f ^^^ LIBRARY OF THE University of California. RECEIVED BY EXCHANGE Class - THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES BY G. W. A. LUCKEY SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCIOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE Faculty of Philosophy CoLUMBU University UNIVERSITY NEV^/^ VORK January, 1003 u^^» n'ii V z '' OF THE "" UNIVERSITY or PREFACE. In the earliest civilization of a people there are no schools, and no conscious teaching. Such intelligence as exists is of the most rudimentary character, narrowly experiential, do- mestic, phenomenal, superstitious. It is Hkewise as limited in quantity as it is primitive in quality. There is less differ- ence between the knowledge of the adult and that of the child, or between the wise and the ignorant, than in higher civilization. Nature and experience are the only teachers, followed by parental guidance and the processes of uncon- scious imitation. This stage is followed by another, in which the family represents the school and the parents represent the teachers. But as society grows more complex, and knowledge and ex- perience accumulate, special teachers become an essential factor in the community life. In the differentiation of activi- ties the best informed usually become the teachers. These differ in qualification and training according to the conditions of the environment, the stage of civilization and the racial and religious ideals of the people. The subjects of study in primitive systems are usually quite simple, depending largely upon simple processes of memory and consisting of folk-lore, tales and songs of heroes and of war, traditions, racial history, religious beliefs and ceremonies, social and political duties. The teaching is correspondingly simple. But with the beginning of written language, history and literature assume a more important 5] 5 t>ooo PREFACE [6 role in the education of the people, and the teaching increases in difficulty. Yet even in this stage education has to do mostly with a knowledge of the past, the course of study re- mains quite stable and the teaching is empiric and compar- atively simple. Thus in the thought of the mediaeval and early modern universities a knowledge of the subject-matter was the chief, if not the only requisite, to successful teach- ing. A university degree was in itself a license to teach. Within the last century the educational advancement, at least in the more progressive nations, has been so rapid, the scientific spirit so pronounced, and the differentiation and increased complexity of subject-matter so great, that it has become necessary to simplify the processes of education by more expert teaching. The science of education, depending as it does for much of its material upon the scientific advancement in other fields of thought, has been slow in its development. But the growth of this subject in late years has been rapid and encouraging. Along with the advancement of the science of education has come a deeper interest in the science and art of teaching and in the professional training of teachers. Each year adds new material to the experiences of the social whole and increases correspondingly the complexity of the preparation necessary to carry on the various activi- ties of life. This tends not only to extend the period of infancy and lengthen the time of preparation, but also to add a continually increasing burden upon mind and body. To overcome this strain without at the same time limiting the individual's strength and usefulness, it is necessary that the teaching be made more efficient and more economical. Teachers must be professionally trained for their work. In this study we have endeavored to bring together ma- terial showing the growth and present condition of the pro- fessional training of secondary teachers in the United States. 7] PREFACE J To throw additional light upon the subject, we have given in Chapter I, a brief survey of the beginning and growth of the movement for the special professional training of teachers in Germany, the country in which the subject origi- nated and in which it first took permanent root. As shown in this chapter, the professional preparation of elementary and of secondary teachers in Germany resulted from two disparate movements or influences, the latter being the out- growth of work first offered in the philological seminaries ; a fact which probably accounts for some of the opposition still manifested by many classicists against departments of education. In Chapter II we call attention to a few important points in the historical development of normal schools in the United States. In Chapter III we have given attention to the history of separate normal departments in colleges and universities. These were established either for the purpose of training elementary teachers or for the training of ele- mentary and secondary teachers combined. Chapter IV is also devoted to the history of the subject. It goes more into detail with the historical development of college and university departments of education which have had as their chief aim the professional training of secondary teachers. Chapter V is devoted to a study of pedagogical instruc- tion, what, when and how. In Chapter VI we have endeav- ored to answer the question of the advisability of having separate training schools or separate courses for the prepara- tion of elementary and of secondary teachers. To the whole we have added an appendix consisting of a series of out- lines on the history of education explained in a preface. This study, at most, is scarcely more than a beginning. It covers but few points on an important field. Should it stimulate thought and arouse deeper interest in the pro- fessional training of teachers, it will have fulfilled its purpose. 8 PREFACE [8 I desire to acknowledge obligations to the professors of education in colleges and universities and to state normal school principals who have so kindly aided me in the prose- cution of this study. I am also especially indebted to Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler and to Dr. Jas. E. Russell for valu- ■eble suggestions and direction. G. W. A. L. University of Nebraska, Lincoln, igoz. CONTENTS CHAPTER I BEGINNING AND GROWTH OF THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS GERMANY Part I — Elementary Schools l-AGB Church and School 17 Prior to the Renaissance 18 Changes in Education 18 Difficuhies to be Overcome 18 Germany Leads the Way 19 Effort of Ratich, 1619 19 La Salle, 1 684 20 Francke and the Teachers' Seminaries at Halle 20 Elementary Normal Schools 23 Hecker at Berlin 23 Provision for Teachers' Examinations 24 Subjects of Study 24 Establishment of Teachers' Seminaries in Silesia 24 Spread of Normal Schools 25 Present Condition 26 Influence of the Normal 26 Course of Study in Normal Schools 27 Generalizations Touching the Origin of Professional Training 27 Result of the Realistic Movement 28 Practical and Industrial 29 Part II — Secondary Schools Early Seminaries 30 The Work of Gesner at Gottingen, 1 737 30 The Philological Seminary at Halle 32 Efforts of Von Zedlitz 32 9] 9 lO CONTENTS [jO PAGE Nature and Aim of the Seminary 33 Neglect of Pedagogy 34 Other Philological Seminaries 35 Spread of the Movement 36 Effect on Teaching 36 The Gymnasial Seminary at Berlin 37 Its Purpose 37 Condition of Entrance 38 Practice-Teaching 38 Transfer and Other Changes of the School 38 Other Gymnasial Seminaries 39 Pedagogical Seminaries 39 The Aim and Plan 40 University Lectures on Pedagogy 42 Different Forms of Teachers' Seminaries 42 Professional Training an Essential Requirement 43 The Seminary of To-Day 43 Pedagogical Motives that have Shaped Professional Training 45 France and England 48 References 48 CHAPTER II HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS— UNITED STATES The First Years of the Nation 51 Origin of Normal Schools 52 The Nature of the Work .- 54 List of Early Normal Schools, with Date of Estaljlishment 56 Absence of High Schools 57 The People's School 58 Beginning of High Schools 58 Extension of the Normal Course 58 Change in Higher Education 59 Research as a Factor 60 Stimulus of Normal Instruction to Higher Education 60 CHAPTER III EARLIEST EFFORTS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Normal Departments in the Universities 62 Brown University 63 1 1 ] CONTENTS I I PAGE Purpose and Development of the Department 63 Normal Department, Iowa University 65 Changes in Ideals, and Growth of the Department 68 The College of Normal Instruction, University of Missouri 71 Wisconsin University, Normal Department 74 Theory and Practice of Elementary Instruction 74 The University of Kansas, Normal Department 78 Department of Pedagogy, University of Indiana 80. Professional Training for High School Teachers 83 Kentucky State College, Normal Department 85 University of North Carolina, Normal Department 88 Beginning of State Normal Schools 89 Closing of the Normal Department 91 The Training of Secondary Teachers 91 Department of Pedagogy, University of Minnesota 92 Outline of the Department in Later Years 93 Condition for Entrance 94 Present Condition 95 University of Utah, Normal Department 96 Other State Universities with Normal Departments 97 University of North Dakota 98 University of Wyoming 98 Denominational Institutions 98 Iowa College, Department of Pedagogy 99 Summary lOO CHAPTER IV HISTORY OF THE SPECIAL MOVEMENT FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF SECONDARY TEACHERS Preface 103 Michigan University, Department of Education 104 The Nature of the Work 105 First Semester 107 Second Semester 108 Teacher's Diploma 109 The Aim of the Department no Departments of Education not Intended to Duplicate Normal Schools 112 Not for the Training of Elementary Teachers 113 No Practice-Teaching 114 Johns Hopkins University, Department of Education 115 Aim of Department 116 12 CONTENTS [12 PAGE Cornell University, Department of Education 117 Reasons for Establishing the Department 117 Nature of the Work 118 Teachers' Certificates 1 20 The Ohio University, Department of Education 121 Nature of the Work 122 Aim of the Department 1 22 The Ohio State University 1 23 Department of Pedagogy 1 23 Aim of the Department 1 24 Clark University, Department of Education 125 Nature of the Work 126 Aim of the Department 127 Harvard University, Department of Education 129 Special Courses for Teachers 1 29 Nature of the Work 1 30 Columbia University, Department of Education 132 Nature of the Work 132 Teachers College, Columbia University 133 Originated to Supply the Need for Industrial Teachers 134 Change of Ideal 135 Aim of Teachers College 137 New York University, School of Pedagogy 139 Purpose of the School 139 Aim of the School 140 University of California, Department of Education 141 Teachers' Courses 141 Nature of the Work 143 Requirements for University Teachers' Certificate 143 Aim of the Department 144 Nature of the Work 144 Other University Departments of Education 145 Leland Stanford Jr. University 145 Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 146 University of Texas, Department of Education 147 University of Illinois, Department of Education 147 Rutgers College, Department of Education 148 University of Pennsylvania, Department of Education 148 University of Nebraska, Department of Education 149 University of Colorado, Department of Education 149 School of Education, Chicago University 150 Chairs of Pedagogy Established in 1898 and in 1899 150 Recapitulation 151 I 3 J CONTENTS 1 3 PACK CHAPTER V PEDAGOGICAL INSTRUCTION— WHAT, WHEN, HOW Lack of Uniformity 1 54 Evolution of Pedagogical Courses 156 Table I, Pedagogical Courses 157 Comments on Pedagogical Courses 158 Educational Requirements for High School Teachers 1 60 r Views of Professors of Education 161 Academic Requirement 1 74 Professional Requireihent 1 74 The Essential Subjects 176 Table II . . ; 177 Comparison of Tables I and II 1 78 Profitable Studies as Judged from the Students' Standpoint 179 Do Prospective Teachers Serek Professional Training? 