy ; 
 Quand vous seriez riche vous ne seriez pas plus heureux. 
 
 RULE 152. No future nor conditional after si. 
 
 When the conjunction si signifies whether, the future and 
 conditional are used after it in French as in English. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 I do not know if (or whether) it will be good weather 
 
 to-morrow ; 
 Je ne sals s'il sera beau temps dtmain. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE INDICATIVE MOOI>. 233 
 
 I do not know if (or ivhether) my brother would eorne, 
 
 should I desire him ; 
 Je ne sais si monfrcre viendroit, sijel'en priois. 
 
 But when the conjunction si signifies suppose that, the 
 English future must be rendered in French by the present, 
 and the conditional by the imperfect. Examples : 
 
 You will become a learned man, if you will study well ; 
 Vous deviendrez savant, si vous etudiez bien, (not si vous 
 
 ttudierez. 
 
 I should become rich, if I would continue my trade ; 
 Je deviendrois riche, si je continuous mon commerce, (not 
 
 sije continuerois.) 
 
 RULE 153. When the Compound of the Present is 
 
 used. 
 
 The compound of the p resent (asfaiparle, 1 have spoken; 
 fai fait, I have done ; j'ai recu, I have received, &c.) is 
 used in French to express a thing past, but in a time not quite 
 elapsed. A time is not elapsed when the pronoun this or 
 our is, or could be, prefixed to the words age, year, month, 
 week or day, mentioned in the sentence. Examples : 
 
 Our age has produced great men: 
 
 Notre siecle a produit de grands hommes, (not produisit, 
 
 nor produisoit ; 
 
 We had much company this winter ; 
 Nous avons eu beaucoup de campagnic cet hiver (not nous 
 
 RULE 154 When the other Compound Tenses are used. 
 
 The compound of the imperfect (asj'avoisparle,favois 
 fait,favQis re$u, &c.) is used in French to express a thing 
 done before another, which is also past: but it is employed 
 when the previous action was habitual, or when nothing 
 points out the approximation of the two actions. Example : 
 
 The king had named an admiral, when he heard of you ; 
 Le roi avoit nomine un amiral, quandon luiparla de vous 
 
234 SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 The compound of the preterite (jasj'eus parle, feus fait, 
 feus re$u, &c.) is also used to express a thing done before 
 another: but like the preterite, it cannot be employed but 
 for a time entirely elapsed, and besides it points out the ap- 
 proximation of the two actions, and for this reason it is most 
 commonly used after the conjunctions quand, dcs que, aussi- 
 tot que, apres que. Example : 
 
 As soon as the parliament was assembled, the riot ceased ; 
 .Des que le parlement se fut assemble, Vemeute cessa. 
 
 The compound of the future and conditional are generally 
 used in French as in English, and as they offer no difficulty, 
 they require no explanation. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 OJ ike Use of the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 This chapter is divided into three sections. Thejfirst enu- 
 merates the adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and conjunctions, 
 which always govern the subjunctive mood. The second 
 treats of the verbs and conjunctions which govern the fol- 
 lowing verb, sometimes in the indicative, and sometimes in 
 the subjunctive and points out in what circumstances each 
 mood must be used. The third explains when the verbs, 
 governed in the subjunctive, must be used in the present, when 
 in the preterite, and when in the compound tenses. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 Words which always govern the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 RULE 155. The Subjunctive is used aftw a Superlative. 
 A verb preceded by qui or que is put in the subjunctive. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 235 
 
 1. After a superlative, as we have said before, rule 43. 
 Examples : 
 
 The best guard a king can have, is the heart of his sub-* 
 
 jects ; 
 La meitleure garde qu'un roi puisse avoir est le cceur de 
 
 ses sujets. 
 
 You are the most learned man I know in this town ; 
 Vous etes le plus savant queje comioisse dans cette ville. 
 
 2. After these five indeterminate pronouns, quelgue, what- 
 ever ; qui que ce soit y whoever; personne, nobody : pasun, 
 not one; aucun, none; ricn, nothing, as we have said be- 
 fore., speaking of- indeterminate pronouns rule 109, and fol- 
 lowing. Examples : 
 
 Of whomsoever you speak, avoid slander; 
 
 De qui que ce soit que vous parliez, imtez la medisance. 
 
 I know nobody who is so happy as you are; 
 
 Je ne connois personne qui soit aussi hzureux que vous. 
 
 I have seen nothing reprehensible in your conduct; 
 
 Je n'ai rien vu qu'on puisse bldmer dans volre conduite. 
 
 3. After the ordinal numbers, as, le premier, the first ; 
 le second, the second ; le troisic-me, the third ; le dernier , 
 the last, &c. when preceded by a verb. Example : 
 
 You are the first friend I have met with in London ; 
 Vous ties le premier ami que j'aie rencontre d Londres. 
 
 4. After these two words, le seul, and I/unique, the only 
 one ; Example : 
 
 My son is the only one upon whom I can rely ; 
 Monjlls est le seul sur quije puisse compter. 
 
 N. B. In the preceding rules qui and que do not govern 
 the subjunctive when they are preceded by a genitive case 
 to which they relate. Examples : 
 
 This is the best reason you have just given me ; 
 
 Voila la meilleurc des raisons que vous venez de me ctonner. 
 
236 SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 1 do not know any of the ladies who live in your house ; 
 
 Je neconnois aucune des dames qui demeurent chez vous. 
 
 Do not say any thing of what I trust to you ; 
 
 Ne dites rien de ce queje vous con fie. 
 
 I have read the first volume of the work you had lent to 
 
 me. 
 J'ai lu k premier volume de Touvrage que vous w 'a vie a, 
 
 prete. 
 
 RULE 156. The Subjunctive, is used after Verbs of 
 fear or doubt. 
 
 A verb preceded by the conjunction que is always us^d in 
 the subjunctive, after verbs which express any doubt, wish-, 
 command, order, fear, ignorance, or any affection of the 
 mind, and particularly after the following: 
 
 Aimer, 
 
 to like. 
 
 nier, 
 
 to deny. 
 
 commander, 
 
 to command. 
 
 ordonner, 
 
 to order. 
 
 craindre, 
 
 to fear. 
 
 prier, 
 
 tapray. 
 
 defendre, 
 
 to forbid. 
 
 se rejouir, 
 
 to rejoice. 
 
 desirer, 
 
 to wish. 
 
 souhaiter. 
 
 to wish. 
 
 douter, 
 
 to doubt. 
 
 vouloir, 
 
 to be willing. 
 
 s'etonner, 
 
 to wonder. 
 
 
 
 and likewise after cftar me, enchant e, or tien aise, very glad, 
 etonn6, astonished, content, satisfied, fachG, sorry, affligc, 
 afflicted, surpris, surprised, preceded by etrc, parottre, sem- 
 bler, avoir fair. Examples : 
 
 I fear my father is dead ; 
 
 Je Grains que mon pere ne soit mort. 
 
 I wish you may succeed ; Je desire que vous russissiez. 
 
 I doubt that he is come ; Je doute qu'il soit arrive. 
 
 I wish they would make peace; 
 
 Je souhaite qu'on fasse la paix. 
 
 I will have him obey me ; Je veux qu'il m'obeisse. 
 
 I am sorry they have deceived you; ; 
 
 Je suis fdche qu'on vous ait trompe. 
 
 And so on with the rest above mentioned. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 237 
 
 RULE 157. The Subjunctive is used after some Imper- 
 sonal Verbs. 
 
 A verb preceded by que is always put in the subjunctive, 
 after the impersonate, ilfaut, it must ; il est fdcheux, it is 
 sad; il est juste, it is just; il est injust e , it is unjust; il 
 convient, it becomes ; il importe, or il est import ant , it 
 matters ; and generally after all those not mentioned in the, 
 next section, rule l60. Examples: 
 
 It is necessary that there is a God, creator of the universe; 
 // est necessaire qu'ily ait un Dieu, createur de I'univers. 
 I must go to town ; Ilfaut que j'aiile en ville. 
 It is j ust that he should see her ; // est juste qu'il la vole. 
 
 And so on with the rest. 
 
 RULE 158. The Subjunctive is used after some Con- 
 junctions. 
 
 A verb is always put in the subjunctive mood after the 
 twenty following conjunctions : 
 
 Afin que, 
 
 that. 
 
 nonobstant que, 
 
 for all that. 
 
 a nioins que, 
 avant que, 
 
 unless, 
 before. 
 
 non que, non 1 
 pas que, j 
 
 not that. 
 
 bien que, 
 
 though. 
 
 pos6 que, , 
 
 suppose that. 
 
 de crainte que> for fear, 
 
 pour que, 
 
 that. 
 
 de peur que, 
 
 lest. 
 
 pourvu que, , 
 
 provided. 
 
 en cas que,. 
 
 tf. 
 
 quoique, 
 
 though. 
 
 encore que, 
 
 though. 
 
 sans que, 
 
 without. 
 
 jusqu'a ce que, 
 
 till. 
 
 soit que, 
 
 whether. 
 
 loin que, 
 
 far from. 
 
 suppose que, 
 
 suppose that. 
 
 malgre que, 
 
 for all that. 
 
 
 
 Examples : 
 
 Unless you come with me, I will not go out ; 
 
 A moins que vous ne w'accompagniez, je ne sortirai pas. 
 
 Though he is lazy, yet he improves much ; 
 
 Bien qu'il soil paresseux t ilfait beaucoup de pr ogres < , 
 
233 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOIh 
 
 Send me your book, that I may read it ; 
 Envoy ez moi votre livre, afin quejele lise. 
 I will be ready before they are come ; 
 Je serai prtt avant qu'ils soier|t venus. 
 
 N. B. The subjunctive is always used in the beginning 
 of a sentence, to express surprise, an imprecation, or an 
 ardent desire. Examples : 
 
 May you be happy ! Puhsiez-vous etre heureux ! 
 May I rather die, than not revenge ! 
 Que je meure, si je ne me venge ! 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Verbs and Conjunctions which govern sometimes the Indica- 
 tive and sometimes the Subjunctive^ 
 
 RULE 159. Verbs which govern the Indicative and 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 The following verbs : 
 
 Affirmer, 
 
 to affirm. 
 
 maintenir, 
 
 to maintain. 
 
 assurer, 
 
 to assure. 
 
 oublier, 
 
 to forget. 
 
 apercevoir, 
 
 to perceive. 
 
 penser, 
 
 to think. 
 
 avouer, 
 
 to confess. 
 
 predire, 
 
 to for et el. 
 
 conclure, 
 
 to conclude. 
 
 prevoir, 
 
 to foresee. 
 
 convenir, 
 
 to agree. 
 
 proinettre, 
 
 to promise. 
 
 croire, 
 
 to believe. 
 
 publier, 
 
 to publish. 
 
 declarer, 
 
 to declare. 
 
 savoir, 
 
 ta know. 
 
 dire, 
 
 to say. 
 
 songer. 
 
 to think. 
 
 esperer, 
 
 to hope. 
 
 soutenir, 
 
 to maintain. 
 
 juger, 
 
 to judge. 
 
 supposer, 
 
 to suppose. 
 
 jurer, 
 
 to swear. 
 
 voir, 
 
 to see. 
 
 And in general all those which express the intellectual 
 faculties of the mind, govern the indicative, when they are 
 affirmatively used, and most commonly the subjunctive when 
 
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 239 
 
 they are used negatively, interrogatively, or are preceded by 
 the conjunction si. Examples: 
 
 I believe he is in the right; do you believe he t> in the 
 right ? I do not believe he is in the right ; 
 
 Je crois qu'il a raison, indicative ; croyez-vous qu'il ait 
 raison 1 je ne crois pas qu'il ait raison, subjunctive. 
 
 I hope he will come; Do you hope he will come? 
 J'espere qu'il viendra, indicative; Esperez-vous qu'il 
 
 vienne? subjunctive. 
 
 Let us go, if you think it ivill be fine weather; 
 Partons, si vous pensez quil fasse beau temps, subj. 
 
 If we ask a question, less to be informed of a thing than 
 to inform others of it, the second verb is put in the indica- 
 tive, and not in the subjunctive. Examples : 
 
 Have I told you that my father is dead ? 
 Vous ai-je dit que mon pere est mort ? indicative. 
 Did you perceive they wanted to deceive me ? 
 Vousapergutes-vousqu'onvQuloitmetr&mperl indie. 
 
 RULE iGO. Impersonal, which govern the Indicative and 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 The impersonal verbs denoting evidence) certitude, or 
 probability of a thing (such as il est clair, it is clear; it est 
 certain, it is certain ; il est vrai, it is true ; il est probable, 
 it is probable, &c.) govern the next verb in the indicative, 
 when they are affirmatively used, and most frequently in the 
 subjunctive, when they are used interrogatively, negatively, 
 or conditionally. Examples : 
 
 It is certain that you are in the wrong, but it is not cer- 
 tain I am in the right ; 
 
 II est certain que vous avez tort, indicative ; mats il n'est 
 pas certain que j'aie raison, subjunctive. 
 
 It is probable they will make peace this year. Is it pro- 
 bable they will make peace this year? 
 
 // est probable qu'on fera la paix cette annee, indicative; 
 Est-ii I probable qu'on fasse la paix cette annee? subj. 
 
240 SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 It is true that I may be deceived. If it were true that I 
 
 might be deceived ; 
 // est vrai queje puis me tromper, indicative. S*il ttoit 
 
 vrai queje pusse me tromper, subjunctive. 
 
 RULE 16 1. Conjunctions which govern the Indicative 
 and Subjunctive. 
 
 The following conjunctions, de manwre que, de sorte que, 
 tellement que, so that, sinon que, except that, govern the 
 indicative, when the sentence affirms positively that the 
 thing in question is or will be, and the subjunctive when the 
 thing is not certain, but rather wished for. Examples: 
 
 T Your son behaves in such a manner, that he is, and 
 ) will always be, loved by his masters ; 
 
 j Votre Jils te comporte de maniere qu'il est et sera 
 
 \^ toujours aime de ses maitres. 
 
 r Behave in such a manner, that you may be loved and 
 , ^ esteemed by your masters ; 
 
 j Comport ez-vous de manitre que vous soyez aime et 
 
 ' estimt de vos maitres. 
 
 Note, The word qne, used in the second part of a sen- 
 tence to avoid the repetition of a conjunction occuring in 
 the first, governs the same mood as the conjunction it 
 stands for. Examples: 
 
 T As soon as my brother writes to me, and I have the 
 7 3 opportunity, I will let you know ; 
 
 j Aussitot que monfrere m'Scrira, et que j'aurai des 
 [ occasions, je vous donnerai de ses nouvelles. 
 C Unless you come or write to me, I will not do it ; 
 tub. < A moins que vous ne veniez ou que vous ne m'ecriviez, 
 je ne leferai pas. 
 
 The word que, used to avoid the repetition of si, gorernt 
 the subjunctive. Example : 
 
 If somebody comes, and I am not at home, send for me. 
 S'il vient quelqu'un, et queje ne sols pas d la maison, en- 
 wyez-moi chercher. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 241 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 Which tense of the Subjunctive must be used. 
 
 RULE 162. Which Tense of the Subjunctive mood must 
 be used. 
 
 A verb required to be in the subjunctive mood by any of 
 the preceding rules, is usually put in the present, when the 
 first verb is in the present or future of the indicative or in 
 the imperative; and in the preterite, when, the first, verb is 
 in any other tense. Examples : 
 
 I fear lest he should come ; 
 
 Je crains qu'il ne vienne ; present. 
 
 I feared -lest you would come ; 
 
 Je craignois que vous ne vinssiez ; preterite. 
 
 I shall be obliged to do it ; Llfaudra que je le fassc. 
 
 I should be obliged to do it ; llfaudroit queje le fisse. 
 
 RULE l6'3. Compound Tenses of the Subjunctive. 
 
 The compound tenses of the subjunctive are used to ex- 
 press a past action, but prior to that expressed by the pre- 
 ceding verb ; the compound of the present is used after the 
 present or future of the indicative, or the imperative, and 
 the compound of the preterite after any other tense. Ex- 
 amples: 
 
 I fear you have complained of me ; 
 
 Je crains que vous n'ayez fait des plaint es de mot. 
 
 1 feared you would have complained of me ; 
 
 Je craignois que vous n'eussiez fait des plaint es dsmoi. 
 
 I do not believe he has learnt geography; I did not be- 
 lieve he had learnt geography ; 
 
 Je ne croispas qu'il ait appris l& geegrapkie ; prea.j> ne 
 croyois pas qu'il etit appris la geographic ; pret. 
 
 RULE 164. Preterite of the Subjunctive. 
 
 Though the first verb be in the present or future, hie se- 
 cond is put in the preterite subjunctive or in its compound, 
 
242. SYNTAX OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 when the sentence implies a condition, and particularly if 
 the conjunction si is followed by a verb in the imper- 
 fect. Examples : 
 
 Do you think they would refuse me, if I requested it of 
 
 them? 
 
 Croyez-vous qu'ils me refusassent, sije les en priois? 
 I do not think your brothers would have come, had it 
 
 not been for me. 
 Je ne crois pas que sans moi vosfreres fussent venus. 
 
 Sans moi is a conditional expression which signifies, if I 
 had not persuaded them to come. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 Would, could, should, and might. 
 
 The words would, could, should, and might, which we 
 have hitherto considered only as the distinctive marks of 
 tenses, and with which we have conjugated all our verbs re- 
 gular and irregular, are also sometimes distinct verbs of 
 themselves, and] expressed in French by vouloir, pouvoir, 
 or devoir, according to the following rules : 
 
 RULE 165. 1. How to express will and would. 
 
 When the words will and would are not joined to any 
 verb, they are verbs of themselves, and must be expressed 
 by vouloir, to be willing. Thus we say : 
 
 Why do you not do your exercise 1 because I will not, 
 
 or I am not willing; 
 Pourquoi ne faites-vous pas votre tMme ? parce queje 
 
 ne veux pas. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 213 
 
 If I am not married, it is because I would not, 01 have 
 
 not been willing ; 
 Sije ne suis pas marie, c'est que je n'ai pas voulu 
 
 The words will and would, though followed by another 
 verb, are also expressed by the verb vouloir, when they 
 imply an explicit will. Examples : 
 
 I will be obeyed ; Je veux qu'on m'obeisse. 
 
 He would have you beg his pardon: 
 
 Jl vouloit que vous lui demandassiez pardon. 
 
 % 2. Should. 
 
 The word should is a verb, and must be expressed in 
 French by some tense of the verb devoir, when it is used for 
 ought to, denoting necessity a or duty. Examples : 
 
 You should not do that, since religion forbids it ; 
 Vous ne devez pas lefaire, puisqui la religion le defend. 
 If he wants money, he should ask me for some ; 
 S'il a besoin d'argent, il devroit m'en demander. 
 
 3. Could, or might 
 
 The words could and might are verbs, when they denote 
 possibility ; they are both expressed in French by the verb 
 pouvoir, to be able. Examples : 
 
 If I could do you that service, I would not refuse .you. 
 
 Sije pouvois vous rendre ce service, je ne vous refuscrois 
 pas. 
 
 You could have done your exercise, if you had been will- 
 ing. 
 
 Vous auriez pufaire votre theme, si vousaviez voulu. 
 
 The words may and can are usually verbs, and expressed 
 in French by the present tense of the verb pouvoir. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 You can write your letter before dinner ; 
 Vous pouvez ecrire votre lettrc avant diner. 
 
244 SYNTAX OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 N. B. The words would, could, or might, may sometimes 
 be expressed indifferently, either as a verb, or as the mark 
 of the conditional ; thus we say, je pourrois vous payer, si 
 je voulois, or je vous payerois, si je voulois ; I could pay 
 you if I would : but this being seldom the case, the fore- 
 going explanation must be particularly attended to. 
 
 RULE 166 In which tense would and could are to be 
 
 put in French. 
 
 When the irregular would, could, should, or might, are not 
 followed by any verb, or by one only, they may be express- 
 ed by the imperfect, the conditional, the preterite of the in- 
 dicative, or of the subjunctive, according as the sense re- 
 quires it ; thus, / would> may be rendered by je voulois, je 
 voulus, je voudrois, orje voulusse; I shoul'd, by je devois, 
 je dus,je devrois, orje dusse ; and I could, byjepouvois, 
 je pus, je pourrois, or je pusse. Examples : 
 
 I could do that yesterday ; Je pouvois/<zir<? ctla hier. 
 I could do it formerly ; Je pus lefaire autrefois. 
 
 I could do it if I would ; Je le pourrois sije voulois. 
 I do not think I could do it ; Jenecroispasquejelepusse* 
 
 RULE 167. would and could, followed by two verbs. 
 
 When the irregular would, could 9 should, or might, are 
 followed by two verbs, of which the last is in the participle, 
 they may be rendered in French : 
 
 1. By the imperfect, or the conditional of avoir, and the 
 participle voulu, pu, or du, if you speak of a past time. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 You should have written to me, since you knew my direc- 
 tion 1 
 Vous auriez dft m'ecrire,puisque vous suviez mon adres&e. 
 
 2, By the conditional ofvouloir, pouvoir or devoir, and 
 the verb avoir in the infniitive mood, if you speak > of some- 
 thing not yet done. Examples : 
 
 I would I had done my exercise ; 
 Je voudrois avoir fait mon the 1 me. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 245 
 
 These sentences, / will have him pay me, He would have 
 me betray my duty, and others of the same sort, are ren- 
 dered in French by Je veux qu'il me paye, II voudroit que 
 je trahisse mon devoir; as if it were, I will that he pay me, 
 He would that I betray my duty. 
 
 Note, If you are at a loss in which tense to put the irre- 
 gular would, could, should, or might ; consider would as a 
 tense of the verb to be willing ; should as a tense of to be 
 obliged; could as a tense of to be able; and then put the 
 verbs pouvoir, vouloir, and devoir, into the same tense in 
 French as the verb to be is in English, and you will ne\er 
 be mistaken. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Of the Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 We have already treated of the impersonal verbs, in rufe 
 160. They are used in the third person only, and are ge- 
 nerally construed in French as in English, except the fol- 
 lowing, ilfatit, il y a, il est, and c'est, which require par- 
 ticular attention. 
 
 RULE l6S. Use of the Impersonal Verb il faut, it 
 
 must. 
 
 The verb must is always expressed by tke impersonal il 
 faut. The noun or pronoun,, which in English is the nomi- 
 native of must, becomes in French the nominative of the next 
 verb, which is put in the subjunctive. Examples : 
 
 I must see him ; II faut queje le vole. 
 
 You must come to-morrow ; II faut que vous veniez dtmam 
 
 Your brother must write to him ; 
 
 Ilfaudra que votrefrere lui derive. 
 
246 SYNTAX OF THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 The verb have, which comes often after must, is some- 
 times put in the subjunctive; as ilfaut qnef'die deslivres, 
 I must have books ; Ilfaut que votre frire ait un chapeau, 
 your brother must Aaveahat; but it is more elegantly 
 suppressed, and then the nominative of must is put in the 
 dative case: thus, time Jtael des livres ; ilfaut un chapeau 
 d votre frere. 
 
 The verb should, coining at the end of a sentence, is also 
 usually expressed by ilfaut. Example: 
 
 Your exercise is not clone as it should be ; 
 Votre theme n'est pas fait commie il faut. 
 
 RULE 169. Use of the Impersonal il y a, there is. 
 
 The verb to be, preceded by the adverb there, becomes 
 impersonal, and is expressed by the third person of the verb 
 avoir, for every tense, thus : Uy a,, there is, or there are ; ily 
 avoit, there was, or there were; il y eut, there were; ily 
 aura, there shall be; ily auroit, there should be; ily ait, 
 there may be ; and il y eut, there might be. Examples : 
 
 There are many difficulties in your affair ; 
 II y a beaucoup de difficult^ dans votre affaire. 
 There is no talent more shining than that of speaking; 
 II n'y a point de talent plus brillant que celui de la parole. 
 
 The verb to be, preceded by the word some or many, is 
 also often expressed by the impersonal ily a, il y avoit, 
 with the partitive artick, &c. as if it were there are some. 
 Examples : 
 
 Some Christians are unworthy of -that name; 
 , II y a des Chretiens qui sont indignes de ce noni. 
 Many friends are false ; II y a bien defaux amis. 
 
 The impersonal il y a, il y avoit, &c.. is also used in 
 French in three circumstances, where there is is not used 
 Sa English. 
 
SYNTAX OF THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 247 
 
 1. To ask the distance from one place to another, then 
 it answers to the English wbrd how far. Examples : 
 
 How far is it from Winchester to London ? 
 Combien y a-t-il de Winchester d Londres ? 
 
 2. To ask the number of a thing, in which case it answers 
 to the word how mtny. Examples : 
 
 How many inhabitants are there in France ? 
 Combien y a-t-ii d'habitans en France ? 
 How many kings are there in Europe? 
 Combien y a-t-il de rois en Europe ? 
 
 3. To ask how long it is since a thing happened. Ex 
 ample : 
 
 How long has your father been dead ? 
 Combien y a-t-il que Mr. votre ptre est mort ? 
 
 When the question is made by ily a, ily avoit, &c. we 
 generally answer by the same verb. Examples : 
 
 Combien y a-t-il de Douvres a Calais ? II y a dix lieues. 
 
 Combien y a-t-il d 'antes en Angleterre f 
 
 II y en a onze millions. 
 
 Combien y a-t-il que la guerre dure ? II y a quatre ans. 
 
 RULE 170. Distinction between il est and c'est, it is* 
 
 The impersonal it is, it teas, it will be, c. is expressed in 
 French by il est, il etoit, il sera, &c. when it is followed by 
 an adjective without reference to any thing expressed be- 
 fore, or by a substantive of time. Examples : 
 
 It is six o'clock ; it is time to set out ; 
 II est six heures ; il est temps de partir. 
 It is difficult to please every body ; 
 II est difficile de plaire d tout le monde. 
 
24S SYNTAX OP THE IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 C'est is sometimes used before an adjective, in sentences 
 ake these, c'est bon, c'est mauvais, &c. but then they have 
 reference to something mentioned before. 
 
 It is expressed by c'est, c'etoit, cefut, <$jc. when it is fol- 
 lowed by a substantive which has not reference to time, by a 
 pronoun, or by a verb in the infinitive mood. Examples : 
 
 It is not fortune which renders us happy, it is virtue ; 
 
 Ce w'est pas I argent qui nous rend heureux, c'est laverlu. 
 
 It is your turn to play ; C'est d vous djouer. 
 
 Not to punish the wicked is authorising vice ; 
 
 C'est autoriser le vice que de ne pas punir les mechans. 
 
 RULE 171. it is, expressed by c'est and ce sont. 
 
