(2)33 
 M58 
 
 'rHB PA81I1EBS euiDE 
 
 AMD 
 
 FIBID COMPAINION 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 ' MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
MANURES, 
 
 THEIR 
 
 COMPOSITION, PREPARATION, 
 
 AND 
 
 ACTION UPON SOILS ; 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 QUANTITIES TO BE APPLIED. 
 
 BEING A FIELD COMPANION FOR THE FARMER. 
 FROM THE FRENCH OF STANDARD AUTHORITIES. 
 
 BY 
 
 CAMPBELL MORFIT. 
 
 PRACTICAL AND ANALYTIC CHEMIST. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 LINDSAY AND BLAKISTON. 
 
 1848. 
 
HnteretJ according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1848, 
 by Lindsay & Blakiston, in the Clerk's Office of the 
 District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Wm. S. Young, Printer. 
 
S6S>3 
 
 AGfilC. 
 LIBRARY 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The purpose of the present work, which is 
 taken, almost entirely, from papers, (by F*** and 
 Mallet,) in the " Dictionnaire des Arts et Manufac- 
 tures," is to present to the Agricultural public, in 
 a familiar and intelligible manner, the methods by 
 which to restore and preserve the fertility of 
 Soils. 
 
 The qualitative and quantitative adaptation of alii 
 the various manures, their composition, relative 
 value, modes of preparation and behaviour, are- 
 fully considered; and the incidental and expressivr- 
 tabular matter with which the Book is further ers- 
 riched, render it emphatically the Farmer's Guidi 
 Book and Field Companion. 
 
 [^364365 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Manures. — Stimulants: — Definition of; Their Sources, Pro- 
 perties, Applicability, and Behaviour; Determination of their 
 Value. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Nitrogen.— Its role in Agriculture,— Its Source. 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 Mineral Mandiies. — Their Saline contents indispensable to 
 the growth of Plants; — Modes of Application to the Soil; — 
 Increase of their Efficacy and Admixture with Nitrogenous 
 Matters; — The Best Manure Defined; — Chaviteau's Artificial 
 Manures;— J auffret's Compost; — Tables of the Analysis of 
 Vegetable Ashes. 
 
 CHAPTER IV, 
 
 NiTROGENODs Manukes.— Bam- Yard Manure,— Its Prepara- 
 tion and Mode of Application;— Analysis of the Normal 
 Manure and its Ashes. 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 EiCEETED Matters. — {Nitrogenous Manures;) Horse 
 Dung, Cattle Dung, Hog Dung, Sheep Dung, Bat Dung, 
 Colombine, Chicken Dung ; — Their Composition and Appli- 
 cability to Soils; — Guano,— Its Analysis, — Proportion per 
 Acre; — Excrements of Fish; — Human Excrements; — Pou- 
 drette; — Their Composition, Preparation, and Modes of Ap- 
 plication: — Faecal Matters, — Disinfection of: — ^'Animalized 
 Black;" — Preparation of: — Flemish Manure, or Gadoue, — 
 Preparation of: — Deodorization of, — Modes of Increasing their 
 Fertilizing Power. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Animal DE^nxs.—(Mtrogenous Manures,-) Flesh, — Blood, 
 — Bones, — Horn Shavings and Chippings, — Fish Ofial, — 
 Glue Maker's Residue, — Cracklings — Woolen Rags, — Sugar 
 Refinery Refuse ; — Their Modes of Treatment, and Applica- 
 tion to the Soil. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 JNiTROGENODS MiNERAL SuBSTANCEs — Marl, — Trez or 
 Tangue, — Soot, — Picardy Ashes ; — Vitriolic Ashes, — Their 
 Composition and Behaviour as Manures. 
 
 CHAPTER VHI. 
 
 EcoBUAGE.— Definition of, and how practised,— Its Object and 
 Effects. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Vegetable Substances. — Green Manures,— How Applied, 
 and Mode of Action: — Sea Weeds, — Reeds, — Ferns, — Heath 
 Box, — Meadow Grass, — Lupine, — Beans, — Vetch, — Rye, 
 —Spurrey,— Buckwheat, — Madia,— Rapeseed. 
 
CONTENTS. ▼!! 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Vegetable Debris. — (Nitrogenous Manures,-) Spit Dung- 
 car Marsh Muck,— Peat,— Barley, Waste or Malt Dust, — 
 Grape Cake,— Cider Cake,— Starch Grains, — Beet Pulp, — 
 Tan, — Torteaux; — How used, and in what Proportions. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Tables of the Comparative Value of Nitrogenous Manures. 
 
 CHAPTER Xir. 
 Mineral Manures. — Amendments or Ameliorators: — 
 Lime, — Marl, — Wood Ashes, — Leeched Ashes, — Peat 
 Ashes, — Coal Ashes, — Alkaline Salts, — Nitrate of Potassa, — 
 Nitrate of Soda,— Common Salt, — Chloride of Calcium, — 
 Sulphate of Soda,— Plaster, — Ammoniacal Salts, — Water, — 
 Gas Lime, — Green Sand. 
 
 Appendix. — Disinfection; — Modes of, and the Results and Be- 
 nefits; — Siret's method, — Suquet, Kraft, and Schattenmann's 
 plan,— Salmon's process, — Derosne and Huguin's process. 
 
M A N U E E S 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The term manure is applicable to all sub- 
 stancesj animalj vegetable or mineral, which can 
 augment or restore the fertility of the soil. In 
 former times the title was limited to matters of 
 organic origin; whilst the name of stimulant 
 was reserved for those saline or alkaline mine- 
 ral substances, that vvere considered as fit only 
 to facilitate the assimilation of the principles 
 which constitute the manures. The well 
 known labours of Boussingault, Payen, Gas- 
 parin, Liebig, &c., have removed this distinc- 
 tion, in proving by numerous analyses, and 
 carefully executed experiments, that the earthy 
 and alkaline salts are as indispensable to the 
 nutrition of plants as nitrogen itself. Hence, 
 the best manure is that which can present to 
 the growing plant, under an assimilable form, 
 not only the nitrogen, but all the other princi- 
 ples which enter into its composition. 
 
( 14 ) 
 We can readily conceive of what great advan- 
 tage it would be to the farmer to know the ex- 
 act composition of the plants, and of the soil 
 which grows them ; and also of the manure de- 
 signed for their nutrition. Chemistry has al- 
 ready partially supplied these desiderata, and 
 its researches are certainly destined to play an 
 important part in agriculture. The utility of 
 such knowledge can be better made evident by 
 some examples. The vine, for instance, al- 
 ways contains a large proportion of tartrate of 
 potassa ; and it is obvious, that if neither the 
 soil or manure can furnish the base in sufficient 
 proportion, the vine will suffer and yield only 
 a meagre harvest; in fact, this happens under 
 many circumstances. Wheat contains phos- 
 phates in such amount, that its ashes frequently 
 yield one-half of their weight of phosphoric 
 acid. Now, the majority of soils contain only 
 traces of phosphates, and therefore it is of the 
 first importance that the manure intended for 
 the nutrition of wheat should hold an adequate 
 proportion. Straw, and the stalks of a great 
 number of plants contain a large proportion 
 of silica; grass or clover require abundance 
 of lime, and some other plants only prosper 
 by the assimilation of soda. These plants, there- 
 
( 15 ) 
 
 fore, must find in the soil, or by default, in the 
 manure, those matters which they prefer. 
 
 The day is, doubtless, rapidly approaching 
 when, aided by chemistry, we can determine 
 the exact amount of substance removed from 
 the soil by the crops, and then, as Liebig says^ 
 the farmer, as in a well organized manufactory^ 
 may keep his set of books in which to record, 
 according to the crops, the nature and exact 
 quantity of the principles necessary to sustain 
 the fertility of each of his fields. 
 
 Substances contributive to the growth of 
 plants are of two kinds: First, those of the or- 
 ganic kingdom, as nitrogen, oxygen, hydro- 
 gen and carbon : Second, those which consti- 
 tute the ashes of the crops, and consisting of 
 earthy and alkaline salts. The first are ab- 
 sorbed partially from the atmosphere; the se- 
 cond, on the contrary, are furnished to the plant 
 only by the soil or manures. Indeed, Bous- 
 singault has proved, by direct experiments, that 
 the organic matter of plants is always harvested 
 in greater proportion than that introduced 
 through the medium of manures; hence, as this 
 result always occurs, the excess must necessa- 
 rily be furnished by the atmosphere. On the 
 next page is the average of the results of some 
 
( 16 ) 
 
 analyses of the products of six different plat.«. 
 containing a large number of plants. 
 
 Dry Crop : 1000 parts. Manure used: 442 parts. 
 
 Com. of the crops. Com. of the manure. Difference. 
 
 Carbon, 46.4. 15.9. 30.5. 
 
 Hydrogen, 54.6. 18.7. 35.9. 
 
 Oxygen, 416.0. 114.0. 302.0. 
 
 Nitrogen, 12.4. 8.8. 3.6. 
 
 Salts, 53.0. 141.7. 88.7. 
 
 ^^ It is to be particularly remarked, that the 
 oxygen, hydrogen and carbon, contained in 
 the crop, form a total much greater than that of 
 the manures; and these results would even in- 
 duce the belief that manures have but a secon- 
 dary importance in furnishing these three bo- 
 dies, if direct experiments had not proved their 
 efficacy in this respect. Happily, the sub- 
 stances supplying these principles to plants are 
 found abundantly in nature. The leaves of 
 trees and of a great number of plants, the roots 
 and stubble of preceding crops, the straw of 
 the gramineals and all vegetable and animal 
 matters in general, contain them plenteously. 
 In a word, the air by its oxygen and carbonic 
 acid; — water by its elements and the gases 
 which it always holds in solution ; and a multi- 
 tude of other substances procurable at low 
 prices, all contribute in supplying to plants the 
 
( 17 ) 
 
 oxygen, hydrogen and the carbon requisite for 
 their existence. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 NITROGEN. 
 
 The preceding table shows that the amount 
 of nitrogen in the crops is also greater than 
 that of the manure, but the difference is less 
 remarkable. The role of this element in agri- 
 culture is most important; and as every thing 
 relating to its mode of action is of great inte- 
 rest, we quote here the opinions of that learned 
 and skilful chemist, Boussingault. 
 
 "I have, I believe, established by my nume- 
 rous analyses, that in extensive cultures, the 
 nitrogen comprised in a succession of crops 
 always exceeds, and frequently in a large pro- 
 portion, that originally existing in the manures 
 consumed in their production. This excess is 
 evidently derived from the atmosphere, and in 
 that case it is more than probable that a portion 
 of it enters the plants in the form of nitrate of 
 ammonia, a nitrate, which according to Lie- 
 big's analyses, is frequently found in rain wa- 
 ter falling during a storm. In that event it 
 must be an electrical phenomenon, that dis- 
 2* 
 
( 18 ) 
 poses the nitrogen of the atmosphere to combine 
 with the plants. But, before speaking deci- 
 sively as to this explanation, it must be ascer- 
 tained whether the nitrate of ammonia can 
 really contribute to the production of the nitro- 
 genous principles met with in all the plants.'' 
 
 More recently Boussingault has added, that 
 "the nitrogen can enter directly into the or- 
 ganism of plants if their green parts are quali- 
 fied for its fixation : it can also be carried into 
 plants by the water (always aerated) which is 
 imbibed by their roots. Indeed, some philo- 
 sophers are of opinion that the atmosphere 
 probably contains an infinitely small quantity 
 of ammoniacal vapours." 
 
 Liebig is of the opinion, that this excess of 
 nitrogen proceeds from the ammonia imbibed 
 by the plants from the atmosphere wherein it 
 is found, but in such minute quantities that the 
 most delicate tests frequently fail to detect its 
 presence. 
 
 The nitrogen of the air is, in most cases, far 
 from sufficient for the complete growth of 
 plants, or at least for the production of an abun- 
 dant harvest. Most agriculturists even believe 
 that many entire families of plants, as the 
 gramineals, are incapable of assimilating it. 
 
( 19 ) 
 
 Nitrogenous matters are rarer and more costly 
 than other organic substances, but at the same 
 time they are of the first importance in their 
 application to agriculture. Nitrogen, then, is 
 the element most desirable in the manure ; or in 
 other words the organic matters most advanta- 
 geous in the production of manure are just 
 those which give birth, by their decomposi- 
 Hon, to the greatest proportion of soluble or 
 volatile nitrogenous bodies; we say, by their 
 decomposition, because the mere presence of 
 nitrogen in a matter of organic origin is not 
 sufficient to characterize it as a manure. Coal, 
 for instance, contains nitrogen in very appre- 
 ciable quantities, and yet it has no ameliorant 
 action upon the soil; for the reason that it re- 
 sists the putrefactive action of the atmospheric 
 agents, which always produces ammoniacal 
 salts and other nitrogenous compounds favour- 
 able to the growth of plants. 
 
 For like reasons the activity of manures is 
 proportional to the rapidity of their decompo- 
 sition. Those which decompose quickly, cease 
 their fertilizing influence after a year, whilst 
 the action of those which decompose slowl}^ 
 is prolonged for several years and more. This 
 duration of action is a matter for serious con- 
 
( 80 ) 
 
 sideration; it depends frequently upon the co- 
 hesion of the substances and their insolubility: 
 the climate and nature of the soil also greatly 
 influence the progress of their decomposition. 
 Convinced of the importance of nitrogen in 
 manures, Payen and Boussingault undertook a 
 series of analyses for the determination of 
 the proportion of this element in the nume- 
 rous matters used as fertilizing agents. 
 