182 University Teachers' Certificate 1 86 The IVhejt of Pedagogical Instruction 189 Teaching and Learning, Disparate Processes 191 ► How Shall Pedagogical Instruction be s^ven? 1 93 Essential Qualities of the Teacher 193 -^ Method of Treatment 1 95 Text or Topic 196 Course in Child Study 198 Children's Drawings (sample outline), Lessons 24 and 25 198 Course in Methods 200 Beginning Reading 202 Practice-Teaching 206 ^ High School Teachers Require Less Practice-Teaching 207 >- How is Practice-Teaching to be Obtained 208 Arrangement for Observation and Practice in the University of Nebraska ... 211 CHAPTER VI THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY AND OF SECONDARY TEACHERS COMPARED Is There a Difference in the Method ? 215 Reasons for Difference in Method 218 Views of Normal School Principals 219 Views of Professors of Education 222 Marked Differences of Opinion 227 The Differences in Methods 228 The Differences in Method Due to Differences Between Childhood and Youth . 229 14 CONTENTS ["14 PAGE Predominant Elements at Different Periods 23 1 What Shall Be the Nature of the Instruction ? 232 Meaning of Education 233 Fields of Thought 234 Stages of Mental Development 234 Different Methods of Instruction 235 Shall There Be Separate Schools for Elementary and Secondary Teachers? . 236 The Mission of Normal Schools 237 Mission of Departments of Education 238 Some Statistics 240 Effect of Separate Training Schools 242 Views of Normal School Principals Favoring Division 243 Adverse Views 244 Change not Material 245 Quotations from Professors of Education 245 Adverse Views 246 The Truth Difficult to Find 247 Colleges vs. Normal Schools 248 The Need for Trained Teachers 251 The Way Out 252 Reasonable Standards 253 Certificating of Teachers 254 Conclusion 255 Bibliography 258 APPENDIX OUTLINES ON THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION AS OFFERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, 1901 Preface 263 History of Education, Direction for Note Book 265 General References on the Histor}' of Education 267 Chinese 270 Questions to be Considered in the Education of Various Countries 270 India and the Hindus 272 Persians 274 Hebrews 276 Egyptians 278 Greeks 281 1 . Spartans 284 2. Socrates 286 3. Plato and Xenophon 289 4. Aristotle 290 I 5 ] CONTENTS I 5 PAGE Romans 292 I . Imperial Rome 295 Church Fathers and Christian Schools 297 I. Prominent Names Among the Early Church Fathers and Teachers . . 299 Asceticism and Monasticism 300 Early Schools of Ireland and Britain 301 Charlemagne and the Revival of Learning 303 Universities of the Middle Ages 305 Abelard and Scholasticism 307 The Renaissance of Education in the Sixteenth Century 309 Humanism and Realism, Erasmus and Sturm 311 Changes in Educational Ideals, Rabelais and Montaigne 313 The Reformation and the Protestant Reformers 314 Roger Ascham and Classical Learning 317 F'rancis Bacon and the Revolt Against Classicism 319 Loyola and the Schools of the Jesuits 321 The Jansenists and Fenelon 323 Ratich and Comenius 325 I . Orbis Sensualium Pictus 326 John Locke 328 Rousseau 331 French Revolution 334 Pestalozzi 336 Herbart 339 Kant, Fichte 341 Froebel (i 782-1852) Education Through Self Activity 342 Education of Women and Women as Educators 346 Education at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century 346 Bell and Lancaster, or the Monitorial System of Education 348 Herbert Spencer 349 Alexander Bain 353 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA Brief Bibliography on the History of Education in America 354 Early Colonial Education, 1606-60 356 1 . Puritans 356 2. Cavaliers 357 3. Quakers 358 4. Dutch 358 5. Huguenots 359 Education During Colonial Period 360 1 . New England 360 2. Middle Colonies 362 3. Southern Colonies 363 J 6 CONTENTS [ 1 6 PAGE Colonial Colleges and Academies 363 Colleges Founded Prior to 1800 365 Period of Reorganization and Educational Formation 367 1 . Franklin 3^9 2. Washington 3^9 3. Jefferson 3^9 4. Noah Webster 370 Supervision of Schools 372 Provisions for the Preparation and Improvement of Teachers 375 Gradation of Schools 37^ Changes in College Curricula, University Extension and Growth in Industrial Education 38° Education of Defective and Criminal Classes 382 Education of the Negro and Condirion of Education in the South 384 Education of Women and Women Educators 386 The New Education 3^9 CHAPTER I BEGINNING AND GROWTH OF THE PROFES- SIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS GERMANY Part I. — Elementary Schools It is probably true that educators of all times have fell the necessity of special preparation for those who are to be- come the teachers of the young; and yet, it is only during the last century that any systematic effort has been made in this direction. During the Middle Ages nearly all education CHURCH AND • , i 1,1^1 1 ,1 ,^„^^, was m the hands of the Church, and there was little, if any, distinction made betweeij the preparation considered necessary for the office of the minister and that of the teacher. The former more often filled both positions with equal confidence, calling to his aid the teacher only in case his own duties became too arduous, and then to serve as " sexton, chorister, beadle, bell-ringer, clock-maker and even grave-digger," as well as instructor. "The school-masters were scarcely more than the domestics of the cure," ' wandering monks and unsuccessful candidates for the clergy, or those whose probationary period had not expired. Hence, with but few exceptions the stronger students became the ministers and the weaker the teachers. * Compayre, History oj Pedagogy, p. 366. «7] 17 I 8 TRAINING OF SECOND AR Y TEA CHERS [ j 8 Aside from the few monasteries, parochial and cathedral schools, and later, the univ^ersities RENAISSANCE ' and the burgher schools, but little effort was made to educate the masses prior to the Renaissance. Such education as was offered consisted for the most part of memory exercises on church doctrine and catechism, and so much of the Latin ritual as was necessary in performing the ordinary services of the church. With the growth of commercial centers, the breaking away from church authority and the EDUCATION to J J final separation of Church and State, education assumed an entirely different aspect. The work of the minister and that of the teacher were gradually differentiated until there grew up two entirely different classes of educators — the ecclesiast and the teacher. The growth of the idea that education is a legitimate function of the State hastened the separation. As the State began to assume control of educational affairs, the special preparation of teachers became an object of more immediate concern. Prior to this time any mention of the special professional training of teachers would have been regarded as the visionary dream of an educational enthu- siast. Had not the colleges and the Church been preparing teachers all these years? Were not scholarship and common sense the only necessary requisites of the teacher? These and similar questions were more common a hundred years ago than now. There were other difficulties — lack of re- DIFFICULTIES TO j- -j j i.-i. i. ^ ^t.^,^ sources, a divided constituency, no state system BE OVERCOME ■^ > -" ^y of education and but few land-marks. The spread of schools became more rapid than the increase in the supply of teachers, even of the maimed, the halt and the blind, of whom it has been said: "The teacher was i)ften regarded in the community on the same footing as ip] BEGINNING AND GROWTH 19 a mendicant, and between the herdsman and himself, the preference was for the herdsman. Consequently, the situa- tion of the school-master was the most often sought after by men who were infirm, crippled, unfit for any other kind of work."' Such, or even worse, was the condition of GERMANY LEADS _ . , . ., ,, , ,, • i . 4.U affairs when near the middle of the eighteenth THE WAY ° century the German government (the first of all nations) began to take up in earnest the special prepara- tion of teachers. The movement began as do most reforms, without a definite plan and without a full realization and appreciation of the magnitude and importance of the under- taking. But it grew, was modified and spread throughout the schools of the empire, until "The result is the best equipped and most exclusive body of teachers in the world." '^ In 1524 Luther said in a communication addressed to the public authorities of Germany that " Since the greatest evil in every place is the lack of teachers, we must not wait till they come forward of themselves ; we must take the trouble to educate them and prepare them." But it remained for Ratich to have the honor Jrl^cH^elg °^ establishing the first pedagogical seminary, which was founded at Koethen in 1619, under the patronage of Prince Ludwig, of Anhalt-Koethen, and of Duke John Ernest, of Weimar. Ratich claimed to have in- vented a new and far more efficient method of teaching the languages, and this institution was established for the pur- pose of training teachers in the use of the new method. He gave lectures on didactics, held discussions on educa- tional problems, conducted model lessons on language teaching and called on members of his classes to conduct * Compayre, History of Pedagogy, p. 519. ' Russell, German Higher Schools, p. 354. 20 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [20 lessons under guidance. Although the institution continued only a few months and left but little permanent benefit, it contained in embryo many of the principles now considered of much value in the training of teachers, especially in the line of theory and practice. The next institution to take form looking LA SALLE, 1684 , , . . 