 The impersonal it is, it was, &c. followed by a substan 
 five, or the pronoun eux, or elles in the nominative plural, is 
 expressed by ce sont, and not by c'est. Examples : 
 
 It is they who have seen him ; Ce sont eux qui Vont vu. 
 It is your brothers who are in the right; 
 Ce sont vosfreres qui ont raison. 
 
 (Not c'est vosfreres qui ont raison, nor c'est eux qui 
 Vont vu.) 
 
 The impersonal, it is, it was, &c. is always expressed by 
 c'est or c'etoit, in the singular, before the pronouns moi, toi t 
 nous, vous, and also before the pronouns eux, elles, or a 
 substantive plural, when they are not in the nominative, 
 case. Examples : 
 
 It is you who are in the wrong; C'est vous qui avez tort. 
 It is their turn to answer ; C'est d eux d repondrc. 
 It is of your brothers I complain ; 
 C'est de tosfreres queje me plains. 
 
SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Syntax of Adverbs. 
 
 RULE 172. Where the Adverbs are to be placed. 
 
 Adverbs are usually placed after the verb in a simple 
 tteiise, and between the auxiliary and the participle in a 
 compound one ; they are never put as in English, between 
 the nominative and the verb. Examples : 
 
 I often think of you ; Jepense sottvent a vous. 
 
 I never speak ill of any body ; 
 
 Je ne parle jamais mal de personne. 
 
 I never have spoken ill of any body; 
 
 Je n'ai jamais mzl parle de personne. 
 
 and not je sou vent pense a vous. 
 
 RULE 173. -- Adverbs after the Participle. 
 
 The adverbs which govern noun are always placed in 
 French after the participle in a compound tense. Examples : 
 
 Your brother has acted conformably to his principles; 
 Votrefrtre a agi conform&ment a ses principes. 
 I have had much difficulty in persuading him ; 
 t/'fli eu beaucoup-e/e peine d, le persuader. 
 
 The following adverbs of time, aujourd'hui, to-day, de- 
 main, to-morrow, hier, yesterday, and those composed of 
 two or three words, are usually placed after the participle in 
 a compound tense. Examples : 
 
 It lias rained to-day ; // aplu aujourd'hui. 
 I met with him by chance ; Je I'ai rencontre par hasard. 
 And not, II a aujourd'hui plu; Je lai par hasard rai- 
 wntre. 
 
250 SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Note 1. Many adverbs usually begin a sentence in French 
 or a member of it; such are, cepcndant, mean while ; c'est 
 pourquoi, therefore ; comment ? how ? comUen, ho\v much ; 
 quand, when; ou, where, &c. Example: 
 
 When will you go to France ? Quand irez-vous en France? 
 
 Note 2. The adverb prcsquc, almost, is always placed 
 before toujours, jamais, and souvent when they meet ; and 
 thess three go before all others, when several meet together. 
 Examples : 
 
 The king is scarcely ever well ; 
 
 Le roi est presque toujours malade. 
 
 Your brother and mine are always together ; 
 
 Votrefrtre et le mien sont toujours ensemble. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Syntax of Prepositions. 
 
 RULE 174. Prepositions are placed before the Word 
 which they govern. 
 
 Prepositions are placed in French before the word they 
 govern, in English they are sometimes placed after. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 The person you are interested for; 
 
 La personne pour qui vous vous inttressez. 
 
 Whom do you speak to? A qui parlex-vous ? 
 
 What do you complain of? De quoi vous plaignez-vous ? 
 
 RULE 175. How to express from followed by to. 
 The prepositions from and o, used in the same sentence 
 
SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 251 
 
 before substantives of place, are expressed in French in 
 three different manners. 
 
 1. To express the distance, or the going from one place 
 specified, to another, /row is rendered by de, and to by a. 
 Examples : 
 
 I go in one fay from Paris to Rouen ; 
 
 Je vais en unjour de Paris a Rouen. 
 
 There is no great distance from his house to the church ; 
 
 // n'y a pas loin de chez lui a I' eg Use. 
 
 2. When the same word is repeated after jfftww, and af- 
 ter to, and also when they are placed before names of king- 
 doms, provinces and vast countries, from is rendered by de, 
 and to by en. Examples : 
 
 , I go from street to street, from town to town, /row pro- 
 vince to province; 
 
 Je vais de rue en rue, de ville en ville, de province en 
 province. 
 
 My brother will go to Germany, and from Germany to 
 France, from France to Italy, from Italy to Spain, and 
 there he will embark for America ; 
 
 Monfrcre ira en Alkmagne, et d'Allemagne en France, 
 de France en Italie 9 d 1 Italic en Espagnc, et Id il s'em- 
 barquera pour I'Ameriquc. 
 
 3. From is rendered by depuis, and to byjusqu'd, when 
 speaking of time. Example : 
 
 I will stay in the country from midsummer to Christm&s ; 
 Je rester ai d la campagne depuis la St. Jean jusqu'a Noel. 
 
 When the preposition to signifies so far *, it is generally 
 expressed byjusqu'd. Examples: 
 
 I have drunk the cup to the dregs/ 
 J'ai bu le calice jusqu'k la lie. 
 I will prosecute h4m to the end ; 
 Je le poursuivrai jusqu'a la Jin. 
 
252 SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 RULE 176. Prepositions expressed several Ways. 
 
 An. English preposition has often several significations, and 
 consequently must be variously expressed in French. Let us 
 take, for instance, the preposition about. Examples : 
 
 I am come to speak to you about our affair ; 
 
 Je suis venu pour vous parler toucha-nt noire affaire. 
 
 I will go and see you about the end of the next month 
 
 J'irai vous voir vers la Jin du mois prockain. 
 
 Dinner was about over when he came ; 
 
 // arriva sur la fin du diner. 
 
 RULE \H. When the Prepositions are to be repeated 
 
 The prepositions de and a are usually repeated before 
 every noun, pronoun, or verb ; others, such as avec, contre, 
 sans, &c. are repeated before nouns or verbs of different sig- 
 nification, whether they are or are not repeated in English. 
 Example : 
 
 The son of God is come on earth to redeem men, and to 
 
 destroy the empire of the devil ; 
 Le fils de Dieu est venu sur la terre pour racheter les 
 
 hommeSy et pour detruire V empire du demon. 
 
 They are not usually repeated before words which have 
 pretty near the same signification. Examples : 
 
 The son of God is come on earth to redeem men, aH(i to 
 
 free them from sin ; 
 
 Le fils de Dieu est venu sur la tcrrc pour racket er les 
 hommes, et les delivrcr dupecht (not el pour les dtlivrer, 
 because racket er and delivrer signify the same thing). 
 
 Our law judges nobody, without having heard and exa- 
 mined him ; 
 
 Notre loi ne juge personne t sans V avoir entendu et ex- 
 amine. 
 
 But the preposition must be repeated before two verbs 
 
OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 263 
 
 even of the same signification, when they govern different 
 nouns or pronouns. Example : 
 
 Our law judges nobody, without having heard him and 
 
 examined his conduct ; 
 Notre loi nejuge personne, sans Favoir entendu et sans 
 
 avoir examine sa conduit e. 
 
 Of Conjunctions and Interjections. 
 
 We have spoken at large of conjunctions, page 130 and 
 following ; their use and construction have been fully ex- 
 plained in the Syntax in rules 97, 158, and i6l ; and no- 
 thing further remains to be said of them. 
 
 The different species of interjections have been treated of 
 in page 132 ; their construction is the same in French as in 
 English, therefore they require no explanation. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 
 
 Idioms are a modeof speaking peculiar to a language, and 
 which cannot be literally translated into another. 
 
 The chapter of idioms is divided into three sections: the 
 first explains the idiomatical expressions of the auxiliary 
 sverbs to have and to le ; the second shews the idiomatical 
 significations in which the verbs aller, avoir, venir, donner, 
 faire,joner, and mourir, may be taken; the third contains 
 a series of the most remarkable French idioms. 
 
 M 
 
254 OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 
 Idiomatical Expressions of the Verbs to have and to be. 
 
 RULE 178. Cases in which the Verb to be is expressed 
 by the Verb avoir. 
 
 The verb to be is expressed in French by the same tense 
 of the verb avoir, in the seven following cases : 
 
 o 1. When speaking of the dimension, orage, it is fallowed 
 by a word of number, such as one t two, three, four, &c. 
 Examples : 
 
 Our house is twenty feet broad ; 
 
 Notre maison a vingt pieds de large, (not est.) 
 
 I am twenty-five years of age ; J'ai vingt-cinq ans. 
 
 2. When it is used to ask the age of a person or an 
 animal. Examples : 
 
 How old are you ? Quelage wez-vousl (not etes-vous.) 
 How old is your dog ? Quel age a votre chien ? 
 
 3. When it is followed by the words, hungry, dry, or 
 thirsty. Examples : 
 
 Are you hungry, daughter? yes, mother, I am very 
 
 hungry ; 
 
 Avez-vousfaim,mafille1 oui t ma mere, fai grand f aim. 
 Are you dry? no, I am not dry at present; 
 Avez vous soif? non,je w'ai pas soif d present. 
 
 4. When it is followed by the words hot t warm, or cold. 
 The part of the body referred to is preceded in French by an 
 for the masculine, by a la for the feminine, and by aux for 
 the plural, instead of the possessive pronouns my, thy, his, 
 her, our, your, or their, used in English. Examples : 
 
 My feet are cold ; JTaifroid aux pieds. 
 
 Are your hands warm ? \vez-vous chaud aux mains ? 
 
 Warm yourself, if you are cold ; 
 
 Chauffezvous, si veus avez/roiW. 
 
OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 255 
 
 % 5. When it is or might be followed by the adverb there, 
 without altering the sense of the sentence, as we Lave said, 
 rule 169. Example: 
 
 There are many poor people in England and France ; 
 // y a beaucoup de pauvres en Angleterre et en France. 
 
 6. When it is followed by the words in the wrong, in the 
 right, or afraid. Examples : 
 
 You were in the right, and I was in the wrong ; 
 
 Vous aviez raison, et moif'avois tort. 
 
 Why are you afraid ? Pourquoi avez-vows peur? 
 
 7. When to be is followed by in vain, it is commonly 
 expressed by avoir beau. Examples : 
 
 It is in vain to wait for him, he will not come ; 
 
 Vow avez beau I'attendrc, il ne viendra pas. 
 
 It was in vain for me to advise him, he would not believe 
 
 me; 
 J'avois beau Vavertir, il ne vouloit pas ms croire. 
 
 RULE 179.- to be, expressed by faire. 
 
 The verb to be is expressed by fairs, when applied to 
 the state of the weather; and with the words jour, nuit, 
 soleil, vent, &c. Examples : 
 
 It is fine weather to-day ; //fait beau temps aujourd'hui. 
 It ivas bad weather yesterday;// faisoit mauvais temps /tier. 
 It will be cold soon ; Jl fera/roiW dans ptu. 
 
 Is it hot in France ? Fait -il c/iaud en France. ? 
 
 If the word weather is the nominative case of the verb to 
 be, then it should be expressed by tire, and not by faire. 
 Examples : the weather is fine ; le temps est beau ; the air is 
 cold ; I'air estfroid; (not le temps fait beau, lairfaitjrmd.) 
 
 RULE 180. The Verb to bef, expressed by the Verb 
 
 se porter. 
 
 The verbs to be and to do, used ia English in inquiring or 
 
256 OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 
 
 speaking of a person's health are both expressed in French 
 by the reflected verb se porter. Examples : 
 
 How do you do? Comment vous portez-i'0ws ? 
 I am very well; Je me porte/0r Men. 
 
 Is your father well 1 Mr. votrepure se porte-t-il Men ? 
 He was well yesterday. // se portoit Men filer. 
 
 RULE 181.// m est de, it is with. 
 
 The impersonal it is, it teas, it will be, &c. followed by 
 the preposition with, is expressed by il en est 'de for the 
 present, il en etoit de for the imperfect, ilenfut de, for the 
 preterite, il en sera de, for the future, il en seroit de, for 
 the conditional, il en soil de, for the pres. subj. ilenfut de, 
 for the preterite. Examples : 
 
 It is with you as with other men ; 
 
 // en est de vous comme dcs autres hommes. 
 
 I do not believe it will be with my son as with yours ; 
 
 Je necrdis pas qu'il en soit de monjils comme du votre. 
 
 N. B. The verb to be before an infinitive is sometimes 
 expressed by the verb devoir ; sometimes it is not expressed 
 at all, arid then- the next verb is put in the future. Ex- 
 ample : 
 
 I am to dine out to-day ; 
 
 Je dois diner, (ouje dinerai) en mile aujourd'hui. 
 
 RULE 182. The Verb to have, expressed by the Verb 
 
 tre. 
 
 The verb to have is expressed by etre, 1 . in the compound 
 tenses of all the reflected verbs. Examples: 
 
 I rose this morning at six o'clock; 
 Je me suis leve ce matin d six heures. 
 'fTave you perceived the trick 1 
 Vous etes-wws aperfu du tour? 
 
 2. In the compound tenses of the verbs eller, arriver, de- 
 
OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 
 
 257 
 
 choir, deceder, entrer, mourir, naitre, partir, tomber, als<i 
 of venir, and its compounds, devenir, disconvenir, interve- 
 nir, par venir ^revenir, and survenir. Examples : 
 
 You have gone to London without my leave ; 
 Vous &tes Me. d Londres sans ma permission. 
 My brother died this morning at seven ; 
 Monfrereest mort ce matin d sept heures. 
 
 RULE 183. avoir mal a, speaking of illness.] 
 
 We make use of avoir mal d, to ask or to express what 
 part of the body is affected with some illness or pain. 
 Examples: 
 
 Have you the head-ach 1 Avezvous mal d la tete ? 
 
 My eyes are sore ; J'ai mal aux yeux. 
 
 Have you the tooth-ach ? Avez-vous mal aux dents ? 
 
 I. feel a pain in my side ; J'ai mal au cot6. 
 
 Ills feet are sore ; // a mal aux pieds. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Idiomatical Significations of aller. 
 
 The verb tf/fcr, besides its natural signification of to go, has 
 many others, as may be seen in the following Examples : 
 
 Le commerce ne va plus, 
 Est-ce ainsi que vous y allez ? 
 Comment va la sante ? 
 Tout va bien, tout va mal f 
 Cet habit vousva. bien, 
 Monfrere va partir, 
 Aller aux voix, 
 II va pleuvoir, neiger, 
 II y va de la vie, 
 Cela va sans dire, 
 AA\erpied a pie d, pas a pas, 
 II y va de mon honneur, 
 
 Trade is dead. 
 
 Is this your way of proceeding] . 
 
 How do you do? 
 
 All is well, all is bad. 
 
 That coat suits you well. 
 
 My brother is going out. 
 
 To put v to the vote. 
 
 It will rain, snow. 
 
 Life is at stake. 
 
 That is understood. 
 
 To act deliberately. 
 
 My honour is concerned in it. ' 
 
258 OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 
 
 I'ous ne faites ^w'aller et ve~ Yuu are ever running up and 
 
 nir, down. 
 
 // va venir, He is coming. 
 
 Alkz-vous sortir? Are you going out. 
 
 Idiomatical Significations of avoir*. 
 
 Avoir besoin de quelque chose, To want something. 
 Avoir bonne mine. To look well. 
 
 Avoir mauvaise mine, To look ill. 
 
 Avoir affaire de quelque chose,To have occasion for some- 
 thing. 
 
 Avoir/e co2ur sur les Ittvres, To be free and open 
 Avoir des affaires par dcssus To be full of business. 
 les yeux. 
 
 Idiomatical Significations of donner. 
 
 The verb donner , besides its signification of to give, is used 
 in many other senses, as appears by the following Examples : 
 
 Se donner des airs, To take a great deal upon 
 
 one's self. 
 
 Donner dans le piege, To be caught in the snare. 
 
 En donner a garder d quel-To make a fool of somebody. 
 
 qu'un, 
 
 Se donner du bon temps. To pass one's time merrily. 
 Se donner de garde de faireTv be sure not to do such a 
 
 t elle chose, thing. 
 
 Donner sur Venntmi, To fall upon the enemy. 
 
 Ce vin donne d la tfae, That wine flies up to the head. 
 
 Ne savoirou donner de la ttte,To know not what way to turn. 
 Donner carte blanche, To give full liberties. 
 
 Idiomatical Significations 0/ faire. 
 
 Faire grace a quelqu'un, To forgive somebody. 
 Faire le malade, To sham sickness. 
 
 Faire fond sur quelqu'un, To rely upon somebody. 
 Faire faire une montre, To bespeak a watch. 
 
 Faire voile,ormettredlavoilc,To set sail. 
 
 * The verbs used in the infinitive pregent,in some idiomatical signifi- 
 cations, may be used in all other tenses and persons in the same sense. 
 
OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 259 
 
 Se faire des amis, To get friends. 
 
 Se faire des affaires, To bring one's self into trouble 
 
 Se faire a la fatigue. To inure one's self to hardships 
 
 Faire bien ses affaires, To prosper. 
 
 Faire des contes ti dormir de- To tell idle stories. 
 
 bout , 
 
 Faire un pas de clerc, To take a false step. 
 
 Faire des armes, To fence. 
 
 Faire la sourde oreille. To give a deaf ear. 
 
 Faire bonne mine a quctqiCun, To receive one kindly. 
 Faire I'homme d'importance, To pretend to great matters. 
 
 Several Significations of jouer. 
 
 Jeuer des instrumens, To play upon instruments. 
 
 Jouer a quelquejeu, To play at some game. 
 
 Jouer une piece de theatre, To act a play. 
 
 Jouer un tour & quelqiCun, To serve one a trick. 
 
 Jouer quite ou double, To run all chance. 
 
 Jouer de son reste, To use one's last shifts. 
 
 Jouer au plus Jin, To vie in cunning. 
 
 Idiomatical Significations of mourir. 
 
 Mourir defaim, To be starved. 
 
 Mourir de soif, To be choked with thirst. 
 
 Mourir defroid, To starve with cold. 
 
 Mourir de chaud, To be extremely hot. 
 
 Mourir de pent, To be frightened to death. 
 
 Mourir de chagrin, To grieve one's self to death. 
 
 Mourir de douJeut, To have one's heart broken. 
 
 Idiomatical Significations o* the Word main. 
 
 Donner la main a un'malheu- To relieve an unfortunate. 
 
 reux, 
 
 Donner un coup de main, f jb help. 
 Donner & pleines mains, To give largely. 
 Donner de main en main, To handle about. 
 Faire main basse sur I'emiemi, To put the enemy to the sword. 
 Faire un coup de main, To do a bold action. 
 
 Faire quelque chose sous main, To do something secretly. 
 
OF THE FRENCH IDIOMS. 
 
 Mel ire Tepee a la main; To draw the sword. 
 Freud re & toutes mains, To catch every way. 
 
 En venir aux mains, To fight. 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD, 
 A Series of the most curious Frenth Idioms. 
 
 AUer bride abattue, To go full speed. 
 
 Avoir la mort entre Ics dents, To have already me foot in 
 
 the grave. 
 
 Avoir la tele pres du bonnet, To take fire presently. 
 Boire le calice jusqu'a la lie, To drink the cup to the dreg*. 
 C'est la mer a boire, It is an endless business. 
 
 Cliercher a pied et a cheval, To look everl/ where. 
 Couperlaparoleaquelqu'un, To interrupt one who speaks. 
 Decouvrir le pot aux rosas, To find out the mystery. 
 Dormir la grasse matinee, To sleep very late. 
 Elever quelqu'un jusqu'aux To praise one to excess. 
 
 nues. 
 
 Etre a deux doigtsdesa perte, To le on the brink of ruin. 
 Etre tend re a la mouche, To be very captious. 
 Jeter de la poudre aux yeux, To cast a mist beforeones eyes. 
 Jeter feu et flamme, To fret and fume. 
 
 Manger son ble en herbe, To eat the caff in the cow's 
 
 belly. 
 
 ^Mettre de 1'eau dans son vin, To allay one's passion. 
 Mettre les fers au feu, To fall stoutly to work. 
 
 Mettre tine armee sur pied, To raise an army. 
 Ne demander que plaie et To think the more mischief the 
 
 bosses, better sport. 
 
 Ne savoir sur quel pied dan- Not to know which way to turn 
 
 ser, 
 
 Opiner du bonnet, To V9te bluntly. 
 
 Partager le gateau, To share the profit. 
 
 Passer quelqu'un au fil de Te-To put somebody to the sword. 
 
 pee, 
 Prendrc 1'air du bureau, To feel people 's pulse. 
 
OF THE FRENCH PROVERBS. 26l 
 
 Prendre quelqu'un au pied To snap one up. 
 
 Remuer eiel et terre, To leave not king undisturbed. 
 
 Risqucr le tout pour le tout, To. lay all at stake. 
 
 River le clou & quelqu'un, To give one as good as he 
 
 brings. 
 Rjompre la paillc avec quel- To fall out with one. 
 
 qu'un, 
 
 Tirer au court fetu, To draw cute. 
 
 Tirer son 6pingle du jeu, To slip one's neck out if the 
 
 collar. 
 
 Trouverchaussureason pied, To be well fitted. 
 Trouver son mattre, To meet with one's match. 
 
 Venir a bout de ses desseins, To succeed in one's designs. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 A senes of Proverbs most used in French, 
 
 Abondance de bien ne nuit A store is no sore. 
 
 pas, 
 A force de forger, on devient Assiduity makes all things 
 
 forge ron, easy. 
 
 A Timpossible nul n'est tenu, There is no fence against the 
 
 flail. 
 A niechant chien, court lien, A curst cur must be tied 
 
 short. 
 Ami au prt, ennemi au rcn- / lose my money , and my 
 
 dre, friend. 
 
 Apprenti n'est pas maitre, You must spoil before you spi?i. 
 Apres ia mort le medecin, After death comes the physi- 
 cian. 
 
 A qui veut mal, mal arrive, Evil be to him that evil thinks. 
 Argent comptant porte me- Ready money is a remedy. 
 
 decine, 
 Aux grands mauxles, grands A despei*ale disease must haw 
 
 remedes, a desperate cure. 
 
2f32 OF THE FRENCH PROVERBS. 
 
 Beau parler n'ecorche pas la Fair words cost nothing. 
 
 langue, 
 Beauooup de bruit, et peu Great cry, and little wool. 
 
 d'effef, 
 
 Bon avocat, mauvais voisin, A good lawyer and evil neigh- 
 bour. 
 Bonne reriommee vaut mieux A good name is better than 
 
 que ceintiwe doree, riches. 
 
 Ce n'est pas pour vous que le There is nothing for you. 
 
 four chauffe, 
 Ce n'est pas 1'habit qui fait le ft is not the cowl that makes 
 
 moine, the friar. 
 
 Celui qui cherche le danger y Harm watch, harm catch. 
 
 perira, 
 
 Ce qui abonde ne vicie pas, Plenty makes dainties. 
 Ce qui est differe n'est pas All is not lost that is delayed. 
 
 perdu, 
 C'est de la moutarde apres After dinner comes mustard. 
 
 dine, 
 
 C'est la ou git le lievre, There is the point. 
 
 Charite bien ordonnee com- Charity begins at home. 
 
 mence par soi-meme, 
 
 Ciiien qui aboie ne mord pas, Barking dogs seldom bite. 
 Dans les petits pots sont les Short and sweet. 
 
 bonnes epices, 
 
 De tout s'avise a qui pain Necessity is the mother of in- 
 fant, vent ion. 
 De deux maux il faut choisir Of two evils choose the least. 
 
 le nioindre, 
 
 Faire d'une pierre deux coups, To kill two birds with one stone. 
 Familiarite engendre niepris, Familiarity breeds contempt. 
 Faute de parler, on meurt sans Spare to speak and spare to 
 
 confession, speed. 
 
 Faute d'un point Martin per- A miss is as good as a mile. 
 
 dit son &ne, 
 Fin centre fin n'est pas bon it Diamond cut diamond. 
 
 faire doublure, 
 Grands vanteurs, petits fai- Great boast, little roast. 
 
 sears, 
 II a les yeux plus grands que His eyes are bigger than his 
 
 le ventre, btlly. 
 
OF THE FRENCH PROVERBS. 263 
 
 II a plus de bonheur qu'un He is mere lucky than wise. 
 
 honnete Iiominc, 
 
 II a plus de peur que de mal, He is more afraid than hurt. 
 II est comine 1'oiseau sur l&Heisin a waver ing situation. 
 
 branche, 
 II est comine le poisson dans The dog's head is in the por- 
 
 1'eau, ridge pot. 
 
 II crie avant qu'on 1'ecorche, He halts before he is lame. 
 II en fait ses choux gras, He feathers his nest by it. 
 II ennuie a qui attend, Waiting is tedious. 
 
 II fait bon p&cher en eau trou- It is good fishing in troubled 
 
 ble, waters. 
 
 II faut battre le fer quand il Strike the iron while it is hot. 
 
 est chaud, 
 
 11 faut faire vie qui dure, Old young and old long. 
 II ne faut pasjuger des gens One must not hang a man by 
 
 par la mine, his looks. 
 
 II n'a ui bouche ni eperon, He lias mither wit nor courage. 
 II n'est sauee que d'appetit, Good stomach is the best sauce. 
 II r/est si bon charretier qui That is a good horse that ne- 
 
 ne verse, ve-r stumbles. 
 
 II n'est pire eau que celle qui Smooth water runs deep. 
 
 dort, 
 II n'est point de roses sans No rose without a thorn. 
 
 epines, 
 II n'y a point de feu sans Where is the smoke, there is 
 
 funiee, the fire. 
 
 11 n'y a que la premiere peinc T/te first step over, the red Is 
 
 qui coute, easy. 
 
 I! sent bien ou le baM le blesse, He feels where the shoe pinches. 
 II vaut mieux faire en vie que It is better to be envied than 
 
 pitie, pitied. 
 
 II vaut mieux plier que de It is better t o bend tha n break. 
 
 rompre, 
 
 11 vaut mieux tard quejamais, Better late than never. 
 La clef d'or ouvre toutes les Bribe can get in without knock- 
 
 ser rures, ing. 
 
 La fairn chasse le loup du Hunger will break through a. 
 
 buis, stone Wall. 
 
 La fin couronne I'deuvre, All's icell that ends ivell. 
 
264 OF THE FRENCH PROVERBS. 
 
 La necessite est la mere de Necessity is the mother of in- 
 
 1'industrie, vent ion. 
 
 La nuit tous clmts sont gs, When candles are out, all cats 
 
 are grey. 
 La patience est un remecle a Patience is a plaster for all 
 
 tous maux, sores. 
 
 Le bien mal acquis ne profile III gotten goods never prosper. 
 
 jainais, 
 Le jeu n'en vaut pas la clian- The business will not quit cost. 
 
 delle, 
 
 Le renard preclie aux poulets, The devil rebukes sin. 
 Le sage extend a deini mot, A word to t/ie wise is enough. 
 Les bens comptes font les Shirt reckonings make long 
 
 bons amis, friends. 
 