 The results of these labours have enabled 
 them to establish the comparative rank and 
 equivalents of the manures examined. Barn- 
 yard dung, which they consider as the normal 
 manure, is taken as the standard. We will 
 insert the tables further on. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion as to the 
 propriety of this mode of estimating the value 
 of manures; for while all acknowledge that 
 the influence of nitrogen under assimilable 
 forms is never prejudicial to plants, but is al- 
 ways useful, and even indispensable for certain 
 purposes, Liebig contends that the efficacy 
 of manures is not proportional to their amount 
 of nitrogen. In support of this opinion he 
 cites a large number of examples. He believes 
 that the effect of the ammonia presented to the 
 plants, as a source of nitrogen, by artificial 
 
( 31 ) 
 
 means, is limited to the acceleration of the de- 
 velopment of the plants under cultivation; 
 and that there are other circumstances vvhicli 
 have a remarkable influence upon the growth 
 of the crops. We will recur to this very im- 
 portant point vv^hen speaking of mineral ma- 
 nures. 
 
 « 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES. 
 
 Plants invariably contain earthy and al- 
 kaline matters, indispensable to their growth 
 and perfect vitality. A single example is suf- 
 ficient to show the necessity of the presence 
 of certain salts in plants. The bony frame of 
 animals owes its stiffness to the phosphate and 
 carbonate of lime, and these calcareous salts 
 must therefore be furnished by the food ; for 
 all aliments are definitively derived from the 
 vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Another evidence of the utility of salts, is 
 the fact that plants do not indifierently receive 
 those which are conveyed to them, but really 
 exercise a power of preference. This pro- 
 perty and the utility of selected mineral sub- 
 
( 22 ) 
 stances, is well attested by the agricultural ex- 
 periments and conclusive analyses of Bous- 
 singault. Thus, some plants imbibe salt upon 
 the same soil where others take up none or 
 but small quantities. Pellitory, nettle, bo- 
 rage, covetous of nitrates, select them from 
 the soil, while other plants growing by their 
 side contain only traces of them. Wheat 
 upon the same land takes up eight times more 
 phosphoric acid than beets or turnips ; oat and 
 wheat straw contain fifty or sixty times more 
 silica than the oats and wheat themselves. 
 These are only a few of a number of conclu- 
 sive examples that could be cited. On the 
 other hand, it is well known that plaster is fa- 
 vourable to the leguminous plants, and Bous- 
 singault has shown that it produces no effect 
 upon wheat. It is known also that certain 
 plants prefer particular kinds of soil on ac- 
 count of the principles which they contain ; 
 thus the fern, chestnut, and the vine, require 
 salts abundant in potassa. 
 
 These multiplied facts prove, as Gasparin 
 well says, that it is not a definite amount of 
 any one nutritive principle, but the choice of 
 several different ones, which is required for 
 plants. We do not mean to say that the 
 
( 23 ) 
 
 plant does not under certain circumstances 
 take more or less quantity of salts, or that cer- 
 tain salts are not substituted for others; as 
 instance, Soda for potassa, &c., no; but it is 
 certain that when a plant finds in the soil 
 those substances which predominate in its 
 ashes, it prospers much better and yields 
 more abundant harvests. 
 
 The exact analyses of the ashes of plants, 
 must determine which of the mineral manures 
 are most favourable to their growth and exis- 
 tence. Many chemists have been occupied 
 upon these analyses, and we give a synopsis 
 of their labours in tabular form, on page 25. 
 
 In examining the tables, it will be ob- 
 served that there is a striking similarity in 
 the principal results, although the plants 
 analyzed came from soils of different composi- 
 tions. Thus, it is seen that the ashes of clo- 
 ver always contain a considerable proportion 
 of carbonate of lime, and herein is explained 
 the efficacy of plaster or lime in the culture 
 of those plants. The ashes of potatoes, of Je- 
 rusalem artichokes, of kidney and common 
 beans contain fifty per cent, and more of potas- 
 sa; the ashes of wheat give proportionally 
 
( 24 ) 
 
 less, but invariably contain an enormous 
 amount of phosphates. 
 
 These remarkable and uniform results indi- 
 cate therefore what mineral substances are 
 proper accompaniments of the nitrogenous 
 manure, in the culture of the different plants, 
 in order to render them productive. 
 
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 CONTENTS OF 
 ONE HUNDRED PARTS. 
 
 Potassa, 
 
 Phosphate of Potassa, 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, 
 
 Sulphate of Potassa, 
 
 Earthy Phosphates, 
 
 Earthy Carbonates, 
 
 Silica, 
 
 Metallic Oxides, 
 
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 CO CO o !^ w -H ;i-. § °^ S 55 
 
 NATURE OF THE 
 CROPS. 
 
 
 Potatoes, 
 
 Beets, 
 
 Jerusalem artichokes, 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Wheat straw, 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Oat straw, 
 
 Clover, 
 
 Peas, dunged, 
 
 Kidney beans, sound, 
 
 Beans, sound. 
 
 3* 
 
30 ) 
 
 This important question is even at this day 
 too much neglected, and it is more frequently 
 by chance than otherwise, that the alkaline 
 and earthy salts are found in the manures. 
 It is true, as we before said, that nitrogen is 
 an element of valuable consideration in ma- 
 nure; but it is not all-sufficient, for a soil that 
 receives only a purely nitrogenous nutriment 
 will, though thereby excited to vegetation, be 
 soon exhausted of its mineral elements and 
 rapidly rendered sterile. This view is sup- 
 ported by daily experience. Are we not 
 obliged to rotate our crops, or in other words 
 to cultivate different plants alternately upon 
 the same soil, as a bar to its exhaustion of the 
 same mineral substances? ^Do we not, in 
 some localities, leave the ground fallow from 
 time to time, so that a slow decomposition 
 may re-produce the assimilable salts favourable 
 to vegetation? It is very evident that if we 
 restore to the earth, annually, the substances 
 which have been abstracted by the crops, it 
 can produce the same results indefinitely, pro- 
 vided all things are concomitant in other re- 
 spects. 
 
 In calculating the value of nitrogenous ma- 
 nures by their content of nitrogen, the far- 
 
( 31 ) 
 
 mer should also take into consideration their 
 saline components, though these latter have a 
 depreciated worth compared with nitrogen. 
 It is thus that guano and bones, which contain 
 a large quantity of phosphates, should be pre- 
 ferred, their proportions of nitrogen being 
 equal, to other manures the components of 
 which besides nitrogen are inert. 
 
 Those manures which contain but little of 
 mineral matters, as ammoniacal salts, blood, 
 wool, &c., must, previous to their application, 
 be supplied with the elements which are 
 wanting. 
 
 It is very strange that the decisive results, 
 from the use of lime and sulphate of lime in 
 the culture of those plants which absorb a 
 large amount of that earth, Iiave not induced 
 an extension of the experiments to all the 
 salts useful in vegetation. It seems evident, 
 that if its application in excess, upon the sur- 
 face of fields which already contain it, pro- 
 duces good effects in the cultivation of clover, 
 it will be still moreefficacious upon thoselands 
 which have but traces of this salt. 
 
 The best manure therefore is that ivhich 
 will restore to the earth all the sicbstances 
 removed from it by the crops. There is 
 
( 32 ) 
 
 none at present which, in itself, combines all 
 these qualities ; barn yard manure, enclosing 
 nearly all the matters necessary to vegetation, 
 is the nearest to the standard, but still is not 
 always sufficient. Its proportion of phos- 
 phates is limited, and moreover the supply of 
 this manure is not equal to the demand. 
 
 An intelligent manufacturer, Chaviteau, has 
 responded to this want of the farmer, and, fol- 
 lowing out the principles of Boussingault? 
 Pay en, Liebig and Gasparin, has founded, at 
 Paris, an establishment for the manufacture of 
 manures compounded with regard to the soil 
 and the nature of the crops. His manures 
 contain not only sufficient proportions of am- 
 moniacal salts and nitrogenous matters, but 
 also the alkaline salts and earthy phosphates, 
 sulphates and chlorides ; in a word, all the 
 matters beneficial to the diffei^nt crops. 
 There were others, previous to Chaviteau, 
 who prepared the compound manures with 
 more or less success; but unfortunately these 
 preparations, known by different names, rare- 
 ly have an intrinsic value equal with their 
 price. Moreover, through ignorance or un- 
 skilful manipulation, their composition is sel- 
 dom or never uniform. 
 
( 33 ) 
 
 Of all the manures or mixtures compounded 
 for the amelioration of the soil, the most 
 known is that of Jauffret. It consists of 
 shrubbery, stalks, &c., soaked with a ley of 
 dilute animal manures and saline substances. 
 These latter add to the manure the elements 
 which are wanting in the shrubbery, &c. 
 
 The recipe is empirical, but notwithstand- 
 ing its imperfections, it has rendered essential 
 benefits to Provence, a poor country defi- 
 cient in grasses, but growing upon its ex- 
 hausted surface a vast extent of wild plants. 
 
 After these theoretic considerations, we 
 proceed to examine the principal substances 
 used as manures, as to their composition, value 
 and preparation. Firstly, we will treat of 
 the nitrogenous manures ; then follow with 
 those of mineral nature and conclude with the 
 ammoniacal salts. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 NITROGENOUS MANURES. 
 
 Barn yard Manure. We treat of this 
 first, as the chief means of the farmer for 
 maintaining the fertility of his soil. It con- 
 sists generally of an excipient called litter, 
 
( 34 ) 
 because it serves as the bed of the animals^ 
 and this litter is usually straw, stalks, leaves 
 or the like. Those substances possessing the 
 double advantage of absorbing and securing 
 the excrements of the animals^ constitute one 
 of the best manures. It is evident that the 
 value of the uniformly wetted manure is pro- 
 portional to its amount of excrements, for 
 these latter are more nitrogenous than the lit- 
 ter; the best manure is obtained by using the 
 minimum of litter, taking care to remove it 
 as soon as it becomes saturated with the 
 urine. The dung should be removed in a 
 wheelbarrow to a neighbouring department^, 
 stacked as fast as it is produced in the stalls^, 
 and the juices which flowfrom the stalls should 
 be collected in a draining-well located beneath 
 or by the side of the dung-heap ; a wooden 
 grating will prevent the passage of the straw. 
 By means of a pump, the heap can be irrigated 
 with the juic-es of the well as often as the dry- 
 ness of its surfaces requires. The impregna- 
 ted litter should be stacked carefully, and so 
 as to prevent a too active fermentation, vThich 
 will occasion a loss. It is better to keep it 
 sheltered from both sun and rain, and especial- 
 ly from contact with running waters. When 
 
( 35 ) 
 
 the high price of straw compels an economical 
 use of that material, the litter may be washed, 
 and the wash water caught with the urine in 
 the draining-well. The liquid manure thu5 
 obtained is used alone, and is conveyed to 
 the fields in hogsheads. 
 
 The urine of cattle is also occasionally used 
 separately. In Switzerland they add sulphate 
 of lim€(plaster,) or sulphate of iron (copperas,) 
 to transform the volatile carbonate of ammo- 
 nia into sulphate of ammonia, which is a fixed 
 salt. 
 
 It has been frequently questioned whether 
 there is advantage or injury in the appli- 
 cation of dung before or after its fermenta- 
 tion^ but experience having proved that the 
 dung, fresh from the stalls, undergoes the 
 same alteration and generates the same pro- 
 ducts under ground as when left to ferment 
 En the air, the question then is, whether it is 
 beneficial to permit its fermentation in the 
 same soil which it is to manure ? Gazzeri, 
 has shown, by numerous experiments, that 
 the practice of leaving dung to ferment be- 
 fore applying it to the fields, occasions a 
 loss of valuable principles, and hence it is 
 more advantageous to use it fresh from the 
 
( 36 ) 
 
 stable. These fresh excrements, used mode- 
 rately, give no hinderance to vegetation, as is 
 in fact proved in the manuring of land by the 
 folding of sheep and cows whose excrements, 
 in such case, pass directly into the soil. 
 
 Notwithstanding the loss in nitrogenous 
 matters produced by the fermentation of the 
 dung, it is the practice frequently to ferment 
 the juicy portion previous to applying it to 
 the soil. The only advantage of this process 
 13, that it hastens the action of the manure. 
 