1 r- toward the trammg of teachers was the " Semi- nary for Schoolmasters," established by Abbe Jean Baptiste de la Salle at Rheims in 1684. La Salle was a religious devotee who, seeing the great ignorance of the persons who applied for positions in the parish schools, founded the order known as the " School Brethren, Freres ignorantins," and in 1679 opened his own home to several teachers of limited means. In 1684 he established the "Institute of the Brethren of the Christian Schools " and the " Seminary for Schoolmasters," as indicated above. The object of the latter was to train teachers for the rural districts. The School Brethren established many schools under the authority of the Church, and did for primary education what the Jesuits did for secondary education. The members of the order devoted themselves to elementary teaching in harmony with the doc- trine of the Catholic Church. The work consisted more of academic than of professional studies, but it is worthy of note that a few years later a similar institution established by La Salle at Paris had connected with it a primary school in which the teaching was done by students in practice. FRANCKK AND "^^^ Scmiuarium Praeceptorum, or Teachers THE teachers' Seminary, opened by A. F. Francke in connec- sEMiNARiESAT tion wlth his orphan asylum at Halle in 1696, and the Seminarium Selectum Praeceptorum established in connection with his Pedagogium in 1707 are usually referred to as the first institutions founded for the professional training of teachers, and judged by their success and influence they well merit the honor. It 2i] BEGINNING AND GROWTH ' 21 was a private and philanthropic enterprise which"' grew out of the necessity for trained teachers at the orphan asylum and other institutions established by Francke at Halle through the liberal donations of the people. Francke began by selecting a number of needy students to assist him in the work of instruction, in return for which they received board and lodging free. In 1704 he selected ten or twelve students from the above number " who exhibited the right basis of piety, knowledge, skill and desire for teaching," and constituted them his " Seminarium Praecep- torum, or Teachers' Seminary." These students engaged themselves for five years, the first two of which were devoted to further study, especially in academic subjects, and weekly lectures and discussions on the theory and practice of teaching. The next three years were given to teaching in the orphan asylum, Paedagogium and other schools con- nected with the institution. By means of this training the students became so much better equipped in their work as teachers that on leaving the institution they spread its fame throughout all Germany. This had the efifect of attracting many strong students to the school at Halle, and of stimu- lating others to found similar institutions elsewhere. The work of the Seminarium Selectum was adapted es- pecially to secondary education, while that of the Teachers* Seminary was fitted more particularly for the work of ele- mentary schools. Members of the latter had less theory but more practice. It is worthy of note that Christoph Cellarius, an eminent classical scholar and professor of eloquence and history in the University of Halle, conducted the scientific exercises of the Seminarium Selectum for a short time prior to his death (1707) and gave daily lectures on the humanities to mem- bers of the Teachers' Seminary. Francke was not satisfied with the institution, and in 17 14 22 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS r22 he prepared plans for a Seminarium Ministerii Ecclesiastici and a Seminarium Elegantioris Litteraturse. In the former were to be trained the future servants of the Church (Pro- testant) and in the latter those who were to pursue by pro- fession the humanities, and who desired to prepare them- selves for the offices of the classical schools (Gelehrten Schulen). Herein Francke had already shown himself to be the forerunner of Wolf, who many years later accomplished the complete separation of theological and philological studies. It was thought in this way to spare the student many subjects which were chiefly of value to the future preacher and, on the other hand, to make philology and kindred sciences the problem of more immediate concern. The subjects designated for this purpose were Latin, Greek, Hebrew, history, geography, pure and applied mathematics and fluency in French speech. Besides, the members busied themselves with the methodology of the humanities and di- rectly qualified themselves for employment in the teacher's profession. The guidance of these students was in the hands of the inspectors of the Pedagogium and of the Latin School/ The work of Francke at Halle was of especial interest not only because it furnished the foundation of the later devel- oped Real Schools of Germany but also because we find here the beginning of the systematic preparation of teachers which led the way to the establishment of elementary normal schools; and because in the work of the Seminarium Se- lectum, and the classical instruction in the Pedagogium, we find foreshadowed the Philological Seminaries which repre- sented the first efforts toward the professional training of secondary teachers. In 1732 a preacher and disciple of Francke, by the name ^ Fries, Baumeister's Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichts-lehre fflr hohere Schulen, Vol. II, part i, p. 49. 23] BEGINNING AND GROWTH of Schienmeyer,' opened a teachers' seminary in connec- tion with his orphan asylum at Stettin. This ELEMENTARY movement received the expressed approval of NORMAL SCHOOLS ^^^ 1^'"&' Frederic William I,, and so interested him that later, in 1736, he issued an order to Abbot Steinmetz, of Kloster-Bergen, instructing him to establish a normal school at that place. As a result of the pietistic movement started by Francke many other attempts were made to establish teachers' train- ing classes in connection with church and city schools. The most important private venture of this HECKER AT Y\ViA was the Teachers' Seminary or Normal BERLIN '' School established by the Rev. John Julius Hecker at Kurmark in Berlin in 1748. Hecker had been brought under the influence of Francke while a student at the University of Halle, and when called to the pastorate of the Church of the Trinity, at Berlin, he became instructor of the German schools of the parish. These grew so under his guidance that in 1747 he added to the curriculum drawing, geometry, architecture, agriculture, and the natural sciences, and designated the enlarged insti- tution the Real-schule. The following year he added the Teachers' Seminary or Normal School. This school at once attracted the attention of the king, Frederic the Great, who like his father, Frederic William I., was greatly interested in bettering the educational conditions of his kingdom. By royal ordinance in 1753 the king enjoined that all the vacancies of the country schools on certain sections of the crown lands of the kingdom should be supplied by teachers educated at the Kurmark Normal School, granting at the same time an annual stipend for the support of twelve alumni of this institution. Through an act of the king in * Schmid, Encyc, Vol. X, p. 51. 24 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [24 the following year this private school of Hecker's was made the royal primary school for the education of schoolmasters and parish clerks. The first general school regulations for PROVISION FOR Prussia (1763) drawn up by Hecker and issued TEACHERS' , , , • • , EXAMINATIONS ^Y ^0X^1 authonty, required, among other pro- visions, that teachers pass an examination prior to appointment, and that for the royal schools in the dis- trict, towns and villages, only such teachers be employed as have been, at least for some time, pupils of the royal sacristans' and school-masters' normal school at Kurmark in Berlin, and who have acquired the practical knowledge of silk industry and of the methods of school-keeping as prac- ticed in the German schools of Trinity Church.' These regulations required that all children ^ °^ be sent to school regularly from 5 to 13 or 14 STUDY o / J ^ -r years of age and be " Christianly taught in reading, prayings chanting, writing and arithmetic, cate- chism and Biblical history." Two years later, Frederic the Great issued ESTABLISHMENT similar regulations for his Catholic subjects in OF TEACHERS giiggja jj^ which hc required that all teachers SEMINARIES IN , / , ^ SILESIA i^ cities and villages be examined before ap- pointment. In order that the young might have the best instruction and that adults might be taught how to teach and manage youth, he selected several schools that were to serve as seminaries for future teachers. These schools were to have a well-informed director and skillful teachers. " The director should aim to have everything in his school taught thoroughly and in reference to the needs of common life."' His object should be, not to load the * Barnard's National Education in the German States, p. 344. *From the Law as quoted by Barnard in National Education in the German States, p. 869. 2 el BEGINNING AND GROWTH 25 memory, but to train the mind and develop the understand- ing. The best methods were demanded for these schools, and the students preparing for teaching were required, along with their academic studies, to observe the instruction of children as given by the regular teaching and then to con- duct themselves under the guidance and criticism of the teacher. Many of the provisions of this law have continued in force even to the present time. From this time forth normal schools spread SPREAD quite rapidly throughout Germany. But it was OF NORMAL ... 111 SCHOOLS "o^ wviXA the present century that they began to assume definite form and to become perman- ently fixed as an essential part of the educational system. The school law of 1819 required every departmental dis- trict to support at least one normal school ; and to have in connection therewith a primary school to furnish the stu- dents opportunity for observation and practice teaching. In order that these schools might be kept as close to the people as possible, and that the pupil teachers be preserved from dissipation and the temptations of city life, the number of students was limited to 70, and the normal schools were to be established, whenever possible, in small towns. The confessional character of the schools was then established as it still remains. In communities where the number of Catholics and Protestants were nearly equal, a normal school for each denomination was to be created. In other com- munities the school was to take on the confessional form representing the stronger sect, those of the minority attend- ing a school in an adjoining district. The above law fixed the age of admission to the normal school as from 16 to 18 years, and in the matter of scholar- ship required that the candidate should have passed through a course of instruction in an elementary school. At present the age limit is 17 years, and the candidate 26 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [26 must have completed a common school (volkschule) course of eight years and also the three years' course preparatory to the normal school. He must CONDITION i^ ^ J ^ furnish a physician's certificate of sound health; a certificate from the pastor showing that his char- acter has been moral and blameless, and certificates from at least two of his former teachers showing previous in- dustry and moral habits, and indicating that he has suffi- cient ability for the teacher's profession. Furnished with these credentials the candidate is admftted to the entrance examination, which includes Biblical history, history of Christianity, catechism, reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, geography, German history, natural history and vocal and instrumental music. If successful his name is placed on the eligible list of ap- plicants according to rank, from which the highest are selected to fill the first vacancies occurring in the normal school of the district. Since graduation from the normal schools INFLUENCE OF , , , , , , , . -r„T. x,^„„., has become almost the only means of obtain- THE NORMAL •' ing a position as teacher in the elementary schools of Germany, the influence of these institutions in molding the ideas of the people can hardly be overesti- mated. The course extending over three years varies but little- throughout the different states and is as follows: 27] BEGLXNLXG AND GROWTH 2/ COURSE OF STUDY OF THREE YEARS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA. 1st Year. 2nd Year. 3rd Year. Required Subjects. hrs. per wk. hrs. per wk. hrs. per wk. Pedagogy 2 3 3 Religion 4 4 2 German 5 5 2 History 2 2 2 Arithmetic 3 3 "1 Geometry 2 2 / Nat. Science 4 4 2 Geography 2 2 I Drawing 2 2 I Writing 2 I O