 Les honneurs eliangent les Honour changes manners. 
 
 moeurs, 
 Lrs petits ruisseaux font fes Many drops make a shower. 
 
 grandes rivieres, 
 Les plus conrtes folies sout The shortest follies are the 
 
 ks nifeiileures, best. 
 
 L'occasioii fait le larron, Opportunity makes the thief. 
 L'oisivete est la mere de tous Idleness is the root of all evil. 
 
 les vices, 
 Marchand qui perd ne peut Let him laugh that wins. 
 
 rire, 
 Mauvais herbe croit toujours III weeds grow apace. 
 
 assez, \ 
 
 Marchandise qui plait est a Good wares make quick mar- 
 
 moiti'e vendn, kets. 
 
 Necesbite n'a point de loi, Necessity has wo law. 
 Ne reveillez pas le chat qui When sorrow is asleep awake 
 
 dorr, it not. 
 
 Nouveaux rois, nouvelles lois, New lords, new laws. 
 On n'a jarnais bon march** de The best the cheapest. 
 
 niauvaise marchandise, 
 
 On n'a rien sans peine, No pain, no profit.' 
 
 On ne fuit pas niardi6 du pre- More words than one go to the 
 
 inier mot, bargain. 
 
 Ow ne sauroit faire boirc un A man may lead his horse to 
 
 &ne s'il n'a soif, water, but he cannot wake 
 
 him drink, unless he lists. 
 
OF THE FRENCH PRQVERBS. 265 
 
 .Ou il riy a rien, le roi perd Where nothing is to be had, 
 
 ses droits, the king loses his right. 
 
 Paris n'a pas e*te fait dans un Rome was, not built in one day. 
 
 jour, 
 Parmi les aveugles les borgnes Among the blind one-eyed is 
 
 sont rois, a king. 
 
 Pas & pas on va bien loin, Fair and soft goes fast. 
 Point d'argent point de Suisse, No money no paternoster. 
 Promcttre et tenir sont deux, It is one thing to promise, and 
 
 another to perform. 
 
 Porter de 1'eau a la mer, To carry coals to Newcastle. 
 Quand on emprunte on ne Beggars must not be choosers. 
 
 choisit pas, 
 Quand on parle du loup, on Talk of the devil and his hornt 
 
 en yoit la queue, appear. . 
 
 Qui aime Bertrand, aime son Love me, love my dog. 
 
 chien, 
 
 Qui fera bien, bien trouvera, Do well, and have well. 
 Qui menace a souvent peur, Swaggerers are great cowards. 
 Qui respond paye, The bail must pay. 
 
 Qui ne hasarde rien n'a rien, Nothing venture nothing have. 
 Qui trop embrasse maletreiut, Covet all, lose all. 
 Qui se fait brebis, le loup le Who makes himself a $heep> 
 
 mange, hint the wolf eatelh. 
 
 Selon ta bourse gouverne ta Cut your coat according to 
 
 bouche, your cloth. 
 
 Si vous n'tes pas content, If you do not like it, turn your 
 
 prenez des cartes, buckles behind. 
 
 Tirer d'un sac deux moutures, To take double fees. 
 Toujours p&ehe qui enpread Still he fishes that catches on*. 
 
 un, 
 
 Tout ce qui brille n'est pas or, All is not gold that glitters. 
 Toute verite n'est pas bonne Truth is not to be spoken at 
 
 dire, all times. 
 
 Un bon chien chasse de race, Cat after kind. 
 Un chien regardc bien un A cat may look upon a king. 
 
 Un honn&te bomme n'a que An honest man is as good aa 
 
 sa parole, his word. 
 
 Uu malheur ne vient jamais One misfortune cornea on the 
 
 seul, neck of another. 
 
266 CONCORD OF WORDS. 
 
 Une souris qui n'a qu'un trou It is good to have two strings 
 
 est bientot prise, to one's bow 
 
 Un tiens vaut mieux que deux A bird in the hand is worth 
 
 tu 1'auras, two in the bush. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 OF THE CONCORD, DISPOSITION, AND REPE- 
 TITION OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 
 
 SECTION THE FIRST. 
 What Parts of Speech agree together in Ficnch. 
 
 1. Articles. 
 
 The three articles, definite, indefinite, and partitive, 
 agree in gender and number with their substantive. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 The father, mother, and children are in the country ; 
 Le ptre , la mere et les enfans sont a la campagne. 
 I have a good garden arid a fine house near London ; 
 J'ai un bonjardin t et une belle maison pres de Londres. 
 Give me some bread, some meat, and some eggs. 
 Donnezmoi du pain, de la viande, et des ce?ifs. 
 
 2. Adjectives, 
 
 All adjectives agree in gender and number with the sub- 
 stantives to which they are united or related. Examples : 
 
 A learned man ; a learned woman ; learned, girls. 
 
 Un homme savant ; unefemme savante ; desjilles savantes. 
 
DISPOSITION OF WORDS. 267 
 
 3. Pronouns. 
 
 All pronouns, personal, possessive, demonstrative, rela- 
 tive, and interrogative, agree in gender and number with 
 their substantive. Examples : 
 
 1 . My brother wishes to marry your sister, yet I think 
 
 he does not know her ; 
 
 Mon frtre veut epouser votre sceur, cependant je crois 
 qu'il ne la connoit pas. 
 
 2. His son, daughter, and sisters, will come here to-night ; 
 
 Soyjils, saj//e, el ses sceurs viendront id ce soir. 
 
 3. This book is new, this house is old, these pens are good ; 
 Ce livre est neuf, cette maison est vieille, ces plumes 
 
 sont bonnes. 
 
 4. The vice against which I speak ; the reasons I rely 
 
 upon are without reply ; 
 
 JLe vice contre lequel je parle; Its raisons sur les- 
 quellesje mefonde, sont sans replique. 
 
 5. What is his crime, and what is his excuse? 
 
 Quel est son crime, et quelle est son excuse? 
 
 4. Verbs. 
 
 All personal verbs agree in number and person with their 
 nominative case. Examples : 
 
 I speak, we speak ; Je parle, nous parlons. 
 
 Man is mortal, men are mortal ; 
 
 l.'homme est mortel, les hommes sont mortels. 
 
 He says the truth, they say the truth. 
 
 // dit la verite, Us disent la verite. 
 
 SECTION THE SECOND. 
 
 Of Collocation. 
 The Order in which the Words of a Sentence must be placed. 
 
 RULE 1. The articles, the possessive, demonstrative, 
 and interrogative pronouns, always precede in French, a* in 
 
-208 DISPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 English, tiie substantive to which they are joined ; as may 
 be observed in the examples of the preceding section. 
 
 RULE 2. The adjectives of number, as MM, deux, trois 9 
 quatrt, &c. and also the following, beau, bon, grand, grou, 
 jeune, mauvais, mtchant, meilleur, moindre, and petit, pre- 
 cede their substantive, but others are usually placed after; 
 as un bon hamme, un grand honime ; a good man, a great 
 man. 
 
 RULE 3. The relative pronouns, qui, que t dont, lequel, 
 &c. come immediately after the noun or pronoun to which 
 they have reference. Example: Do not reject advice, the 
 utility of which you know ; Ne rejetez pas un avis don t 
 vous connoissez futility. 
 
 RULE 4. The prepositions always come before the word 
 which they govern. Example : What do you complain of? 
 De quoi vous pldignez-vous ? 
 
 RULE 5. The adverb is usually put after the verb, in a 
 simple tense ; as, he answers well, ilrtpond bien ; and afte? 
 the auxiliary in a compound one ; as he has well answered^ 
 il a bien repondu. 
 
 RULE 6. The nominative of a verb precedes it in an af- 
 firmative sentence ; as, my father is come, he has given me 
 some money; mon pere est venu, il m'a donne de I' argent. 
 
 If the sentence be interrogative, and the nominative of 
 the verb beany of the following pronouns, jt, tu, il, tile, 
 nous, vous, Us, tilts, ce, or on, it is placed after the verb 
 when it is a simple tense, and after the auxiliary when it is 
 a compound one. Examples: Parle-i-ill A-t-\\ parU'f 
 DiY-on? y4f-on ditl 
 
 If the nominative be a substantive, or any other pronoun 
 than those before-mentioned, it precedes Kie verb in an inter- 
 rogative sentence, but then th* personal pronouns il or elle, 
 ils or tilts, must be used after the verb or its auxiliary. Ex 
 amples: Is your father come? Is your mother at home? tfatr* 
 pvre est-il venul Volre mere ^^-elle d la maison t 
 
DISPOSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 RULE / The personal pronouns are placed immedi- 
 ately after the verb they are governed by, when it is in the 
 imperative affirmative ; as, give it me, donnez-\e-mo\ ; sell 
 it us, i>ew<fe-le-nous. 
 
 When the verb is not in the imperative affirmative, the 
 governed pronouns are put immediately before it in a simple 
 tense, and immediately before the auxiliaries avoir oretre, in 
 a compound one ; as he will give them to you ; il vous Its 
 donnera ; he has sold them to us, il nous les a vendus ; he 
 has promised them to me, il me les a promis ; do not re- 
 turn it to him, ne le lui rendez pas, &c. 
 
 If a verb governs two or more pronouns, they are placed 
 before it in this order : me, te, se, nous, vous, go before le, 
 la, les; le, la, les, go before lui and leur ; lui and leur go 
 before y and en, and y goes before en. Examples : he will 
 lend them to you, il vous les pr&tera ; he will lend them to 
 him, il les lui pretera; I will send you some there, je vous 
 y en enverrai ; I have sent them some there, Je leury en at 
 envoy t; he will carry some thither, il y en port era. 
 
 RULE 8. If the sentence is negative, ne precedes the 
 verb and the governed pronouns ; the other word of nega- 
 tion, such as pas,jamais, rien, &c. usually comes after the 
 verb in a simple tense, and after its auxiliary in a compound 
 one. Examples : I will never believe it ; je ne le croirai 
 jamais; he has not seen them, f/ne Us a pas vus; there is 
 nothing finer, il uy a rien de plus beau. 
 
 If the verb be in the infinitive, both the negative words 
 go before it, and even before the governed pronouns ; the 
 preposition, if there be any, precedes the negation and the 
 pronouns. Example : I will do it not to displease you, je 
 leferai, pour ne pas vous deplaire. 
 
 The other parts of speech not mentioned in these eight 
 rules usually follow the same order in French as in English. 
 
270 WORDS TO BE REPEATED. 
 
 SECTION THE THIRD. 
 What words must be repeated in a Sentence. 
 1. Articles repeated. 
 
 The article must be repealed in French before every 
 substantive. Example : 
 
 The heart, the mind, and manners, are formed by edur 
 
 cation ; 
 Le cceur, {'esprit, et \esmceursseformentpar V education* 
 
 2. Pronouns repeated. 
 
 The possessive arid demonstrative pronouns are repeated 
 in French before every noun, though they are not repeated 
 in English, Examples; 
 
 We must govern our taste, expences and pleasures ; 
 Jlfaut rtgler son gout, sa dtpense, et ses plaisirs. 
 This man and woman are very unfortunate ; 
 Get homme et cMejfemme sont tres-malheurcux. 
 
 The personal pronouns of the first and second persons are 
 generally repeated before every verb of which they are the 
 nominative case; those of the third are also repeated before 
 verbs which are in various tenses, and when the first is af- 
 firmative and the other negative, or vice versd. Examples : 
 
 I say, and will always say, that you were in the wrong; 
 Je dis, et je dirai toujours que vous aviez tort. 
 He says so, but he does not believe it, I assure you ; 
 LI le dlt, mais il ne le croit pas, je vous assure. 
 
 All personal pronouns must be repeated in French, be- 
 fore every verb they are governed by, though they are not 
 in English. Example-. 
 
 My brother esteems and honours you* 
 Monfrerc vous estime et vous honore. 
 
WORDS TO BE REPEATED. 271 
 
 3. Verbs repeated. 
 
 A verb is repeated in a sentence of two parts, if one is 
 negative and the other affirmative. Example : 
 
 We must expect every thing from God, and nothing from 
 
 men ; 
 II faut tout attendre de Dieu, et ne run attendre de$ 
 
 homines. 
 
 In answer to a question, we often repeat the same verb 
 the question is asked by ; the English repeat only the aux- 
 iliary. Example: 
 
 Have you seen the king? yes, sir, I have; 
 Avez-vous vu le roi? oui, monsieur, je Vai vu. 
 
 4.. Prepositions repeated. 
 
 The prepositions de, cl, and pour, are usually repeated 
 before every noun or every verb they relate to. Example . 
 
 Brazil produces a great quantity of indigo, sugar, pep* 
 
 per and saltpetre; 
 Le Brtsil produit une grande quantity ftindigo, de 
 
 sucre t de poivre, et de salpfare. 
 
 The prepositions avec, contre, sans, &c. are repeated be- 
 fore nouns of different significations. Example: 
 
 He is angry with you, but not with your money ; 
 
 // estfdcht centre vous, maisnonpas centre votre argent. 
 
 SECTION THE FOURTH. 
 
 Words which may be elegantly repeated. 
 1 . Substantives elegantly repeated. 
 
 La vue de lesprit a plus d'etendue que la vue du corps. 
 
 BOSSUEI 
 
272 WORDS TO BE REPEATED. 
 
 Ce qui sert d la vanite n'est que vanite, tout ce qui n'a que 
 le monde pour fonde went, se dissipe et s'evanouit avec le 
 monde. FLECHIER. 
 
 C'est le privilege de Mr. de Turenne d y avoir pu vainer e 
 Venvie ; le me rite I'avoit fait naitre ; le merite la Jit 
 mourir. FLECHIER. 
 
 Remains, souffrirez-vous qu'on vous immolc un ham me 
 Sans qui Rome aujourd'hui cesseroit d'etre Rome? 
 Dis, Valere, dis nous, puisqu'il faut qu'il perisse, 
 ! Ou penses-tu choisir un lieu pour son supplice ? 
 Sera-ce entre ces murs que mille et mille voix 
 Font rSsonner encore du bruit de ses exploits? 
 Sera-ce hors des murs, au milieu de ces places, 
 Qu'on voit fumer encor du sang des Curiaces? 
 
 CORNEILLE. 
 
 2. Adjectives elegantly repeated. 
 
 n y a une infinite de choses, qui ne dependent que d'une lu~ 
 mitre humaine, d'une experience humaine, d 'une penetra- 
 tion humaine. 
 
 Dts qu'on sort de la nature, tout dement faux dans Iblo- 
 quence ; la chaleur de ses mouvemens les plus passionnts 
 n'est quune fausse chaleur ? V eclat de sen figures n'est 
 qu'un faux eclat. 
 
 U amour propre est plus habile que le plus habile homms 
 du monde. 
 
 3. The Verb elegantly repeated. 
 
 J'oublie queje SUM malheureux, quandje songe que vous ne 
 
 m'avez pas oublie ; 
 La reine sanctifia sa.cour en se sanctifiant elle-meme. 
 
 FLECHIER. 
 
 // s'est efforce de connottre Dieu, qui par sa grandeur est 
 inconnu aux hommes, et Reconnoitre I'homme, qui par sa 
 vanitt est inconnu d lui-meme. FLECHIER 
 
WORDS TO BE REPEATED. 273 
 
 En quitlant le monde, on ne quitte leplus souvent ni les er- 
 reurs, ni les folks passions du monde. 
 
 BOURDALOUE. 
 
 The following verses of Lusignari to Zaire contain several 
 repetitions of substantives and verbs : 
 
 Ma fille, tendre objet de mcs dernieres peines, 
 
 Songe an moins, songe au sang qui coule dans tes veines; 
 
 C'est le sang de vingt rois, tous chretiens comme moi ; 
 
 C'est le sang des heros defenseurs de ma loi ; 
 
 C'est le sang des martyrs. O fille encor trop chere ! 
 
 Connois-tu ton destin] sais-tu quelle est ta mere? 
 
 Sais-tu bien qu'k 1'instant que son flanc mit au jour 
 
 Ce triste et dernier fruit d'un malheureux amour, 
 
 Je la vis inassacrer par la main forcenee, 
 
 Par la main des brigands & qui tu t'es donnee ? 
 
 Tes freres, ces martyrs egorges a mes yeux, 
 
 T'ouvrent leurs bras sanglans, tendus du haut des cieux: 
 
 Ton Dieu que tu trains, ton Dieu que tu blasphemes, 
 
 Pour toi, pour tes peches est mort en ces lieux mmes, 
 
 En ces lieux ou mon bras le servit tant de fois, 
 
 En ces lieux ou son sang te parle par ma voix. 
 
 Vois ces murs, vois ce temple envahi par tes inaitres ; 
 
 Tout annonce le Dieu qu'ont venge tes ancetres. 
 
 Tourne ies yeux ; sa tombe est pres de ce palais ; 
 
 C'est ici la montagne oft, lavant nos forfaits, 
 
 Tl voulut expirer sous les coups de 1'impie ; 
 
 C'est & que de sa tombe il rappela sa vie ; 
 
 Tu ne saurois marcher dans cet auguste lieu, 
 
 Tu n'y peux faire un pas, sansy trouver ton Dieu ; 
 
 Et tu n'y peux rester sans renier ton pere, 
 
 Ton honneur qui te parle, et ton Dieu qui f 6claire. 
 
 VOLTAIRE. 
 
DISTINCTION BETWEEN MANY WORDS, 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Distinction in French between many Words which are ex 
 pressed in the same Manner in English. 
 
 1. AN, ANNEE, Year. 
 
 The \vordyear is expressed by annee when it is considered 
 as the regular course of the twelve months, and by an when 
 we mean only to express a space of twelve mouths, or about, 
 at whatever part of the year it may begin. Examples : 
 
 It is two years since my father died ; My father died the 
 first year of this century ; 
 
 // y a deux ans que mon pere est mort ; and, Mon pere 
 mourut la premere annee de ce siecle-ci. 
 
 The whole year has been cold ; Toute 1'annee a ttefroide. 
 
 I go every year to France ; 
 
 Je vais tous les ans en France. 
 
 Every year of his life have been marked by some mis- 
 fortune ; 
 
 Toutes les annees de sa vie out He marquees par quelque 
 malheur. 
 
 2. Jour, Journec, Day. 
 
 3. Matin, -Matinee,* Morning. 
 
 4. Soir, Soiree, Evening. 
 
 The word day is expressed by jour ; morning by matin ; 
 and evening by soir t when we speak of any part of them ; 
 they are expressed byjoumee, matime 9 and soiree, when we 
 express their whole duration. Examples : 
 
 f I have been sick all the day long ; 
 2. < J'ai ett malade toute la journee. 
 
 The days are short BOW ; les jours sont courts a present. 
 
f 
 \ 
 
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN MANY WORDS. 275 
 
 I go a hunting every morning ; 
 Je vais d la chasse torn Us matins. 
 It has rained all the morning ; 
 // a plu toute la matinee. 
 
 "I will go and see you to-morrow evening; 
 
 J'irai vous voir demain au soir. 
 
 I will spend the evening with you; 
 ^Je passerai la soiree avec vous. 
 
 5. BATTEE, - FRAPPER, --- to Beat. 
 
 The verb to beat, is rendered by frapper, in speaking of 
 single blow, and by battre when several are implied ; thus 
 on pent frapper sans battre t mais on ne pent battre sans 
 frapper. 
 
 6. COMBAT, -- BATAILLE, --- Battle. 
 
 The word battle is expressed in French by combat, when 
 it denotes a partial action, such as happens at the passage of 
 a river, at the intercepting of a convoy, &c. It is expressed 
 by bataille, when it denotes a general action of two armies* 
 such as la bataille de Pharsale, la bataille de Fontenoi, la 
 bataille de Jemmapes, &c. 
 
 7. CASSER, -- ROMPRE, -- to Break. 
 
 The verb to break is expressed by casser, when we speak 
 of something brittle, and by rompre, when the object is not 
 brittle ; thus we say : 
 
 You have broke my glass, you have broke my stick ; 
 Vous avez casse mon verre, vous avez ronipu mon baton. 
 (Not vous avez rompu mon verre fy casse mon baton.) 
 
 3. CONNOITRE, -- SAVOIR, - to Know. 
 
 The verb to know, is always expressed by connoitre, when 
 it signifies to be acquainted with, and most commonly, by 
 xavoir, in all other circumstances; thus way say: 
 
 Do you know that lady ? Connoissez-row* cette dame Id 1 
 
$76 DISTINCTION BETWEEN MANY WORDS, 
 Do you knoiv your lesson ? Savez-vous vofrre lecon ? 
 
 9. MARCHER, SE PROMENER, to Walk. 
 
 The verb to walk, is expressed in French by marcher, 
 when we walk for business, and by se promener, when we 
 walk for pleasure ; thus we say : 
 
 I have been obliged to walk much to-day ; 
 J'ai tit oblige de marcher beaucoup anjourd'hui. 
 I have been walking in the garden with my brother ; 
 Je me suis promene dans le jar din avec monfrcre. 
 
 N. B. It must be bserved that the French verb se pro- 
 mener, does not mean properly to walk, though it be often 
 translated so in English, but to take a diversion eitiier by 
 walking, or riding, or in a boat, &c. So we say se prome- 
 ner a cheval, en carrosse, sur un dne, en batteau, dans une 
 gando/e, en mer, all expressions which would be ridiculous, 
 if translated by to walk. 
 
 10. AMENER, APPORTER, to Bring. 
 
 The verb to bring, i* expressetl in French by amener 
 when the object can walk, and by porter, when it cannot ; 
 thus we say : 
 
 Bring your wife with you ; atnenez votre Spouse nice vow 
 Bring me my books ; Apportez-moi mcs fivtes. 
 
 11. MENER, POUTER, to Cany. 
 
 The verb to carry, is expressed in French l,y mener, 
 when the object can walk, and by porter, when it cannot ; 
 thus we say : 
 
 Carry that dog to the stable; Menez ce chien a /'ecut'te. 
 Carry that hat to your brother ; 
 Portez ce chapeau d votre f lire. 
 
 12. NEUF, NOUVEAU, New. 
 
 The word new, is most commonly expressed by ncuf or 
 
DISTINCTION BETWEEN MANY WORDS. 277 
 
 neuve, when we speak of something which has been recently 
 made, or has not. been used since it is made ; and by nou- 
 veau or nouvelle, when we speak of something of a new kind, 
 a new shape, a new fashion, or different from another 
 used before ; thus we say : 
 
 He lives in a new house, 
 
 // demeurc dans une maison neuve ; if we mean a new 
 
 built house. 
 // demeure dans une nouvelle maison; if we mean that 
 
 a person has removed, and lives in another house. 
 
 33. AVANT, DEVANT, Before 
 
 The word before, is expressed in French by avant, when 
 k denotes a priority, and by devant, when it signifies in 
 presence of. Examples : 
 
 I shall hnve done "before noon ; J'aurai jftni avant midi. 
 I dared not to appear before you ; 
 Je n'osois paroitre devant vous. 
 
 14. DANS, EN, -In. 
 
 The preposition in, when speaking of a place, is rendered 
 in French by dans, when we mean to express in a definite 
 nanncr the inclusion, and by en, when we express in a 
 vague manner the situation. Thus we say : 
 
 He lives in a furnished house, near St. James's palace ; .. 
 // demeure dans une maison garnie, prits h palais de St. 
 
 James. 
 
 t is more convenient for me to live in a furnished lodging ; 
 // est plus commode pour moi de vivre en chanibre garnie. 
 
 When speaking of time, dans expresses the epocha, and 
 en the duration. Example : 
 
 Death arrives in the iiroment we think less of it, and we 
 pass tit an instant fitfm this world into the next ; 
 
 La mort arrive dans le moment qu'on y pense le moins, et 
 Ion passe en un instant de ce monde a I'autre. 
 
278 DISTINCTION BETWEEN MANY WORDS. 
 
 When speaking of the state or qualification, dans is used 
 in a particularized sense, and en in a general sense. Thus 
 we say : 
 
 To live in liberty, to be in a fury, to fall in lethargy ; 
 Vivre en liberte, etre eufurcur, tomber en lethargic. 
 To live in an entire liberty ; 
 Vivre dans une entitre liberte. 
 To be in an extreme fury ; 
 Eire dans une extreme fur eur. 
 To fall in a profound lethargy ; 
 Tomber dans une profonde lethargic. 
 
 15. PLUS, DAVANTAGE, More. 
 
 The word more is always expressed by plus, when tt is 
 not at the end of a sentence, and by davantage when it is at 
 the end of a sentence affirmative. Examples : 
 
 I am younger than you ; 
 
 Je suis plusjeune que vous, (not davantage jeune.) 
 You have no bread, will you have some more ? 
 Vous n'avez pas de pain, en voulez-vous davantage 1 (not 
 en voulez-vous plus.) 
 
 When the word more is at the end of a sentence negative, 
 it is often indifferently expressed by plus, or by pas davan- 
 tage. Example : 
 
 I will not eat any more ; 
 J* ne mangeral plus, or, je ne mangerai pas davantage. 
 
 3(). POUR, -PENDANT, For. 
 
 The word/or is expressed in French by pendant, when it 
 is followed by a word which denotes a certain duration of 
 time, and when it could be expressed by during. It is ex- 
 pressed by pour IB other circumstances. Example : 
 
 I study for two hours every day ; (or during two hours.) 
 Jttttdie pendant deux heures tous les jours ; (\\olpour 
 deux kmres.) 
 
EXPLANATION OF MARKS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 279 
 
 I lend it you for two hours ; 
 
 Je vous le prete pour deux heures ; (not pendant deux 
 heures.) 
 
 17. SUR, DESSUS, Upon. 
 
 18. Sous, DESSQUS, Under. 
 
 When the words upon and under are followed by a 
 noun, they are prepositions, and expressed, upon by sur, 
 and under by sous. Examples : 
 
 Your book is upon the table ; Votre livre est surla table. 
 Your shoes are under the bed ; Vos souliers sont sous le lit. 
 
 When the words upon and under are not followed by a 
 noun, they are adverbs, and expressed, upon by dessus, and 
 under by dessous. Examples : 
 
 You thought the dog under the bed, and he was uponit; 
 Vous croyicz le chien'sous le lit, et il etoit dessus. 
 Your handkerchief is net upon the chair, but it is under it ; 
 Votre mouchoir nest pas sur la chaise, mats dessous. 
 
 19. EN CAMPAGNE, a LA CAMPAGNE. 
 
 We make use of en campagne, only when we speak of the 
 army, or the motion of troops, as 
 
 I/arm6e se mettra bient6t en campagne. 
 