 The normal manure of Payen and Bous- 
 singault came from the farm of Bechelbronn 
 belonging to Boussingault. This manure, 
 furnished by thirty horses, thirty horned cat- 
 tle, and twelve to twenty hogs, dried at 230° 
 Fahr. has the following composition : 
 
 Carbon, 
 Hydrogen, 
 Oxygen, 
 Nitrogen, 
 Salts and earth. 
 
 that 
 
 35.8 
 4.2 
 
 25.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 32.2 
 
 In its normal state, 
 ible, it contains — 
 
 Carbon, 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 100.0 
 is, fresh from the 
 
 7.41 
 0.87 
 
( 3- ) 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 5.34 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 0.41 
 
 Salts and earth, 
 
 6.67 
 
 Water, 
 
 79.30 
 
 
 100.00 
 
 The average composition 
 
 of the ashes ac 
 
 cording to Boussingault, is : 
 
 
 Acids — Carbonic, 
 
 2.0 
 
 Pliosphoric, 
 
 3.0 
 
 Sulphuric, 
 
 1.9 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 0.6 
 
 Silica, Sand, Clay, 
 
 66.4 
 
 Linne, 
 
 8.6 
 
 Magnesia, 
 
 3.6 
 
 Oxide of Iron and Alumina 
 
 6.1 
 
 Potassa and Soda, 
 
 7.8 
 
 100.0 
 We now pass to the consideration of the 
 matters excreted by different animals, and 
 shall separately speak of the dung of the horse, 
 cattle and hog as components of barn yard 
 manure, and of which we have as yet only 
 summarily treated. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 EXCRETED MATTERS, (Nitrogcnous Manurcs.) 
 Horse Dung. Although the excrements of 
 the horse are richer in nitrogen than those of 
 4 
 
( 38 ) 
 
 the cow, the latter are preferred by the far- 
 mers as being more serviceable ; for as horse 
 dung is less humid, it ferments and dries ra- 
 pidly if it is not wetted and heaped up so as to 
 prevent the action of the air. During this 
 fermentation, a considerable proportion of ni- 
 trogenous principles are dissipated, and hence 
 a depreciation of the value of the manure. 
 The 2.7 per cent, of nitrogen which the fresh 
 dung actually contains, is by a complete de- 
 composition reduced to one per cent. 
 
 Horse dung is appropriate to all soils ; in a 
 dry state it contains, as we have said, 2.7 per 
 cent, of nitrogen ; when moist, only 0.65 per 
 cent. 
 
 Cattle Dung. This manure is much more 
 aqueous than the preceding, particularly when 
 the cattle are in pasture. Its preparation is 
 very easy. Cow dung in a dry state contains 
 2.6 of nitrogen ; when moist, 0.36, only. 
 
 Hog Dung. Fattened hogs drop very ni- 
 trogenous excrements, which consequently 
 are more energetic than the preceding. In a 
 dry state, their faeces contain 3.4 nitrogen ; 
 when humid, 0.61 only. 
 
 Sheep Dung. A very energetic manure, 
 but slightly aqueous, and frequently used 
 
( 39 ) 
 without any previous preparation. The dung 
 is swept from the pens daily, and heaped into 
 piles whence it is sold, by measure, at from 
 ten to twenty cents per bushel. Generally? 
 it is applied to the fields by folding the sheep 
 in the enclosures. According to Boussin- 
 gault, one sheep can, during the night, ma- 
 nure a surface of about three and a half square 
 feet. 
 
 Bat Dung. The bottom of caves fre- 
 quented by these birds are often covered with 
 their excrements. Their application to the 
 soil produces good results. 
 
 Colombine. The excrements of pigeons 
 are known by the name of Colombine. They 
 are favourable to all crops, but being very 
 energetic must be used prudently. In the de- 
 partment of the Straits of Dover, where there 
 are vast numbers of pigeons, twenty dollars 
 are paid per annum, for the excrements of six 
 or seven hundred, which is a large wagon 
 load. This quantity suffices to manure two 
 and a half acres of surface. 
 
 Chicken dung is also very active, but has a 
 less value than colombine, though much es- 
 teemed in southern localities. 
 
 Guano, Guano is the accumulated excre- 
 
( 40 ) 
 
 ment of multitudes of birds which congregate 
 
 upon a number of small islands in the Pacific 
 
 ocean, the coasts of Peru and Chili. Upon 
 
 some of these islands it is found in deposits 
 
 of sixty to seventy feet in thickness. Being 
 
 an extremely valuable manure, it has become 
 
 an article of commerce, and is imported in 
 
 large quantities for the fertilization of the 
 
 soil. Peru and Chili are indebted to it for 
 
 their fertility. 
 
 Fownes' analysis gave as its composition : 
 
 Oxalate of Ammonia, ^ 
 
 Uric Acid, ? 
 
 Traces of Carbonate of Ammonia, ^ 66.2 
 Organic Matter, -^ 
 
 Phosphate of hme and magnesia, 29.2 
 
 Alkaline phosphates & Chlorides, "> .r. 
 Traces of Sulphate, 3 
 
 100.0 
 Girardin found in guano 18.4 dry uric 
 acid, equal to 6.13 nitrogen, and 13.0 am- 
 monia, equal to 10.73 nitrogen, making in 
 all 16.86 nitrogen. Payen found in a speci- 
 men which he first dried, 15.73 per cent, of 
 nitrogen; in its normal state the sample had 
 only. 13. 95.* Other guanos gave but 6 to 7 
 per cent., and this discrepancy in composition 
 
 * See the " Encyclopedia of Chemistry," for analyses 
 of all the different guanos. 
 
( 41 ) 
 
 is owing either to the sample having been ta- 
 ken from different strata, or else to the trans- 
 formation of the urateof ammonia, of some of 
 them, into carbonate of ammonia, which is 
 very volatile. 
 
 The cost of guano in this country, varies 
 from twenty-five to forty dollars per ton, ac- 
 cording to quality. 
 
 Experiments made in France have deter- 
 mined 250 to 500 lbs., as the proper propor- 
 tion per acre. Like colombine it acts ener- 
 getically, and should therefore be used with 
 discretion. The composition of guano con- 
 firms its origin, and moreover the island, 
 which furnishes it still serves as a refuge for a 
 multitude of birds. According to Humboldt's 
 calculations, even supposing the surface of 
 these islands to be covered with the birds, 
 three centuries would be required to form a 
 layer of excrements of 0.3937 inches in thick- 
 ness, and hence we can only conjecture the 
 length of time consumed in the formation of 
 these vast deposits. 
 
 New deposits of guano have been found 
 upon the coasts of Africa, whence it is ex- 
 ported in large quantities. This guano is 
 less nitrogenous than that from Peru. 
 
( 42 ) 
 
 Excitements of Fish. The deposit formed 
 at the bottom of well stocked fish ponds, is 
 an excellent manure, and according to Gas- 
 parin, produces remarkable results. 
 
 Human Excrements. These constitute 
 one of the most energetic manures. They 
 may be applied fresh from the privies, as 
 Is done around Grenoble, Lyons and Tus- 
 cany. To facilitate their more uniform dis- 
 tribution over the surface of the land, they 
 are thinned with water. In China these fae- 
 cal matters are carefully collected In mains, 
 running the length of the principal streets and 
 distributed into reservoirs, to be diluted with 
 water previous to application to the plants. 
 The Chinese sometimes also knead them with 
 clay to form them Into bricks, which when 
 dried and pulverized are spread over the fields. 
 In Paris the faecal matters are converted into 
 poudrette. 
 
 Poudrette. The ordure of Paris is trans- 
 ported to Montfaucon and emptied Into a 
 graduated series of large reservoirs ; the two 
 most elevated of these cisterns serve alter- 
 nately as the receptacles for the nightly col- 
 lections of the contents of the privies. When 
 one of the basins is full, the more liquid su- 
 
( 43 ) 
 pernatant portion is drawn off into a third cis- 
 tern below; this third basin being filled, its 
 contents, after repose, deposits, as in one of 
 the first two, a part of its suspended solid mat- 
 ter. The more fluid portion of this third ba- 
 sin is led into a fourth. The last waters are 
 conveyed through a sewer into the Seine. 
 The completion of this process leaves only 
 the pasty matters of the faeces, which are 
 then to be removed with drags or shovels 
 and spread upon the hill-sides and stirred 
 and turned until perfectly dry. After five 
 or six days the matter becomes pulverulent, 
 and forms poudrette, which must be piled 
 into heaps and beaten on their surface to 
 prevent the infiltration of rain through the 
 mass. 
 
 In its normal state this manure contains 41.4 
 per cent, water, and 1.56 per cent, nitrogen; in 
 its dry state, the nitrogen, equals 2.67 per cent. 
 Poudrette weighs 55 pounds per bushel, and 
 sells at ^1.50 cts. per 225 pounds. It is used 
 in the proportion of 20 to 30 bushels per acre, 
 and should be applied at the time of ploughing. 
 
 The effects of the poudrette are unfortu- 
 nately not very lasting; sometimes not ex- 
 tending even to the fructification of the cereals. 
 
( 44 ) 
 
 It imparts to grass a great vigour, but at the 
 same time, it is said, a taste repugnant to ani- 
 mals. Boussingault, in his observations, has 
 not verified this assertion. Sahiion succeeded 
 in completely disinfecting fascal matters by 
 mixing them with the carbonaceous product 
 of the calcination, in close vessels, of a calca- 
 reous earth containing organic matters, the 
 nitrogen of which adds itself to that of the 
 manure. It is the '' aiilmalized black.'' On 
 the next page is given the plan of a fur- 
 nace for the preparation of this black. 
 
 Fig. 1. is a vertical cut, fig. 2. a horizontal 
 cut of the furnaces. The same letters in the 
 two indicate the same objects; a, the hearth 
 whereon the combustible is placed, by the ash 
 pan ; c, a bed for the reception of the matter 
 to be calcined ; d, a vent hole establishing the 
 communication between the furnace c c and 
 its lower gallery a a. It is seen, in fig. 1, that 
 the vent hole is in each side of the kiln; e, 
 the gallery under the hearth of the furnace, 
 into which the products of combustion enter 
 in passing out of the furnace, and again heat 
 the hearth by contact; f, the orifice opening 
 through the arch of the furnace, closed 
 by an iron plate, and serving as an inlet for 
 
45 ) 
 
 the substance to be calcined, which latter 
 must first be spread over the top of the furnace 
 to dry ; g, the furnace door, serving for the 
 entrance of a large poker with which to stir 
 the calcining matter ; o, vent hole establishing 
 communication between the galleries; e and 
 h, h, the gallery conveying the products of 
 
46 ) 
 
 the combustion into the chimney; m, ??^, the 
 chimney conducting off the gaseous products 
 of both the combustible and calcined matter ; 
 /, a damper for regulating the draft. 
 
 Flemish Manure. The method usually 
 fallowed in Flanders for the utilization of or- 
 
( 47 ) 
 
 dure, is much more rational and less injurious 
 to health than the manufacture of poudrette. 
 This term of Flemish manure, ov gadoue, 
 (night soil,) is applied to the human excre- 
 ments from privies, prepared in vaulted cis- 
 terns sunk in the ground by the road-sides 
 convenient to the farms. These cisterns, 
 walled with brick and bottomed with stone, 
 are filled during the leisure periods of farm 
 labour, and their contents left to ferment, for 
 some months previous to their being used. 
 The casks should be kept constantly filled. 
 The gadoue is intended principally to accele- 
 rate the growth of oleaginous plants and to- 
 bacco, which derive the most benefit from it. 
 It is used in the liquid form, and is conveyed 
 to the fields in barrels, whence, after being 
 thoroughly stirred, it is dipped in large iron 
 ladles and spread upon the seeds. The seeds 
 are warmed into a rapid developement by the 
 fermentation of this matter, and acquire abun- 
 dant nourishment. Its use is also advanta- 
 geous to young plants, but in the application, 
 to avoid touching the leaves, it should be 
 carefully poured on by a hand-dipper. 
 
 It requires some time to become habituated 
 to the repulsive odour emitted by the night 
 
( 48 ) 
 
 goil ; these emanations, however, are not insa- 
 lubrious. 
 
 Those who use this manure very frequently 
 mix with it the powder of oleaginous seed- 
 cake. These seed residues, by reason of their 
 content of vegetable azotized matter, are 
 themselves a very good manure. 
 
 The reservoirs for the collection of the ga- 
 doue, generally contain 35 square yards of 
 matter, or 25 casks each of from 300 to 400 
 lbs. and costing five cents. 
 
 According to Payen and Boussingault, the 
 Flemish manure contains, in its normal state, 
 0.19 to 0.22 per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 For the modes of rendering faecal matters 
 inodorous, and more powerful in their fertili- 
 zing influence than poudrette, see Appendix. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ANIMAL DEBRIS, (Nitrogcuous Mauures.) 
 The debris of dead animals, and the animal 
 matters from slaughter-houses, are powerful 
 manures ; and when they can be readily and 
 economically procured, arq valuably useful in 
 agriculture. The flesh, skin, horns, hair, ten- 
 don and bone pieces — all are useful. 
 
( 49 ) 
 
 Flesh. The muscular flesh of animals is 
 rarely used as a manure, because, it is of greater 
 vahie for feeding hogs ; but, such as is not 
 used for the latter purpose can be dried after 
 previous boiling, and then powdered, in which 
 state, it is an excellent manure. In its norma! 
 state, it contains more than the half of its 
 weight of water ; dried in the air, it still re- 
 tains S to 9 per cent. Perfectly dried, it has 
 14.25 per cent, of nitrogen. As sold in com- 
 merce, (^5 per 225 lbs.) it contains 13.04 per 
 cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 Blood. The blood of slaughtered animal- 
 is less suitable, for the nutrition of hogs, thai, 
 muscular flesh ; it sometimes even creates 
 disease, and should therefore be preferred for 
 the fertilization of the soil. For this purpose., 
 it must be coagulated by ebullition, and then 
 dried in a furnace. In a liquid state, it is ani 
 improper manure, for its decomposition is so 
 rapid as to dissipate the resultant products^ 
 and thus depreciate its fertilizing effects. Ta 
 obviate this, however, it is only necessary tov 
 dilute the blood largely with water and there- 
 with irrigate the fields ; or it can be soaked 
 into calcined humus, and then spread upon 
 5 
 
( 50 ) 
 
 the soil. According to Payen, blood perfectly 
 dried, contains 17 per cent, of nitrogen; when 
 prepared upon a large scale, it has 14.87 per 
 cent, of nitrogen, and costs two dollars per 
 one hundred pounds. 
 