Gymnastics 2 2 2 Music 5 5 3 Total 35 35 20 Besides the above required work the student may elect Latin, French or EngHsh offered in courses of 3 hrs., 3 hrs., 2 hrs. per week. With the exception of pedagogy, the subjects presented in the Normal Schools are the same as those presented in the preparatory schools and in the main similar to the sub- jects that the student will be called upon to teach in the ele- mentary schools. Ail normal schools are under governmental control, tui- tion is free, and at least half of the living expenses of the students is borne by the State. All candidates contract to engage in teaching in whatever places they are assigned for at least three years, and are sure of permanent employment. GENERALIZATIONS ^ ^^^^ prcscuted hcre only a few of the TOUCHING THE salicut fcaturcs. The normal schools of Ger- oRiGiN OF many have been the result of a slow growth, PROFESSIONAL jJ^^-gJ.J^J^| gj^^ cxtcmal, which is still going on. TRAINING '^ ° They are the product of the reform movement in education which tended toward realism and away from 28 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [28 classicism — an effort which had for its object the practical education of the masses, the fitting of youth for citizenship and the practical duties of life. Or, according to Rein, " If one seeks the pedagogical motives out of which these estab- lishments grew he finds them resulting partly through pietistic and partly through philanthropic influences which dominated there, the former rather pastorally inclined through the needs of the youth, the latter arising more especially from the idea of a general school reform." ' Dr. Russell in speaking of this reform movement says, " Two dominant motives determined all action in this direc- tion: (i) The perfection of the individual, and (2) the mastery over environment These two ideas also entered into the educational ideas of the time, and directed the de- velopment of the school system. The one was essentially humanistic as pertaining to the perfection of the human sub- ject; the other was essentially realistic as pertaining to the control of things in the objective world." And again, "The real school, therefore, is the direct response to the individual ideal that lays special emphasis on the mastery of environ- ment." ' Normal schools were the result of this real- istic movement which called attention to the REALISTIC MOVEMENT objccts of thc environment and created a demand for new subjects of study as well as a more rationalistic method of teaching the old ones. In order to advance the new education it was necessary to have teachers educated not only in the new subjects but also in the spirit of the new thought; hence the importance of teachers' seminaries. At first the new subjects contained but little content and were not to be compared to the humanities in educative ' Volks$chullehrer bildung, Rein's Encyc, 7 : 1044. ' German Higher Schools, p. 64. 29] BEGINNING AND GROWTH 29 value. Two ideas became prominent, the one, to extend the number of new subjects, the other, to shorten the time given to the classics by means of better methods, and to add to this curriculum some of the real studies. Neither of these views wholly prevailed; the latter exerted much influence in modifying the classical schools, while the former, somewhat changed, became the ideal of the elementary and normal schools. The thing that was most desired at first was not culture, but knowledge and the power of INDUSTRIAL ' ° ^ imparting that knowledge to others. This gave the normals a practical and industrial, though somewhat narrow turn, which they still retain. Agriculture, mechanic arts, manual training, silk industry, weaving, cooking, etc., were subjects quite frequently introduced into the curriculum. Among the principal forces that have been at work in shaping the development of these institutions may be men- tioned the pietists under Francke, the philanthropists under Basedow, educational reformers like Pestalozzi, Felbiger and Diesterweg, the clergy, long the guardian of all education, jealous of its power and unwilling to give up its authority, and the central government, always aggressive in extending its power and influence.' The normal schools have taken on a distinctly German character. They represent the interests of the common peo- ple. They promulgate class distinction by ofTering a course unsuited to advancement in the higher institutions. Thor- ough academic instruction over a limited field by methods which are intended as a guide for the pupil teacher, observa- tion and criticism of school work and practice teaching ac- cording to model, are the principal features for which they stand. ' Compare Barnard's National Education in the German States ; Volks- schullehrer bildung. Rein's Encyc, 7 : 1040, and Volkischullehrer seminar, Schmid's Encyc, 10: 51. 30 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [30 Part II. — Secondary Schools. Turning our attention to the professional training of teach- ers for secondary education, we find the first efforts in this direction being made through the theological and philolog- ical seminaries of the universities, especially in the latter. Prior to the i8th century no special arrangements had been made at the universities or elsewhere for the profes- sional training of secondary teachers. Many theologians having noticed how frequently their stu- dents were called as tutors and school officers felt the need of giving them a more suitable training, and Buddeus, pro- fessor of theology at Jena, even went so far as to advocate for this purpose the establishment of a pedagogical semi- nary, but nothing further resulted from this source. Leaving out of account the efforts of Cellarius SEMINARIES ^^ ^^ Univcrslty of Halle and that of Francke in his Paedagogium, both of which related to the humanities and were in a certain sense philological seminaries, the oldest example of a university seminary hav-| ing for its object the professional training of teachers was the philological seminary established by J. M. Gesner in the; University of Gottingen 1737. While a student of theology under Buddeus at Jena, Ges- ner had shown particular interest in pedagogical problems, and at the suggestion of the former had written, in 171 5, his " Institutiones rei scholasticae," a sort of educational com- pendium containing many important rules for teachers, and intended to be used as a basis of lectures in a pedagogical seminary. For the next 20 years Gesner had an un- THEwoRKOF ugu^lly Hch cducatioual experience, first as GESNER AT ,., / ,Tr . , , i GOTTINGEN, 1737 librarian at Weimar, then as rector of the Ansbach gymnasium, and still later as rector of the celebrated Thomas school at Leipzig, where he exerted 3i] BEGINNING AND GROWTH 3 1 great influence in restoring the ancient classics to a place of honor. Called in 1734 to the new University of Gottingen as professor of eloquence and poetry, he was appointed inspector of the Hanover schools, and soon afterwards (1737) opened his philological seminary for the training of young theologians for the office of teaching. Fries ' speaks of this work as being divided into three divisions : 1st, a special scientific one in philology, mathemat- ics, natural sciences, history and geography ; 2d, a peda- gogical one with the schools over which he was inspector as a basis; and 3d, a practical one through practice teaching in the city schools of Gottingen. The practice-teaching, however, does not seem to have been an essential part. The greatest stress was placed upon philology and a more rational study of the languages, Gesner, as a disciple of Ratich, Comenius and Locke, constantly endeavored to bring about reform in the teaching of the languages. He occupied a position about half way between the realists on the one hand, and the classicists on the other. He believed that the study of language should never be separated from the study of things, and for this reason would increase the curriculum of the classic schools by adding several scientific studies as shown above. In his " Institutiones " he says : " It is a hundred times easier to learn a language by use and practice without grammar than from the grammar without use and practice." But again he says, " I reject grammar only for youth as hurting them more than helping them, but for grown per- sons it is in the highest degree necessary," ' His philolog- ical writings were vigorous and helpful. A more representative type of these early institutions * Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 23. • From Karl von Raumer, Amer. your. Educ, 5 : 745, 32 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [32 was the philological seminary opened by Fr. A. Wolf at the University of Halle in 1787, a year made THE PHiLOLOG- memorable in the history of German educa- ICAL SEMINARY , , , , ,. , , , ^, , , AT HALLE, 1787 **°" "^ ^"^ establishment of the Oberschul- koUegium. Already in 1765 J. S. Semler, "Father of German Ra- tionalism," had established in connection with his theological seminary at Halle a course of lectures intended to fit stu- dents for the ofhce of teaching. These lectures were given at first by the inspector of the Seminary (Schirach, later Schiitz)' and were philological in character, covering the use of the Latin tongue and the explanation of classic authors. Attracted by this beginning, the State Minis- voN zEDLiTz ^^^' ^°" ZcdHtz, an ardent disciple of Basedow, desired to have established in the theological seminary a special pedagogical division according to the Dessau plan, which would serve also for the training of good common school teachers (Volksschullehrer). He induced Schutz to study the arrangements at the Dessau Philanthropin, and in 1777 introduced into the theological seminary the new pedagogical division. Two years later when Schutz, who had given the pedagog- ical lectures, was called to the professorship of eloquence and poetry at Jena, von Zedlitz made use of the opportunity to obtain in his stead E. C. Trapp, a member of the famous Dessau Philanthropin. The work of Trapp, however, was disappointing. His pedagogical lectures failed for want of students. He exalted the study of things and discouraged the study of languages. His position can be seen from the following statement : " The learning of foreign languages is one of the greatest evils which afiflict the schools, especially in Germany, and which hinder the progress of men to per- ' Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lekramt, p. 23. 33 j BEGINNING AND GROIVTH 33 fection and happiness." ' Such views were out of harmony with the place and time, and made it necessary for Trapp to resign, which he did in 1782. A small practice school had been established in connec- tion with the seminary, but like the pedagogical lectures it had failed for want of members. At this time Fr. A. Wolf, a youth of twenty-two, rector of the Os*^erode gymnasium, was attracting much attention through his philological writings. The one entitled " Plato's Symposium " had just appeared and received unusual appre- ciation. Minister von Zedlitz, still desirous of carrying for- ward the pedagogical work, felt that in Wolf he would have an especially strong man for the position. Wolf was conse- quently chosen not only a professor of philology but also of pedagogy, and it was further stipulated that he should give annually a free course of pedagogical lectures, should him- self instruct in and have supervision over the teachers' semi- nary, and offer model lessons in teaching. Disgusted with the superficiality of the philanthropinists and feeling himself unsuited to the work, he allowed the educational institution to go down, gave up the pedagogical professorship and be- came professor of eloquence instead. Wolf now set himself to work to overcome NATURE AND the mcreasmg opposition to the humanities AIM OF THE SEMINARY ^y oneri'ig ^ more thorough and extended study of the classics. He believed also that the instruction in the higher schools could never reach its greatest efficiency while the recruiting of teachers depended almost wholly on the theologians. There should be a body of teachers trained especially for these schools. It was for' these reasons that he established in 1787 his philological seminary, the first institution whose purpose was to edu- cate teachers for the higher schools without regard to ^Amer. your. Educ, 6 : 200. Trans, from Karl von Raumer. 