 We must make use of d la campagne, when we speak of 
 going or living in the country. Example : 
 
 Venez nous voir ti la campagne. 
 
 Explanation of the Maries and Abbreviations made use of 
 in the following Series of Verbs. 
 
 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,)-~^mark the twelve 
 regular conjugation: all the verbs preceded by any of 
 
280 EXPLANATION OF MARKS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 these figures are regular. Those preceded by number 
 1, are conjugated after parler, page 73; those preceded 
 by number 2, are conjugated after agir; and so en with 
 the rest. 
 
 (ir.) denotes an irregular verb, which is conjugated in 
 
 the grammar, page 100, and following. 
 
 (Se or s') denote that the verb is reflected in French, 
 
 and must be conjugated with tw pronouns: thus, je me 
 is used in the first person singular; tu te in the second ; 
 il se in the third : nous nous in the first person plural ; 
 vous vous in the second ; and Us se in the third, as the 
 verb se lever ; see page 94. 
 
 (*) denotes a neutral verb conjugated with the auxiliary 
 
 verb ctre in its compound tenses. 
 
 (ge. da. ae.) denote the cases which the verb most 
 
 commonly govern in French; ge. denotes the genitive; 
 da. the dative, and ac. the accusative*. 
 
 ( de, a, pour ) are the French prepositions which are 
 
 required before the next verb, when it is to.be put in the 
 infinitive. Those followed by (o) govern the infinitive 
 without prepositions. 
 
 (Subj.) denotes that the next verb must always be put 
 
 in the subjunctive in French, when the infinitive is not 
 required. 
 
 N. B. The following series of verbs points out, 1. what verbs 
 are regular, and what irregular*; 2. the case they govern ; 
 3. what preposition they require before the infinitive : 
 and 4. these which govern the subjunctive : thus by this 
 useful vocabulary four great difficulties *f the French 
 language will be removed. 
 
 * When two cases are placed after a verb, it denotes that the verb 
 may g-overn two substantives at once, for instance, one in the accusa- 
 tive, the other in the genitive or dative ; but if the two cases be sepa- 
 rated by the conjunction or, it denotes that the same substantive may 
 be put in one of the two cases, almost indifferently. 
 
( 281 ) 
 AN ALPHABETICAL SERIES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FRENCH VERBS, 
 
 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 
 
 ALL regular Verbs are conjugated according to one of the 
 twelve following, which are themselves conjugated at full 
 length in the page mentioned after each verb. 
 
 1. Parler, to speak, see page 73. 
 
 2. Agir, to act, 76. 
 
 3. Sentir, to smell, 78. 
 
 4. Ouvrir, to open, 80. 
 
 5. Tenir, to hold, 81. 
 
 6. Recevoir, to receive, 83. 
 
 7. Plaire, to please, 84. 
 
 8. Craindre, to fear, 86. 
 
 p. Connoitre, Jo know, 88. 
 
 10. Instruire, to instruct, 89. 
 
 11. Vendre, to sell,.- 91. 
 
 1 2. Ecrire, *...... to write, 92. 
 
 Conjugations. Cases. Infinitive. 
 
 ^ 1 Abaisser, ac. to bring down. 
 
 ^ 1 s'abaisser, d. to stoop, a. 
 
 1 abandonner, ac. da. to abandon, 
 
 ^ir abattre, ac. to pull down. 
 
 1 abdiquer, ac. to abdicate. 
 
 1 abhorrer, ac. to abhor, de. 
 
 1 abtnier, ac. to destroy entirely. 
 
 N. B. When the verbs are taken in a different sense, they govern 
 different cases and 'propositions ; as they could not have been all in- 
 serted without confusion, thoi jnly have been mentioned which 
 they govern most commonly. - 
 
282 
 
 FRENCH VERBS, 
 
 I 
 
 abjurer, ac. 
 
 
 to abjure. 
 
 
 2 
 
 abolir, ac. 
 
 
 to abolish. 
 
 
 1 
 
 abonder en, 
 
 
 to abound with. 
 
 
 1 
 
 I'abonner, 
 
 da. 
 
 to compound, 
 
 pour, 
 
 a 
 
 abonuir, ac. 
 
 
 to belter. , 
 
 
 
 ^ ac. 
 
 
 to come up with. 
 
 
 i 
 
 >aborder, > 
 
 8 e - 
 
 to go near. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 da. 
 
 to land. 
 
 
 i 
 
 s'aboucher avec, 
 
 
 to confer with. 
 
 pour, 
 
 2 
 
 aboutir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to end. 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 aboyer, 
 
 
 to bark. 
 
 
 1 
 
 abreger, ac. 
 
 
 to abridge. 
 
 
 1 
 
 abreuver, ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to water. 
 
 
 1 
 
 abroger, ac. 
 
 
 t* abrogate. 
 
 
 2 
 
 abrutir, ac. 
 
 
 to stupify. 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 s'absenter, 
 
 g e - 
 
 to absent one's self. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 absorber, ac. 
 
 
 to absorb. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 absoudre, ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to absolve, 
 
 de. 
 
 5 
 
 s'abstenir, 
 
 g e - 
 
 to forbear, 
 
 'd* 
 
 ir. 
 
 abstraire, ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to abstract* 
 
 
 1 
 
 abuser, 
 
 g e - 
 
 to abuse. 
 
 
 I 
 
 aceabler, ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to overwhelm. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accaparer, ac. 
 
 
 to monopolize. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aeceder, 
 
 da. 
 
 to accede. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accelerer, ac. 
 
 
 to accelerate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accentuer, ac. 
 
 
 to accent. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accepter, ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to accept, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 accommoder,ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to accomodate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accompagner,ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to accompany. 
 
 
 2 
 
 accomplir, ac. 
 
 
 to accomplish. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accorder, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to grant, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 s'accorder, 
 
 
 to agree, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 accoster, ac. 
 
 
 to accost* 
 
 
 1 
 
 accoucher, 
 3 ac * 
 
 ge- 
 
 to be delivered, 
 to deliver a woman. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'accouder sur, 
 
 
 to lean upon. 
 
 
 2 
 
 accourcir, ac. 
 
 
 to shorten. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 accourir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to run to. 
 
 
 .1 
 
 accoutumer, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to accustom, 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 s'accoutumer, 
 
 da. 
 
 to use one's self, 
 
 fc 
 
 1 
 
 accr^diter, ac. 
 
 
 to give credit. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 283 
 
 1 
 
 accroclier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to hang upon a hook. 
 
 
 9 
 
 accroitre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to increase. 
 
 
 tr. 
 
 accueillir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to welcome. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accumuler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to heap up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 accuser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to cccmt, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 acerer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to steel. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'acharner, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to be eager at, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 s'acheminer vers, 
 
 to set forward. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aclieler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to buy. 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 achever, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to finish, 
 
 de. 
 
 tr. 
 
 acquerir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to acquire. 
 
 
 1 
 
 acquiesced, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to yield. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'acquitter, 
 
 
 ge- 
 
 to disclutrge. 
 
 
 1 
 
 adapter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to adapt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 additionner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to make an addition. 
 
 
 1 
 
 adherer, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to adhere to. 
 
 
 8 
 
 adjoindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to associate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 adjuger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to adjudge. 
 
 
 *r. 
 
 admettre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to admit, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 administrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to administer. 
 
 
 1 
 
 admirer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to admire, (subj.). 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 s'adonner, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to apply one's self to, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 adopter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to adopt. I 
 
 
 4 
 
 adorer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to adore. 
 
 
 2 
 
 adoucir, * 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to soften. 
 
 
 1 
 
 adresser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to direct. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'adresser, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to apply to, pour. 
 
 1 
 
 affamer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to starve. 
 
 
 1 
 
 affecter, \ 
 
 ac. 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to appropriate, 
 to affect, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 afFectionner, 
 
 ac.] 
 
 
 to love, 
 
 
 1 
 
 afFermer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to let. 
 
 
 2 
 
 afFermir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to strengthen. 
 
 
 1 
 
 afficher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to post up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 affiler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sharpen. 
 
 
 1 
 
 affilier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to adopt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 affirwer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to assert, 
 
 o. 
 
 1 
 
 affliger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to afflict, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 affluer, 
 
 
 
 to abound* 
 
 
 2 
 
 afloiblir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to weaken. 
 
 
 2 
 
 afFranchir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to set free. 
 
 
584 
 
 FRENCH VERBS, 
 
 1 
 
 affronter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to encounter. 
 
 
 1 
 
 affubler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to muffle up. \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'agenouiiler : 
 
 * 
 
 
 to kneel down. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aggraver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to aggravate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 agioter, 
 
 
 
 to stock-jop. 
 
 
 2 
 
 agir, 
 
 
 
 to act. 
 
 
 1 
 
 agiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to agitate. 
 
 
 2 
 
 agrandir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to enlarge. 
 
 
 1 
 
 agreer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to accept, 
 
 (subj. 
 
 1 
 
 agreger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to aggregate. 
 
 
 2 
 
 s'aguerrir, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to inure one's self, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 aider, 
 
 ac. or 
 
 da. 
 
 to help, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 aigrir, 
 
 |ac. 
 
 
 to exasperate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aiguil loner 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stir up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aiguiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sharpen. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to love, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 aimer mieux, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to like better, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ajourner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to summon, 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 a j outer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to alarm. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ajuster, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to add. 
 
 
 1 
 
 alarmer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to Jit, to adjust. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aliener, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to alienate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aligner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 t* lay out straight. 
 
 
 1 
 
 allaiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to suckle. 
 
 ; 
 
 1 
 
 alle#er, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to alleviate. 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 alleguer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to allege. 
 
 \ 
 
 tr. 
 
 aller *, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to go, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 allier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to allay. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'allier, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to make an alliance. 
 
 
 1 
 .1 
 
 allumer, 
 allonger, 
 
 ac. 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to light, 
 to lengthen. 
 
 
 I 
 
 altercr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to adulterate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 amasser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to heap up, 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 ambitionner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to pursue ambitiously, 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 ameliorer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to improve. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'amender, 
 
 
 
 to grow better. 
 
 
 1 
 
 amener, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to bring, 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 ameuter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to raise a mob. 
 
 
 2 
 
 amollir. 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to molify. 
 
 
 1 
 
 amonceler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to heap up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 amorcer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to allure. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 285 
 
 2 
 
 amortir, ac. 
 
 
 to quench. 
 
 
 1 
 
 amplifier, ac.] 
 
 
 to amplify. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'amuser, ac; 
 
 da. 
 
 to amuse one's self, 
 
 a. 
 
 2 
 
 aneantir, ac. 
 
 
 to annihilate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 animer, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to animate, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 anil oncer, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to announce, \ 
 
 o. 
 
 1 
 
 annuller, ac. 
 
 
 to abrogate. 
 
 
 2 
 
 anoblir, ac. 
 
 
 to ennoble. 
 
 
 1 
 
 anticiper, ac. 
 
 
 to anticipate. 
 
 
 6 
 
 apercevoir, ac. 
 
 
 to perceive, 
 
 o. 
 
 6 
 
 s'apercevoir, 
 
 g*- 
 
 to perceive. 
 
 
 l 
 
 apetisser, 
 
 
 to diminish. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'apetisser, 
 
 
 to grow short. 
 
 
 2 
 
 aplanir, ac. 
 
 
 to level. 
 
 
 2 
 
 aplatir, ac. 
 
 
 to makeflat* 
 
 
 1 
 
 appaiser, ac. 
 
 
 to appease ., 
 
 
 1 
 
 appareiller, ac. 
 
 
 to match. 
 
 
 5 
 
 appartenir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to belong, 
 
 dc. 
 
 2 
 
 s'appauvrir, 
 
 
 to grow poor, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 appeler, ac. 
 
 
 to call, 
 
 a. 
 
 11 
 
 appendre, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to append. 
 
 
 2 
 
 appesantir, ac. 
 
 
 to make heavy. 
 
 
 2 
 
 applaudir, ac, or da* 
 
 to applaud, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 appliquer/ ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to apply. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'appliquer, 
 
 da. 
 
 to apply one's self, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 apporter, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to bring. 
 
 
 1 
 
 apposer, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to set. 
 
 
 1 
 
 apprcier, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to appraise. 
 
 
 1 
 
 appr6hender,ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to/ear, (subj.) 
 
 de. 
 
 fr. 
 
 apprendre, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to learn, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 appr&ter, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to prepare, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 apprivoiser, ac. 
 
 
 to tame. 
 
 
 1 
 
 approcher, ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to approach. 
 
 
 2 
 
 appro fondir, ac. 
 
 
 to examine into. 
 
 
 1 
 
 approprier, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to appropriate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'approprier, ac. 
 
 
 to usurp. 
 
 
 1 
 
 approuver, ac. 
 
 
 to approve, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 appuyer, ac. 
 
 
 to prop. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'appuyer sur, 
 
 
 to lean upon. 
 
 
 1 
 
 arborcr ac. 
 
 
 to set up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 argumenter, ge. 
 
 da. 
 
 to infer. 
 
 
286 
 
 FRENCH TERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 armer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to arm. 
 
 
 1 
 
 arpenter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to survey land. 
 
 
 1 
 
 arracher, ac 
 
 ge- 
 
 or da. 
 
 to pull out. 
 
 
 1 
 
 arranger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to set in order. 
 
 
 1 
 
 arreter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stop, to determine. 
 
 do. 
 
 1 
 
 s'arreter, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to stay, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 arriver,* 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to come to, to happen, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 s'arroger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to claim to one's self, 
 
 de. 
 
 2 
 
 arrondir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to make round. 
 
 
 1 
 
 arroscr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to water. 
 
 
 1 
 
 articuler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to articulate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 asperger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to besprinkle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 aspirer, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to aim at. 
 
 *. 
 
 1 
 
 assaisonncr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to season. 
 
 
 1 
 
 assassiner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to assassinate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 assembler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to bring together. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 asseoir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sit. 
 
 
 1 
 
 assieger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to besiege. 
 
 
 1 
 
 assignor, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to assign, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 assimiler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to assimilate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 assister, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to relieve. 
 
 
 1 
 
 associer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to associate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 assoiiinier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to knock down. 
 
 
 2 
 
 assortir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to match. 
 
 
 2 
 
 assoupir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to make drowsy. 
 
 
 2 
 
 s'assoupir, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to fall asleep. 
 
 
 2 
 
 assouvir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - '. 
 
 to glut. 
 
 
 2 
 
 assujettir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to subdue, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 assurer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to affirm. 
 
 o. 
 
 8 
 
 astreindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to subject, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 s'atiabler, 
 
 
 
 to sit down at table. 
 
 
 1 
 
 attacher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to bind. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'attacher, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to stick, 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 attaquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to attack. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'attaquer, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to stand up against. 
 
 
 8 
 
 atteindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 or da. 
 
 to reach. 
 
 
 1 
 
 atteler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to put horses to a coach. 
 
 
 11 
 
 attendrc, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to expect, 
 
 L 
 
 11 
 
 s'attendre, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to hope for, 
 
 i. 
 
 2 
 
 attend rir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to soften. 
 
 
 t 
 
 s'attendrir^ 
 
 
 
 to be moved. 
 
 

 
 FRENCH 
 
 VERBS, 
 
 2sr 
 
 1 
 
 attenter, 
 
 da. 
 
 to attempt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 attenuer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to attenuate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 atterrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to strike down. 
 
 
 1 
 
 attester, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to attest, 
 
 0. 
 
 2 
 
 attiedir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cool. 
 
 
 ,1 
 
 attirer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to attract. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'attirer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to draw upon one's self. 
 
 
 1 
 
 attiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to stir up. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 attraire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to allure. 
 
 
 1 
 
 attraper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to catch. 
 
 
 1 
 
 attribuer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to ascribe, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 s'attrister, 
 
 ge. 
 
 to be sorrowful, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 attrouper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to assemble. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'at trouper, 
 
 da. 
 
 to troop. 
 
 
 1 
 
 augmenter, 
 
 ac, ge. 
 
 to increase. 
 
 
 1 
 
 augHrer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to augurate. 
 
 
 i 
 
 auner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to measure by the ell. 
 
 
 i 
 
 auUriser, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to authorise^ 
 
 . 
 
 i 
 
 avaler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to swallow. 
 
 
 i 
 
 avancer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to advance. 
 
 
 i 
 
 s'avancer, 
 
 
 to go so far as, 
 
 ~ 
 
 2 
 
 avertir, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to warn, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 aveugler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to blind. 
 
 
 2 
 
 avilir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to disgrace. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'aviser, 
 
 g e * 
 
 to bethink one's self, 
 
 de. 
 
 ir. 
 
 avoir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to have, 
 
 sL 
 
 I 
 
 avftuer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to confess, 
 
 o. 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 1 
 
 Rabiller, 
 
 
 to prattle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 badiner, 
 
 
 to joke. :] 
 
 
 1 
 
 se baigner, 
 
 
 to bathe. 
 
 
 1 
 
 bailler, 
 
 
 to yawn. 
 
 
 1 
 
 baiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to kiss. 
 
 
 1 
 
 baisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to let down. 
 
 
 1 
 
 se baisser, 
 
 
 to stoop. 
 
 
 1 
 
 balancer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to balance: 
 
 
 1 
 
 balayer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to sweep. 
 
 
 1 
 
 balotter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to toss. 
 
 
 1 
 
 bander, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to bend. 
 
 
288 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 2 
 
 bannir, ac. 
 
 ge. to banish. 
 
 1 
 
 baptiser, ac. 
 
 to baptise. 
 
 1 
 
 barbouiller, ac. 
 
 ge. to daub. ' 
 
 1 
 
 barrer, ac. 
 
 da. to bar. 
 
 1 
 
 barricader, ac. 
 
 to barricade. 
 
 1 
 
 ba-ssiuer, ac. 
 
 to warm a bid. 
 
 1 
 
 bater, ac. 
 
 to saddle. 
 
 2 
 
 batir, ac. 
 
 to build. 
 
 tr. 
 
 battre, ac. 
 
 to beat. 
 
 1 
 
 bSgayer, 
 
 to stammer. 
 
 1 
 
 beler, 
 
 to bleat. 
 
 2 
 
 b6nir, ac. 
 
 to bless. 
 
 1 
 
 bercer, ac. 
 
 ge. to lull asleep. 
 
 1 
 
 biaiser, 
 
 to use evasions. 
 
 1 
 
 bfiffer, ac. 
 
 ge. to blot out. 
 
 1 
 
 blamer, ac. 
 
 ge. to blame, 
 
 2 
 
 blanchir, ac. 
 
 to ivhiten. 
 
 1 
 
 blasphemer, ac. 
 
 to blaspheme. 
 
 1 
 
 blesser, ac. 
 
 to wound. j 
 
 1 
 
 bloquer, ac. 
 
 to block up. 
 
 *r. 
 
 boire, ac. 
 
 to drink. 
 
 1 
 
 boiser, ac. 
 
 to wainscot. 
 
 1 
 
 bombarder, ac. 
 
 to bombard. 
 
 2 
 
 bondir, 
 
 to jump about. 
 
 1 
 
 border, ac. 
 
 ge. to border. 
 
 1 
 
 borner, ac. 
 
 da. to limit, 
 
 1 
 
 boucher, ac. 
 
 to stop up. 
 
 1 
 
 bouder, 
 
 to pout. 
 
 tr. 
 
 bouillir, 
 
 to boil. 
 
 
 boulanger, ac. 
 
 to bake. 
 
 
 beuleverser, ac 
 
 to overthrow. 
 
 
 bourdonner, ac. 
 
 da. to buzz. 
 
 
 boutonner, ac. 
 
 to button. 
 
 
 branler, ac. 
 
 to shake. 
 
 
 brasser, ap. 
 
 to brew. , . 
 
 
 braver, ac. 
 
 to affront. 
 
 
 brider, ac. 
 
 to bridle. 
 
 
 briguer, &c. 
 
 to sue for an office. 
 
 
 briller, 
 
 da. to shine. 
 
 1 
 
 briser, ac. 
 
 to break. 
 
 | 
 
 broder, ac. 
 
 to embroider. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 289 
 
 
 broncher, 
 
 
 to stumble. 
 
 
 brosser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to brush. 
 
 
 brouiller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to confound. 
 
 
 broyer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to grind. 
 
 
 brAler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to burn. 
 
 
 brunir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to burnish. 
 
 
 brusquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to blunt. 
 
 
 butiner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 lo plunder. 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 Cabaler A 
 
 
 to cabal. 
 
 
 cacher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to hide. 
 
 
 caeheter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to seal up. 
 
 
 calciner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to calcinate. 
 
 
 calculer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to calculate. 
 
 
 calmer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to calm. 
 
 
 calomnier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to slander. 
 
 
 camper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to encamp. 
 
 
 canoner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to storm. 
 
 1 
 
 se cantonner, 
 
 
 to canton. 
 
 1 
 
 capituler, 
 
 
 to capitulate. 
 
 1 
 
 caracteriser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to characterise. 
 
 1 
 
 cavesser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to caress. 
 
 1 
 
 carrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to square. 
 
 1 
 
 casser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to break. 
 
 1 
 
 cathSchiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to instruct. 
 
 1 
 
 causer, 
 
 
 to prattle. 
 
 1 
 
 cautionner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to bail. 
 
 1 
 
 ceder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to yield. 
 
 1 
 
 c&ebrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to celebrate. 
 
 1 
 
 ce*ler 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to conceal. 
 
 1 
 
 censurer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to censure. 
 
 
 certifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to certify. 
 
 
 cesser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cease. 
 
 
 cbagriner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to vex, 
 
 
 chanceler, 
 
 
 to stagger. 
 
 
 changer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to change. 
 
 
 chanter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to sing. 
 
 
 charger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to charge, 
 
 
 charmer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to charm, 
 
 o. 
 
 de. 
 de. 
 
 de. 
 
 de. 
 
290 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 chasser, ac. ge. 
 
 1 chauffer, ac. 
 
 1 cheminer, 
 
 1 chercher, ac. 
 
 1 chiffrer, ac. 
 
 2 choisir ac. 
 1 choquer, ac. 
 1 cicatriser, ac. 
 1 cimenter, ac. 
 
 12 circonscrire, ac. 
 
 1 circonstancier,ac. 
 
 1 circuler, ac. 
 
 1 citer, ac. 
 
 1 civiliser, ac. 
 
 1 clarifier, ac. 
 
 1 coaguler, ac. 
 
 1 eoller, ac. da. 
 
 1 colorer, ac. 
 
 ir. combattre, ac. 
 
 1 combler, ac. ge. 
 
 1 commander, ac. da. 
 
 1 commencer, ac. 
 
 1 commenter, ac. 
 
 1 com mercer, 
 
 ir. commettre, ac. da. 
 
 1 communiquer,ac. da. 
 
 1 comparer, ac. da. 
 
 2 compatir, da. 
 1 compenser, ac. 
 
 7 se complaire, da. 
 
 1 complimenter,ac. ge. 
 
 1 composer, ac. 
 
 ir. comprendre, ac. da. 
 
 1 comprimer, ac. 
 
 ir. se compromettre, 
 
 1 compter, ac. 
 
 1 concentrer, ac. 
 
 1 concerner, ac. 
 
 6 concevair, ac. 
 
 1 concilier, ac. 
 
 ir. conclure, ac. 
 
 to expel. 
 
 to warm. 
 
 to walk. 
 
 to look for, 
 
 to number. 
 
 to chuse, dip . 
 
 to offend, de. 
 
 to cicatrise. 
 
 to cement. 
 
 to circumscribe. 
 
 to describe minutely. 
 
 to circulate. 
 
 to summon, a. 
 
 1 civilize. 
 
 to clarify. 
 
 to coagulate. 
 
 to glue. 
 
 to colour. 
 
 tofight. 
 
 to Jill up. 
 
 to command, subj. de. 
 
 to begin, &. 
 
 to comment. 
 
 to trade. 
 
 to commit, a. 
 
 to communicate 
 
 to compare. 
 
 to compassionate. 
 
 to compensate. 
 
 to please, a. 
 
 to compliment. 
 
 to compose. 
 
 to understand. 
 
 to squeeze. 
 
 to expose one's self. 
 
 to count, o 
 
 to concenter. 
 
 to concern. 
 
 to conceive. 
 
 to conciliate 
 
 to conclude. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 291 
 
 ir. 
 
 concourir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to concur, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 condamner, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to condemn, 
 
 \ 
 a. 
 
 11 
 
 condescendre 
 
 , da. 
 
 to condescend, 
 
 x 
 
 <i. 
 
 10 
 
 conduire, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to conduct, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 conferer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to confer. 
 
 
 1 
 
 confesser, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to confess, 
 
 0. 
 
 1 
 
 confier, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to trust. 
 
 
 1 
 
 confiner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to confine. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 con fire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to pickle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 confirmer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to confirm. 
 
 
 1 
 
 confisquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to confiscate. 
 
 
 11 
 
 con fond re, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to confound. 
 
 
 1 
 
 conformer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to conform. 
 
 
 1 
 
 comforter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to comfort. 
 
 
 1 
 
 confconter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to compare. 
 
 
 1 
 
 conge" dier, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to dismiss. 
 
 
 1 
 
 conjecturer, 
 
 g e * 
 
 to guess. 
 
 
 8 
 
 conjoindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to conjoin. 
 
 
 1 
 
 conjuguer 
 
 ac. 
 
 to conjugate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 conjurer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to intreat. 
 
 (subj.) de. 
 
 1 
 
 conniver, 
 
 da. 
 
 to connive. 
 
 
 9 
 
 connoitre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to know. 
 
 0. 
 
 ir. 
 
 conqu6rir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to conquer. 
 
 
 1 
 
 consacrer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to consecrate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 conseiller, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to advise, 
 
 (subj.) de. 
 
 3 
 
 consentir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to consent, 
 
 (subj.) a. 
 
 1 
 
 conserver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to preserve. 
 
 
 
 corrside'rer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to consider. 
 
 
 
 consigner, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to consign. 
 
 de. 
 
 
 consister, 
 
 
 to consist, 
 
 _^_ 
 
 
 consoler, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to comfort, 
 
 de! 
 
 
 Gonsblider, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to consolidate. 
 
 
 
 eonsommer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to consummate. 
 
 
 
 conspirer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to complot. 
 
 df. 
 
 
 consterner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dispirit. 
 
 
 1 
 
 constiper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to make costive. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Gonstituer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to appoint. 
 
 
 10 
 
 construire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to build. 
 
 
 1 
 
 consulter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to consult. 
 
 
 1 
 
 consumer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to consume. 
 
 
 1 
 
 contempler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to contemplate. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 5 
 
 contenir, ac. 
 
 to comprehend. 
 
 
 1 
 
 contenter, ac. 
 
 to satisfy. 
 
 
 1 
 
 center, ac. da. 
 
 to relate. 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 contester, ac. da. 
 
 to contest, 
 
 (subj.) 
 