 Bone. Bones, when freed of greasy mat- 
 ter and crushed between grooved iron rollers, 
 are well fitted for agricultural use. In Eng- 
 land, their consumption is so large that com- 
 panies have been formed for their importation 
 from foreign lands. If the grease is not care- 
 fully removed by boiling, the fat reacts upon 
 the carbonate of lime of the bony net work, 
 forming a soap of lime which resists all at- 
 mospheric influences; and hence an impedi- 
 ment to the fertilizing influence of the bones, 
 especially when they are not finely powdered. 
 Payen has shown, that old whole bones 
 lost, after having been in the earth for 
 four years, but 0.18 of their weight, whereas, 
 when previously boiled, they lose, under the 
 same circumstances, 0.25 to 0.30. But fresh 
 bone-dust, in a dry state, contains 7.58 per ct. 
 of nitrogen. As found in commerce, it con- 
 tains 0.30 water, and 5.30 nitrogen, and sells 
 for ^1 per 100 pounds. 
 
( 51 ) 
 
 Bones are applicable to all soils, and are 
 persistent in their action through four or five 
 years. The scraps, from the bone turners and 
 button makers, are mostly absorbed in the 
 manufacture of animal black. The turnings 
 only are used in agriculture, and for manuring 
 the rich vineyards and olive. On account of 
 its extreme division, its durability does not ex- 
 tend beyond two to four years. 
 
 Boiled bones, which have also been ex- 
 hausted of their gelatin in Papin's digester, 
 are still useful as a manure. These residues, 
 however, act only through one year, and 
 moreover, when thrown into heaps, rapidly 
 ferment and lose a great portion of their ani- 
 mal matter. To preserve them securely, 
 Payen recommends their thorough desiccation 
 and subsequent pulverization. 
 
 Horn Shavings and Clippings. These 
 are also appropriate to all soils. In England, 
 the proportion is thirty bushels per acre. 
 Tendons, hide clippings, hair, feathers, and 
 bone glue residues, are all applicable in the 
 same mode and under the same circumstances 
 as bone and horn turnings. The proper pro- 
 portion per acre can be calculated from their 
 equivalent of nitrogen. 
 
( 52 ) 
 
 Fish. Fish in an incipient state of decay, 
 when dried and powdered, form an excellent 
 manure. Dried herring contain 10.54 per ct. 
 of nitrogen; when moist, only 0.19. Tho- 
 roughly dried Codfish has 10.86 nitrogen. 
 
 Glue maker^s Residue. The residue from 
 the glue kettles consists of tendinous and cu- 
 taneous matters, hair, residue of bones, horn, 
 muscles, calcareous soap and earthy matters. 
 This mixture, when dried, can be preserved 
 for a long time, and having 4 per ct. of nitro- 
 gen, is consequently a good manure. 
 
 Cracklings. The dregs of all kinds of 
 rough suet are termed cracklings. They con- 
 sist chiefly of adipose membranes, still im- 
 pregnated with a little fat, of blood, muscle 
 and bone. Formerly they were used as food 
 for dogs, but they also yield good results as a 
 manure. They contain 11 to 12 per cent, of 
 nitrogen, and reach the market in hard pressed 
 cakes, which must be crushed previous to ap- 
 plication to the soil. 
 
 Woollen JRaors. These are of the richest 
 
 o 
 
 manures. The slow decomposition of the 
 wool renders it potential for six or eight years, 
 and as its proportion of nitrogen is consider- 
 able, it is very convenient for transportation. 
 
( 53 ) 
 Two thousand and five hundred pounds of 
 woollen rags suffice to manure an acre of soil, 
 but unfortunately this valuable agricultural 
 element is only to be had in large cities. 
 England imports it from Sicily for the culture 
 of hops. In Provence it is used for all the 
 crops. The rags should be as finely divided 
 as possible, so as to facilitate their uniform 
 distribution over the surface of the fields. 
 According to Boussingault and Payen, wool- 
 len rags contain 12.28 per cent, water, and 
 the dry matter gives 20.26 of Nitrogen. In 
 Paris these rags cost 50 cts. per 100 pounds, 
 in England i^l.25 cts. per 100 pounds. 
 
 Refuse Animal Black. In the refining of 
 sugars, the melted syrup is mixed with bone 
 black and clarified with blood. The filtered 
 mixture leaves upon the cloth a deposit, which, 
 washed, contains all the charcoal employed, 
 the coagulated blood, a little syrup and some 
 vegetable matters contained in the rough su- 
 gar. Thisproduct, dried, contains nearly 21 
 per ct. of blood, to which is mainly due its fer- 
 tilizing action. In 1824, Payen made known 
 its value as a manure, and since then more 
 than twenty millions of pounds of refuse ani- 
 5* 
 
( 54 ) 
 
 mal black are annually used for the fertiliza- 
 tion of the soil, much of which has even been 
 imported from abroad. The syrup contained 
 in this residue, by its fermentation, generates 
 alcohol and then acetic and lactic acids, which 
 are unfavourable to the development of plants, 
 and hence the use of this residue, imme- 
 diately after its removal from the filters, 
 will prove disadvantageous. If, however, it 
 is left in heaps for a month or two before 
 being applied, the prolonged action of the air 
 transforms the animal matter and generates 
 ammonia, which not only neutralizes the 
 acids resulting from the fermentation of the su- 
 gar, but even imparts an alkaline reaction to 
 the product ; a reaction always favourable to 
 vegetation. Payen found in a quantity of ani- 
 mal black representing two hundred and 
 twenty-five pounds blood, 2.04 per ct. of ni- 
 trogen, but the results given by this manure 
 are greater than could be expected from this 
 proportion. This black costs in Paris from 
 60 to 75 cts. per 100 pounds. 
 
( 55 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 NITROGENOUS MINERAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 There are some mineral substances admix- 
 ed with nitrogenous matters used as manures; 
 for instance, shells, river or swamp muck, 
 and the saltpetre earths of all the provinces. 
 The sea sand used in Brittany is called merl. 
 The merl is a muck filled with shells and ani- 
 mal matters, from which it derives its princi- 
 pal properties. It is found abundantly at the 
 mouth of the river Morlaix, whence it is 
 drawn up by a drag. The roadstead of Brest 
 and the river Quimper, also yield large quan- 
 tities. The harvest of merl is made from Ma}^ 
 fifteenth to October fifteenth in lighters, the 
 contents of each of which (16,000 pounds,) 
 sells for 80 cts. to ^1.00. This manure should 
 be used soon after it is taken from the water, 
 for it rapidly disintegrates in the air and par- 
 tially loses its properties. Merl, by reason of 
 its calcareous matter, is peculiarly fitted for 
 argillaceous soils. According to Payen and 
 Boussingault, the Morlaix merl contains in a 
 dry state, 0.12 per cent, of nitrogen. Fresh 
 from the see, it contains one-half its weight 
 
( 56 ) 
 
 of water, and is used in the proportion of 1260 
 to 2320 pounds per acre. This manure being 
 rapidly decomposed, is consequently of only 
 limited durability. 
 
 * Tangue, the seaside sand, constitutes the 
 soil of the seaside shores in many localities in 
 the vicinity of Morlaix. It should be washed 
 to remove the greater portion of its salt. The 
 little of animal matter which it contains is 
 dissipated, by putrefaction, when too long ex- 
 posed to air. Hence the established distinc- 
 tion between live and dead Tangue; the lat- 
 ter being evidently the least nitrogenous of 
 the two. 
 
 RoscofT's dried Tangue contains 0.14 per 
 ct. of nitrogen, and is applied in the propor- 
 tion of one and a half tons per acre. 
 
 Products of the Combustion of Plants. 
 Soot. Soot is used in large quantities by far- 
 mers, and is a good manure. According to 
 Braconnot, the soot of a wood fire chimney 
 consists of : 
 
 Ulniic Acid, 30.00 
 
 Nitrogenous matter soluble in water, 20.00 
 Insoluble Carbonated matter, 3.9 
 
 Silica, 1.0 
 
 ♦ Tangue, literally sea sand. 
 
( 57 
 
 Carbonate of Lime, 
 
 14.7 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia, 
 
 trace 
 
 Sulphate of Lime, 
 
 5.0 
 
 Ferruginous Phosphate of Lime, 
 
 1.5 
 
 Chloride of Potassium, 
 
 0.4 
 
 Acetate of Lime, 
 
 5.7 
 
 Acetate of Potassa, 
 
 4.1 
 
 Acetate of Magnesia, 
 
 0.5 
 
 Acetate of Iron, 
 
 trace 
 
 Acetate of Ammonia, 
 
 0.2 
 
 Acrid and bitter principle, 
 
 0.5 
 
 Water, 
 
 12.5 
 
 100.0 
 Payen and Bousslngault have found, that 
 the soot of coal contains more nitrogenous 
 matter than that of wood. It is spread over 
 clover and young wheat in the proportion of 
 12 to 15 bushels per acre, and it should only 
 be applied in a calm and rainy season, accord- 
 ing to the recommendation of Mathieu of 
 Dombasle. Soot is used in Flanders for cole- 
 seed, in the proportion of sixty bushels per 
 acre; it is supposed that they preserve the 
 young plants against the attack of insects. Its 
 cost varies from thirty to forty cents per 100 
 pounds. 
 
 Picardy Ashes. These ashes result from 
 the slow and incomplete combustion of the 
 pyritous peats used for the manufacture of 
 alum and sulphate of iron. When the peat is 
 
( 58 ) 
 heaped up it is moist, and in presence of wa- 
 ter the sulphuret which it contains is trans- 
 formed into sulphate. The heat, developed 
 during the oxidation of the iron, gradually in- 
 creasing, hastens the reaction, and finally in- 
 flames the peat, which continues to burn slowly. 
 By this spontaneous combustion, we obtain a 
 gray ash winch serves as an amendment for 
 meadows. The sulphate of lime which it 
 contains, is not the sole cause of its beneficial 
 action upon vegetation, as its influence in this 
 respect, is mainly due to its nitrogenous con- 
 stituents; for analysis show^s that it has half 
 per ct. of nitrogen. Boussingault thinks that 
 sulphate of ammonia is produced during the 
 incineration of pyritous peats. Picardy ashes 
 are sold upon the spot for about three cents 
 per bushel, and they are applied to meadows 
 in the proportion of 4i to 6 bushels per acre. 
 Vitriolic Jlshes. These so called residues, 
 from the manufactories of copperas, are anala- 
 gous to the preceding. Sometimes the leeched 
 pyritous earths are mixed with one-fourth 
 their weight of peat ashes, in which mixture 
 they are applicable to meadows and to sandy 
 soils. These ashes, more nitrogenous than 
 the Picardy, contain 2.72 per ct. of nitrogen. 
 
( 59 ) 
 Below is their analysis by Girardin and Bi- 
 dards : 
 
 Soluble organic matter, 2.7 
 
 Insoluble Humus, 49.8 
 
 Sulphate of proto and per oxides of iron, 1.8 
 Fine sand, 39.0 
 
 Sulphuret and per oxide of iron, 6.7 
 
 CHAPTER Vlir. 
 
 ECOBUAGE. 
 
 Ecobuage is the process of burning the or- 
 ganic matters of a soil upon their own locality, 
 especially when they are poor in nitrogenous 
 principles. This operation transforms the 
 surface of the soil into a porous and carbona- 
 ceous earth, which condenses and retains the 
 ammoniacal vapours disengaged during com- 
 bustion ; it moreover produces alkaline and 
 earthy salts which are indispensable to vege- 
 tation. A too perfect combustion will, as in 
 the preparation of pyritous ashes, cause the 
 dissipation of the organic principles, and con- 
 sequently the manure ceases to be nitrogenous. 
 In America they practise Ecobuage by 
 setting fire to the fields when the grass is 
 dry enough for ignition. Some days after the 
 
( 60 ) 
 
 fire, a new and vigorous vegetation will be ob- 
 served shooting above the soil. Ecobuage 
 can also be accomplished, by removing the 
 uppermost layer of soil containing the organic 
 matters, and forming therewith a kind of fur- 
 nace to which set fire. As the flame makes 
 its way through this mass of earth, roots, 
 turfs, &c., add green turf to close the issues 
 which are formed. Thus may be obtained a 
 slow combustion, which enables a thorough 
 absorption, by the carbonated earthy envelope, 
 of all the gases disengaged during the opera- 
 tion. 
 