34 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [^34 theology. Having received the sanction of the Higher School Board (Ober-Schulkollegium) the seminary was opened in the fall of 1787 with twelve regular members selected on examination from among those who had spent at least one year in the university. The members thus selected continued in the seminary for the next two years of their university course. The work of the seminary consisted in the interpretation of ancient authors, discussions by the members in Latin of written exercises and theses, assigned either beforehand, or at the moment, by the director. The more advanced mem- bers had some practice in the Latin school of the Orphan House at Halle. The aim of the seminary was two-fold, (i) to extend and deepen the knowledge of the classics, and (2) to produce effective classical masters for the gymnasiums and higher Latin schools. Though not so intended by the School Board and probably not by Wolf, the pedagogical side PEDAGOGY ^ ■' ^ / . . received but little attention. The growing in- terest in philology caused this subject to be given all the time. Fries in speaking of this feature of the school says, " As a fact the didactic guidance never became really efficient, for in the first years they were content to send from time to time for a few of the pupils from the orphan asylum for the exercise in the Seminary and only in the winter of 1799 were the les- sons by the students arranged in a few classes of the Latin school. These, however, had little purpose, as the members were cast chiefly upon themselves." ' "The seminary was and remained a philological one, and as such became a model and influential, for its leader, a sub- ject of entire satisfaction and just pride, since the youth here 1 Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 26. 33] BEGINNING AND GROWTH 35 gained the enthusiasm for archaeology, which later in their official positions caused them to carry out and uphold the humanistic principle of instruction in higher education, which has remained the standard until the present." ' Wolf remained with the seminary for twenty years, or until the closing of the university by Napoleon after the battle of Jena, when he was called as a member of the department of education to Berlin. The further development of this institution shows how at first a purely philological and later a pedagogical seminary grew out of the theological faculty. It was not until the regulations of 181 7 that the training of "skillful teachers for the gymnasiums" received special attention, and then more especially through exercises in- tended to give a general style in Latin."" It is fitting to re- mark, however, that in later life Wolf laid greater stress upon pedagogical training and felt that the absence of it had been one of the weaknesses at Halle. Following this beginning, many other similar OTHER philological seminaries sprang up in the various PHILOLOGICAL .... SEMINARIES univcrsitics. Among the earlier ones may be mentioned the philological seminary at Kiel, 1777; the philological-pedagogical seminary at Helmstedt, 1779; the philological and pedagogical joint seminaries at Heidelberg, 1809; the philological seminary at Konigsberg, 1 8 10 (distinct from the pedagogical seminary of Herbart) ; the philological seminaries of Berlin and Breslau, 1812; the renowned philological seminary at Bonn and the philological seminary of Griefswald, 1822. The first, and in many instances the only, object of these seminaries was a purely academic one, laying the foundation for research and extending the knowledge of the classics * Vorbildung der Lehrer jur das Lekranit, p. 26. 'Barnard, Amer. Jour. Educ, 17: 485. 36 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [36 In voting to establish the philological seminary at Konigs- berg, Schleiermacher, a member of the school council, said : " The first object is only to excite a love for philology, and after this is awakened and formed, when an individual incli- nation is developed, free play must be given to it without any hesitation ; but in every way must prevent young men from limiting themselves to a narrow sphere and from finding their vocation therein." ^ Matthew Arnold, in speaking of the training of teachers, says : " Every Prussian university has a philological semi- nary or group of exhibitioners^much like that which I have described at Halle, not more than twelve in number, with a two years' course following one year's academic study, and alterthumwissenschaft (archaeology) being the object pur- sued. There are generally two professors especially attached to the seminary, one for Greek and the other for Latin." ^ This revival in learning spread, as might well SPREAD OF THE , , 11, MOVEMENT havc bccn expected, to other departments of the universities, especially to the departments of history, mathematics and the natural sciences. The deeper study of the classics made it necessary to enter into the whole life of the people, and history became especially prominent. The fruit of this period is seen in such names as Wolf, Heyne, Buttmann, Bekker, Ritschl, Dindorf, Niebuhr, Ger- hard, O. Jahn, E. Curtius, Mommsen and many others of equal renown. Although the primary object of these de- EFFECT ON TEACHING partmental seminaries, like those described above, was for scientific purposes, they greatly influenced the teaching profession by overcoming formalism and creating a love for scholarship and investigation. Had it not been for the activity of the central school ^ Barnard's A^ational Education in the German States, p. 485. ' Arnold's Higher Schools and Universities in Germany, p. 74. 37] BEGINNING AND GROWTH T^y board in upholding the pedagogical interest of the school, this growth and enthusiasm in academic learning and the better teaching resulting therefrom might of itself have been felt as sufficient and prevented longer the professional train- ing of secondary teachers. We have already had occasion to refer to the THE GYMNAsiAL ^ffo^ts of statc miuistcr von Zedlitz in trying SEMINARY AT . tt 11 BERLIN ^^ establish a pedagogical seminary at Halle for the training of secondary teachers accord- ing to the model of the Dessau philanthropin. These efforts at Halle were unsuccessful through the unexpected op- position of Wolf; however, in the same year with this failure at Halle (1787), von Zedlitz instructed Fr. Gedike, director of the Friedrich Werdersche Gymnasium, and member of the Oberschulkollegium to prepare a suitable plan for a peda- gogical seminary to be connected with the Gymnasium, which with but slight modifications met the approval of the school authorities. The seminary was connected with the Friedrich Werdersche Gymmasium of which Gedike was director, and opened with five regular members in the spring of 1788. It was the first institution of its kind founded by the state and through State appropriation, and became at once the model of all similar institutions. The aim of the school, as indicated in the ITS PURPOSE .,.,,,, -1 plan, was " to tram skillful and experienced teachers for the Gymnasiums and Higher Latin Schools." The work was to be both theoretical and practical, the , former through a study of the best schools and educational literature, supplemented by pedagogical treatises prepared by the students ; the latter through visitation and observa- tion of the regular school work, by assisting in the class work of the regular teachers, by oversight and care of indifferent or backward pupils, and by actual teaching according to instructions and under the supervision of the CONDITION OF 38 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [38 director and the three other teachers of the Gymnasium selected for this purpose. Admission to the seminary was conditioned on having completed their university studies and having passed an examination including a test lesson. Gedike had wished to include also strong graduates of the Gymnasium who had not pursued uni- versity studies, but in this he was overruled. The members received a stipend of 150 PRACTICE- . , , , _ , ,. , TTTAr^uT^r^ thalers each, and were at first obliged to m- TEACHING " struct 10 hours per week in the different classes of the gymnasium, the subjects changing half-yearly. They were further required to assist the ordinary teachers in correcting the written work of the pupils, and were obliged to meet in monthly conferences, open to all teachers of the gymnasium, to receive criticism and engage in pedagogical discussions. Owing to the amount of teaching and class assistance re- quired of the seminarists the theoretical side was much neglected; nevertheless, the school prospered and many of the candidates were called directly from the seminary to important school positions. ' In 1793 Gedike became director of the Ber- TRANSFER AND y^^ Gymuasium of the grauen Kloster, and the OTHER CHANGES OF THE SCHOOL scmmary passed over with him to the new position. It was during this year that he organized a philological society composed of seminarists who met monthly to work out and discuss Latin essays on philological subjects. This step was fraught with great consequences for the after-development of the school, and not infrequently caused its pedagogical character to be lost sight of. Regarding this feature Rein has expressed himself as follows : "The pedagogical interest of the i8th century began more and more to retreat before the philological one 39] BEGIXNING AND GROWTH 35. of the 19th century, and under the guidance of Boeckh (1819-1867J the seminary acquired a purely philological character." ' This was equally true during the directorship of Bonitz, 1867-1875.^ During part of the time of Boeckh's administration he was director both of the gymnasial seminary and of the philological seminary of the university, showing the close relation existing between the schoolmaster and philology. The further development of this seminary contains much of interest. First, on account of its double character, philo- logical and pedagogical, now one, now the other subject was accorded the greater attention. Second, there was the readi- ness with which the seminary was transferred from one gym- nasium to another in order to meet the convenience of the director. 3 Third, the amount of time devoted to teaching and practical school affairs as compared with their omission in most of the seminaries connected with the universities. At present this seminary is connected with the Kollnische Gymnasium in Berlin, and still retains all the essential features of the original plan of 1787, together with the classi- cal character added to it by its founder in 1793. Other pedagogical seminaries, modeled after OTHER ^j^g above plan, have been established at Stettin GYMNASTICAL ^ ^ -^ , „ t^.. ., r.