 1 
 
 continuer, ac. 
 
 to go on, 
 
 de or a. 
 
 1 
 
 contracter, ac. 
 
 to contract. ' 
 
 
 8 
 
 contraindre, ac. 
 
 te compel, 
 
 de or k. 
 
 1 
 
 contrarier, ac. 
 
 to contradict. 
 
 
 1 
 
 contre-balancer,ac. 
 
 to counterpoise. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 contredire, ac. 
 
 to contradict. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 contrefaire, ac. 
 
 to counterfeit. 
 
 
 1 
 
 contre-mander,ac. 
 
 to countermand* 
 
 
 1 
 
 centre-miner, ac. 
 
 tt countermine* 
 
 
 1 
 
 centre-signer, ac. 
 
 to countersign. 
 
 
 5 
 
 eontrevenir, da. 
 
 to infringe. 
 
 
 I 
 
 contribuer, da. 
 
 to contribute. 
 
 *. 
 
 1 
 
 controler, ac. 
 
 to controul. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 convaincre, ac. ge. 
 
 to convince, 
 
 de. 
 
 5 
 
 Gonvenir,* ge. 
 
 to agree, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 converser avec, 
 
 to converse. 
 
 
 2 
 
 convertir, ajc. 
 
 to convert. 
 
 
 1 
 
 cooperer, da. 
 
 to co-operate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 copier, ac. 
 
 to transcribe. 
 
 
 1 
 
 corder, ac. 
 
 to twist. 
 
 
 11 
 
 corresponds, da. 
 
 to correspond. 
 
 
 1 
 
 corriger, ac. " 
 
 to correct. 
 
 
 1 
 
 corroborer, ac. 
 
 to strengthen. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 corrompre, ac. 
 
 to corrupt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 cotoyer, ac. 
 
 to coast along. 
 
 
 1 
 
 coucher, ac. 
 
 to put to bed. 
 
 
 1 
 
 se coucher, 
 
 to go to bed. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 coudre, ac. 
 
 to sew. 
 
 
 1 
 
 couler, 
 
 tofiow. 
 
 
 1 
 
 couper, ac. da. 
 
 to cut. 
 
 
 1 
 
 courber, ac. 
 
 to bend. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 courir, da. 
 
 to run. 
 
 
 1 
 
 couronner, ac. ge. 
 
 to frown. 
 
 
 1 
 
 courtiser, ac. 
 
 to 'court. 
 
 
 1 
 
 couter, da. 
 
 to cost. 
 
 
 1 
 
 couver, ac. 
 
 to brood. 
 
 
 4 
 
 convnr, ac. ge. 
 
 to cover 
 
 
FKENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 cracher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to spit. 
 
 8 
 
 craindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to fear, (su 
 
 1 
 
 crayonner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to draw. 
 
 1 
 
 creer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to create. 
 
 1 
 
 creuser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dig. 
 
 1 
 
 crever, 
 
 
 ge. to burst out. 
 
 1 
 
 crier, 
 
 
 da. to cry. 
 
 1 
 
 critiquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cavil. 
 
 ir. 
 
 croire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to believe, - 
 
 
 croiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cross. 
 
 9 
 
 criotre, 
 
 
 to increase. 
 
 1 
 
 croquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scranch. 
 
 1 
 
 crotter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dirt. 
 
 2 
 
 croupir, 
 
 
 to stagnate. 
 
 1 
 
 crucifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to crucify. 
 
 ir. 
 
 cueillir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to gather. 
 
 10 
 
 cuire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cook. 
 
 1 
 
 cultiver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cultivate. 
 
 1 
 
 curer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cleanse. 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 Daigner, 
 
 
 to deign, 
 
 1 
 
 darnner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to damn. 
 
 *. 
 
 danscr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dance. 
 
 1 
 
 debander, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to untie. 
 
 1 
 
 debarquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to disembark. 
 
 1 
 
 debarrasser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to disengage. 
 
 1 
 
 debarrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to unbar. 
 
 ir. 
 
 debattre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to debate. 
 
 ir. 
 
 se debattre, 
 
 
 to struggle. 
 
 I 
 
 d^baucher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to debauch. 
 
 1 
 
 d^biter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to sell. 
 
 1 
 
 d6border, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to uribwdtr. 
 
 1 
 
 se deborder, 
 
 
 to overflow. 
 
 1 
 
 debotter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to pull off one's boots. 
 
 1 
 
 d^boucher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to unstop. 
 
 1 
 
 debourser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to disburse. 
 
 1 
 
 d^boutonner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to unbutton. 
 
 1 
 
 d^brider, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to unbridle. 
 
 1 
 
 debrouiller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to clear. 
 
 
294 
 
 1 clebusquer, ac. ge. 
 
 1 decacheter, ac. 
 
 1 decamper, gc. 
 
 1 de"capiter, ac. 
 
 1 decider, 
 
 1 deceler, ac. 
 
 1 decerner, ac. da. 
 
 6 d^cevoir, ac. 
 
 1 dechainer, ac. 
 
 1 se dechainer centre, 
 
 1 decharger, ac. 'ge. 
 
 1 decharner, v ac. 
 
 1 dechausser, ac. 
 
 1 dechiffrer, ac. 
 
 1 dechiqueter, at. 
 
 1 d6chirer, ac. 
 
 fr. dechoir, ge. 
 
 1 decider, ac. 
 
 1 decimer, ae. 
 
 1 declamer centre, 
 
 1 declarer, ac. da. 
 
 1 dtcliner, j ^ 
 
 1 dejcoiffer, ac. 
 
 1 decoller, ac. 
 
 1 decolorer, ac. 
 
 1 decomposer, ac. 
 
 1* dcompter, ac. 
 
 1 deconcerter, ac. 
 
 1 decorder, ac. 
 
 1 decorer, ac. ge. 
 
 ir. decoudre, ac. 
 
 1 dcouler, ge. 
 
 1 d6couper, ac. 
 
 1 decoupler, ac. 
 
 1 de*courager, ac. 
 
 4 decouvrir, ac. da. 
 
 1 dcrediter, ac. 
 
 1 de'cr&ter, ac. 
 
 1 d^crier, ac. 
 
 1 2 de" crire, ac. 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 to drive out. 
 
 to unseal. 
 
 to run away. 
 
 to behead. 
 
 to die. 
 
 to detect. 
 
 to decree. 
 
 to deceive. 
 
 to let loose. 
 
 to inveigh against. 
 
 to unload. 
 
 to pull off the flesh. 
 
 to pull the stockings off. 
 
 to decyphcr. 
 
 to cut. 
 
 to tear off. 
 
 to decay. 
 
 to decide, de or a 
 
 to decimate. 
 
 to inveigh against. 
 
 to declare, o. 
 
 to decay. 
 
 to decline. 
 
 to put off the head dress. 
 
 to unglue. 
 
 to discolour. 
 
 to dissolve. 
 
 to discount. 
 
 to put out, de. 
 
 to untwist. 
 
 to adorn. 
 
 to unsew. 
 
 tojlow. 
 
 to cut. 
 
 to uncouple. 
 
 to discourage, de. 
 
 to discover. 
 
 to discredit. 
 
 to decree, de. 
 
 to discredit. 
 
 ti> describe. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 295 
 
 p decroitre, ac. 
 
 1 ctecrotter, ac. 
 
 1 dtjdaigner, ac. 
 
 1 dedier, ac. 
 
 er. ddire, ac. 
 
 1 dedommager, ac. 
 
 10 'deduire, ac. 
 
 ir. defaire, ac. 
 
 11 defendre, ac. 
 
 1 deferer, ac. 
 
 1 defier, ac. 
 
 1 se defier, 
 
 .1 derigurer, ac. 
 
 1. dealer, ac. 
 
 2 definir, ac. 
 2 dfleurir, ac. 
 1 defoncer, ac. 
 1 deformer, ac. 
 1 defrayer, ac. 
 
 -1 deYricher, ac. 
 
 1 deTriser, ac. 
 
 1 degager,' ac. 
 
 1 d6gatner, ac. 
 
 2 degarnir, ac. 
 1 d^geler, 
 
 1 degenerer, 
 
 2 degourdir, ac. 
 1 degoAter, ac. 
 1 se degofiter, 
 
 1 degoutter, 
 
 l v degrader, ac. 
 
 1 dtjgraisser, ac. 
 
 1 deguiser, ac. 
 
 1 dejetiner, 
 
 8 dejoindre, ac. 
 
 1 delacer, ac. 
 
 1 d61aisscr, ac. 
 
 I delasser, ac. 
 
 1 delayer, ac. 
 
 1 de!6guer, ac. 
 
 1 deliberer sur, 
 
 to decrease. 
 
 to rub off the dirt. 
 
 to despise, de. 
 
 da. to dedicate. 
 ge. to unsay. 
 
 ge. to indemnify. de. 
 
 ge. jo subtract. 
 
 to undo. 
 
 da. to forbid, (subj.) de. 
 
 da. to yield. 
 
 to challenge, de. 
 
 ge. to distrust. 
 
 to disform. 
 
 to unstring. 
 
 to define. 
 
 to let fall its blossoms. 
 
 to stave a cask. 
 
 to put out of 'form. 
 ge. to defray. 
 
 to clear. 
 
 to uncurl. 
 ge. to disengage. 
 
 to unsheath a sword. 
 
 to unfurnish. 
 
 to thaw. 
 
 to degenerate. 
 
 to revive. , 
 
 ge. to disgust, de. 
 
 e. to be weary, de. 
 
 to trickle down. 
 
 to degrade. 
 
 to take away the fat. 
 
 to dissemble. 
 
 to breakfast. 
 
 to disjoin. 
 
 to unlace. 
 
 to abandon. 
 
 to unweary. 
 
 to delute. 
 
 to delegate. 
 
 to deliberate. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 delier, ac. ge. 
 
 1 delivrer, ac. ge. 
 
 1 deloger, ac. 
 
 1 deraauder, ac. da. 
 
 I dmanger, 
 
 1 dem&ter, ac. 
 
 1 demfeler, ac. 
 
 3 dewentir, ac. 
 
 tr. se demettre, ge. 
 
 1 demeubler, ac. 
 
 1 demeurer, 
 
 2 dernolir, ac. 
 1 demonter, ac. 
 
 1 demontrer, ac. da. 
 
 1 denier, ac. 
 
 1 denommer, ac. 
 
 1 denoneer, ac. da. 
 
 1 denoter, ac. 
 
 1 denouer, ac. 
 
 1 depaqueter, ac. 
 
 1 depaver, ac. 
 
 1 depcher, ac. da. 
 
 1 se depecher, 
 
 v " 8 depeindre, ac. da. 
 
 11 dependre, ge. 
 
 1 depenser, ac. 
 
 1 depeupler, ac. ge. 
 
 1 deplacer, ac. 
 
 7 deplaire, da. 
 
 1 deplanter, ac. 
 
 1 deplier, ac. 
 
 1 deplisser, ac. 
 
 1 deplorer, ac. 
 
 1 deplumer, ac. 
 
 2 depolir, ac. 
 1 deposer, ac. 
 
 1 deposseder, ac. ge. 
 
 1 depoiiiller, ac. ge. 
 
 1 depraver, ac. 
 
 1 dprimer, ac. 
 
 1 deputer, ac. da. 
 
 to untie. 
 
 to rescue. 
 
 to remove. 
 
 to ask for, (subj.) a or de. 
 
 to itch. , 
 
 to unmast. 
 
 to disentangle. 
 
 to give the lie. 
 
 to resign. 
 
 to unflirnish. 
 
 to live, or to stay. 
 
 to demolish. 
 
 to dismount. 
 
 to demonstrate. 
 
 to deny. 
 
 to name. 
 
 to denounce. 
 
 to denote. 
 
 to untie. 
 
 to undo a bundle. 
 
 to unpave. 
 
 to dispatch. 
 
 to make haste, dc 
 
 to describe. 
 
 to depend, de 
 
 to spend, a 
 
 to depopulate. 
 
 to displace. 
 
 to displease, (subj.) de 
 
 to displant. 
 
 to unfold. 
 
 to unplait. 
 
 to lament. 
 
 to take out the feathers. 
 
 to unpolish. 
 
 to depose, o 
 
 to dispossess. 
 
 to strip. 
 
 to deprave. 
 
 to depress. 
 
 to depute. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 297 
 
 1 
 
 de>aciner, ac. 
 
 
 to root out. 
 
 1 
 
 d6raisonner, 
 
 
 to talk nonsense. 
 
 1 
 
 deranger, ac. 
 
 e - 
 
 to disorder. 
 
 1 
 
 deregler, ac. 
 
 
 to disorder. 
 
 1 
 
 deriver, ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to derive. 
 
 1 
 
 derober, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to steal. 
 
 1 
 
 deroger, . 
 
 da. 
 
 to derogate. 
 
 1 
 
 derouiller, ac. 
 
 
 to get out the rust. 
 
 1 
 
 desabuser, ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to undeceive. 
 
 tr. 
 
 desapprendre,ac. 
 
 
 to unlearn, a. 
 
 1 
 
 desapprouver,ac. 
 
 
 to disapprove, (subj.) 
 
 1 
 
 d6sarmer, ac. 
 
 
 to disarm. 
 
 1 
 
 desavouer, ac. 
 
 
 to disown, (subj.) o. 
 
 11 
 
 descend re, < * C * 
 
 da. 
 
 to take down, 
 to go down, o. 
 
 1 
 
 de*sennuyer, ac. 
 
 
 to divert. 
 
 1 
 
 deserter, ac. 
 
 orge. 
 
 to desert. 
 
 1 
 
 desesperer, ac. 
 
 
 to despair, (subj.) de. 
 
 1 
 
 deshabiller, ac. 
 
 
 to undress. 
 
 ] 
 
 se deshabituer, 
 
 ge. 
 
 to break off one's custom, de. 
 
 1 
 
 deshonorer, ac. 
 
 
 to dishonour. 
 
 1 
 
 designer, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to appoint. 
 
 1 
 
 desirer, ac. 
 
 .ge- 
 
 to long for, (subj.) o or de. 
 
 1 
 
 se desister, 
 
 ge- 
 
 to give over. 
 
 2 
 
 desob6ir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to disobey. 
 
 1 
 
 desobliger, ac. 
 
 
 tv displease. 
 
 1 
 
 d6soler, ac. 
 
 
 to desolate, de. 
 
 1 
 
 desorienter, ac. 
 
 
 to put one out. 
 
 1 
 
 desosser, ac. 
 
 
 to unbone. 
 
 2 
 
 d6saisir, 
 
 ge- 
 
 to let a thing go. 
 
 1 
 
 dessaler, ac. 
 
 
 to unsalt. 
 
 1 
 
 dessecher, ac. 
 
 
 to dry up. 
 
 1 
 
 dessel-ler, ac. 
 
 
 to unsaddle. 
 
 3 
 
 desservir, ac. 
 
 
 to clear up. 
 
 1 
 
 dessiner, ac. 
 
 
 to sketch. 
 
 1 
 
 dessouder, ac. 
 
 
 to unsolder. 
 
 1 
 
 destiner, ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to design, . 
 
 2 
 
 d6sunir, ac. 
 
 
 to disunite. 
 
 1 
 
 detacher, ac, 
 
 ge. 
 
 to untie. 
 
 8 
 
 d&teindre, ac. 
 
 
 to discolour. 
 
 11 
 
 dtendre, ac. 
 
 
 to unbend. 
 
298 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 determiner, ac. 
 
 1 se determiner, da. 
 
 1 d6tester, ac. 
 
 11 detordre, ac. 
 
 1 detourner, ac. ge. 
 
 1 detremper, ac. 
 
 1 detromper, ae. 
 
 1 dtr6ner, ac. 
 
 10 detruire, ac. 
 
 1 devaliser, ac. 
 
 1 devancer, ac. 
 
 1 developper, ac. 
 
 5 devenir *, ac. 
 1 deverrouiller, ac. 
 1 divider, ac. 
 1 deviner, ac. 
 
 1 devoiler, ac. da. 
 
 6 devoir, ac. da. 
 1 devorer, ac. da. 
 1 devouer, ac. da. 
 1 dieter, ac. da. 
 1 diffamer, ac. 
 
 1 diffe>er, ac. 
 
 1 dige>er, ac. 
 
 1 dilater, ac. 
 
 1 dimer, ac. 
 
 1 diminuer, ac. 
 
 1 diner, 
 
 ir. dire, ac. da. 
 
 1 diriger, ac. 
 
 1 discerner, ac. 
 
 1 discipline r, ac. 
 
 1 discontinue^ ae. v 
 
 5 / disconvenir*, ge. 
 
 tV. discourir, ge. 
 
 1 disculper, ac. ge. 
 
 1 discuter, ac. 
 
 1 disgracier, ac. 
 
 8 disjoindre, ac. 
 
 9 disparottre, ge. 
 1 dispenser, ac. ge. 
 
 to determine, a. 
 
 to resolve upon, a. 
 
 to abhor. 
 
 to untwist. 
 
 to divert, de. 
 
 to dilute. * 
 
 to undeceive. 
 
 to dethrone. 
 
 to destroy. 
 
 to strip. 
 
 to outrun. 
 
 to unfold. 
 
 to become. 
 
 to unbolt. 
 
 to wind into a skain. 
 
 to guess. 
 
 to unveil. 
 
 to owe, o. 
 
 to devour. 
 
 to dedicate. 
 
 to dictate. 
 
 to defame. 
 
 to differ, dc. 
 
 to digest. 
 
 to dilate. 
 
 to tithe. 
 
 to decrease. 
 
 to dine. 
 
 to say, de. 
 
 to direct. 
 
 to discern. 
 
 to discipline. 
 
 to* cease, de. 
 
 to disagree, , (subj) de. 
 
 to discourse. 
 
 to justify, de. 
 
 to discuss. 
 
 to turn out of favour. 
 
 to disjoin. 
 
 to vanish away. 
 
 to excuse, dc. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 299 
 
 1 
 
 disperser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scatter. 
 
 1 
 
 disposer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 t$ set in order, 
 
 ] 
 
 disputer, 
 
 
 to quarrel. 
 
 1 
 
 dissequer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dissect. 
 
 1 
 
 dissimuler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dissemble. 
 
 1 
 
 dissiper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dissipate. 
 
 ir. 
 
 dissoudre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dissolve. 
 
 I 
 
 dissuader,^ 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to dissuade, 
 
 1 
 
 distiller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to distil. 
 
 1 
 
 distinguer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to discern. 
 
 ir. 
 
 distraire, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to distract. 
 
 1 
 
 di vaguer, 
 
 
 to ramble. 
 
 2 
 
 divertir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to divert. 
 
 1 
 
 diviser, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to divide. 
 
 1 
 
 divulguer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to publish. 
 
 1 
 
 dogmatiser, 
 
 
 to dogmatise. 
 
 1 
 
 dominer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to sway. 
 
 1 
 
 domter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to subdue. 
 
 1 
 
 donner, 
 
 ac. dk. 
 
 to give, 
 
 3 
 
 dormir, 
 
 
 to sleep. 
 
 1 
 
 doter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to give a portion. 
 
 1 
 
 doubler, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to line, to double. 
 
 1 
 
 douer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to endow. 
 
 1 
 
 douter, 
 
 e - 
 
 to question, 
 
 1 
 
 dresser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to make straight. 
 
 2 
 
 durcir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to harden. 
 
 1 
 
 durer, 
 
 
 to last. 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 2 
 
 Eblouir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dazzle. 
 
 1 
 
 branler,> 
 
 ac. 
 
 to shake. 
 
 1 
 
 eearter, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to drive away. 
 
 1 
 
 exchanger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to exchange. 
 
 1 
 
 echapper, 
 
 ge.orda. 
 
 to escape. 
 
 1 
 
 echauffer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to warm. 
 
 1 
 
 echouer, 
 
 
 to run on shore. 
 
 1 
 
 clabousser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dash. 
 
 2 
 
 6claircir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to clear. 
 
 1 
 
 eclairer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to light. 
 
 1 
 
 eclater, 
 
 
 to burst. 
 
 de. 
 
 a. 
 
 (subj.) 
 
300 
 
 FNENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 s'eclipser, 
 
 10 e*conduire, ac. 
 
 1 Scorcher, ac. 
 
 1 s'ecouler, 
 
 1 e*cuter, ac. 
 
 1 ^eraser, ac. 
 
 12 crire, ac. 
 
 1 6crouter, ac. 
 
 1 ecumer, 
 
 1 difier, ac. 
 
 1 effacer, ac. 
 
 1 effectuer, ac. 
 
 1 effiler, ac. 
 
 1 effleurer, ac. 
 
 1 s'efforeer, 
 
 1 effrayer, ae. 
 
 galer, ac. 
 
 1 gorger, ac. 
 
 1 61aguer, ac. 
 
 1 s'elancer sur, 
 
 2 61argir, ac. 
 1 Clever, ac. 
 
 tr. lire, ac. 
 
 1 61oigner, ac. 
 
 1 embarquer, ac. 
 
 1 embarrasser, ac. 
 
 1 embaumer, ac. 
 
 > 2 embellir, ac. 
 
 1 embraser, ac. 
 
 1 embrasser, ac. 
 
 1 s'-emerveiller, 
 
 1 enimenoter, ac. 
 
 1 emonder, .ac. 
 
 tr. emoudre, ac. 
 
 1 mousser, ac. 
 
 tr. emouvoir, ac. 
 
 1 cmpailler, ac. 
 
 1 empaqueter, ac. 
 
 1 s'emparer, 
 
 1 emp^cher, ac. 
 
 1 ernpeser, ac. 
 
 to disappear. 
 
 to refuse. 
 
 to skin. 
 
 to flow out. 
 
 to listen, o. 
 
 to bruise. 
 da. to write, de. 
 
 to chip bread. 
 ge. to foam. 
 
 to edify. 
 ge. to blot out. 
 
 to put in execution. 
 
 to unravel. 
 
 to touch slightly. 
 
 to endeavour, de. 
 
 tofright, de. 
 
 da. to equal. 
 
 to cut the throat. 
 
 to prune. 
 
 to leap upon. 
 
 to widen. 
 da. to raise, to educate. 
 
 to elect. 
 ge. to remove, de* 
 
 to embark. 
 ge. to perplex, de. 
 
 to embalm, 
 -to embellish. 
 ge. to set on fire. 
 
 to embrace. 
 ge. to wonder at, de. 
 
 to manacle. 
 
 to prune. 
 
 to sharpen. 
 
 to blunt. 
 
 to move. 
 
 to cover with straw. 
 
 to pack up. 
 ge. to seize upon* 
 
 to hinder, (subj.) de. 
 
 to starch. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 301 
 
 2 emplir, ac. ge. 
 
 1 employer,, ac. da. 
 
 1 empoisonner, ac. 
 
 1 emporteiV fc ac. 
 
 1 s'emporter, 
 
 1 s'empresser, 
 
 1 emprisonner, ac. 
 
 1 emprunter, ac. ge. 
 
 1 encaver, ae. 
 
 1 encenser, ae. 
 
 1 enchainer, ac. 
 
 1 enchanter, ac. 
 
 2 cliche* rir, 
 
 I encourager, ac. 
 
 ir. encourir, ac. 
 
 1 s'endetter, 
 
 3 s'endormir, 
 
 1 endurer, ac. 
 
 8 enfanter, ac. 
 
 1 enfermer, ac. 
 
 1 enfiler, ac. 
 
 1 enflammer, ac. ge. 
 
 1 enfler, ac. ge. 
 
 1 enfoncer, ac. 
 
 8 enfreindre, ac. 
 
 1 enfcmer, ac. 
 
 1 engager, ac. da. 
 
 1 s'engager, da. 
 .1 engendrer, ac. 
 
 2 engloutir, ac. 
 
 1 engraisser, JH?. 
 
 2 s'enhardir, da. 
 1 s'enivrer, ge. 
 8 enjoindre, ac. da. 
 1 enlever, ac. ge. 
 
 1 s'ennuyer, ge. 
 
 2 s'enorgueillir, ge. 
 tr. s'enquerir, ge. 
 
 1 s'enraciner, 
 
 1 enrager, 
 
 1 enregistrer, ac. 
 
 to Jill up. 
 
 to employ, a. 
 
 to poison. 
 
 to carry away. 
 
 to fall into a passion. 
 
 to be eager, de. 
 
 to put in jail. 
 
 to borrow. 
 
 to put in a cellar. 
 
 to offer incense. 
 
 to put in chains. 
 
 to charm, de. 
 
 to raise. 
 
 to encourage, a. 
 
 to incur. 
 
 to run into debt. 
 
 to fall asleep. 
 
 to suffer. 
 
 to bring forth a child. 
 
 to shut in. 
 
 to thread. 
 
 to set on fire. 
 
 to swell. 
 
 to break open. 
 
 to transgress. 
 
 to smoke. 
 
 to persuade, a: 
 
 to take upon one's self, a. 
 
 to beget. 
 
 to swallow. 
 
 to fatten. 
 
 to grow bold, a. 
 
 to make ones self drunk. 
 
 to order, de. 
 
 to take away. 
 
 to be weary, cle. 
 
 t o be proud, de. 
 
 to inquire. 
 
 to take root. 
 
 to enrage, a. 
 
 to register. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 s'enrhumer, 
 
 to catch cold. 
 
 2 
 
 s'enrichir, 
 
 to grow rich. 
 
 1 
 
 enr61er, ac. 
 
 to enlist. 
 
 1 
 
 ensanglanter, ac. 
 
 to make bloody. 
 
 1 
 
 enseigner, ac. da. 
 
 to teach, 
 
 | 
 
 ensemencer, ac. 
 
 to sow. 
 
 2 
 
 ensevelir, ac. 
 
 to bury. 
 
 1 
 
 entasser, ac. 
 
 to heap up. 
 
 11 
 
 entendre, ac. 
 
 to hear, 
 
 1 
 
 enterrer, ac. 
 
 to bury. 
 
 1 
 
 s'ent&ter, da. 
 
 to be infatuated, 
 
 1 
 
 entrainer, ac. da. 
 
 to drag away, 
 
 1 
 
 entraver, ac. 
 
 to fetter. 
 
 1 
 
 entrelacer, ac. ge. 
 
 to intermingle. 
 
 1 
 
 entremler, ac. ge. 
 
 to intermix. 
 
 1 
 
 entrer *, da. 
 
 to get in. 
 
 ir. 
 
 s'entremettre, ge. 
 
 to interpose. 
 
 tr. 
 
 entreprendre, ac. 
 
 to undertake, 
 
 5 
 
 entretenir, ac. ge. 
 
 to keep. 
 
 5 
 
 s'entretenir avec, 
 
 to discourse with. 
 
 tr. 
 
 entrevoir, ac. 
 
 to have a glimpse. 
 