 The object of this process (Ecobuage,) is to 
 set at liberty, by a slow decomposition, the 
 principles contained in the vegetable matters, 
 and thus render them available to the soil- 
 In this way we can hasten the circulation of 
 the elements of the plants and present them 
 in a state for immediate assimilation ; whilst 
 the same plants, when left to spontaneous pu- 
 trefaction, decompose but slowly and partially, 
 and produce results inappreciable to any one 
 crop. 
 
( 61 ) 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Green Manures. Under this title, are 
 comprised all the green sprouts of roots and 
 tubercles ; such are the fallen leaves of carrots 
 and potatoes, the leaves of beets and turnips. 
 As these materials are serviceable both as ma- 
 nure and forage, the farmer must determine 
 which of the two uses is most profitable. Ac- 
 cording to Boussingault, these substances are 
 only middling food, but excellent manures. 
 He found that the potato tops from two and a 
 half acres represent 1800 pounds barn yard 
 dung, supposed to be dry ; and that beet 
 leaves from the same extent of surface are 
 equal to more than 5800 pounds of same ma- 
 nure in the same state of dryness. 
 
 Marine plants are a species of green manure 
 which serve for the amelioration of the soil 
 neighbouring to the sea coasts. These strongly 
 nitrogenous plants are applicable directly as 
 they come from the water, or in a semi-dried 
 state, macerated or even partially incinerated. 
 They act as well by their saline constituents 
 6 
 
( 62 ) 
 and hygroscopic properties as by the nitrogen 
 which they contain. Salmon uses then), after 
 having been dried in the sun and powdered, 
 for the disinfection of faecal matters, with 
 which, in a dry state, they form an excellent 
 manure, containing 2.4 per ct. of nitrogen. 
 
 Sea-weeds. In England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, they use, under this title, the different 
 plants of the alga family. The harvest is 
 made from the surface of rocks and at the 
 bottom of the sea with large hoes and rakes. 
 There are certain regulations peculiar to each 
 locality, as to the time and mode of harvest. 
 This manure, rich in salts of soda and potassa, 
 has the great advantage of being entirely ex- 
 empt from injurious seeds. The different fuci, 
 after being drained, have 0.75 of nitrogen; 
 dried in the air, they still retain 0.40. In this 
 state the Fucus saccharinus possesses 1.38 
 per ct. of nitrogen, and the Fucus digitatus 
 0.86 only: completely dried, the first holds 
 2.29, and the second 1.41. The burnt sea- 
 weed contains 0.40 of nitrogen. 
 
 The aquatic plants of fresh waters are also 
 applicable as manure. 
 
 Reeds. Reed is the most used of fresh wa- 
 ter plants. When mowed green it readily 
 
( 63 ) 
 
 decomposes; cut at the time of blossoming; 
 and dried on the place, such as we find it in 
 commercej it still retains 0.20 of water, and 
 0.75 Nitrogen; completely dried, it gives 
 1,10 of its weight ashes and 1.06 78 per ct. 
 Nitrogen. Rendered, by maceration, to the 
 same state of moisture as dung, it contains 
 0.267 Nitrogen. It is used for manuring the 
 base of olive trees, and prolongs its effects 
 through two years. 
 
 Ferjis. Among other plants used for fer- 
 tilizing the soil are the ferns. Their propor- 
 tion of Nitrogen has not been rated, but they 
 contain a notable quantity of potassa which is 
 very advantageous to soils deficient in that 
 alkali. 
 
 Heath. This, like the preceding, is also 
 useful in agriculture. The leaves contain 1.74 
 Nitrogen, but the stems are much poorer and 
 more valuable as fuel than as manure. 
 
 Box. Box, as a manure, is a valuable 
 resource in countries bordering calcareous 
 mountains, upon which it grows abundantly. 
 The leaved branches, after having been trod- 
 den under feet and crushed by horses and 
 wheels, ferment very readily. In the green 
 
( 64 ) 
 
 State they contain 1.17 per ct. Nitrogen, and 
 1.60 water; in the dry state, 2.89 per ct. Ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 In some mountainous countries, the leaved 
 pine twigs are used for the same purpose. 
 
 Meadows. Meadows require to be, from 
 time to time, cleared up, for the nature of the 
 soil sometimes prevents their indefinite preser- 
 vation in a proper state. In a field bearing 
 33,750 lbs. of grass, per 2\ acres, the crop 
 furnishes a manure equal to 1,500 lbs. Nitro- 
 gen for a like surface, and yields three crops 
 of wheat, amounting in all to 205 bushels. 
 
 Lupine. The Lupine used in France, as a 
 green manure, is not sown until March, and 
 must be turned under as soon as it is in flowers. 
 This plant has not been analyzed; but its 
 powerful effects allow the inference that it is 
 very rich in Nitrogen. Lupine seeds, as ana- 
 lyzed by Payen, contain, in a normal state, 
 3.49 Nitrogen, in a dry state, 4.35. This, 
 then, is a rich manure. 
 
 Beans. Bean-stalks, in flower, may be con- 
 sidered as a demi manure; they are used 
 chiefly in fertilizing lands for the growth of 
 hemp. 
 
 Vetch, An expensive green manure. 
 
{ 65 ) 
 
 Hyt. When turned under green, has a 
 slight fertilizing influence, but not equal to its 
 cost. 
 
 Spurrey. Woght's Spurrey is much used, 
 and with good results. If a field is consecu- 
 tivel}^ sown, and turned under green in March? 
 June and August, the effect of these three 
 herbages will equal 2,600 lbs. manure per 
 acre. This plant thrives only in sandy soils 
 and moist climates. 
 
 Buck-wheat. According to Schwartz,Buck- 
 wheat, in Germany, is never turned under 
 until all hopes of a harvest are lost. Its (dry) 
 straw contains 0.54 of Nitrogen, and 0.48 
 after having been further dried in the air. 
 
 Madia Sativa. This plant has been used, 
 as a green manure, by many farmers. Bous- 
 singault and Payen consider, that the resinous 
 exudations, enveloping it, render necessary a 
 maceration previous to its being turned under. 
 The fanes of this plant contain 0.66 per ct. of 
 nitrogen, in a dry state, and after being fur- 
 ther dried in the air 0.53. 
 
 Rape-seed. This, of all other plants, has 
 been, and is the most generally used, as a ma- 
 nure. Its seed has the great advantage of being 
 cheap, and 10 to 15 lbs. suffice to sow an acre* 
 6* 
 
( 66 ) 
 
 The debris of plants, the stubble of the dif- 
 ferent cereals, and the leaves of forest trees are 
 also considered as green manures. The latter, 
 however, should be subjected to fermentation 
 previous to their application to the soil. 
 
 Of all green manures, those furnished by 
 the meadows are the most abundant and least 
 costly. The use of other plants is subordinate 
 to their success, especially as regards their 
 equivalent of Nitrogen. In the majority of 
 cases, it is preferable to cultivate those plants 
 proper for the nutrition of animals; so that the 
 soil may again receive a greater part of the 
 elements, while the other portion gives rise to 
 an animal product of greater value. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 VEGETABLE DEBRIS. 
 
 Spit-dung. The muck formed at the bot- 
 tom of ponds and marshes In calcareous lo- 
 calities, though poor in Nitrogen, is used as a 
 manure. Its large amount of Carbon renders 
 it appropriate to land deficient in that material. 
 The richest mucks, and the most advantageous 
 to agriculture, are those which have not been 
 formed under water. 
 
( 67 ) 
 
 Peat. Peat is very analagous to mould, 
 differing, however, in an absence of matters 
 soluble in water ; nevertheless, when exposed 
 to air and moisture, it generates a certain 
 quantity of soluble alkaline principles, and 
 hence its employment in certain localities as 
 manure. Peat being charged with tannin, 
 vegetable and mineral acids, hydrogenated 
 matters, &c., requires some preparation pre- 
 vious to its application. Used as a litter, in a 
 dry state, it is an economical substitute for 
 straw, and the matters which it absorbs readily 
 neutralize its acids, and augment its value as 
 a manure. It is also used admixed with dung; 
 but is only applied to agriculture when an ex- 
 cessive supply diminishes its value as a fuel. 
 
 We now proceed to speak of the residua of 
 different plants, whose fruits, roots or stems 
 have been treated for the extraction of their 
 juices. 
 
 Barley -waste (Malt-dust). The waste bar- 
 ley which has served for the production of 
 beer, is used, with success, as a manure. 
 Dried upon kiln-beds it equals 2\ times its 
 weight of dung, and takes the name of tou- 
 raillons. In England, they use fifty to sixty 
 bushels per acre, for the culture of wheat. 
 
( 68 ) 
 
 Grape Cake. The pressed residuum of 
 grapes contains a goodly quantity of nitrogen, 
 and being of gradual decomposition, is a very 
 durable manure for vines. Dried in the air, 
 il contains 1.71 to 1.S3 nitrogen; completely 
 dried, 3.31 to 3.56. 
 
 Cider Cake. The residual apple cake, from 
 the cider press, being acid, must be neutralized 
 with lime, before being used as a manure, if 
 the soil for which it is intended is not itself 
 calcareous. By admixture with dung it be- 
 comes neutralized without manipulation. 
 
 Starch Grains. The pulpy mass from the 
 Starch factories,differing slightly in value from 
 that of the potato, is still useful for the nutri- 
 tion of animals, but when the quantity produced 
 exceeds the demands for that purpose, they 
 may be advantageously employed as manure, 
 especially as their preservation is difficultly 
 effiscted. This pulpy matter contains seven- 
 tenths of its weight of water, and 0.526 per 
 ct. of Nitrogen ; when completely dry, the 
 Nitrogen amounts to 1.95. The scum and 
 sediment of the lees of the Starch factories 
 contain 0.005 Nitrogen, nearly equal to the 
 amount in moist farm-yard dung. Daily, the 
 proprietor of a Starch manufactory near Ver- 
 
( 69 ) 
 
 sailles, uses the waste waters of his establish- 
 ment very advantageously. After allowing 
 them to settle, he draws off the supernatant 
 clear portion upon the neighboring fields; and 
 drys the sediment, which forms a manure of 
 half the value of ordinary poudrette. 
 
 Beet Pulp. This residue, of the manufac- 
 ture of Beet sugar, is most generally used as 
 food for cattle. Fresh from the press, its con- 
 tent of nitrogen is 0.378 per ct. ; when dried 
 in the air, 1.14; in vacuo, 1.26. 
 
 The macerated sliced beets, from the sugar 
 process of Mathieu, contain too little nitrogen 
 to pay the expense of their transportation. 
 
 Tan. Leeched Tan, from the leather vats, 
 after being dried and treated with lime, to neu- 
 tralize its residual tannin, can also be used as 
 a manure. 
 
 Torteaux. The oleaginons grains, after the 
 extraction of their oil, leave a residue, known 
 as torteaux. These residua contain nearly all 
 the nitrogenous matter contained in the plant, 
 and, being but slightly moist, form an excel- 
 lent manure, convenient and profitable for 
 transportation. 
 
 The most used are the marcs of olives, cole- 
 seed, madia, flax-seed, arachis, all very rich 
 
( 70 ) 
 
 in Nitrogen. There are also the torteaux of 
 cotton, hemp, camaline seeds, beech nuts and 
 poppy s. The walnut cake is reserved ex- 
 clusively for the nutrition of animals. To 
 render these residua suitable for the soil they 
 must be powdered, and spread upon the bud- 
 ding plants, or turned under the soil by 
 ploughing. As moisture is indispensable to 
 the successful influence of the powdered cake, 
 it should be wetted previous to its application. 
 In England, the proportion is 900 lbs. per 
 acre; the quantity, however, varies with the 
 crops. They are peculiarly adapted to light 
 and sandy soils. 
 
 We conclude our remarks upon Nitrogenous 
 manures with a table of their comparative va- 
 lues. This table is compiled from the labours 
 of the distinguished Savans, Payen and Bous- 
 singault. 
 
 The fifth column of the table is the most 
 useful, as it shows the amount of Nitrogen 
 contained in the dry manure; for it is only in 
 their dry state, that we can make a comparison 
 of manures. 
 
•»-» Qi 
 
 •piranfj 
 
 o^oot>.wxoiitLOMrrj>!:Q — 
 
 
 O lO CO «0 OD Ci CO M Ci •^ t^ •>* C^ lO 
 
 
 r-< I~t C< "-H r-l 
 
 «(» 
 
 
 
 •3 2 
 
 ■^a 
 
 o■<*t^o^.cc^^ooo»o^.oco 
 
 OCiOJiOCOVOCOt^CS-^ipOOO 
 
 W « 
 
 
 .^ ,^ CO CO "«P f-H O CQ lO t>. Sv* ^ 3^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 lo lO u'^ u:) ic lO u'^ 
 
 Quality 
 as to State 
 
 •piUiRJJ 
 
 
 
 ;i x: -■ — CO —. 7* -^ — 
 
 ..ClQ 
 
 §^g;f^S5 8^i22^2S^|5 
 
 
 ^ ^ — 
 
 «"s^ 
 
 pminn 
 
 -HCiO^CS — fOt^WyCOlfSJOX 
 
 ^. t-. -. ^. ^. ^. ^ - ^ <^. ^. ^. *^. t^ 
 
 t§i 
 
 
 odoooo^ooooorMO 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ^ .S ^ 
 
 •Xaa 
 
 030ri<cpeOOOS^OOC002.iOCO 
 c: q lO CO »q 'a; -r cri lO co J^J c^ c: cr. 
 