^Tv/r i SEMINARIES I oO", Brcslau 1813, Konigsberg 1861, Magde- burg, Danzig and Posen 18S4, Kassel 1885, Miinster 1888 and Koblenz 1889. Aside from the above institutions there have PEDAGOGICAL , , , ...... SEMINARIES "^^" formed many pedagogical seminaries in connection with the different universities, oi 'Rein, Gymnasial Seminar, Encyc, 3: 128. ^ Compare Fries, Die Vorbildttng der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 55. ' At one time the length of membership was extended to four years, and the eight seminarists were to give six lessons per week in alternate years in all the four gymnasiums of Berlin. 40 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [40 which the one founded by J. F. Herbart in Konigsberg, 1 8 TO, may be taken as a type. These differ from the phil- ological seminaries above described in that they are pro- iessional rather than academic, dealing with the subjects of philosophy, psychology, pedagogy and ethics instead of the classics and philology. They differ from the gymnasial seminaries in that their students have not yet completed their university course, and .are engaged in academic study along with their professional studies. They also give more attention to theory and less to practice. Other seminaries of this kind, not including the ones already mentioned at Helmstedt 1779, and at Heidelberg 1809, were those established at Halle 1829 (a reorganiza- tion), at Kiel 1827, Jena 1832, Gottingen 1838, Leipzig 1861, and Strasburg 1876-92. "There are seven univer- sity seminaries in Germany, distributed as follows: I. Giving theoretical instruction only — Gottingen. U. Combining theory with practice, {a) In connection with regular organized gymnasiums — Heidelberg, Leipzig, Miinster, Tubingen, Freiberg. {b) Having a model school of its own — Jena. . . . The seminaries at Halle, Strasburg, Konigs- berg and Kiel, which were renowned, are all discontinued."' These seminaries do not differ much in the THE AIM AND • i i i t r/- • i i i • i essentials, but they difier considerably in the details, due for the most part to the local con- ditions through which they have developed. They aim to give the student a thorough and systematic knowledge of the more important pedagogical problems, especially in so far as they relate to German education. In most of them the classics receive a large share of attention, though pro- bably not more than is due in a country where the languages -.comprise so prominent a part of the curriculum. ' Bolton, The Secondary School System of Germany, p. 91-92. 4i] BEGINNING AND GROWTH 41 The two best known examples, Leipzig and Jena, are al- ready quite familiar to American readers. Fries describes the plan of the seminary at Heidelberg as follows : "Now since 1876 the gymnasial director Uhlig, who is at the same time Honorary Professor of Pedagogy and of Philology at the University, conducts the seminary, into which the students may enter after two years' study. They hear his pedagogical lectures and are introduced under his guidance into practice at the gymnasium. Here they begin with the middle classes, then descend to the lower, finally concluding with Prima. It appears always to be only a question of single lessons for which the students prepare themselves carefully under the guidance of the director and by visiting the instruction in question. The director and the teacher of the subject are present at the lesson, but only the former criticises. So, for instance, the practice-teachings of the classical philologists follow each other after this order: Caesar or Ovid in Obertertia, Xenophon in Untersekunda, Greek grammar in Untertertia, history in Quarta, German in Quarta or Quinta, Latin in Quinta or Sexta, Herodotus, Homer, Livius or Virgil, and history in Secunda, Sophocles, Plato, Demosthenes or Thucydides, Horace, Tacitus or Cicero in Prima. Accompanying these are common peda- gogical discussions in weekly sessions which, according to a communication of Uhlig, have been further extended in recent times. The themes for the reports are determined at the beginning of the semester and are taken from the most diverse fields. For instance. General Didactics, Classical School Readers, the Method of Grammatical Instruction ; also the demands of Hygiene, Manual Training and Child Play are presented for consideration."' Courses in pedagogy are offered in most of the German universities, usually under the department of philosophy, ^ Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fur das Lehramt, p. 30. 42 TRAINING OF SECONDAR\ TEACHERS [42 but these seem to be arranged rather with the thought of culture and for the purpose of meeting the UNIVERSITY professional requirements of the state examina- LECTURES ON . . PEDAGOGY ^"^^ 'u\-avl seriously to fit students for the office of teaching. These pedagogical lectures, like the pedagogical seminaries above described, do not seem to be considered as an essential function of the university, but rather as additions that may come and go with the individual creating them ; for example, the discontinuation of the semi- nary at Konigsberg on the departure of Herbart. Out of this educational development there DIFFERENT havc comc several forms of institutions for the FORMS OF r • 1 . • • , , i i TEACHERS' proisssional traming of teachers, the more im- sEMiNARiEs portant of which are : I. For elementary schools ; (a) normal schools, {b) seminaries in con- nection with elementary schools ; II. For secondary schools ; {a) gymnasial seminaries, {b) the university seminary with practice school, (<:) the university seminary without practice school. Notwithstanding the many excellent institutions for the professional training of secondary teachers, none as yet have met the full approval of the German people. Both the uni- versity seminary with provisions for practice teaching and the gymnasial seminary have enthusiastic supporters, the latter in greater numbers. In the former the student is able to carry on his special university studies along with his pedagogical instruction, thereby giving the latter an added value — though it is also argued that this division of inter- est is apt to weaken the work in both fields. Another point made in favor of the university seminary is the fact that every science carries with it a certain didactical principle which can best be taught in connection with the science itself. On the other hand, it is argued in favor of the gymnasial 43] BEGINXING AAD GROWTH 43 seminary that the students having completed their univer- sity studies are better qualified and are able to give their whole time to the professional side under conditions the most natural and also the most favorable to success. How- ever, it has been felt that even here the student should be given opportunity to pursue still further his scientific studies.' As in the elementary schools, so in the PROFESSIONAL sccondary, professional training has become TRAINING AN .1 • , , j. tU 4- -,^T,^^->» the siJie qua non of entrance to the teachers ESSENTIAL ^ REQUIREMENT profcssion, and the gymnasial seminaries are considered to be the best institutions for this purpose. They have met the favor of the provincial school boards and have multiplied out of proportion to other forms of teachers' seminaries. They aim to furnish the student with a large amount of practice teaching under expert guid- ance, and to bring into closer relation theoretical instruc- tion and practical application. They are based on the idea that thoroughness in subject-matter should precede the purely professional study. In this they differ from normal schools. To become a member of a gymnasial semi- nary one must have passed the State examina- OF TO-DAY •' ^ tion (Staats-Priifung) which presupposes a cer- tificate of graduation from gymnasium, or in special cases from the real gymnasium or higher real school, and at least three years' special study in the university. The number of candidates at any one time is usually limited to six. The seminary is connected with the gymnasium under the im- mediate supervision of the director and the general over- sight of the provincial school board. The course consists of two years — a seminary year ^ See under Pedagogische Seminar fiir hokere Sc/iulen, Schmid Encyc, 2d Ed., 5 : 688 f. / ^ Of THE OF THE UNIVE" 44 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [44 (seminar-jahr) and a trial year (probe-jahr). The former is devoted principally to a study of the various educational problems connected with secondary education, including theory and practice, organization and management, methods of instruction, recent educational history, school hygiene and the use of apparatus and other helps in teaching. Dur- ing the first year the student devotes considerable time in visiting and observing the regular school work. He visits the classes in which his own subjects lie, assists the regular teachers, and in the latter half of the year does some teach- ing under the guidance and criticism of the director and other teachers of the seminary. If his work has been satis- factory throughout the year, he is permitted to go on to the second or trial year. The trial year may be spent in the same gymnasium, though it is often spent at another insti- tution. It is devoted to teaching (about ten hours per ; week) and to the practical application of the pedagogical principles learned during the first year. All this takes place under the immediate guidance of the director and other teachers. The candidate, however, is given full charge and responsibility for the class. He continues his theoretical studies and attends weekly conferences for the considera- tion and discussion of educational problems as in the former year. At the close of the seminary year the candidate pre- sents a thesis on some pedagogical subject selected by the director, and at the end of the trial year he hands in a report of his teaching and of his own judgment in regard to the re- sults. These, together with the reports of the director and of the departmental teachers are submitted to the provincial school board for final judgment. If the character and work of the candidate have been satisfactory throughout, he is given a certificate to teach in the grades for which he is especially qualified by scientific study. " Since the higher educational institutions in Germany have gained more 45] BEGINNING AND GROWTH 4^ definite shapes and aims, the conviction has become current in increasing measure that for the teachers of these schools there is demanded, besides the thorough scientific culture, a special pedagogical preparation for the office of teaching, and that the otherwise very beneficial arrangement of a trial year does not answer all needs."' This was spoken in the early eighties, before the addition of the seminary year, but it shows the current of educational thought. If we seek the motives out of which have PEDAGOGICAL . . . ^r ■ ■ • MOTIVES THAT g^o^n thcse complex though efficient institu- HAVE SHAPED tious foT the profcssioual training of secondary PROFESSIONAL tcachcrs, we find them in at least two principal, TRAINING .1 1, • f T-U 4.U though opposing, forces. Ihe one was the rea- listic or scientific movement in education already mentioned as the principal cause in the establishment of normal schools. The other was the reaction of humanism against the inroads of realism, or perhaps better, a systematic effort to strengthen and enrich the classics by applying the scientific method of investigation. In the former movement the teaching of Ratich, Comenius, Locke and Rousseau became crystallized by Basedow in his experimental school at Dessau, which gave great promise and furnished the school authorities with a concrete idea for the new pedagogical seminaries. The normal schools had already been established and were attracting considerable attention. This but increased the desire to have teachers trained in the new ideas and in the new methods as well for secondary as for elementary education. The first impetus came from this realistic movement which made itself felt in elementary education and then reacted upon higher education. It was now known as the philanthropic movement, but it was the same spirit under a new dress. As the reader will remember, State Minister ^ Schmid, Encyc. des Erziehungs-und U titer richtswesen, 2 Aufl., 5 : 688. 