 4 
 
 entrouvrir, ac. 
 
 to open a littk. 
 
 2 
 
 envahir, ac. 
 
 to invade. 
 
 1 
 
 envelopper, ac. ge. 
 
 to fold up . 
 
 1 
 
 envenimer, ac. 
 
 to poison. 
 
 1 
 
 envier, ac. da. 
 
 to envy^ 
 
 1 
 
 environner, ac. ge. 
 
 to encompass. 
 
 1 
 
 envisager, ac. 
 
 to look in the face. 
 
 1 
 
 s'envoier, 
 
 to fly away. 
 
 tr. 
 
 envoyer, ac. da. 
 
 to send, 
 
 2 
 
 epaissir, ac. 
 
 to thicken. 
 
 2 
 
 s'epanouir, 
 
 to spring out. 
 
 1 
 
 epargner, ac. da. 
 
 to spare, 
 
 1 
 
 epeler, ac. 
 
 to spell. 
 
 1 
 
 epicer, ac. 
 
 to spice. 
 
 1 
 
 epier, 
 
 to ear, to spire. 
 
 1 
 
 epier, ac. 
 
 to spy. 
 
 1 
 
 ^pointer, ac. 
 
 to blunt. 
 
 1 
 
 epoudrer, ac. 
 
 to wipe off the dust. 
 
 1 
 
 epouser, ac. 
 
 to marry. 
 
 1 
 
 epouvanter, c. 
 
 U terrify, 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 303 
 
 1 eprouver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to try. 
 
 1 6puiser, 
 
 ae. 
 
 to empty. 
 
 1 purer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to refine. 
 
 1 quiper, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to equip. 
 
 tr. quivaloir, 
 
 da. 
 
 to be equal* 
 
 1 eriger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to erect. 
 
 1 errer, 
 
 
 to ramble. 
 
 1 escalader, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scale. 
 
 1 cscarnoter, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to secure a dice. 
 
 1 escarraoucher, 
 
 to skirmish. 
 
 1 escompter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to discount. 
 
 1 esc rimer, 
 
 
 to fence. 
 
 1 escroquer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to sharp, to trick. 
 
 1 spe>er, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to hope. o. 
 
 1 espienner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to be a spy. 
 
 1 s'esquivrer, 
 
 ge. 
 
 to steal away. 
 
 1 essayer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to try, de. 
 
 1 essuyer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to wipe off. 
 
 1 estimcr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to value, o. 
 
 1 estropier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to lame. 
 
 2 6tablir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to establish. 
 
 I Staler, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to display. 
 
 1 Stancher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to quench. 
 
 8 eteindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to extinguish. 
 
 11 etendre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to spread. 
 
 1 6ternuer, 
 
 
 to sneeze. 
 
 1 eliqueter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to title. 
 
 1 tonner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to surprise, de. 
 
 1 s'etonner, 
 
 g e - 
 
 to wonder at, (subj.) de. 
 
 1 etoufFer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to stifle. 
 
 2 6tourdir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to stun. 
 
 1 6trangler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to stifle to death. 
 
 ir. ^tre, 
 
 
 to be, b. 
 
 2 trcir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to make narrow. 
 
 1 s'etudier, 
 
 
 to endeavour, a. 
 
 1 Svacuer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to evacuate. 
 
 1 s'6vader, 
 
 ge- 
 
 to steal away. 
 
 1 ^valuer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to value. 
 
 2 s'6vanouir, 
 
 
 to faint away. 
 
 1 s'evaporer, 
 
 
 to evaporate. 
 
 1 ^veiller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to awake. 
 
304 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 Sviter. 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to shun, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 exagerer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to exaggerate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exalter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to exalt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 examiner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to inquire into, 
 
 0. 
 
 1 
 
 exaucer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to grant. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exc6der, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to exceed. ' 
 
 
 1 
 
 exceller, 
 
 
 
 to exce\. 
 
 
 1 
 
 excepter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to except. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exciter 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to incite, 
 
 a. 
 
 tr. 
 
 exclure, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to exclude. 
 
 
 1 
 
 excommunier,ac. 
 
 to excommunicate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 excuser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to excuse, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 exempter, 
 
 da. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to exempt. 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 exeeuter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to execute. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exereer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to exercise, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 exhorter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to exhort, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 exiger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to require, (subj.) 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 exiler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to banish. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exister, 
 
 
 
 to exist. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'expatrier, 
 
 
 
 to quit one's own country. 
 
 
 1 
 
 expedier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to dispatch. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ex pier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to atone. 
 
 
 1 
 
 expirer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to expire, to die. 
 
 
 1 
 
 expliquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to explain. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exposer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to expose. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exprimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to express. 
 
 
 1 
 
 expulser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge 
 
 to turn out. 
 
 
 1 
 
 exterminer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to exterminate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 extirper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge 
 
 to root out. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 extraire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to extract. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fabriquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to manufacture. 
 
 
 1, 
 
 facher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to vex, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 se facher, 
 
 
 ge- 
 
 to be angry, (subj.) 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 faciliter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to facilitate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 fafonner 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to fashion. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 faire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to make or to do, 
 
 o. 
 
 imp 
 
 . falloir, 
 
 
 
 to be necessary, (subj.) 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 falsifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 - 
 
 to counterfeit. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 305 
 
 J 
 
 se familiariser, 
 
 to grow familiar. 
 
 2 
 
 farcir, ac. ge. 
 
 to stuff. 
 
 1 
 
 se farder, 
 
 to paint. 
 
 1 
 
 fatiguer, ac. 
 
 to tire, de. 
 
 1 
 
 favoriser, ac. 
 
 to favour. 
 
 8 
 
 feindre, ac. 
 
 to dissemble, de. 
 
 11 
 
 fend re, ac. 
 
 to split or cleave. 
 
 1 
 
 fermenter, 
 
 to ferment. 
 
 1 
 
 fermer, ac. 
 
 to shut up. 
 
 1 
 
 ferrer un cheval, 
 
 to shoe a horse. 
 
 1 
 
 se fier, da. 
 
 to trust to. 
 
 1 
 
 se figer, 
 
 to congeal. 
 
 1 
 
 figurer, ac. 
 
 to represent. 
 
 1 
 
 se figurer, ac. 
 
 to fancy, o. 
 
 1 
 
 filer, ac. 
 
 to spin. 
 
 1 
 
 filtrer, ac. 
 
 tofiltrate 
 
 o 
 
 finir ac. 
 
 to make an end, de. 
 
 1 
 
 flamber, 
 
 to blaze. 
 
 1 
 
 se flater, ge. 
 
 to flatter one's stlf, de. 
 
 2 
 
 flechir, ae. 
 
 to soften. 
 
 2 
 
 fletrir, ac. 
 
 to fade away. 
 
 2 
 
 fleurir, ac. 
 
 to bloom. 
 
 I 
 
 flutter, 
 
 tojftoat. 
 
 1 
 
 fomenter, ac. 
 
 to foment. 
 
 11 
 
 se fond re, ac. 
 
 to melt. 
 
 1 
 
 forcer, ac. da. 
 
 to compel, a or dc. 
 
 1 
 
 forger, ac. 
 
 to hammer. 
 
 1 
 
 se formaliser, ac. ge. 
 
 to find fault, de. 
 
 1 
 
 former, ac. 
 
 to form. 
 
 1 
 
 fortifier, ac. 
 
 to strengthen. 
 
 1 
 
 foudroyer, ac. 
 
 to storm. 
 
 1 
 
 fouetter, ac. 
 
 to whip. 
 
 1 
 
 fouler aux pieds, ac. 
 
 to trample upon. 
 
 2 
 
 fournir, ac. da. 
 
 to furnish. 
 
 1 
 
 frapper, ac. ge. 
 
 to strike. 
 
 2 
 
 fremir, ge. 
 
 to tremble, de. 
 
 1 
 
 frequenter, ac. 
 
 to haunt. 
 
 1 
 
 friser, ac. 
 
 to curl. 
 
 1 
 
 frissonner, ge. 
 
 to shiver, de. 
 
 2 
 
 froidir, 
 
 to grow cold. 
 
 1 
 
 - froisser, ac. 
 
 to bruise. 
 
305 
 
 FNENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 frotter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rub. 
 
 
 1 
 
 frustrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to disappoint. 
 
 
 tr. 
 
 fuir, 
 
 ae. 
 
 ge. to shun. 
 
 
 I 
 
 fumer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to smoke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 1 
 
 Gager, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to lay wagers. 
 
 
 
 gagner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to win. 
 
 
 
 galopcr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to gallop. 
 
 
 
 se gangrener, 
 
 
 to gangrene. 
 
 
 
 garantir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to preserve. 
 
 
 
 garder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to keep. 
 
 
 
 se garder, 
 
 
 ge. to beware. 
 
 de. 
 
 2 
 
 garnir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to furnish. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ga rotter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to tie fast. 
 
 
 1 
 
 gater, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to spoil. 
 
 
 1 
 
 geler, 
 
 
 to freeze. 
 
 
 2 
 
 geniir, 
 
 
 to groan, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 gesticuler, 
 
 
 to befall of action. 
 
 
 1 
 
 giacer, 
 
 
 ge. to freeze. 
 
 
 1 
 
 glaner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to glean 
 
 
 1 
 
 glisser, 
 
 
 to slide. 
 
 
 1 
 
 se glisser, 
 
 
 to creep in. 
 
 
 1 
 
 gofiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to taste. 
 
 
 1 
 
 gouverner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rule. 
 
 
 2 
 
 graddir, 
 
 
 to grow tall. 
 
 
 1 
 
 gratter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scratch. 
 
 
 1 
 
 graver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to engrave. 
 
 
 1 
 
 greler 
 
 
 to hail. 
 
 
 1 
 
 griller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to broil. 
 
 
 1 
 
 griiier, 
 
 
 ge. to burn with impatience, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 g.rincer les de 
 
 nts, 
 
 to gnash the teeth. 
 
 
 1 
 
 gronder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to scold at, 
 
 de. 
 
 2 
 
 g.rwssir, 
 
 
 to grow big. 
 
 
 2 
 
 gu6rir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to cure. 
 
 
 2 
 
 se guerir, 
 
 
 to recover. 
 
 
 1 
 
 guider, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to guide. 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 Habiller, - ac. ge. to clothe, to dress. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 307 
 
 1 
 
 s'habiller, 
 
 
 to dress one's self. 
 
 
 1 
 
 habiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to live in. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'foabituer, 
 
 da. 
 
 to get an habit, 
 
 - a. 
 
 tr. 
 
 hair, 
 
 ae. 
 
 to hate, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 haranguer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to make a speech. 
 
 
 1 
 
 hasarder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to venture, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 e hater, 
 
 
 ' to make haste, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 h6riter, 
 
 
 ge. to inherit. 
 
 
 1 
 
 hesiter, 
 
 
 to hesitate, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 honorer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to honour. 
 
 
 1 
 
 humilier, 
 
 ao. 
 
 to humble. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 Idol&trer, 
 
 ae. 
 
 to worship idols. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ignorer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 _ to be ignorant. 
 
 
 1 
 
 illuminer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to illuminate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'imaginer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to fancy, 
 
 ! o. 
 
 1 
 
 imbiber, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to imbibe. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'immiscer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to intermeddle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 immoler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to sacrifice. 
 
 
 1 
 
 immortaliser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to immortalize. 
 
 
 1 
 
 impatienter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to tire ent's patience. 
 
 
 1 
 
 implorer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to implore. 
 
 
 1 
 
 importuner^ 
 
 ac. 
 
 to be troublesome. 
 
 
 1 
 
 imposer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to lay on. 
 
 
 1 
 
 imprimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to print. 
 
 
 1 
 
 imputer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to impute^ 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 incliner, 
 
 
 da. to incline, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 incommoder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to disturb. 
 
 
 1 
 
 incorporer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to incorporate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 inculper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to accuse, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 inculquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to inculcate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 indemniser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to indemnify. 
 
 
 1 
 
 indiquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to shew, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 indisposer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to alienate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 infecter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to infect. 
 
 
 1 
 
 infester, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to infest. 
 
 
 1 
 
 influencer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to influence. 
 
 
 1 
 
 informer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge, to inform. 
 
 
 1 
 
 infuser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to infuse. 
 
 
 1 
 
 s'ingerer, 
 
 
 ge. to intermeddle with. 
 
 de. 
 
308 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 inbumer, ac. 
 
 1 injurier, ac. 
 
 1 innover, ac. 
 
 1 inonder, ac. ge. 
 
 1 iuquietcr, ac. 
 
 12 insc-rire, ac. 
 
 1 s'insinuer, 
 
 1 insinuer, ae. da. 
 
 1 inspirer, ac. da. 
 
 1 instituer, ac. 
 
 10 instruire, ac. ge. 
 
 1 insulter, ac. or da. ge. 
 
 1 intercede*, ac. 
 
 1 intercepter, ac. 
 
 ir. interdire, ac. 
 
 1 s'interposer, ac. 
 
 1 interpreter, ac. ge. 
 
 1 interroger, ac. 
 
 ir. interrompre, ae. 
 
 5 intervenir, 
 
 1 intimider, ac. 
 
 1 intituler, ac. 
 
 1 intriguer, 
 
 10 introduire, ac. 
 
 1 invectiver contre, 
 
 1 inventer, ac. 
 
 2 investir, ac. ge. 
 1 inviter, ac. da. 
 1 invoquer, ac. 
 
 1 irriter, ac 
 
 to bury. 
 
 to abuse. 
 
 to innovate. 
 
 to overflow. 
 
 to trouble. 
 
 to inscribe.' 
 
 to steal in. 
 
 to insinuate, de. 
 
 to inspire with, de. 
 
 to appoint. 
 
 to teach. 
 
 to insult. 
 
 to intercede. 
 
 to intercept. 
 
 to interdict. 
 
 to intermeddle. 
 
 to explain. 
 
 to ask questions. 
 
 to interrupt. 
 
 to intervene. 
 
 to fright. 
 
 to intitle. 
 
 to cabal. ' 
 
 to introduce. 
 
 to inveigh against. 
 
 tojind out, de. 
 
 to invest. 
 
 to invite, a or de. 
 
 to invoke. 
 
 to exasperate. 
 
 I Jardiner, 
 
 1 jeter, ac. da. 
 
 1 jeiiner, ac. 
 
 8 joindre, ae. da. 
 
 1 j eer, ac. ge. da. 
 
 2 jouir, ge. 
 1 jwger, ac. ge. 
 1 jurer, ac. da. 
 1 justifier, ac. ge. 
 
 to dress a garden. 
 
 to throw. 
 
 to fast. 
 
 to join. 
 
 to play. 
 
 to enjoy. 
 
 to judge. . 
 
 to swear, - - de. or . 
 
 to justify, de. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 1 
 
 Labourer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to plough. 
 
 1 
 
 laccr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to lace. 
 
 1 
 
 lacher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to loosen. 
 
 1 
 
 laisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to leave, 
 
 1 
 
 lambrisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to wainscot. 
 
 1 
 
 lamenter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to bemoan. 
 
 1 
 
 lancer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to fling. 
 
 2 
 
 languir, 
 
 
 ge. to languish. 
 
 1 
 
 larder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to lard. 
 
 1 
 
 se lasser, 
 
 
 to be weary, 
 
 1 
 
 laver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to wash. 
 
 1 
 
 legitimer 
 
 ac. 
 
 to legitimate. 
 
 1 
 
 leguer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to leave by wiU. 
 
 1 
 
 se lever, 
 
 
 to rise. 
 
 1 
 
 lier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to tie. 
 
 1 
 
 se liguer centre, 
 
 to enter into a league. 
 
 1 
 
 limer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to file off. 
 
 1 
 
 limiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to limit. 
 
 1 
 
 Iiqu6fier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to liquefy. 
 
 if. 
 
 lire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to read. 
 
 1 
 
 livrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to deliver. 
 
 1 
 
 loger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to lodge, to dwell. 
 
 1 
 
 loucher, 
 
 
 to squint. 
 
 1 
 
 louer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to praise, 
 
 ir. 
 
 luire, 
 
 
 to shine. 
 
 1 
 
 lutter centre, 
 
 
 to struggle with. 
 
 1 
 
 lutter, 
 
 
 to wrestle. 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Macher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to shew. 
 
 1 
 
 maconner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to build. 
 
 2 
 
 maigrir, 
 
 
 to grow lean. 
 
 5 
 
 uiaintenir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to maintain. 
 
 1 
 
 niaitriser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to subdue. 
 
 1 
 
 maltraiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. to use ill. 
 
 1 
 
 mander, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. to send for, 
 
 1 
 
 manger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to eat. 
 
 300 
 
 dew a 
 
 de. 
 
310 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 manier, ac. 
 
 1 manifester, ac. 
 
 1 manquer, ac. 
 
 1 manquer, ge. da. 
 
 1 marchander, ac. 
 
 1 marcher, da. 
 
 1 marier, ac. da. 
 
 1 se marier, ac. da. 
 
 J mariner, ac. 
 
 1 marquer, ac. da. 
 
 1 massacrer, ac. 
 
 ir. maudire, ac. 
 
 9 se m6connoitre, 
 
 9 meconnoitre, ac. 
 
 ir. medire, ge. 
 
 1 mediter, ac. 
 
 1 se mSfier, ge. 
 
 1 m61anger, ac. 
 
 1 meler, ac. ge. da. 
 
 1 se m&ler, ge. 
 
 1 meuacer, ac. ge. 
 
 1 menager, ac. da. 
 
 3 mentir, 
 
 ir. se meprendre, 
 
 1 mpriser, ac. 
 
 1 nitrite r, ac. 
 
 1 mesurer, ac. da. 
 
 1 metamorphoser, ac. 
 
 tr. melt re, ac. da. 
 
 1 raeubler, ;ac. ge. 
 
 2 meurtrir, ac. ge. 
 1 miauler, 
 
 I mode*rer, ac. 
 
 1 moissonner, ac. 
 
 i molester, ac. 
 
 1 monter, ac. da. 
 
 1 montrer, ac. da. 
 
 1 se moquer, ge. 
 
 1 moraliser, 
 
 1 1 mordre, ac. 
 
 1 moucheter, ac. 
 
 to handle. 
 
 to reveal. * 
 
 to miss. 
 
 to want, to fail, a or de. 
 
 to cheapen. 
 
 to walk. 
 
 to marry. 
 
 to marry. 
 
 to pickle. 
 
 to mark. 
 
 to massacre. ^ 
 
 to curse. 
 
 to forget one's self. 
 
 to take for another. 
 
 to slander. 
 
 to meditate, de. 
 
 to distrust. 
 
 to mix together . 
 
 to mix. 
 
 to meddle with, de 
 
 to threaten, de 
 
 to spare. 
 
 to tell lies* 
 
 to mistake. 
 
 to despise. 
 
 to deserve, de. 
 
 to measure. 
 
 to metamorphose. 
 
 to put. 
 
 to furnish. 
 
 to bruise. 
 
 to mew. 
 
 to moderate. 
 
 to harvest. 
 
 to grieve. 
 
 to get up, to take up. 
 
 to sheiv, &. 
 
 to laugh at. 
 
 to moralise. 
 
 to lite. 
 
 to spot. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 311 
 
 tr. 
 
 moudre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to grind. 
 
 tr. 
 
 niotirir,* 
 
 
 ge. 
 
 to die. 
 
 i 
 
 nuirer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to wall up. 
 
 2 
 
 mftrir, 
 
 
 
 te ripen. 
 
 1 
 
 murmurer, 
 
 
 
 to mutter. 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 1 
 
 Nager, 
 
 
 
 to swim. 
 
 ir. 
 
 naitre,* 
 
 
 
 to be born. 
 
 1 
 
 necessiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to compel, &. 
 
 1 
 
 n^gliger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to neglect, de. 
 
 1 
 
 negocier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ^ 
 
 to trade. 
 
 imp. 
 
 neiger, 
 
 
 
 to snow. 
 
 I 
 
 nettoyer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to clean. 
 
 1 
 
 nier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to deny, (subj,)o. 
 
 2 
 
 noircir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to blacken. 
 
 1 
 
 nommer, 
 
 ae. 
 
 da. 
 
 to name. 
 
 1 
 
 noter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to note. 
 
 < 1 
 
 notifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to let one know, de. 
 
 1 
 
 nouer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to tie. 
 
 !2 
 
 nourrir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to feed. 1 
 
 1 
 
 noyer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 e - 
 
 to drown. 
 
 1 
 
 se noyer, 
 
 
 
 to be drowned. 
 
 1 
 
 nuancer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to shadow. 
 
 10 
 
 nuire, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to hurt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Ob^ir, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to obey. 
 
 1 
 
 objeeter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to object. 
 
 1 
 
 obliger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to oblige, de or a. 
 
 2 
 
 obscurcir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to darken. 
 
 1 
 
 obseder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 te beset. 
 
 1 
 
 observer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to observe, . 
 
 1 
 
 s'obstiner, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to be obstinate, a. 
 
 5 
 
 obtenir, 
 
 ae. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to obtain, de. 
 
 1 
 
 obvier, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to ebviate. 
 
 1 
 
 occuper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 t9 employ. &, 
 
 \ 
 
 ofFcnser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to offend. 
 
 4 
 
 offrir, 
 
 ae. 
 
 da. 
 
 t* offer. de. 
 
312 
 
 FNENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 offusquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dim. 
 
 1 ombrager, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to shadow. 
 
 tr. omettre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to omit, 
 
 1 opiner, 
 
 da. 
 
 to vote. 
 
 1 s'opiniatrer, 
 
 da. 
 
 to be obstinate. 
 
 1 s f opposer, 
 
 da. 
 
 to be against. 
 
 1 oppritner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to oppress. 
 
 1 opter, 
 
 
 to chuse. 
 
 1 ordonner, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to order, 
 
 1 orner, 
 
 ac, ge. 
 
 to adorn. 
 
 1 orthographier,ac. 
 
 to spell. 
 
 1 oser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dare, 
 
 1 6ter, ac. ge. da. 
 
 to take away. 
 
 1 oublier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 toforget, 
 
 2 ourdir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to weave. 
 
 1 outrager, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to affront. 
 
 4 ouvrir, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to open. 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 1 Pacifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to pacify. 
 
 ir. paStre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to graze. 
 
 1 pallier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to palliate. 
 
 1 pa-nser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dress. 
 
 1 paraph raser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to comment upon. 
 
 tr. parcourir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to run over. 
 
 1 pardonner, " 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to forgive, 
 
 1 parier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to bet, 
 
 1 parier, 
 
 ge. da. 
 
 to speak, 
 
 9 paroitre, 
 
 
 to appear, 
 
 1 parquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to fold. 
 
 1 parsemer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to strew. 
 
 1 partager, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to share. 
 
 3 partir,* 
 
 ge. 
 
 to set out. 
 
 5 parvenir,* 
 
 da. 
 
 to arrive at. 
 
 1 passer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to pass. 
 
 1 patienler, 
 
 
 to take patience. 
 
 1 patiner, 
 
 1 
 
 to skait. 
 
 1 paver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to pave. 
 
 1 payer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to pay. 
 
 1 pecher, 
 
 
 to sin. 
 
 de. 
 i 
 
 (subj. ) de. 
 
 o. 
 
 tie. 
 
 de. 
 
 o. 
 de. 
 
 o. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 313 
 
 1 pfecher, ac. 
 
 8 pcindre, ac. da. 
 
 1 peler, ac. 
 
 1 pencher sur, 
 
 11 pendre, ac. da. 
 
 1 pen6trer dans, 
 
 1 penser, ge. da. 
 
 1 percer, ac. 
 
 11 perdre, ac. da. 
 
 *>. permettre, ac. da. 
 
 1 persister, 
 
 1 persuader, ac. da. 
 
 2 pervertir, ac. 
 1 peser, ac. 
 1 petrifier, ac. 
 
 1 peupler, ac. ge. 
 
 1 piler, " 
 
 ac. 
 
 1 piller, ac. 
 
 1 pincer, ac. da. 
 
 1 piquer, ac. da. 
 se piquer, ge. 
 
 I placer, ac. da. 
 
 8 plaindre, ac. 
 
 8 se plaindre, ge. da. 
 
 7 plaire, da. 
 
 1 planter, ac. 
 
 1 platrer, ac. 
 
 1 pleurer, ic. ge. 
 
 1 plier, ac. 
 
 1 plisser, ac. 
 
 1 plomber, ac. 
 
 I plonger, ac. 
 
 1 ployer, ac, 
 
 1 poignarder, ac. 
 
 1 poivrer, ac. 
 
 1 polisser, ac. 
 
 2 polir, ac. 
 1 pomper, ac. 
 1 pouctuer, ac. 
 
 11 pond re, ac. 
 
 1 porter, ac. da. 
 
 to fish. 
 
 to paint. 
 
 to peel. 
 
 to lean upon. 
 
 to hang. 
 
 to get into. 
 
 to think of, a. 
 
 to pierce. 
 
 to lose, a. 
 
 to permit, (snbj.)de. 
 
 to persist, a. 
 
 to persuade, de. 
 
 to pervert. 
 
 to weigh. 
 
 t* petrify. 
 
 to people. 
 
 t* bruise. 
 
 to plunder. 
 
 to pinch. 
 
 to prick. 
 
 to pretend to, dc. 
 
 to place. 
 
 to pity, de. 
 
 to complain, (subj.) de. 
 
 to please, &. 
 
 to plant. 
 
 to plaster. 
 
 to bewail, to cry. 
 
 to plait, to bend. 
 
 to plait. 
 
 to lead. 
 
 to plunge. 
 
 to fold up. 
 
 to stab. 
 
 to pepper. 
 
 to polish. 
 
 to burnish. 
 
 to pump. 
 
 to point. 
 
 to lay eggs. 
 
 to carry, &. 
 
314 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 peser, ac. 
 
 1 posseder, ac. 
 
 1 poudrer, ac. 
 
 ir. poursuivre, ac. 
 
 ir. pourveir, ac. ge. da. 
 
 1 pousser, ac. da. 
 
 ir. pouvoir, ac. da. 
 
 1 pratiquer, ac. 
 
 1 pr6ceder, ac. ge. 
 
 1 pricker, da. 
 
 ir. predire, ac. da. 
 
 1 pr&clominer, ac. 
 
 1 preftrer, ac. da. 
 
 1 prejud icier, -da. 
 
 1 prelever, ac. 
 
 1 premditer, ac. 
 
 jr. prendre, ac. ge. da. 
 
 1 preparer, ac. da. 
 
 1 preposer, ac. da. 
 
 1 presager, ac. 
 
 12 prescrire, ac. 
 
 1 presenter, ac. da. 
 
 1 preserver, ac. 
 
 1 prsider, ac. 
 