 
 .-;N^dod»-Hoddoo.-HO 
 
 uajB^ IBOiJoxT 
 
 cocococococorf!>jcoqqoico 
 
 ci d ci r; lO ITS ci C^ c<J — ' ^ t> 30 ci 
 
 
 OCPC51-1 ^^S^l^ ^ 
 
 
 -s ^ 
 
 
 
 
 gg 
 
 
 >-i "^ 
 
 
 
 
 C 8 aT == *" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 II S=-= 2 
 
 M 
 
 , from 
 he Sou 
 
 Alsace, 
 e envin 
 
 Paris, 
 
 <! 
 
 2; 
 
 
 ii i1 «-S - 
 
 
 Farm -yard dung, m 
 Livery stable dung. 
 Dung juice, 
 Fresh Wheat straw 
 Old Wheat straw fr 
 
 Rye straw from A Is 
 
 Oat straw from Alsj 
 Barley straw, 
 Wheat chaff. 
 Pea straw. 
 Millet straw, 
 
 
Equivalent 
 as to State. 
 
 piranu 
 
 QOTrOt>.XlCOQCt>rpWO}COt>.rCOCQ!?J 
 
 Kid 
 
 cot>.inOTOJ"^rroo«scc^(>}ooco<o2 
 
 m 
 
 03 
 
 pinmH 
 
 — CM — — CO'- — !>>'!J«CC(M — OJ— o»-5< 
 
 v^iO 
 
 3^i0CNC0t>.t>.C0^OG5a0Q0»t^§'a'O 
 
 Nitrogen 
 in 100 of 
 Material. 
 
 piumH 
 
 
 u'ti — TT o o ccio cc cr. o uo o — c: o 00 t>. 
 
 d^dd'^r-^-^c^c^,-;_;^'^p^^3vi„' 
 
 -Rxa 
 
 1 
 
 — * d 5* tt' d d 00 «c d t^ rr" ic — d CO d d 
 
 „ " , i^ ,-H 00 l^ t^ -H Ji o CO 1.0 o 
 
 •jajBAV I^iuaosi 
 
 ! 
 
 < 
 
 Buckwheat straw. 
 
 Lentil 
 
 Jerusalem Artichoke stalks. 
 
 Fanes of Madia, after having borne seed, 
 
 " " green manure before seeding, 
 Dry broom, stem and leaves, 
 Fanes of beets, 
 Potato fanes, 
 Carrot, 
 
 Heath leaves dried in the air. 
 Pear leaves, (autumnal), 
 Oak " 
 Poplar « « 
 Beech " 
 
 Acacia « " 
 Box, leaves and branches. 
 Clover roots turned under, dried in the air, 
 
u 
 
 fa s 
 
 pining 
 
 
 •^a 
 
 rH ^ TT TT t>. ^ CCl (^5 00 «3 (M 
 
 .^1 
 
 C3 
 
 pimuH 
 
 LO t>.* iC lO lO O CC O oi 00 O O O <> lO CM* i-^ 
 
 S^ (>} CO r-l .-H ,- CD (M r.^ X) ^ 
 
 1— 1 rr — 
 
 •^o 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 in 100 of 
 Material. 
 
 •piuinu 
 
 coioaoTfaosQiooco--ococDCOT3t3:i-^ 
 00 c; ro ic CO cc o -^ --H lo t^ X — (>) o Tp lo 
 d d -^ o o d o d o d CO o d d d M Tp 
 
 ■Axa 
 
 ■^oc^ottttotp — ioooi>.c^eoi^coci 
 p^ --i of d d d d d d d o 00 d d d TT TT 
 
 •WJB^ IBOIJOM 
 
 CQOClOODCiOt^lOCOOOOOLOO 
 
 d d d Lo CO i-^ d CO* d r-4 00 d ;^* Tji o d o 
 
 COTfrrt^. ■-' CO .-H (TJ (^ C^ ,-1 
 
 NAME, 
 
 Fucus digitatus dried in the air, 
 
 Fucus saccharinus, 
 
 " " fresh from the sea, 
 Sea-weed, incinerated, 
 Oyster shells. 
 
 Dried sea shells from Dunkirk, 
 Mud from the river Morlaix, 
 Muck from the roadstead of Roscoff; 
 Merl, sea sand. 
 Salt fish, 
 
 " washed, pressed and dried in the air, 
 Fir saw-dust, 
 
 Oak saw-dust, 
 
 White grains of Tuscany Lupin, boiled and dried, 
 
 Touraillons of Barley, 
 
11 
 
 piuinfj 
 
 
 *^a 
 
 
 6 
 
 piniau 
 
 iq5ccc;}owcoocoaocoooo-.-H^c^ 
 
 •Xra 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 in 100 of 
 Material. 
 
 piratif] 
 
 1— io<??ccco3^'^;oi— i^coTji^Citortxi 
 
 t>. 0» O CO O lO (>J C^ C^ S^ O lO LO lO lO — lO 
 
 p-^LC-sradoorriccoorreoood^o i 
 
 •iiQ 
 
 ?o o lo ad lo o Tf LO {^J td rr co o o i^i -^ 
 
 1 
 u3;ba\ irano^ 
 
 oj ec o :o r-' o irj d CO o -^ d t>: o CO ci d 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Grape cake (exhausted by pressure). 
 
 Linseed " " 
 
 Colza _ « " 
 
 Aracliis " " 
 
 Madia « 
 
 Camelin " *' 
 
 Hempseed cake (after pressure), 
 
 Poppy 
 
 Beechnut « « 
 
 Walnut " " 
 
 Cottonseed ** " 
 
 Lcca of vegetable oils purified by Poplar savv-dust, 
 
 fish oils 
 Apple cake (from cider) dried in the air. 
 Hop cake, 
 
 Beet pulp, dried in the air, 
 " from the press, 
 

 
 ro CO 1 
 
 a3 
 
 pioinjj 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tj<— ir;— — OJ — 
 
 Xjq 
 
 lO 1 
 
 s^ 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 »0 lO lO OOiO lOO lO 
 
 ^1 
 
 pimnH 
 
 w — ■ -* t>; o Tj: o o (^J t>; c^' o !>' t>: o i>: Lc ?j c 
 
 
 MO^CiXiGO— 'OCOvOXOi^rr-«jriotOC: 
 
 
 
 r-4 C<3 ,— i_(^.CO — — (MLO CiCC 
 
 •Xjq 
 
 OOiO>.0 3<?C^t^TrC<??^--'<3<3<fCO— lOt^l 
 
 CiOO}C^C5Ci--.Ci50 — rrOt^iCO. S (Mr^l 
 
 cs 
 
 
 _^,3, ^ ,-, ^ rH O -- r-i ^ Svj C^.- 
 
 til 
 
 
 i— tC000l>»1O^OjTj<-^lO'-irfCOi-HCOC5C<JiOtoi 
 
 C! o-^ 
 
 piranu 
 
 OvOCOOCOir:)CO"V<3<0-Oi>CO^^^S^QOO 
 
 
 
 dddoo^do66 3<!dd^c^ddc^^ 
 
 
 
 ■C i-^ C3 
 
 . •> 
 
 OLOQOoo---^ooci--o(?ji>aico ot^ 
 
 2.sS 
 
 •^a 
 
 i^CiOJOJOooocoQOiooJOocooasa a ■^•^j 
 
 -^^Cdod-Jr-^'WCOOJC^C^MCCOJCO rjiw 
 
 
 
 LCiOTjtc^oooeocoeot-iTtTtoo^^ ^ lOrf 
 
 •I9)B^ 
 
 pmio^ 
 
 Trcoocidoifioo-^oaiirji-iMd^ ^ oi^ 
 
 
 Oih.Cr-OOO^QOCOOOi>i>t^aO«5'«1' r-irr 
 
 
 
 1 ^.-^ 
 
 
 
 1 il 
 
 
 
 Q .S^ 
 
 
 
 '-« r^ C B 
 
 
 
 OS-- ^ 
 
 
 
 ^ .5-3 J? « 
 
 
 
 1 Jl ? r 
 
 
 
 Oi ^r 3 o ^r 
 
 cl 
 
 
 ^ .2 -Q C -S 1 
 
 •< 
 
 
 Exhausted beets, from tlie suga 
 Potato pulp, 
 Decanted potato juice, 
 Wash waters from starch factor 
 Sediment « « 
 
 Solid excrements of Cows, 
 Urine of Cows, 
 Mixed excrements of Cows, 
 Solid excrements of Horses, 
 Urine from a Horse that drank 
 Mixed excrements of Horses, 
 of Hogs, 
 « of Sheep, 
 " "_ of Goats, 
 Liquid Flemish manure, in its 
 
 Belloni Poudrete, dried in the i 
 Montfaucon Poudrette, 
 

 
 lO CO 
 
 *-» OJ 
 
 
 CO ir; lo uo irt s^ CO 
 
 If 
 
 •piuinH 
 
 c^sor^s^c^coioo-T-ioc^iNoMcoeocoiitics 
 
 
 lOCC«3^^ QQt^^^^C^^ „^ 
 
 « '/2 
 
 
 
 ■3 2 
 
 •XlQ 
 
 lO lO lO lO i^ i^ 
 
 rT'/l 
 
 -Hac3oo'ocii>-^ — adw^co— ■Ttico!>i:: s -^* 
 
 « rt 
 
 
 — ctcst^ wcos^i-'irioa^-H^,^ _H 
 
 _>.| 
 
 •piuinH 
 
 
 — t^i^-H^Ol^rprraOOIC^aOOtCT^COQOJ-J 
 
 
 CN— :riCOCOOOC^CO^X)OOTrXOiOt^O-' 
 
 p 
 
 
 ^ c^, n coco 
 
 
 lOO l^ 
 
 ^i 
 
 •XlQ 
 
 ocod^r>.o?jco — r>.aoo-<TS<OLCiitio— ' 
 
 CO :7J T -0 trj w t^ en -H CO ~ cj c . c^ 
 
 03 
 
 
 ct; — ^„^^rrc-:cox)-<-^Trr-j>t^t^t-ao 
 
 
 
 iOO»Ci'rt<-OOOOOLOCiCiTO'*XllO-H^ 
 
 S"s.^ 
 
 •piuinH 
 
 aoi^oi^co-n;cooTrCi!7JC^c^'>JO — c:)J-^lo 
 
 CO d r-^ 1-^ 1-^ s^ 00 uo LO CO CO ri — ■ CO* co' oi t^" ^* 'r? 
 
 trog 
 100 
 ater 
 
 
 
 •XiQ 
 
 O-^CDOOOCOCNOLOCOX-HCriCOi.OO 
 
 S.sS 
 
 
 K CO* — ■ (>J c^* c^' ci cc t>: 10 CO CO ad CO TT* 10 " '* ^>: 
 
 
 
 -<(?*■ -^ f- .-c r-. ,^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 OCiCOO— _i-i-OtO^COCOr)«iOOiO'^OOiO 
 
 •idl^JA 
 
 [BUUO^ 
 
 ciy3'^c<i'<3«'c^ocJcc-«'n<'^aoi>od--'-^0}co 
 
 
 
 *^ 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 i-- 
 
 
 
 >^-a 
 
 
 
 uJ.S 
 
 
 
 •p\ i 
 
 
 
 a <o V3 c 
 
 
 
 rated urine, 
 urine, amnion iacal, 
 lized black, 1 1 months old, 
 
 " from the fields near P 
 manure, called Dutch manure, mad 
 lized manure plants, from Marseille 
 bronn Colombine, 
 , as imported into England, 
 sifted, 
 
 as imported into France, 
 of Silk worms, 5th period, 
 
 6th " 
 ilis of Silk worms, 
 
 lar flesh dried in the air, 
 ood (soluble), for exportation, 
 blood, from the slaughter houses, 
 
 " from jaded Horses, 
 lated blood, as it comes from the pr 
 
 Ed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vapoi 
 iquid 
 nima 
 
 lack 1 
 nima 
 cchcl 
 uano 
 
 itter 
 
 hrysa 
 aybu 
 uscu 
 ry bl 
 iquid 
 
 oagul 
 
 
 
 H-3<; pq<:pQO ^ oS^QJ 0| 
 
II 
 
 piuinH 
 
 
 •AlQ 
 
 ^*^i^ ^ ^^i2§gg^;:E3=^'lg||| 
 
 ^1 
 
 03 
 
 p|umH 
 
 c: *o Tf< o Tf cc CO C3 in t^ Tj" 00 lo i:t Lti o »»' i>-' 0? 
 -<OJOG^incor:otccccococoTj<c: c;ccx)03 
 t^cob-coo — C5Sc5Tr^t^GO^Tj.i?:cooj — 
 
 •^a 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 In 100 of 
 Material. 
 
 piUIUR 
 
 Tji — j>' o o' o CO ^ ^ CO o td o CO t-I Ti< ,-; p-1 o 
 
 •^ja 
 
 r^ G^ i> o kC cj oi ci r^ 00 i>.* o o lo ^ ^ o --< j 
 
 •jajB^ praio^ 
 
 OT}«icooo'0(NJ>t>.oinc^c;?ooo«30J2 
 ->) CO i>: o ad (>j CO 00 t>; r>.' i> co' oj 00 — c; o o C5 
 
 — UO CO TPCO T5«0»^-^"— ' — < '- 
 
 1 
 
 te; 
 
 Dried blood, insoluble, 
 
 Residue of Prussia blue, 
 
 Bones, dried in the air. 
 