46 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [46 von Zedlitz was in full sympathy with the movement, and backed by the school authorities it found its way into the universities and became the basis of the first gymnasial seminary under Gedike in Berlin. In establishing pedagogical seminaries it was natural that they should be connected with departments already in exist- ence. The departments that seemed best fitted to train teachers for the gymnasiums, aside from theology, were the language departments, hence the relation of pedagogy to philology. For this reason the state minister of education did not hesitate to trust his new pedagogical seminary at Halle in the hands of a trained philologist. For like reason the government authorized J. M. Gesner, professor of ancient literature at Gottingen, to establish the first philological seminary with the expressed object of training theologians for the oflfice of teaching.' There was another movement, however, which if less noisy, was none the less powerful in shaping the educational legislation of the country. It was the movement which Dr. Russell has described under the title of the "New Human- ism."^ The scientific spirit had taken hold of the people and was making great changes in educational affairs. The Ger- man language had given expression to many classics. It even seemed possible to buifd up an acceptable curriculum for the higher schools without either Greek or Latin. It was at this juncture that the great scholars, like Gesner, Heyne, Wolf and others, began to apply the scientific spirit to a deeper study of classical literature. Call it a revolt against formalism, or a reaction against the spread of realism, never- theless, it was an intelligent movement which gave to the classics new life and new power. Other departments of the ' Gesner, like many others, while a classicist, had strong realistic or utilitarian tendencies. ' German Higher Schools, p. 70. .yl BEGINNING AND GROWTH 47 universities were stimulated and benefited. Philological seminaries were established in the different universities and became at once centers of thought and educational activity. At first the seminaries had a double object, («) "to form effective classical masters for the higher schools," and {b) " to excite in all a love for philology." But they soon neglected or gave up entirely the former object and devoted all attention to the latter. " The seminars are the real nurseries of scientific research. It is true that their pur- pose was originally different. The earliest of their kind, the philological seminars founded in the last century in Halle or Gottingen were, or were intended to be, pedagogical seminars for future teachers in the classical schools ; but in fact they were, (especially that of F. A. Wolf) before all else, institutions in which the technique of philological research was taught, and this is true in a still higher degree of the philological seminaries and societies conducted in the present century by G. Hermann, F. Thiersch, F. Ritchl and others, all of them being schools for philologians, not teachers." ' Their purpose has been to encourage scientific research, rather than to give training in the practical application of knowledge, and yet they have created a love for scholarship that has greatly modified the form of teachers' seminaries for secondary education. It seems strange that to-day the greatest opposition to the professional training of teachers should come from the language departments where such training was first offered. It may be due in part to tradition, in part to accumulated experiences which have given to these subjects somewhat fixed forms of treatment, and in part to the fact that scholarship, in itself an essential requi- site of a successful teacher, has been given undue promi- nence. ^ F. Paulsen, German Universities, Character and Historical Development p. 157. 48 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [48 The spirit of German nationalism which took hold of the German people after the battle of Jena had great influence in modifying the schools of the country and deserves to be mentioned among the forces. But principally out of the humanistic desire for culture and the philanthropic desire for utility, the present institutions for the professional training, of secondary teachers have developed. They differ from the normal schools in demanding a greater degree of scholarship and professional training; in divorcing the academic from the professional subjects ; and in omitting the review or further drill in the academic sub- jects with the view of teaching them. An account of the development of the insti- FRANCE AND . , , ,.,,.. , , i ENGLAND tutions for the professional trammg of teachers in France and in England would be especially interesting, and the well-planned and far-reaching system of France affords many valuable lessons for the student of edu- cation. But as neither of these systems has exerted anything like the influence of Germany on the development of the professional training of teachers in the United States, their history may be omitted or reserved for a future article. REFERENCES. Beyer, O. W., Zur Errichtung pddagogischer Lehrstuhle an ujtserer Universi- tdten, Langensalza, 1895. 72 pp. Bose, G., Zur Sei7iinarrefo7-mfrage. Ein Beitrag zur Losung derselbeii, unter specieller Rucksicht und Beziehung auf die Einrichtungen des evange- lischett VolksschtiUehrer seminar zu Oldenburg. Oldenburg, 1872. 43 pp. Bliedner, Karl, Volkmar Stay und das pddaqogische Universiidts-semitiar, 188b. Reichardt, Leipzig. 366 pp. Brzoska, H. G., Die Notwendi^keii pddagogischer Seminar e auf der Universitdt und ihre zweckmdssi^e Einrichtun^. Neu. hrsg. von IVilhelm Rein. Leipzig, 1887. Ernst, Karl, Theorie und Praxis des pddagogischen Seminar. In Pddagoqische Siudien, neue Folge, iSg3. V. 13, 193-223 pp. Frick, O. P. M., Das Setninarium praeceptorum an den Franckeschen Stifiunq- en zu Halle. Ein Beitrag zur Losunq der Lehrerbildungsfraqe. Halle, 1883. 62 pp. ^g-\ BEGLVA'/NG AND GROWTH 49 Frick, O, Piida^o^sche uud didaktische Ahhandlun^en. Das Semi nari urn prae- ceptoyiim. Halle, 1893. Frick, O., and Meier, H., Lehrprohen iind I.ehrgdn^e aus der Praxis der Gym- nasien tind Keahchulen. Halle, 1890. Heft 23, pp. 111-121; Heft 24, pp. 135-140. Fries, Wilhelm, Die Vorhildim^ der I.ehrer Jiir das Lehramt. Munchen, 1895. Vni + 206 pp. Handbuch der Erziehungs und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen. Herausgegeben von Dr. A. Bamiieister. Munchen, 1896. Vol. 2, Part I. Y\o\\\\z\\,Q\\%\.z.v, Die Erziehun^esschule. Wien, 1877. V -|- 42 pp. [In Pdda- gogische Sittdien, 18S1. V. 2, No. 18.) Hoffman, R., Die praktische Vorbildung zut?t h'oheren Schulatni auf der Uni- versitdt. Leipzig, i88i. 43 pp. Keferstein, Horst, Die pddagogische Vorbildung im Lehrer-seminar. {In Pdda- goqiu7n, 1884. V. 6, pp. 534-556, 597-614 and 641-658.) Langermann, J., Die Vorbildutig der Lehrer z« Prdparanden-anstalten. Biele- feld, 18S9. 30 pp. {Savimlung pddagogischer Vortrdge, V. 2, Part 4.) Loos, Die praktisch pddagogische Vorbildutig in Deutschland, Zeitschrift fiir Osterr. Gym. Vienna, 1893. Miiller, Georg, Zur Entstehungsqeschichte des philologischen, pddago^ischen una katechetischeti Seminars an der Universitdt Leipzig. {In Pddagogische Studien, neue Folge, i8g6. V. 17, pp. 1-43.) Muth, Das methodische Seminar. Wien, 1880. pp. 23. Nohl, Clemens, Pddagogik fiir hokeren Lehranstalten. Bd. 3, Gera., 1888. pp. 215. Y7i\i\%Q\\,Vix.Y., Gesckichte des gelehrten Unterrichts. 2 Aufl. 2 Bde. Leipzig, 1897. Rein, G. W., Aus dem pdda^oqischen Universitdts- Seminar zu Jena. Langen- salza, 1888-96. Zur Frage der Ausbildung von Erziehern fiir das hohere Lehramt, Zeilschrifif. Philos. u. Pdd. 4 Heft. Langensalza. Richter, R. L, Zur Frage der pddagogischen Vorbildung fUr das hohere Lehramt. {In Neue Jahrbiicher fiir Philolo^ie und Pddaqogik, i8g6. V. 154, pp. 209-224.) Sallwiirk, Ernst von, Das Staatsseminar fiir Pddagogik. Gotha, 1890. Pp. 40. Schiller, Dr. Hermann, Pddagogische Seminarien fiir das hohere Lehramt, Ge- schichte und Erfahrung. Leipzig, 1890. Pp. 1 71. Schrader, W., Erziehun^s und Unterrichtelehre. Berlin, 1893. Stoy, K. v., Organisation des Lehrer seminars. Ein Beitrag zur Methodologie der Padagogik angekniipft an einer historische Einleitung und Berichter- stattung iiber das erste Lebensjahr des Lehrerseminars zu Bielitz, Leipzig, 1869. Pp. 104. CO TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [50 Thaulow, G. F., Nothwendigkeit und Bedeuiunq eines pddagogischen Seminars auf Universiidten und Geschichte meines Seminars. Berlin, 1845. II, pp. 181. Thrandorf, E., Die pddagogische Behandlun^ der Geschichte dei- Pdda^ogik im Lehrersetninars. {In Pddagogische Siudien, neue Fol^e, ISgj. V. 18, pp. I-15. "Vogt, Theodor, Die Bedeutimg der pddagogischen Universitdts-seminars. {In Pdda^o^sche Studien, neue Folge, iSgj. V. 14; pp. 64-86.) Voss, Die pddagogische Vorbildung zum hbheren Lehramt in Preussen una Sachsen. Ein Reisebericht. Halle, 1889. Pp.171. Waldeck, Grundzil^e der wissenschaftlichen Pdda^ogik und die akademischen Seminare. Leipzig, 1881. Pp. 53. Willmann, O, Didaktik ah Bildungslehre, 18S2. Bd. i, 1882. Pp. 420. Bd. 2, 1889. Pp. 523-530. Witte, Pddagogische Professuren an Universiidten und Universiidts- Seminare , 18SS. Zange, Dr. F., G}'mnasiaiseminare und die pddagogische Ausbildung der Kandi- daien des hoheren Schulamts. Halle, 1890. Pp. 76. Arnold, Matthew, Higher Schools and Universities in Germany. London, 1882. Chapter V., The Prussian Schoolmaster. Pp. 62 ff. Barnard, H., N'ational Education in the German States. E. Steiger, New York, 1872. Pp. 902. Bohon, Dr. F. E., The Secondary School Systetn of Germany. Chapter II. on Training of Teachers. D. Appleton & Co. 1900. Burnham, Dr. Wm. H., The Higher Pedagogical Seminaries in Germany. Pedagogical Seminary, 1891. Vol. I, p. 390. Eaton, John, editor, Trainini; of Teachers in Germany. Bureau of Education, Washington, 1878. Circular No. i. Pp. 36. James, E. J., The Higher Education of Teachers at the University of Jena. New Eng. Jour, of Edu. 18: 356, 372. Russell, Dr, Jas. E., German Higher Schools. New York, 1899. See Chapter XVIII. on Professional Training of Teachers for Higher Schools. Also Education R. 14:17- (Je-) Seeley, Dr. Levi, The Comt?ion School System of Germany. New York, 1896. P. 138 ff. Annual Report of the Commissioner of the U. S. See also under appropriate topics of Schmid and of Rein's Encyclopedias. The latter contains an excellent bibliography at the close of the article on " Padagogisches Universitats-Seminar . ' ' CHAPTER II HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES The professional training of teachers in America, as in Germany, began first with elementary education. It arose out of the necessity for academic training in the common school branches. At a meeting of citizens of Plymouth County, Hanover, Mass., 1838, called together for the purpose of considering the advisability of establishing a normal school, the Rev. George Putnam said : " He once had kept school, and with tolerable acceptance, he believed, to his employers, but though just from college, he found himself deficient in the very first steps of eletnejitary knowledge. He had studied all the mathematics required at Cambridge, but he did not know how to come at a young mind so as to successfully teach enumeration. He had studied the classics, but he could not teach a boy how to construct a simple English paragraph." ' If true of the college student, how much more so of the many teachers who had never even visited an academy or a high school. For the first twenty-five or thirty years of THE FIRST ^Yyq natiou's history, the energies of the people YEARS OF A . NATION were occupied with grave questions of state, financial policy, foreign and domestic relations, wars, boundaries, internal dissensions, and the many read- ^ As quoted by Barnard in Am. Jour. Educ, i : 588. 