 1 presenter, ac. 
 
 3 pressentir, ac. 
 
 ] presser, ac. 
 
 1 presumer, ac. ge. 
 
 1 1 preiendre, ac. da. 
 
 1 preler, ac. da. 
 
 ir. prevaloir, 
 
 5 prevenir, ac. ge. 
 
 ir. prevoir ac. 
 
 1 prier, ac. 
 
 1 priver, ac. ge. 
 
 I proceder, ge. da. 
 
 1 proclamer, ac. 
 
 1 procurer, ac. da. 
 
 I prodiguer, ac. 
 
 10 produire, ac. 
 
 I profaner, ac. 
 
 to lay. 
 
 to possess. 
 
 to powder. 
 
 to pursue. 
 
 to provide. 
 
 to thrust, pushy &. 
 
 to be able, * o. 
 
 to practise. 
 
 to precede. 
 
 to preach, de. 
 
 toforetel, o. 
 
 to predominate. 
 
 to prefer, o. 
 
 to prejudice. 
 
 to deduct. 
 
 to premeditate, de. 
 
 to take. 
 
 to prepare, a. 
 
 to set over. 
 
 to portend, o. 
 
 to prescribe, de. 
 
 to offer, a. 
 
 to preserve. 
 
 to preside. 
 
 to present, a. 
 
 tofertsee. 
 
 to press, or squeeze r de. 
 
 to presume, de. 
 
 to pretend to, to design, o. 
 
 to lend. 
 
 to prevail. 
 
 to prevent. 
 
 to foresee, o. 
 
 to pray, (subj.) de, 
 
 to deprive, de. 
 
 to proceed. 
 
 to proclaim. 
 
 to procure, de. 
 
 to lavish. 
 
 to produce. 
 
 to profane. 
 
FRENCH V 
 
 315 
 
 1 
 
 proferer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to utter. 
 
 I 
 
 professer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to profess. 
 
 1 
 
 profiler, 
 
 
 g e - 
 
 to improve. 
 
 I/ 
 
 prejeter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to intend, de. 
 
 1 
 
 prelonger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to prolong. 
 
 1 
 
 se promener, 
 
 
 
 to walk. 
 
 tr. 
 
 promettre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 tcf promise, de. 
 
 1 
 
 prononcer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to pronounce. 
 
 1 
 
 propager, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to propagate. 
 
 1 
 
 prophetiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 toforeteL 
 
 1 
 
 proposer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to propose, de. 
 
 12 
 
 proscrire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 8 e - 
 
 to proscribe. 
 
 I 
 
 prosperer, 
 
 
 
 to prosper. 
 
 1 
 
 se prosterncr, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to prostrate ones self. 
 
 1 
 
 proteger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to protect; 
 
 1 
 
 protester contre, 
 
 to protest. 
 
 5 
 
 provenir,* 
 
 
 ge 
 
 to proceed. 
 
 1 
 
 pubiier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to publish, o. 
 
 2 
 
 punir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 e- 
 
 to punish, de. 
 
 1 
 
 purger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to purge. 
 
 1 
 
 purifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to purify. 
 
 1 
 
 se putrefier, 
 
 
 
 to rot. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 Quadrupler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to quadruplate. 
 
 1 
 
 qualifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to qualify. 
 
 1 
 
 quereller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to scold at. 
 
 i 
 
 questionner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to ask questions. 
 
 1 
 
 qu&ter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to beg. 
 
 1 
 
 quitter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to quit. 
 
 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 1 
 
 Rabaisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to abate. 
 
 1 
 
 raccommoder,ac. 
 
 to mend. 
 
 1 
 
 racheter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to redeem. 
 
 1 
 
 racheter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to buy again. 
 
 1 
 
 raconter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to relate. 
 
 2 
 
 se radou'cir, 
 
 
 
 to be appeased. 
 
 2 
 
 rafFennir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to strengthen. 
 
316 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 raffiner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to refine. 
 
 2 
 
 rafraichir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cool. 
 
 1 
 
 raisonner, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to reason. 
 
 2 
 
 ralentir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to relent. 
 
 1 
 
 rallier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rally. 
 
 1 
 
 rallumer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to kindle again. 
 
 I 
 
 ramasser, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to pick up. 
 
 1 
 
 ramener, 
 
 ac. ge. da. 
 
 to bring back. 
 
 2 
 
 ramollir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to soften. 
 
 1 
 
 ramper, 
 
 da. 
 
 to crawl. 
 
 1 
 
 ranconner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to ransom. 
 
 1 
 
 ranger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to set in order. 
 
 1 
 
 ranimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to revive, &. 
 
 1 
 
 raper, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to grate. 
 
 1 
 
 rappeler, 
 
 ac. ge. da. 
 
 to call again. 
 
 1 
 
 rapporter, 
 
 ac. ge. da. 
 
 to bring back. 
 
 tr. 
 
 rapprendre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to learn again. 
 
 1 
 
 rapprocher, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to draw near again. 
 
 1 
 
 rarefies 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rarefy. 
 
 1 
 
 raser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to shave. 
 
 1 
 
 rassasier, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to satisfy, de* 
 
 1 
 
 rassembler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to join together. 
 
 1 
 
 rassurer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to encourage. 
 
 1 
 
 ratifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to ratify. 
 
 1 
 
 ratisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scrape. 
 
 1 
 
 rattacher, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to tie again. 
 
 1 
 
 raturer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scratch out. 
 
 1 
 
 ravager, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to lay waste. 
 
 2 
 
 ravir, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to ravish, d.e. 
 
 1 
 
 rayer, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to bar. 
 
 1 
 
 rSaliser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to realize. 
 
 1 
 
 reassigner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to assign anew, a. 
 
 2 
 
 rebatir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rebuild. 
 
 1 
 
 rebaptiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rebaptize. 
 
 2 
 
 reblanchir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to wash again. 
 
 2 
 
 rebondir, 
 
 
 to rebound. 
 
 1 
 
 reborder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to new border. 
 
 1 
 
 reboucher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to stop again. 
 
 1 
 
 rebrider, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to bridle again. 
 
 1 
 
 reb uter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to reject. 
 
 1 
 
 rccacheter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to seal up again. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 317 
 
 1 
 
 rec&er, ac. 
 
 to conceal. 
 
 6* 
 
 recevoir, ac. ge. 
 
 to receive. 
 
 1 
 
 rechanger, ac. 
 
 to change again. 
 
 1 
 
 recharger, ac. ge. 
 
 to load again. 
 
 l 
 
 recliauffer, ac. 
 
 to warm again. 
 
 i 
 
 rechercher, ac. 
 
 to seek again. 
 
 I 
 
 reciter, ac. 
 
 to rehearse. 
 
 1 
 
 r^clamer, ac. ge. 
 
 to claim. 
 
 1 
 
 recoller, ac. 
 
 to glue again. 
 
 1 
 
 recom-mander,ac. da. 
 
 to recommend, de. 
 
 1 
 
 recompenser, ac. ge. 
 
 to reward, de. 
 
 1 
 
 recomposer, ac. 
 
 to compose again. 
 
 1 
 
 recompter, ac. 
 
 to reckon again. 
 
 1 
 
 reconcilier, ac. 
 
 to reconcile. 
 
 ]0 
 
 reconduire, ac. da. 
 
 to wait upon one back. 
 
 9 
 
 reconnoitre, ac. 
 
 to know again. 
 
 9 
 
 se reconnoitre, 
 
 to come to one's self. 
 
 ir. 
 
 reconquerir, ac. 
 
 to conquer. 
 
 1 
 
 reconter, ac. da. 
 
 to tell over again. 
 
 1 
 
 recopier, ac. 
 
 to write fair again. 
 
 ir. 
 
 recoudre, ac. 
 
 to sew again. 
 
 ir. 
 
 recourir, da. 
 
 to have recourse . 
 
 
 recouvrer, ac. 
 
 to recover. 
 
 A 
 
 recouvrir, da. 
 
 to new cover. 
 
 1 
 
 recre"er, ac. 
 
 to recreate. 
 
 1 
 
 se r^crier, 
 
 to exclaim. 
 
 . 1 
 
 r^criminer, 
 
 to recriminate. 
 
 12 
 
 rcrire, ac. da. 
 
 to write over, de. 
 
 1 
 
 recruter, ac. 
 
 to recruit. 
 
 1 
 
 rectifier, ac. 
 
 to rectify. 
 
 ir. 
 
 recueillir, ac. 
 
 to gather. 
 
 1 
 
 reculer, ac. 
 
 to draw back. 
 
 1 
 
 recuser, ac. 
 
 to except against. 
 
 ir. 
 
 redefaire, ac. 
 
 to undo again. 
 
 1 
 
 redemander, ac. da. 
 
 to ask again, &. 
 
 11 
 
 redescendre, 
 
 to come down again. 
 
 6 
 
 redevoir, ac. da. 
 
 to owe still. 
 
 1 
 
 rdiger, ac. 
 
 to put in order. 
 
 ir. 
 
 redire, ac. da. 
 
 to say again, de. 
 
 1 
 
 redonner, ac. da. 
 
 to give again. 
 
 1 
 
 red ore r, ac. 
 
 to new gild. 
 
318 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 redoubler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to new line. 
 
 
 1 
 
 redoubler, 
 
 g e - 
 
 to redouble. 
 
 
 1 
 
 redouter 
 
 ac. 
 
 to dread, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 redresser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 te make straight : . 
 
 
 10 
 
 require, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to reduce, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 r6difier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to build tip* again. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 refaire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to do over again. 
 
 
 I 
 
 r6frer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to refer. 
 
 
 2 
 
 re"flechir sur, 
 
 
 to reflect. 
 
 
 1 
 
 refluer, 
 
 
 to run back. 
 
 
 11 
 
 refondre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to melt again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 reformer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to reform. 
 
 
 1 
 
 refre'ner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to refrain. 
 
 
 2 
 
 refroidir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cool. 
 
 
 1 
 
 se rfugier, 
 
 
 to take sanctuary. 
 
 
 1 
 
 refuser, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to refuse, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 refuter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to refute. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regagner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to get again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 rgaler, 
 
 ac, gc. 
 
 to* entertain. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regarder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to look upon, 
 
 0, 
 
 2 
 
 regarnir, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to furnish again. 
 
 
 imp. 
 
 regeler, 
 
 
 to freeze again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regenerer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to regenerate. 
 
 
 2 
 
 r6gir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to govern* 
 
 
 1 
 
 regler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rule. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regner, 
 
 
 to reign. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regorger, 
 
 ge 
 
 to overflow. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regratter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to scratch again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 regretter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to lament, 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 rhabiliter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rehabilitate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 rchausser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to raise. 
 
 
 1 
 
 rejaillir, 
 
 
 to spurt up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 rejeter, 
 
 ac. ge. 
 
 to reject. 
 
 
 1 
 
 r&ate'grer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to restore. 
 
 
 | 
 
 rejoindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to join again. 
 
 
 2 
 
 se rejouir, 
 
 ge. 
 
 to rejoice, (subj.) 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 ritrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to repeat. 
 
 
 1 
 
 relacher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to slacken. 
 
 
 2 
 
 rflargir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to make wider again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 relaver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to wash again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 re!6cuer y 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to banish. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS 
 
 1 
 
 relever, 
 
 ac. 
 
 i e - 
 
 to raise up again. 
 
 1 
 
 . rel-ier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to bind* 
 
 i>. 
 
 relke, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to read over. 
 
 10 
 
 reluire, 
 
 
 
 to glitter. 
 
 1 
 
 remander, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to send word again. 
 
 1 
 
 remarieiv 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to marry again, 
 
 1 
 
 remarquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to observe. 
 
 1 
 
 rem bailer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to pack up again. 
 
 1 
 
 rembarquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to embark again. 
 
 1 
 
 rembourser, 
 
 ac.. 
 
 
 to reimburse. 
 
 1 
 
 remeler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to shuffle again. 
 
 1 
 
 remener, 
 
 ac 
 
 da. 
 
 to carry back, 
 
 1 
 
 remercier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 e - 
 
 to thank, 
 
 1 
 
 remesurer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to measure again. 
 
 1 
 
 remedier, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to remedy. 
 
 ir. 
 
 reniettre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to put again. 
 
 1 
 
 remeubler, 
 
 ae. 
 
 
 to furnish again. 
 
 1 
 
 remonter, < 
 
 M 
 
 da. 
 da. 
 
 to get up again, 
 to take up again. 
 
 1 
 
 re ua on t re r, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to remonstrate. 
 
 ir. 
 
 reinoudre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to grind again. 
 
 1 
 
 rempaqueter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to pack up again. 
 
 1 
 
 remplacer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to replace. 
 
 2 
 
 remplir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to fill up. 
 
 1 
 
 se remplumer, 
 
 
 
 to new feather. 
 
 I 
 
 remporter, 
 
 ae. 
 
 da. 
 
 to carry back. 
 
 1 
 
 remprunter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to borrow again. 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 remuer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to move. 
 
 t'r. 
 
 renaitre, 
 
 
 ge. 
 
 to be born again. 
 
 1 
 
 rencbahier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to chain up ago in. 
 
 2 
 
 rencherir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to raise. 
 
 1 
 
 rencontrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to meet with. 
 
 3 
 
 se rendormir, 
 
 
 
 to fall asleep again. 
 
 11 
 
 rend re, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to return. 
 
 10 
 
 renduire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to new plaster. 
 
 1 
 
 renfermer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to shut tip again. 
 
 1 
 
 rentier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to swell again. 
 
 1 
 
 renforcer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 
 to fortify. 
 
 1 
 
 rengalner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sheath. 
 
 1 
 
 renier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to disown. 
 
 1 
 
 re n oncer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to renounce, 
 
 1 
 
 renouer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to tie a I? am. 
 
 319 
 
 de. 
 
 o. 
 dc. 
 
320 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 renouveler, 
 renter, 
 rentrer 
 
 ac. 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to renew, 
 to endow, 
 to come again. 
 
 1 
 
 renverser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to throw down. 
 
 ir. 
 
 renvoyer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to send back, 
 
 11 
 
 r^pandre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to spill, to Spread. 
 
 1 
 
 reparer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to repair. 
 
 9 
 
 reparoitre, 
 
 
 
 to appear again. 
 
 2 
 
 repartir, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to reply. 
 
 3 
 
 repartir,* 
 
 
 
 to go back again. 
 
 I 
 
 repasser, 
 
 
 
 to cross again. 
 
 1 
 
 repasser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to iron. 
 
 1 
 
 repenser 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to remind, 
 
 3 
 
 se repentir, 
 
 
 g e - 
 
 to repent, 
 
 
 repeter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to repeat. 
 
 
 repeupler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to repeople. 
 
 
 replacer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to place again. 
 
 
 replanter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to plant again. 
 
 
 replier, 
 r6pliquer, 
 
 ac. 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to fold again, 
 to reply. 
 
 1 
 
 replisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to plait again. 
 
 1 
 
 replonger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to dip again. 
 
 2 
 
 repolir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to polish again. 
 
 11 
 
 r*pondre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to answer. 
 
 1 
 
 reporter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to carry back. 
 
 1 
 
 se reposer, 
 
 
 
 to rest. 
 
 1 
 
 repousser, 
 
 >c. 
 
 
 to drive back. 
 
 ir. 
 
 reprendre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge- 
 
 to chide, 
 
 i 
 
 repiesenter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to represent. 
 
 1 
 
 repriuiander, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to rebuke, 
 
 1 
 
 reprmier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to repress. 
 
 1 
 
 reprocher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to reproach, 
 
 10 
 
 reproduire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to reproduce. 
 
 1 
 
 repudier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to divorce. 
 
 1 
 
 repugner, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to repugn, 
 
 1 
 
 repurger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to purge again. 
 
 1 
 
 reputer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to repute. 
 
 tr. 
 
 requerir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to require. 
 
 1 
 
 r^server, 
 
 ac. 
 
 \la. 
 
 to reserve. 
 
 l 
 
 resider 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to reside. 
 
 I 
 
 r^signer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to resign, 
 
 j 
 
 r^siliw 
 
 *c 
 
 fist 
 
 to c.imcel. 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 resister, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to resist. 
 
 tV. 
 
 resoudre 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to resolve, de. or, a. 
 
 tr. 
 
 se resoudre, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to resolve upon, a. 
 
 1 
 
 respecter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to respect. 
 
 1 
 
 res pi re r, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to breathe. 
 
 1 
 
 ressembler, 
 
 
 da, 
 
 to resemble. 
 
 3 
 
 ressentir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 tofeel. 
 
 1 
 
 resserrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to tie tighter. 
 
 5 
 
 se ressouvenir, 
 
 ge- 
 
 to remember, d. 
 
 1 
 
 ressusciter, 
 
 
 
 to raise from the dead. 
 
 1 
 
 restaurer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to restore. 
 
 1 
 
 rester, 
 
 
 
 to stop, &. 
 
 1 
 
 restituer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to return. 
 
 8 
 
 restreindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to limit, &. 
 
 1 
 
 resulter, 
 
 
 ge 
 
 to result from. 
 
 1 
 
 resumer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to recapitulate. 
 
 2 
 
 retablir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to re-establish. 
 
 1 
 
 retarder, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to put off. 
 
 5 
 
 retenir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to detain, &. 
 
 1 
 
 retirer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to draw. 
 
 1 
 
 se retirer, 
 
 
 ge. 
 
 to withdraw. 
 
 I 
 
 re torn her, 
 
 
 
 to fall again. 
 
 11 
 
 retordre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to twist again. 
 
 1 
 
 retoucher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to revise again. 
 
 1 
 
 retourner, < 
 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to return, o, 
 to turn again. 
 
 1 
 
 retracer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to draw again. 
 
 1 
 
 se retracter, 
 
 
 ge- 
 
 to recant, de 
 
 1 
 
 retrancher, ac. ge. 
 
 da. 
 
 to diminish. 
 
 1 
 
 se retrancher, 
 
 
 
 to intrench. 
 
 2 
 
 rtrecir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to make narrow. 
 
 1 
 
 retrograder, 
 
 
 
 to retrograde. 
 
 1 
 
 retrouver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to find again. 
 
 1 
 
 reveiller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to awake. 
 
 1 
 
 reveler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to reveal. 
 
 1 
 
 revendiquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to claim. 
 
 11 
 
 re vend re, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to sell again. 
 
 5 
 
 revenir,* 
 
 ge. 
 
 da. 
 
 to come again* 
 
 \ 
 
 rever, 
 
 
 
 to dream, f>* 
 
 1 
 
 re>erherer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to reflect. 
 
 1 
 
 r6verer,- 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to honour. 
 
 tr. 
 
 revetir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to invest. 
 
322 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 if. 
 
 revivrc, 
 
 
 to revive. 
 
 
 2 
 
 reunir, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to re-unite. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 revoir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to set again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 se rvolter, 
 
 
 to revolt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 revoquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to repeal. 
 
 
 2 
 
 reussir, 
 
 
 to succeed', 
 
 
 1 
 
 rider, 
 
 
 to wrinkle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ridiculiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to laugh at. 
 
 
 1 
 
 rimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to rhyme. 
 
 
 1 
 
 reimprimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to reprint. 
 
 
 1 
 
 riposter, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to reply. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 rire, 
 
 g e 
 
 to laugh, 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 risquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to venture, a or 
 
 cU 
 
 1 
 
 rissoler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to roast brown. 
 
 
 1 
 
 river, 
 
 ac % 
 
 to rivet. 
 
 
 1 
 
 rogner, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to cut, to pare. 
 
 
 2 
 
 se roidir, 
 
 
 to be stiff. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 rompre, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to break. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ronfler, 
 
 
 to snore. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ronger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to gnaw. 
 
 
 2 
 
 r6tir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to roast. 
 
 
 2 
 
 rougir, 
 
 
 to bbish, to redden, 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 rouler 
 
 ac. 
 
 to roll. 
 
 
 2 
 
 roussir, 
 
 
 to grow red. 
 
 
 * 4 
 
 rouvrir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to open again. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ruiner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to ruin. 
 
 
 1 
 
 se ruiner, 
 
 da. 
 
 to ruin ones self, 
 
 * 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 Sabler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to gravel. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sabrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to cut with a hanger. 
 
 
 1 
 
 saccager, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to plunder. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sacrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to consecrate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sacrifier, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to sacrifice, 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 saigner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to let blood. 
 
 
 2 
 
 se saisir, 
 
 ge, 
 
 to lay hold of. 
 
 
 2 
 
 salir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to foul. 
 
 
 1 
 
 saluer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to salute. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sanctifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to sanctify. 
 
 
 1 
 
 saper, 
 
 ae. 
 
 to sap. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sarcler, 
 
 "ac. 
 
 to weed. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 323 
 
 1 
 
 satiriser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to satirize. 
 
 
 tr. 
 
 satisfaire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to satisfy, 
 
 . de. 
 
 tr. 
 
 savoir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to know, 
 
 o. 
 
 1 
 
 santer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to leap, to jump. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sauver, 
 
 ac. 
 
 5 e - 
 
 to save. 
 
 
 1 
 
 scandalise^ 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to scandalize, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 scier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to saw. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sculpter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to engrave. 
 
 
 1 
 
 scher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to dry. 
 
 
 1 
 
 secondei, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to help. 
 
 
 1 
 
 secouer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to shake. 
 
 
 tr. 
 
 secourir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to relieve. 
 
 
 10 
 
 s6duire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to seduoc> 
 
 
 1 
 
 sejourner, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to stay in a place 
 
 
 1 
 
 sembler, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to seem, 
 
 e. 
 
 1 
 
 semer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to soiv. 
 
 
 3 
 
 sentir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to feel, to smell. 
 
 
 1 
 
 squestrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sequestrate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 serrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to squeeze. 
 
 
 3 
 
 servir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to serve, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 sevrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to wean. 
 
 
 1 
 
 siffler, 
 
 
 
 to whistle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 signaler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to make famous. 
 
 
 1 
 
 signer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to subscribe. 
 
 
 1 
 
 signifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to notify, 
 
 d<?. 
 
 1 
 
 solliciter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to solicitate, 
 
 a.orde. 
 
 1 
 
 somraeiller, 
 
 
 
 to slumber. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sonimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to summon, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 sender, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sound. 
 
 
 1 
 
 songer, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to think, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 sonner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to ring. 
 
 
 3 
 
 sortir, 
 
 
 ge. 
 
 to go out, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 se soucier, 
 
 
 ge- 
 
 to care for, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 souffler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to blow. 
 
 
 4 
 
 soufFrir, 
 
 
 
 to suffer, 
 
 (subj.) o. 
 
 1 
 
 souhaiter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to wish, 
 
 (subj.) o* 
 
 1 
 
 souiller, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e * 
 
 to dirty. 
 
 
 1 
 
 soulager 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to relieve. 
 
 
 3 
 
 se sotiler, 
 
 
 g e - 
 
 to cloy one's self. 
 
 
 1 
 
 soulever, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to~ raise. 
 
 
 *. 
 
 soumettre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to submit, 
 
 &. 
 
324 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 
 
 soupconner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to suspect 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 sou per, 
 
 
 
 to sup. 
 
 
 1 
 
 spupirer, 
 
 
 
 to sigh. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 sourire, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to smile. 
 
 
 12 
 
 souscrire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to subscribe. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 soustraire, ac 
 
 . ge. 
 
 da. 
 
 to subtract. 
 
 
 5 
 
 soutenir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to maintain, 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 se souvenir; 
 
 
 g e - 
 
 to remember, 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 specifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to specify. 
 
 
 I 
 
 statuer, 
 
 
 
 to ordain, 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 stipuler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stipulate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 stupefier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stupefy. 
 
 
 1 
 
 subdiviser, 
 
 a c> 
 
 
 to subdivide. 
 
 
 2 
 
 subir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to undergo. 
 
 
 1 
 
 submerger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sink. 
 
 
 1 
 
 subordonner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to subordinate. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 suborner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to corrupt. 
 
 
 1 
 
 subroger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to substitute. 
 
 
 1 
 
 subsister, 
 
 
 
 to subsist. 
 
 
 1 
 
 substituer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to substitute. 
 
 
 1 
 
 subtiliser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to subtilize. 
 
 
 5 
 
 subvenir, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to relieve. 
 
 
 
 succeder, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to succeed. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sucrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stigar. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 suffire, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to siijficc, 
 
 dc 
 
 1 
 
 suffoquer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stifle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 suggerer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to suggest, 
 
 d 
 
 ir. 
 
 suivre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to follow. 
 
 
 1 
 
 supplanter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to supplant. 
 
 
 1 
 
 suppleer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to supply. 
 
 
 1 
 
 supplier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to in treat, (subj.) 
 
 de 
 
 1 
 
 supporter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to suffer, to 'bear up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 supposer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to suppose, (iud. subj. 
 
 )o 
 
 1 
 
 supprimer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 g e - 
 
 to suppress. 
 
 
 1 
 
 supputer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to compute. 
 
 
 1 
 
 surcharger, 
 
 ac. 
 
 8 e - 
 
 to overcharge. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 surfaire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to exact. 
 
 
 ] 
 
 surmonter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to excel. 
 
 
 1 
 
 surnager, 
 
 
 
 to swim over. 
 
 
 1 
 
 surpasser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to excel. 
 
 
 ir. 
 
 surprendre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to surprize, 
 
 de 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 325 
 
 tr. 
 
 survivre, 
 
 
 da. 
 
 to survive. 
 
 
 11 
 
 suspendre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to hang up. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sustenter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to maintain. 
 
 
 1 
 
 sympatiser, 
 
 
 
 to sympathize. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 fj 
 
 I 
 
 Tacher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to stain. 
 
 
 1 
 
 t&eher 
 
 
 
 C t o endeavour, 
 \ to aim at, 
 
 de. 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 tacheter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 t& speckle. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tailler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to cut out. 
 
 
 7 
 
 taire, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to conceal. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ta miser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to sift. 
 
 
 1 
 
 taner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to tan. 
 
 
 i 
 
 tapisser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to furnish with 
 
 hangings. 
 
 I 
 
 tarder, 
 
 
 
 to delay, 
 
 a. 
 
 1 
 
 tarir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to dry up. 
 
 
 l 
 
 tasser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to heap up. 
 
 
 l 
 
 t&tcr, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to fee I. 
 
 
 1 
 
 taxer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 ge. 
 
 to tax, 
 
 de. 
 
 7 
 
 teindre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to dye. 
 
 
 1 
 
 temperer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to allay. 
 
 
 1 
 
 temporise^ 
 
 
 
 to delay. 
 
 
 11 
 
 ten dre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to tend, 
 
 <* 
 
 5 
 
 tenir,' 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to hold. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tenter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to tempt, 
 
 de. 
 
 1 
 
 tergiverser, 
 
 
 
 to shift. 
 