 Moist bones, 
 
 Raw bones, containing 0.10 of fat. 
 
 Residua of bone glue, 
 
 " common glue. 
 Cracklings, 
 Animal black, from sugar refineries, for exportation, 
 
 (Parisian), 
 Scum of the defecation of the sugar house of 
 English black, blood, lime and soot. 
 Feathers, 
 Cow hair. 
 Woollen rags, 
 Horn clippings, 
 Coal soot. 
 Wood soot, 
 Picardy ashes. 
 Dunged peat, dried by heat. 
 
 7* 
 
( 78 ) 
 
 The use of this table will be made evident 
 by a practical example quoted from Boussin- 
 gault's "Economie rurale," vol. 2, p. 149. 
 
 "The pressed oil cakes (marc of oleaginous 
 seeds) are in demand this year, (1842) and it 
 is desirable to know if there is any advantage 
 in their application to the soil for the cultiva- 
 tion of wheat. The inference to be drawn, 
 and it is otherwise the least favourable, is that 
 the wheat abstracts from the soil the whole of 
 its Nitrogen, save that derived from the at- 
 mosphere. In the second place, let us admit 
 that all the Nitrogen of the marc is appropri- 
 ated during the culture. Under certain con- 
 ditions of heat and moisture, these supposi- 
 tions may be realized. In either case, the ac- 
 tive matter left in the soil exerts its influence 
 in the sequent years." 
 
 " Observe now the principles of the ques- 
 tion : 
 
 1. As an average, the amount of Nitrogen 
 in the Becihelbronn wheat is 0.025. 
 
 2. In the straw of 1S41, there is 0.003 Ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 3. The marc of Cameline, the use of which 
 is proposed, contains 0.055. Its actual price 
 (in powder) is 70 cts. per 100 pounds. 
 
( 79 ) 
 
 4. The ratio of the weight of grain to that 
 of the straw is :: 47 : 100. 
 
 An hectolitre (3 3-10 bushels,) weighs 175 
 pounds. Its average price is $3.50. 
 
 The price of straw per 100 pounds is about 
 25 cents. 
 
 A sheaf of 100 Kilogrammes (225 pounds,) 
 is composed of 
 
 Grain, 32 Kilogs, ( 72 lbs.) containmg of 
 
 nitrogen, 0^.800 (1.8 lbs.) of value $1,15 
 Straw, 68 « (153 lbs.) « .189 (0.42 lbs.) « 0,41 
 
 Total of nitrogen, (2.22 lbs. ) $ 1 ,56 
 
 Ok.959 (2.22 lbs.) are found in the cameline cake, value 29 
 
 Difference $1,27 
 
 Thus 18 Kilogrammes (40 lbs.) of marc be- 
 coming a sheaf of wheat, is augmented in 
 proper value, 6 fr. 36 c. (^1.27.) But sup- 
 posing that we realize but one half or even a 
 third of the amount indicated by theory, it 
 is still evident that the application of the seed 
 cake or marc should be tried, and that nothing 
 should be neglected to ensure its success as a 
 manure.^' 
 
( 80 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 mineral manures or amendments, 
 (ameliorators.) 
 
 Practice has preceded science in the appli- 
 cation of mineral manures, for we know not 
 yet, clearly, what is their mode of action, and 
 hence the necessity of a careful study of the 
 subject. 
 
 Lime. Lime is used as a manure, both in 
 a caustic state and as carbonate. Magnesian 
 lime is injurious to vegetation, and its use 
 should be avoided. Caustic or calcined lime 
 is an useful ameliorator, especially in the cul- 
 ture of the cereals. Its application to calca- 
 reous lands is superfluous. Quick lime, says 
 Liebig, acts apparently in rendering the 
 earthy substances assimilable by the plants. 
 
 In the vicinity of Dunkirk they use fort}^ 
 five bushels per acre, and the effect of this 
 proportion is perceptible for 10 or 12 years. 
 The quantity recommended by Puvis (4 
 bushels per acre, annually^ is more than 
 sufficient. 
 
 Though the lime, applied to the soil while 
 
( 81 ) 
 caustic, readily becomes carbonated under 
 the influence of the carbonic acid of the atmos- 
 phere and of the moisture of the soil, it is bet- 
 ter to hasten this neutralization (in order to 
 preserve the plants from the action of the 
 caustic lime,) by distributing it over the sur- 
 face as uniformly as possible. 
 
 Marl. Marl owes its power as a manure 
 to its calcareous matter, and marling therefore 
 isanalagous to liming. Argillaceous marl acts 
 by reason of both its lime and clay, and hence 
 is very appropriate for sandy soils where the 
 clay, it contains, acts mechanically. Very 
 probably, marl may also operate as a nitroge- 
 nous manure, as Payen and Boussingault have 
 found organic matter in many marly sub- 
 stances. 
 
 As the plants remove the lime from the 
 soil, it is evident that the action of one marl- 
 ing is not illimitable. Three and a half bush- 
 els are the usual proportion, and, by compa- 
 ring its composition with that of the plants^ 
 it will be readily seen that this amount is suf- 
 ficient 
 
 Wood ashes. Notwithstanding the good 
 efifects of this manure, it is but little used in 
 agriculture, because of its great value as mate- 
 
{ 82 ) 
 rial for the extraction of potassa. In England, 
 ashes are preferred for gravelly soils, and ap- 
 plied every spring in the proportion of forty 
 bushels per acre. 
 
 Leeched ashes. The refuse ashes from the 
 ley vats of soap factories yet retain, besides 
 the soluble salts which escaped lixiviation, 
 carbonate of lime resulting from the caustifi- 
 cation of the carbonate of potassa and insolu- 
 ble salts, such as the phosphates, sulphates 
 and carbonates, with a little silica. In the 
 proportion of 60 to 80 bushels per acre, they 
 extend their fertilizing eJQfects through ten 
 years. 
 
 Peat ashes. These ashes are of advanta- 
 geous application in agriculture. They con- 
 tain lime, sulphate of lime, alkaline chloride, 
 carbonates and sulphates, gelatinous silex and 
 calcined clay. Their precise composition, 
 however, varies with that of the peat, and 
 consequently they are not always uniform in 
 their effects. Generally, they are an excellent 
 substitute for plaster. The ashfes of the pyri- 
 tous turfs contain sulphate of iron generated 
 by the action of the atmosphere upon its sul- 
 phuret, and hence are injurious to vegetation. 
 Good ashes are white and light, and, in a dry 
 
( 83 ) 
 
 State, are not of greater weight than forty- 
 pounds per bushel. The proportion per acre 
 is eleven bushels. 
 
 Coal a^hes. Excepting that the quantity 
 of alkaline salts are in less proportion, the 
 coal ashes are similar, in mineral constitution, 
 to those of peat. They are suitable for argil- 
 laceous soils, the tenacity of which they di- 
 minish. 
 
 Alkaline salts, as has been confirmed, are 
 favourable to vegetation ; and certain crops 
 even require a special alkali. 
 
 Nitrate of Potassa. Salt-petre in small 
 quantities acts very energetically, and is espe- 
 cially beneficial to the cereals, the leguminous, 
 and to buckwheat. The high price limits its 
 use, but it can be very well replaced by the 
 cubic Nitre, (Nitrate of soda,) which comes 
 from Peru and is sold much cheaper. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda, {Cubic Nitre.) To ren- 
 der its efiects certain, it should be mixed with 
 an organic manure. The proportion is 112 
 pounds per acre, and to insure success the 
 soil must also be treated with a nitrogenous 
 manure. 
 
 Common salt. Salt promotes the growth 
 of barley, wheat, luzern and flaxseed, and 
 
( 84 ) 
 
 should be applied to the amount of 150 to 300 
 pounds per acre. Chloride of Calcium and 
 Sulphate of Soda, used in small quantities, 
 afford similar results. 
 
 Plaster. Sulphate of lime (Gypsum,) is 
 one of the most useful mineral manures. It 
 is specially adapted to artificial meadows of 
 clover, lucern and fcenugreck. Upon the ce- 
 reals it has no effect, and but little more upon 
 the hoed crops and natural meadows. It 
 should be powdered and spread in the spring, 
 when the crops have acquired a certain growth, 
 and during the morning, so that it may adhere 
 to the leaves whilst still wet with dew. Raw 
 plaster is as good as the calcined, though the 
 latter has the advantage of being more easily 
 powdered. The pro])ortion, per acre, is 200 
 to 2000 pounds. Plaster is absorbed by the 
 plants especially those of rapid growth, and 
 it is presumed that its beneficial action results 
 from the lime which it furnishes to the soil. 
 
 Ammoiiiacal Salts. Schattenman ha? 
 found, that solutions of ammoniacal salts of 
 one degree strength, (Baume's hydrometer,; 
 and in the proportion of one and half gallons 
 to 10 square feet of surface, afford very satis- 
 factory results upon meadow, wheat, oat and 
 
{ 85 ) 
 barley fields. These solutions have no effect 
 upon lucerii and clover, but are beneficial to 
 the natural meadows, when distributed over 
 as soon as vegetation becomes active. Thus, 
 for example, Schattenman harvested from 
 120 square yards of high and dry meadow, 
 irrigated in proportion as above mentioned, 
 two hundred pounds of grass, while the same 
 extent of untreated land, by the side of the 
 ammoniated plat, gave only 115 pounds. 
 
 Tolly has observed, that the hydrosulphate 
 of ammonia, diluted with water, promotes the 
 growth of pot-herbs. Yet notwithstanding 
 these positive experiments of the above Sa- 
 vans, Bouchardat declares that ammoniacal 
 salts even in very weak liquor are prejudicial 
 to vegetation. 
 
 According to some experiments of Bous- 
 singault, it appears, that ammoniacal salts 
 convey Nitrogen to the plants, though they 
 enter as carbonate; the sulphate, muriate, 
 and other salts of ammonia being decomposed 
 by the carbonate of lime put within the soil; 
 as it is well known, whenever there is a 
 junction of two salts in powders, in presence 
 of the exact quantity of water necessary to 
 their reaction without dissolving the products, 
 8 
 
( 86 ) 
 
 the volatile compound of those that are formed 
 is disengaged. It is this reaction which takes 
 place in the soil. The contrary behaviour is 
 exemplified, by pouring together solutions of 
 sulphate of lime and carbonate of ammonia ; 
 double decomposition ensues, and the in- 
 soluble carbonate of lime is formed and pre- 
 cipitates. 
 
 Water. Water is indispensable to the ex- 
 istence of plants. It acts both in facilitating 
 the reactions occurring in the soil, and as an 
 organic and mineral manure. The rain which 
 falls during a storm contains, as Liebig has 
 proved, nitrate of lime and ammonia. Ordi- 
 nary rain contains but little more than traces 
 of common salt, though in both instances it 
 carries down all the organic matters which it 
 meets, as dusty particles, suspended in the 
 air. 
 
 River water, and spring or fountain water, 
 are both used for irrigation, but the two latter 
 contain much larger quantities of saline mat- 
 ters. These salts, very variable in their na- 
 ture, are derived from the soil over whicl. 
 these waters flow. 
 
 That water which is richest in alkaline salts 
 is most preferable for the irrigation of lands. 
 
( 87 ) 
 
 and also for the watering of cattle, provided 
 it does not contain enough to impair its pota- 
 bility. 
 
 Boussingault found that the waters, used for 
 watering the cattle atBechelbronn, introduced, 
 annually, into the dung more than two hun- 
 dred pounds of alkaline salts. 
 
 Note. — There is an omission in the preceding Chapter, of 
 two important fertilizing agents, Gas Lime and Green Sand. 
 
 Gas Lime. The refuse lime from the Gas Works, though 
 containing much Sulphuretted Salt, is rich in uncombined lime, 
 and consetiuently is an effectual manure when used judiciously. 
 When spread upon the soil it becomes decomposed, and gra- 
 dually trzinsformed into sulphate of lime, (gypsum). It is said 
 to be an excellent addition to land, technically termed, "clover 
 tired ;" and, also a good preventive of noxious grubs and in- 
 sects. Care must be taken in applying it to the land to prevent 
 immediate contact with the seed 
 
 Green Sand. This Manure, now largely used in Agricul- 
 ture, produces a remarkable effect upon crops, which is due to 
 its content of potassa, lime and phosphates. The proportion per 
 acre varies from 30 to 300 bushels. For full particulars, see 
 " Encyclopaedia of Chemistry, ^^ and " Booth's Report upon 
 The Geology of Delaware." 
 
( 89 ) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 DISINFECTION. 
 
 In order to permanently deodorize the fae- 
 cal matters and urines, it is necessary to pre- 
 vent their putrefaction, by incorporating them 
 with substances which will neutralize or ab- 
 sorb the volatile and odorant products of de- 
 composition, as fast as they may be generated. 
 