 
 1 
 
 terminer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to terminate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 terrasser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to throw down. 
 
 
 1 
 
 C ao 
 tirer, j 
 
 ge- 
 
 da. 
 da. 
 
 to draw, 
 to shoot. 
 
 
 1 
 
 toiser, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to measure. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tolerer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to tolerate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tom be r,* 
 
 
 
 to fall. 
 
 
 11 
 
 ton dre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to shear* 
 
 
 imp. 
 
 tonner, 
 
 
 
 to thunder. 
 
 
 I 
 
 toucher, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to touch. 
 
 
 I 
 
 tourmenter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 
 to plague. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tourner, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to turn round. 
 
 
 1 
 
 tournoycr, 
 
 
 
 to whirl about. 
 
 
FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 I tousser, 
 
 1 tracer, ac. da. 
 
 10 traduire, ac. ge. 
 
 1 trafiquer, ac. 
 
 2 trahir, ac. 
 1 trainer, ac. 
 
 IT. traire, ac. 
 
 I trailer, ac. 
 
 1 :, trainer, ac. 
 
 I t rancher, ac. da. 
 
 t tranquilliser, ac. 
 
 12 transcrire. ac, 
 
 i transferor, ac. ge. da. 
 
 1 transformer, ac. 
 
 1 transgressor, ac. 
 
 1 transiger, 
 
 i'r. transmettre, ac. da. 
 
 1 transpirer, 
 
 V transplanter, ac. 
 
 1 transporter, ac. ge. da. 
 
 1 transposer, ac. 
 
 1 transvaser, ac. 
 
 1 travaiHer, ac. da. 
 
 1 traverseiv ac. 
 
 2 se travestir, 
 I trebucher, 
 
 1 trembler, ge. 
 
 1 treinper, ac. 
 
 1 trepaner, ac. 
 
 jr. tressaillir, ge. 
 
 1 tricoter, ac. 
 
 1 triompher, ge. 
 
 I tripler, ac. 
 
 1 t romper, ac. 
 
 i tronquer, ac. 
 
 1 troquer, ac. 
 
 1 trotter, 
 
 1 troubler, ac. 
 
 1 trouver, ac. 
 
 1 tyrannissr, ac. 
 
 to cough. 
 
 to draw. 
 
 to translate. 
 
 to trade. 
 
 to betray. 
 
 to drag along. 
 
 to milk. 
 
 to treat. 
 
 to plot. 
 
 to cut off'. 
 
 to quiet. 
 
 to transcribe. 
 
 to transfer. 
 
 to transform. 
 
 to transgress. 
 
 to transact. 
 
 to transmit. 
 
 to transpire. 
 
 to transplant. 
 
 to transfer. 
 
 to transpose. 
 
 to decant. 
 
 to work. 
 
 to cross. 
 
 to disguise one's self. 
 
 to stumble, 
 
 to skiver* 
 
 to dip. 
 
 to trepan, 
 
 to start. 
 
 to knit. 
 
 to triumph , 
 
 to treble. 
 
 to deceive. 
 
 to mutilate. 
 
 lo barter. 
 
 to trot. 
 
 to trouble. 
 
 to find out, 
 
 to oppress* 
 
 d.. 
 
2 unir, 
 1 user, 
 
 FRENCH VERBS. 
 
 1 Ulcerer, ac. 
 
 U 
 
 to ulcerate. 
 
 ac. da_ to unite. 
 
 ge. to use. 
 ac. to wear off. 
 
 32? 
 
 1 
 
 Vaciller, 
 
 
 to stagger. 
 
 v. 
 
 vaincre, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to vanquish. 
 
 *r. 
 
 valoir, 
 
 ac da. 
 
 to be worth. 
 
 tr. 
 
 valoir mieux, 
 
 
 to be better, o. 
 
 1 
 
 vanter, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to commend. 
 
 i 
 
 se vanter, 
 
 g e - 
 
 to boast, tie. 
 
 i 
 
 vegeter, 
 
 
 to vegetate. 
 
 i 
 
 veiller, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to watch t ^. 
 
 11 
 
 vend re, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to sell. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 f to come to, o. 
 
 5 
 
 venrr,* 
 
 ge. da.< 
 
 j to happen* . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I to have just, * de. 
 
 1 
 
 venter, 
 
 
 to blow. 
 
 2 
 
 verdir, 
 
 
 to become green. 
 
 1 
 
 vergetter, 
 
 at/. 
 
 to brush. 
 
 1 
 
 verifier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to verify* 
 
 2 
 
 vernir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to varnish. 
 
 1 
 
 vernisster, 
 
 ae. 
 
 to varmsh. 
 
 1 
 
 vexer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to vex. 
 
 1 
 
 vicier, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to vitiate. 
 
 1 
 
 vider, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to empty. 
 
 2 
 
 vieillir, 
 
 
 to grow old. 
 
 1 
 
 violer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to transgress, to violate. 
 
 1 
 
 viser, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to aim at, ;. 
 
 1 
 
 vitrer, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to glaze. 
 
 tr. 
 
 vivrc, 
 
 
 to live. 
 
 tr. 
 
 voi*-, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to see, 0% 
 
 1 
 
 voler, 
 
 ac. 
 
 da. 
 
 to rob. 
 
 tofly* 
 
 1 
 
 vouer, 
 
 ac. da. 
 
 to devote. 
 
 ir. 
 
 v on loir, 
 
 ac. 
 
 to be willing, (subj.) p. 
 
( 323 ) 
 
 DIALOGUES. 
 
 DIALOGUE I. Sur I'Hi&toire de France. 
 
 D. Combien y a-t-il eu de Rois en France depuis Pharamond 
 jnsqn'a Louis Seize? 
 
 /i. Spixante-neut". 
 
 D. Nonuncz-les dans 1'ordre qn'ils ont rgne, mettezen litre le nom 
 de chaque iamille, el apres chaqueroi, i'aiinee oii il a commence son 
 regne? 
 , il. Volonliers, mais a condilion que vous les apprendrez par coeur. 
 
 ROIS DE FRANCE. 
 
 21 Merwingiens. 
 
 
 Charles le Chauve - 
 
 840 
 
 Pharamond 
 
 420 
 
 Louis II. 
 
 877 
 
 Clodion ;1 . 
 
 427 
 
 Louis III. et Carloman 
 
 879 
 
 Merovee 
 
 448 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 884 
 
 Childeric I. 
 
 458 
 
 Eudes* 
 
 887 
 
 Ciovis I. 
 
 481 
 
 Charles III: 
 
 898 
 
 Childebert I. 
 
 511 
 
 Robert* 
 
 922 
 
 Clotaire I. 
 
 558 
 
 Raoul* 
 
 923 
 
 Charibert * 
 
 561 
 
 Louis IV. - 
 
 936 
 
 Chilperic I. - 
 
 56f 
 
 Lothaire 
 
 954 
 
 Clotaire II. 
 
 584 
 
 Louis V. 
 
 986 
 
 Dagobert I. - 
 
 638 
 
 33 Capetiem. 
 
 
 Ciovis II. 
 
 638 
 
 Hugues Capet 
 
 987 
 
 Clotaire III. . 
 
 656 
 
 Robert 
 
 996 
 
 Childeric II. - 
 
 670 
 
 Henri I. - 
 
 1P31 
 
 Thierry I. 
 
 673 
 
 PhUippe I. 
 
 1060 
 
 Ciovis III. - 
 
 691 
 
 Louis VI, 
 
 1108 
 
 Childebert II. 
 
 695 
 
 Louis VII. 
 
 1137 
 
 Dagobert II. * 
 
 711 
 
 Philippe II. 
 
 1180 
 
 Chilpdric II. 
 
 715 
 
 Louis VIII. 
 
 1223 
 
 Thierry II. - 
 
 720 
 
 Louis IX. 
 
 1226 
 
 Interregne 
 
 737 
 
 Philippe IH. 
 
 1270 
 
 Childdric III. 
 
 742 
 
 Philippe le Bel 
 
 1285 
 
 12 Carlovingiens, 
 
 
 Louis X. - 
 
 1314 
 
 Pepin 
 
 752 
 
 Jean I. 
 
 1316 
 
 Charlemagne - 
 
 768 
 
 PhUippe V. 
 
 1316 
 
 Louis I. - 
 
 814 
 
 Charles IV. 
 
 1322 
 
 * Elides, Roborl et Raoul ne sent point de la famille des Carlovin- 
 griens ; Eudes et Robert etoient. Tun cointe de Paris, et 1'autre due de 
 Prance. Raoul etoit due de Bourgogne. 
 
SUR LHISTO1RE DE FRANCE. 329 
 
 Philippe de Valois 1328 Henri II. - 1547 
 
 Jean II. - - 1350 Francois IF. - 1559 
 
 Charles V. - 1364 Charles IX. - 1560 
 
 Charles VI. - 1380 Henri III. 1574 
 
 Charles VII, - 1422 Henri IV. - 1589 
 
 Louis XI. - - 1461 Louis XII I. - 1610 
 
 Charles VIII. - 1483 Louis XIV. - - 164S 
 
 Louis XII. - 1493 Louis XV. - 1715 
 
 Francois I. - 1515 Louis XVI. 1774- 
 
 D. Quels sons les Rois qui ont plus particulierement prStege U 
 sciences? 
 
 /?. Charlemagne, Robert, Philippe le Bel, Francois Premier, jet 
 Louis Quatorze. 
 
 D. Combien de rois ont eu des inorts trigiques? 
 
 JR. Sept, savpir, Chilperic Premier, Childeric Second, Charl3-fe 
 Cliauve, Lotkaire, Henri Trois, Henri Quutrc, et Louis Seize. Chil- 
 peric fut assassin^ par un de ses nobles Tan 584. Childeric Second 
 tut tu en revenant de la chasse Van 673. Charles le Ckauve fut empoi- 
 sonn par son 'medecin Tan 877. Lothaire ftit empoisonne par sa 
 femme i'an 986. Henri Trois fut assassine par Jacques Clement Tan 
 1589. Henri Quatre fut tue par Ravaillac en 1610. Louis Sri/e i'ut 
 <U'-capit par ordre de la Convention Nationale en 1793. 
 
 /). Y a-t-il eu des g-uerres civiles en France? 
 
 LL Oui, particulierement quatre ; la premiere arriva a la moil de 
 Louis Premier, qui avoit nomm^ Charles le Chauve son jenne h'ls pour 
 son siicccsseur, par prefdrence a Lolkaire son ills aine. Lothaire dis- 
 I>uta la couronne, et la hataille la plus sanglante cpu ait etc livrce 
 <kpuis le commencement de a monarchie Francoise se donna entre 
 les fils de Louis, a Fontenay, I'an 8t2. 
 
 La seconde fut entre Henri Premier et sa mere Constance qni 
 vonloit mettre sur le trdne Robert son jeune frere. 
 
 La troisieme fut excitee par les Calvinistes qui se lig-uerent et at- 
 taquerent Henri Trois en 1575; ils prirent plusieurs places fortes t 
 iivrercnt bien des combats avant qu'on put les r&duire. 
 
 La quatrieme comntenca Tan 1793, dans la Bretagne ; elle fut tres- 
 rruelle, et tres-sanglante. 
 
 Le parti-royalisie a coute plus de c<?nt millehommes avant d'etre 
 d^truit. 
 
 D. Nommez moi cijielques faits remarquables depuis Pharamoud 
 jusqu'au douzi^me siecle. 
 
 JR. Clovis Premier se fit baptiser et 6lablit le Christianisme I'an 496. 
 En 583 une peste cruelle desola toute la France et surtout Paris. Chil- 
 deric Trois et dernie* 1 de la famille des M6rovingiens fut d^.pos6 et ctt- 
 fcrml dana un monastere, I'an 752. P^pin fut elu a sa place par le* 
 
330 SUR L'HISTOIRE DE FRANCE. 
 
 etats assembles a Soissons. La celebre Universite de Paris cow- 
 menea sous Charlemagne en 796. 
 
 En 922 Charles Trois, dit Id Simple, fut depose par les seigneurs 
 qui niireut Robert sur le trone : Charles fut arrete peu de temps 
 apres et renferm6 dans le chateau de Thieri ou il mourut. 
 
 II y cut line famine si cruelle en 1033, qu'an rapport des historiehs 
 on deroboit les petits enfans pom les anger, et qu'on altendoit les 
 voyageurs au coin des bois pour le* devorer. Les croisades pour l;i 
 Terre Sainte conmiencerent tn 1096. 
 
 D. Rapportez-moi quelques faits remarquables depuis le dnuziemc 
 siccle jusqu'a Louis Seize. 
 
 R. La Pragmatlfme sanction est publiee en 1269, par laquelle les 
 cathdrales et les abbayes obtiemient le privilege d'elire leurs prclats. 
 Humbert attaclia le Dauphine a la Couronne de France en 1349, a 
 condition que le fils aind du Roi en porteroit le nom et les armes. 
 En 1356, Jean et son fils fment fails prisonniers par le Prince Noir, 
 fils d'Edouard Trois, Roi'd Anglcterrc quipr6tendoit ala'couronne 
 de France au droit acsamere, mais qui en ^toit exclu par la loi sa- 
 lique. Henri Six, Roi d'Anglelene, nit couronne Roi de France Tan 
 1431, au droit de son per, qpiav.oitet nomm^ heritier de la couronne ; 
 mais le Dauphin soutint ses droits, se nt reconnoitre et chassa Henri 
 Six de ses etats. La France flit un theatre de carnage en 1569. 
 Charles Neuf fit egorg-ei les Calyimstes a Paris en 1572. JLes Calvi- 
 nistes excite rent une guerre civile en 1575, 
 
 Henri Qualre qui avoir etft ^leve dans la religion Protestanle se 
 convertit a la religion Catuohque., en 1593, et par sa conversion ap- 
 .paisa les troubles et les gueires civiles qui desoloient la France. 
 
 Louis Quatorzq qui regna pres de soixante-douze ans, d^truisit les 
 duels, pro-tegea les sciences, et rerpmpensa toujours le mevite ; il r^- 
 it^sit a niaintenir son pelit-fijs Philippe Cinq sur le trdne d'Espagne, 
 inalgre plusieurs Rois ligues centre Iu4. Louis Seize assembla les 
 etats ^eneraux en 1789, pour reparer Tetatde ses finances; cette as- 
 ^eniblee a oper6 la revolution Fvancoise dont Thistoire scuk de- 
 mande des volumes entiers. 
 
 
( 331 ) 
 
 DIALOGUE 11. Sur I'Histoire d'Angleterre. 
 
 D. Combien y a-t il eu de Rois et de Reines en Anglelerre dcpui* 
 1'Eptarchie Saxonne ? 
 
 R. II y acuquarante-nenf Rois, et quatre Reines. 
 D. Nommez-les dans 1'ordre qu'ils ont regne, mettez en litre ic 
 nom de chaque famille, et apres chaque Roi, 1'epoque cm il a com- 
 menc a reg-ner. 
 R. Volontiers, mais soyez attentif et tachez de vous en ressouvenii . 
 
 . 
 ROIS D'ANGLETERRE. 
 
 15 Saxons. 
 
 Jean Sans terre. 
 
 119P 
 
 Egbert 
 
 819 
 
 Henri III. 
 
 . 
 
 J216 
 
 Ethelwolf - 
 
 837 
 
 Edouard I. 
 
 . 
 
 127-2 
 
 Ethelbald - 
 
 858 
 
 Edouard II. 
 
 _ 
 
 1307 
 
 Ethelbt'rt 
 
 860 
 
 Edouard HI. 
 
 
 13^7 
 
 Ethelred I. 
 
 866 
 
 Richard II. 
 
 - 
 
 137 7 
 
 Alfred 
 
 871 
 
 S Lancastres. 
 
 Edward le vieux 
 
 900 
 
 Henri IV. 
 
 . 
 
 1400 
 
 Athelstan 
 
 925 
 
 Henri V. 
 
 _ 
 
 1418 
 
 Edfnond I. 
 
 940 
 
 Htnri VI. 
 
 . 
 
 1432 
 
 Edred 
 
 946 
 
 S 
 
 York*. 
 
 
 Edwin 
 
 955 
 
 Edouard IV. 
 
 . 
 
 1461 
 
 Edgar 
 
 959 
 
 Edouard V. 
 
 - 
 
 1485 
 
 Edward Icjeune 
 
 975 
 
 Richard III. 
 
 - 
 
 1483 
 
 Ethelred If. 
 
 978 
 
 5 
 
 Tudors. 
 
 
 Edinond II. 
 
 1016 
 
 Henri VI L 
 
 
 
 1485 
 
 3 Danois. 
 
 
 Henri VII I. 
 
 _ 
 
 1509 
 
 Canut 
 
 10 17 
 
 Edouard VI. 
 
 . 
 
 1547 
 
 Harold T. 
 
 1036 
 
 Marie 
 
 _ 
 
 1553 
 
 Hardi-Canut 
 
 1040 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 > 
 
 1556 
 
 x Encore 2 Sazo7is. 
 
 
 6 
 
 Stuarts. 
 
 
 Edouard le Confesseur 
 
 1042 
 
 Jacques I. 
 
 - 
 
 1603 
 
 Harold II. 
 
 1065 
 
 Cliarks I. 
 
 . 
 
 1625 
 
 3 Normans. 
 
 
 Charles If. 
 
 . 
 
 1660 
 
 Guillaurne I. le Cong. 
 
 1066 
 
 Jacques If. 
 
 . 
 
 1685 
 
 Guillaimie II, le Roux 
 
 1087 
 
 Guillaurae III. et Marie. 
 
 1689 
 
 Htfiiri I. 
 
 1100 
 
 Anne 
 
 . 
 
 1702 
 
 Maison dc Blois. 
 
 3 Brunszcicks. 
 
 Etienne, 
 
 1135 
 
 George I. 
 
 - - 
 
 1714 
 
 8 Plantagenets. 
 
 
 George II. 
 
 - 
 
 1727 
 
 Henri II. - 
 
 1154 
 
 George III. 
 
 
 
 1760 
 
 Richard I. Coeur de Lion 1J89 
 
332 SUR L'HISTOIRE D'ANGLETERRE. 
 
 1>. Quels droils avoient a la couronne les premiers Rois de chaque 
 f ami He? 
 
 R. Egbert etpit un des Rois de 1' Eptarcliie Saxonne, il soumit les 
 six autrcs et se fit couronner Roi de la Brctagne superieure a laqueile 
 il donna lenom d'Angleterre. 
 
 Can nt, Prince Danois, avoit partake 1'Ang-leterre ayecEdmond et 
 int reconnu Roi de tout le royannie a la inert du dernier, ii n'y avoit 
 d'autre droit que celui de conqucte. 
 
 GuillaumcDucdeNormandie, fit la oonquete de PAngleterre, et 
 prit le litre de Conquerant. 
 
 Etienne de Blois s'empara dn Hone dans 1'absence de Mathilde filje 
 <1< V Henri Premier, et heritiere legitimc. 
 
 Henri Second tils de Matilde, nionta sur le irnne a lamort d'Etienne, 
 qui pour niettre tin a la guerre civile s'etoit eng-age par un traite a 
 Ini laisser la couronne au prejudice de ses propres enfans. 
 
 Henri Quatre int eleve sur le trone an prejudice d'Edmond Mor- 
 timer, ce qui occasionna de fnnestes divisions entre les maisons 
 d'York et de Ijancastre. 
 
 Edmond Quatre de lamabon d'York, quise croyoitbeiitier de la 
 couronne, renssit a ciotroner Henri Six apres une guerre civile. 
 
 Henri Sept de la (ami lie des Tudors, avoit du cot6 de sa mere tons 
 les droits de la tamillc de Lancastre a la couronne, et du cote de sa 
 frmme tous ceux de la vnaison d'York. 
 
 Jacques Premier, Roi d'Ecossc, ctoit le plus proclie parent d'Eliza- 
 belh, qui 1'avoit nomine pour son sucrcesscnr dans son testament. 
 
 George Premier etoilsorti de lamaison des Stuarts parsamere^ 
 petite fille de Jacques Premier; l.i Koine Anne 1'avoit nomme son 
 succe&seur. 
 
 D. Combien de Rois onl ete tues en combaUant .? 
 
 R. Trois, Ethelred Premier tut tue tiaus une battaille centre !r-s 
 Danois qui ycnoient continue! lenient ravager son pays. Harold 
 Deux fut tue dans une bataiilc contra Guiilaume le Conquerant. 
 Richard Trois fut tue dans une balaille centre Henri Sept. 
 
 D. Combien de Rois ont eu une inert tragique. 
 
 R. Les neuf suivans, Edmond Premier, Edouard le Jenne, Edmond 
 Second, Guiilaume le Roux, Richard Premier, Edouard Second, 
 Richard Second, Edouard Cinq, et Charles Premier. 
 
 1. Edmond Premier fut assassine par un nomme Leof, scelerat re - 
 nomme, que le Roi avoit envoyt; en exil. 2. Edouard le Jeune fut as- 
 sassine par les ordres de sa belle-mere Elfride, qui vouloit foirc 
 regner son propi e tils Ethelred Second. 3. Edmonu Second fut cru- 
 tllement assassine par les domestiquesl de son beau-frere Edrick a 
 qui Canut fit trancher la tele. 4 Guiilaume le Roux, etant a la 
 diasse, fut tue d'un coup de fleche tire sans dessein par un deseg do- 
 mestiqucs. 5. Richard Premier, surnomme Coeur ue Lion, voulant 
 obligfer un Seigneur Limousin a lui rendre un tresor qu'il avoit 
 trouv^, s'approcha du chateau de ce g^entilhomme pour 1'attaqiurr; 
 
SUR L'HISTOIRE D'ANGLETERRE, 333 
 
 il rec,ut un coup de fleche dont il mournt. 6. Edouard Second fut 
 depos par le Parlement, et euferme au chateau de Berkley ou il fut 
 cruellement assassine. ?. Richard Second fut depose par le Parle- 
 ment, et enferm dans le chateau de Pontefract, ou il fut inlmmaine- 
 ment assassine par Pordre de Henri Quatre, chef des mecontens, qui 
 fut elu a sa place. 8. Edouard Cinq, et son frere, le Due d'York, furent 
 enfermes a laTour, etensuite etourtsdans leurlit par Pordre duDuc 
 de Olocester, qui prit le nom de Richard Trois quand il fut monte sur 
 le trone. 9. Charles Premier fut decapite par Pordre du Parlement, 
 le 30 Janvier 1649; son tils, Charles Second, ne monta sur le trdne 
 qu'en 1660, onze ans apres la mort de son pere. 
 
 D. L'Angleterre a t-elle eu bien des guerres trangres a soutenir? 
 
 JR. Oui, du temps des Rois Saxons, les Danois y firent des descentes 
 frequentes pendant plus de deux cens ans. II y a eu beaucoup de 
 guerres entre PAnjjleterre et la France depuis Guillauine le Concju- 
 rant, maisparticulierement depuis la Heine Anne; ilyaeu aussi des 
 guerres contre PEspagne, contre la Hollande et contre PAmerique. 
 
 D. Y a-t il eu plasieurs guerres civiles en Angleterre? 
 
 JR. Oui, etnouspouvons compter entre autreslesquatre suivantes 
 conime les plus memorables. La premiere eommenca en 1135, quand 
 Etienne de Blois monta sur le trdne au prejudice de Mathilde, iille 
 unique et legitime heritiere de Henri Premier. La seconde arriva 
 sous le regne de Richard Secdnd, et finit par le dposer. La troi- 
 sieme fut suscitee parlamaison d'York, c-t finit par mettre Edouard 
 Quatre sur le trdne a la place de Henri Six, qui fut depose. La c[ua- 
 trieme fut celle du Parlement contre Charles Premier, ce Prince 
 malheureux fut vaincu et decapitS. 
 
 D. Depuis quand les Rois d'Angleterre prennent-ils le tire de 
 Rois de France 
 
 D. Depnis Edouard Trois, qui avoit pous la so2ur de Charles 
 Quatre, qui mourut sans enfkns : il etoit exclu de la couronne par la 
 loi Salique ; cependant il prit le litre de Roi de France qae ses sue- 
 cesseurs ont conserve jusqu'en 1800. 
 
 D. Y a-t-il eu'des Rois d'Angleterre qui aient t eouronnes Rois 
 de France ? 
 
 R. Oui, Henri Six encore enfant fufcouronne" Roi de France dans 
 Peglise de Notre-Dame de Paris, Pan 1431. 
 
 D. Quels droits avoit-il a la couronne ! 
 
 ft. Son pere avoit e"pous6 Catherine, fille de Charles Six, Roi de 
 France, qui Pavoit reconnu pour h^ritier de sa couronne, au preju- 
 dice du Dauphin. 
 
 D. Henri Sixjouit-il long-temps de la couronne de France? 
 
 JR.Non: le Dauphin connu sous le nomde Charles Sept se fit aussi 
 conronner Roi de France, il soulint son droit, reprit toutes les villea 
 
 3 ue son pere avoit perdues, et chassa Henri Six de son royaume. 
 eanne d'Arc (surnommee laPucelle d'Orleans) fit des choses extra- 
 ordinairesdans cette guerre contre les Anglois. 
 
334 SUR L'HISTOIRE D'ANGLETERRE. 
 
 D. Y a-t-il eu plusieurs pestes en Angleterre ? 
 
 K. Oui, et de trcs-cruelles ; il y eut une peste desastreuse en 1094, 
 uneseconde en 1349, une troisieme en 1407, une quatriemc en 1605, 
 ct la derniere en 1665. 
 
 D. Y a-t-il eu des incendies considerables Londres? 
 
 P. Oui, particulierement deux, le premier arriva en 1132, et brula 
 un trcs-grande partie de Londres; le second en 1666, il y ent. quatre- 
 ving't-neut'^glises et pl^s de treizemiUe maisons dc brCilees. 
 
 D. Nominez-moi deux ou trois epoques considerables de riiistoire 
 d'Anj^leterre ? 
 
 R. Les trois evenemens les plus inleressans sont : 1. La eonquete 
 de PAni^leterre par Guillaume, Due de Normandie. en 1066. 2. La 
 reforme que Luther commen^a en 1517. La revolution que Crom- 
 well etle Parlement ppererent en Ang-leterre,et dans laquefle Charles 
 Premier fiit decapite. 
 
 JD. En quoi consiste 1'autorite des Rois d'Angleterre ? 
 
 R. Us out le pouvoir de faire la paix et la guerre,ils disposent des 
 armees de terre et.de mer, ils peuvent seuls convoquer, proroger, Ou 
 casser le Parlement; lesdecrets passes dans les deux chambres, n'ont 
 pas force de lol sans leur consentement formel : ils donnent les places 
 de 1'etat, disposent des charges de la majristrature et comment a tout 
 les ^vecbes. 
 
 
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