 In urine there are small quantities of lac- 
 tate, urate and phosphate of ammonia, a lar- 
 ger proportion of urea, some sulphur (accord- 
 ing to Proust,) and undefined animal matters. 
 The faecal matters consist chiefly of vegetable 
 and animal debris, in which there is necessa- 
 rily an appreciable quantity of sulphur. Now, 
 urine decomposes at a moderate temperature, 
 and is transformed into carbonate of ammo- 
 nia; the sulphur seizes upon the H3^drogen 
 of the organic matters in a state of decay, and 
 forms sulphuretted hydrogen. It is therefore 
 the Hydrosulphate and carbonate of ammonia 
 
( 90 ) 
 which chiefly constitute the fetid gasesarising 
 from privies. 
 
 To absorb and neutralize these vapors, re- 
 course must be had to neutral or only slightly 
 acid metallic salts, of which, the cheapest and 
 most abundant is the sulphate of the protoxide 
 of iron or common green vitriol of the shops. 
 (If it should be too acid, neutrality can be 
 readily obtained, by adding, to the solution of 
 the salt, a little quick or slacked lime in pow- 
 der.) In fact a double decomposition ensues, 
 producing sulphate of ammonia and sulphuret 
 and carbonate of iron. A certain proportion 
 of plaster (sulphate of lime,) may be added to 
 the sulphate of iron ; it decomposes the car- 
 bonate of ammonia more readily and com- 
 pletely than the hydrosulphate ; a little char- 
 coal dust is also an useful addition for the ab- 
 sorption of the other peculiar odors (inde- 
 pendent of the volatile ammoniacal salts,) 
 which are emitted. 
 
 This mixture can be applied to the sinks, 
 either in dry powder or thinned with water. 
 Perhaps it is preferable to use it in solution, 
 the soluble portion by all means, for more or 
 less of the powder reaches the bottom of the 
 sink before being dissolved, and hence a par- 
 
( 91 ) 
 tial loss of its efficacy. In dwellings of seve- 
 ral stories, it will be well to introduce the 
 dissolved or thinned substances, through the 
 opening in the conduit-pipe of the upper 
 story, so that the preservative may act upon 
 the matters remaining in the pipe, and by 
 the decomposition of which-, offensive vapors 
 would be generated. 
 
 The efficacy of sulphate of iron, as a disin- 
 fectant of urine and faecal matters, has been 
 shown by Mallet in the following experi- 
 ment. 
 
 On the 2d of October, 1844, he added to 
 the urine, of eighteen hours, at most, from 
 different individuals^ -^^th of a solution of sul- 
 phate of iron, making 27^ by Baume^s hydro- 
 meter, and left the mixture in a room of tem- 
 perature from 55'^ to 60° F. Upon the 11th 
 of December, the mixture emitted no odor, 
 whilst the same urine, alone and untreated, 
 under the same circumstances, exhaled in six 
 days an insupportable stench. 
 
 The transformation of theureainto carbon- 
 ate of ammonia had taken place, for the mix- 
 ture, upon the addition of quick lime, in the 
 cold, gave a strong smell of ammonia. 
 
 By reference to the proceedings of the 
 
( 92 ) 
 
 academy of arts and sciences, at Digon, for 
 1767, it will be seen that sulphate of iron was 
 known and recommended as an antiseptic, 
 long anterior to the present time. Knowing, 
 therefore, the means, it becomes necessary to 
 have a knowledge also of the methods of dis- 
 infection, and so we proceed to speak of those 
 most applicable to the purpose. 
 
 Siret of Meaux was the pioneer in this im- 
 portant work, so full of interest and profit to 
 the public. His experiments were under the 
 authority of Payen, Boussingault and Gas- 
 parin, a committee of the French academy of 
 sciences. According to Siret's successful re- 
 sults, 15 to IS grammes (4 to 5 drams,) of 
 his powder (consisting of sulphate of iron? 
 lime, pit coal, pitch, charcoal and quick lime,) 
 are sufficient to disinfect and prevent the pu- 
 trefaction of the daily amount of excrements 
 of each individual. *The per diem expense 
 of this disinfecting powder is an § centime,and 
 the success of its application is dependent 
 upon the regularity with which the prescribed 
 
 * The solid and liquid excrements of a man equal daily 
 27 ounces, or about 620 pounds annually, and they contain 3 
 per cent of Nitrogen. 
 
( 93 ) 
 
 quantity is each day introduced into the privy 
 well. 
 
 Suquet, Kraft and Schattenmann, (Direc- 
 tors of the mines at Bouxvillers,) have con- 
 tributed much valuable information, but this 
 mode, permanent and preventive, is so far 
 preferable to disinfecting at the time of clear- 
 ing the wells, that it entirely dissipates the 
 repulsive and disagreeable odor which so fre- 
 quently infects the apartments of a dwelling ; 
 and furthermore, also, because of the difficulty 
 in perfecting the disinfection at the time of 
 emptying, for in stirring the materials, the 
 deposition of the solid portions of the matter 
 in a compact mass presents an impediment to 
 their thorough incorporation. Still, however, 
 disinfection at the moment of clearing is not 
 impracticable. When you operate at the time 
 of emptying the sinks, the sulphate of iron 
 must be perfectly neutral, for the excess of 
 acid in the green vitriol of commerce suf- 
 fices to generate hydrosulphuric and carbonic 
 acids by the decomposition of the hydrosul- 
 phate and carbonate of ammonia. The hy- 
 drosulphuric acid gas is however the most de- 
 leterious of the disengaged gases. 
 
 Faecal matters are not uniform in their 
 
( 94 ) 
 
 richness in ammonia, and therefore the pro- 
 portion of sulphate of iron must vary with the 
 proportion of ammonia ; generally speaking, 
 however, according to Schattenmann, 5 to 7 
 ] bs. suffice to saturate 25 gallons putrid matters. 
 The period of saturation can be readily ascer- 
 tained by adding a drop of the solution of red 
 prussiate of potassa to one of the liquor; as 
 soon as there is an excess of copperas, (iron 
 salt,) Prussian blue is formed, and this is a 
 certain sign that the jnatters are saturated, 
 and that there is an excess of sulphate of iron. 
 
 The disinfecting liquor is poured into the 
 privy wells through the openings, by which 
 they are emptied, and well incorporated by 
 thorough stirring. 
 
 Schattenmann very properly recommends 
 that neither vegetable debris, or meat, or fish 
 be thrown into the sinks, as their putrefaction 
 generates a peculiar infectious odor difficultly 
 neutralized by metallic salts. 
 
 The disinfection of privy wells by sulphate 
 of iron or other metallic salts, has the double 
 advantage of contributing to the public health, 
 and of securing to their contents, all its value 
 and force as a manure by reason of the ammo- 
 nia which it contains. In fact, the ammonia- 
 
( 95 ) 
 
 cal salts contained in the faecal juices are very 
 volatile, and readily vaporizable, either when 
 the liquors are spread upon the soil as manure, 
 or when kept in loosely closed reservoirs be- 
 fore being used. The sulphate of ammonia, 
 on the contrary, is fixed, and hence the ma- 
 nure is, without exaggeration, not only aug- 
 mented in value but rendered so that it can 
 be preserved indefinitely. 
 
 Human excrements, urine and solid matters, 
 by reason of the variety of salts, and especi- 
 ally of the ammonia and other nitrogenous sub- 
 stances, as also the phosphates which they con- 
 tain, are an abundant source of manure, merit- 
 ing more attention than has yet been given. 
 In many countries they experience the bene- 
 fits of its use but partially, because of their 
 neglect to fix the volatile ammoniacal salts ; 
 in others they discard the use of urines alto- 
 gether, and let them flow to waste as so much 
 useless material ; whilst in some places again, 
 they neglect the urines and solid matters and 
 pay no attention to their collection. This in- 
 difference, especially in large cities, deserves 
 to be seriously censured. In Paris they use 
 about one-third of the urines for the manufac- 
 ture of sulphate of ammonia; the other two- 
 
( 96 ) 
 thirds after having remained at least a year 
 in the reservoirs, are run off into the Seine. 
 
 We have said that the excrements of a man 
 for one year contain about 20 pounds of Ni- 
 trogen, a sufficient quantity, says Boussin- 
 gault, for the growth of 900 pounds of wheat, 
 rye oroats, or for 1000 pounds of barley. That 
 is to say, these excrements can fertilize a field 
 of 250 square yards, with an assurance of an 
 abundant crop. 
 
 The utilization of the total product of hu- 
 man excrements, of wood and peat ashes, of 
 vegetable and animal matters, would wholly 
 or at least partially supersede the use of barn 
 yard dung. This result would enable the far- 
 mer to dispense with a portion of cattle in 
 those localities where forage is scarce, or the 
 soil is more profitable for the growth of food 
 for a numerous population. 
 
 Schattenmann has very properly insisted 
 upon the value of the phosphates contained 
 in the human excrements, for they certainly 
 play a most important part in vegetation. 
 
 According to Schattenmann, an half gallon 
 of matters, disinfected and saturated with sul- 
 phate of iron, making 2° Baume's hydrome- 
 ter suffice to manure 3h square feet of mea- 
 
( 97 ) 
 
 dow, and a quart only, for the same'surface of 
 wheat, barley or oats. A greater quantity 
 upon cereals renders their growth too vigo- 
 rous, and increases the amount of straw at the 
 expense of the grain. 
 
 Faecal matters are of no benefit to clover 
 or lucern, but upon hemp, tobacco, flaxseed 
 and pot-herbs, they are an advantageous ma- 
 nure. 
 
 The disinfected urines are also available in 
 the manufacture of ammoniacal products. By 
 treating them with quick lime, and heating 
 the mixture, the ammonia is eliminated. 
 
 There are other processes for the disinfec- 
 tion of faecal matters which have been proven 
 more or less successful. 
 
 In 1835, Salmon suggested the application 
 of charcoal dust to the cleanings of the privy 
 wells as serviceable, particularly, in the disin- 
 fection of the solid portions. Before giving 
 the process, let us premise that previous to 
 this time Salmon had already manufactured a 
 disinfecting powder by the calcination, in 
 cast iron cylinders, of river and pond mud 
 or mire, which generally contain organic mat- 
 ters enough to form a highly absorbent disin- 
 9 
 
( 98 ) 
 fectant powder. All similar matters, contain- 
 ing carbon and organic matters, such as the 
 debris of peat, wood, saw-dust, tan and the 
 like, are perhaps equally appropriate to this 
 purpose. 
 
 A mixture of an argillaceous earth, with a 
 tenth of its weight of some organic matter, 
 faecal matters for instance, after being calcined 
 and crushed between channelled rollers and 
 bolted, is a very suitable disinfectant. 
 
 Salmon used this powder with success in 
 disinfecting the faecal matters of privies, 
 which by admixture therewith became pul- 
 verulent, and consequently of easy removal. 
 The proportions are 25 gallons of powder 
 to 25 gallons of faecal matters. As soon as 
 the incorporation is completed, all disagreea- 
 ble odor disappears and the organic matter is 
 transformed into a very energetic manure, 
 and with the great advantage of being nearly 
 dry, pulverulent and of easy transportation. 
 This process was not applied by the inventor 
 to the disinfection of the faecal juices. 
 
 Derosnes's process of disinfection consists in 
 the immediate separation, in the sinks, of the 
 solid from the liquid portion ; in adding, at 
 each visit to the privy, a disinfecting powder 
 
( 99 ) 
 analagous to that of Salmon's, and also in pre- 
 venting the putrefaction of the urines, by ad- 
 ding a solution of chloride of lime or very di- 
 lute sulphuric acid. The faecal matters thus 
 disinfected were then treated and rendered 
 into proper manure. 
 
 We must yet mention the process of Hu- 
 guin and Co. Their system is to separate 
 the solid from the liquid portion by suitable 
 apparatus and to disinfect the first and secure 
 the latter against putrefaction. The separa- 
 ting apparatus consists of two cylinders, the 
 diameters of which differ an inch or two. 
 One is placed in the other ; the interior cy- 
 linder being cullendered at the bottom and 
 throughout its circumference, retains the solid 
 matters, whilst the liquid portion drains 
 through the holes into the space between the 
 cylinders, and collects at the bottom of the 
 exterior vessel, whence itis conducted through 
 a galvanized iron conduit, into a reservoir. 
 
 The pipe through which the excrements 
 enter, is fitted to the inner cylinder by 
 means of a coupling screw, and is removed 
 when the apparatus is about to be emptied. 
 The reservoir which receives the faecal juices 
 is of oak wood, lead lined, or if more conve- 
 
( 100 ) 
 
 nient, of stone. It is emptied by means of a 
 portable double acting pump, to which is fit- 
 ted a pipe for conveying the juices to a cask 
 fixed upon a cart for transportation. In the 
 covers of the reservoir is a man-hole which is 
 covered by an iron lid and fastened by an iron 
 bar and padlock. Previous to removing the 
 juices from the reservoir (the capacity of 
 which is generally about six hundred gallons,) 
 add in, forthwith, the disinfecting liquor, for 
 instance, sulphate of iron, and stir for some 
 time until its incorporation is completed. The 
 juices are then drawn oflf through the same 
 hole as above, by means of a pump which will 
 remove about five hundred gallons per hour. 
 The solid matters are converted into poudrette 
 by admixture, either with a secret powder 
 of H. & Co., or else with that of Salmon, 
 which dries and disinfects them simulta- 
 neously. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
 CDE73E0l3t,b 
 
iiiil 
 
 m