51] 5» e 2 TRAINING OF SECONDAR Y TEA CHERS [52 justments necessary to meet the new forms of life and of government. Besides, it was not until the prosperous years following the War of 1812 that the Union began to be con- sidered in the light of permanency and the means for its perpetuity became a matter of public concern. With increased prosperity, freedom from external dis- turbances and accumulated faith in the government, the future of the nation began to receive greater attention. In response there arose the movement known as the " educa- tional revival" covering the period from 1820 to 1840, dur- ing which the different states organized and greatly extended their school systems to meet the needs of the new conditions of society. It was during this period that the inefficiency of elementary education began to attract serious attention, and teachers' seminaries were advocated as the only solution of the difficulty. It is probably true, as stated by Gordy,' ORIGIN OF ^^^|. ^j^g \^^2i of normal schools for this coun- NORMAL . . 1 • ,1 1 SCHOOLS ^^y ^^^ ^" origmal conception of the early writers on the subject, and yet, long before the idea had taken definite form in the establishment of institu- tions, the existing system of Germany had been carefully studied, and its nature, advantages and practical workings had been heralded through the country. One needs only to read the history of normal schools to appreciate the debt we owe to Prussia for the ideal as well as for the form of these early institutions. A single illustration will suffice. " The Prussian system, better than any other with which we are acquainted, aims at unfolding the whole nature of man, as the Creator designed, thus bringing out all the talent of the country, and thereby giving to each child the chance of making the most of himself. • * * * To secure these glorious results, we think we may imitate the Prussians, not ' Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States. 53] HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 53 only in more varied and extensive studies, bur also in their Governmental Organization." ' There was a deficiency in the school system, a need keenly felt; Germany had successfully met somewhat similar con- ditions by the establishment of normal schools ; why not try the experiment? Attention had been attracted to the elementary schools ; and it was there that the greatest deficiency existed. Nor- mal schools were created in response to this need, and with the expressed object of " qualifying teachers for the common schools." '^ At the town meeting at Hanover, Mass., 1848, already mentioned above, Rev. Putnam said : " It (the normal school) would, moreover, raise common schools to be the best schools in the community ; and when they had become the best schools, as they should be, then the money now spent in private schools would be turned into the public ones, as in the Latin school at Boston, and higher wages could be given without any additional burden on our towns. * * * * The normal school, while it opens infinite advan- tages to the poor, will lessen their burdens and elevate them to knowledge and influence." ^ Following, John Quincy Adams said : " We see monarchs expending vast sums, establishing normal schools through- out their realms and sparing no pains to convey knowledge and efficiency to all the children of their poorest subjects. Shall we be oiitdo7ie by kings .^" ■» At the same meeting Daniel Webster said : " The ultimate aim was to elevate and improve the primary schools and to secure competent instruction to every child which should be 1 Petition to Mass. Legislature, 1837, in behalf of Normal Schools, drafted by Rev. Chas. Brooks. Am. Jour. Educ, 17: 643. ' Statute of Mass. Mass. Common School Jour., i : 35, » Am. Jour. Educ, I : 588. *■ Ibid., 589. C4 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS ["54 born," and again, " This plan of a normal school in Plymouth County is designed to elevate our common schools, and thus to carry out the noble ideas of our pil- grim fathers." ' In the opening address of the normal school at Barre, Mass., September 5, 1839, Governor Edward Everett said: " This institution which is now opened in this pleasant and prosperous village is devoted to the education of teachers of the common schools and is called a normal school." ^ Horace Mann, in contrasting the work of the New York academies and Massachusetts normal schools, said the first business of a normal school consists " in reviewing and thor- oughly and critically mastering the rudiments or elementary branches of knowledge." 3 The one object which overshadowed all others in the crea- tion of normal schools was that they should be the fitting schools for elementary teachers. And what was true in Massachusetts was equally true in the other states. The fol- lowing declaration of intentions was made part of the en- trance requirements at the Albany State Normal School, New York : " We the subscribers hereby declare, that it is our intention to devote ourselves to the business of teaching district schools, and that our sole object in resorting to this normal school is better to prepare oursselves for that im- portant duty.""* The way in which this object was to be ac- THE NATURE OF , . , , . , , . , , • , THE WORK complished is set forth quite clearly in the address of Edward Everett, Governor of Massa- chusetts, at the opening of the State Normal School at ' Am. Jour. Educ, 1 : 590. ' Ibid., 13 : 758. » Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States. J. P. Gordy, p. 40. * Am. your. Educ, 17: 708. 55] HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 55 Barre, 1839. He said in part: "Such a course of instruc- tion will obviously consist of the following parts : " I. A careful review of the branches to be taught in our common schools ; it being of course the first requisite of a teacher that he should himself know well that which he is to aid others in learning. * * * * The first object of in- struction in a normal school is, as far as possible, in the space of time assigned to its instructions, to go over the circle of branches required to be taught, and see that the future teacher is thoroughly and minutely versed in them. " 2. The second part of instruction in a normal school is the art of teaching. To know the matter to be taught and to know it thoroughly, are of themselves, though essential, not all that is required. There is a peculiar art of teach- ing. * * ♦ * '* 3. The third branch of instruction to be imparted in an institution concerns the important subject of the government of the school, and might perhaps more justly have been named the first. * * * * "4. In the last place, it is to be observed, that in aid of all instruction and exercises within the limits of the normal school, properly so called, there is to be estabhshed a com- mon or district school, as a school of practice, in which, under the direction of the principal in the normal school, the young teacher may have the benefit of actual exercise in the business of instruction." ' Governor Everett calls attention to the three branches he considers of greatest importance for these schools: reading,' writing and arithmetic. In his outline of the course of study we have the essential features of the normal school as it has existed from that day to this; i. A thorough grounding in the subject-matter required to be taught; 2. The science 1 Orations and Speeches oj Edward Everett, 2: 350-357; Am. Jour. Edut., 13. 765- ^6 TRAIN/A'G OF SECONDARY TEACHERS T^g and art of teaching; 3. School management and discipline; 4. Practice teaching. The Educational Committee of the Massachusetts Legis- lature in 1827 gave expression to similar views when repojt- ing favorably a bill for normal schools. Among other things it said : " The attention of the student is to be called pri- marily to the course of reading upon the subject of educa- tion ; he is to be instructed thoroughly in all the branches pertaining to his profession, particularly in all that portion of solid learning calculated to fit him to communicate the knowledge required in the common free schools of the country. A peculiar character of usefulness will be stamped upon the institution proposed by connecting with it an ex- perimental school, consisting entirely of young children pur- suing the ordinary routine of instruction." ' The normal schools of this country began, therefore, with a definite object in view {i. e., to prepare teachers for the com- mon district schools), and according to a well-matured plan. For nearly a century teachers' seminaries had been in the process of development in Germany, and these furnished excellent examples which required only to be adapted to the diflferent social conditions. List of early normal schools, with date of establishment: \ Lexington (now Framingham) 1839 . ,^ , Barre (now Westfield) i8^Q Massachusetts. -| „ . , ''^ Bridgewater 1 839 Salem 1853 Albany 1844 New York • " \ Oswego 1863 Brockport 1866 Connecticut . . New Britain 1 849 Michigan Ypsilanti 1 850 Rhode Island. Providence 1853 , / Iowa City (Normal Dept. in State Uni- 1 o I versity) ' ^ Amer, your. Educ, 16: 87. 1 57] HISTORY Ot NORMAL SCHOOLS 57 New Jersey Illinois .... Pennsylvania. Minnesota Wisconsin Maine California Kansas - . . Maryland . Vermont . Nebraska . Indiana . . W. Virginia r Trenton 1855 I Beverly 1856 Bloomington (Normal) 1857 Millersville 1859 Edinboro 1861 Mansfield 1862 Kutztown 1866 Winona i860 Madison 1862 Platteville 1866 Augusta 1863 Farmmgton 1 864 San Francisco (now San Jos6) i86a Emporia " 1865 Baltimore 1865 Randolph 1867 Johnson 1867 Castleton 1867 Peru 1867 Terre Haute 1867 Huntington (Marshall College) 1867 Fairmont 1867 West Liberty 1867 When normal schools were first created there ABSENCE OF HIGH SCHOOLS was little or no public provision made for sec- ondary education. "Until 1837, when the Philadelphia High School was established, there was no in- stitution of the kind in the United States outside of Massa- chusetts," ' and it might have been added, outside of Boston. Baltimore organized its High School in 1839, New York its Free Academy in 1849, Cincinnati a High School in 1850, and Chicago in 1856. There were a few of the old grammar schools and a number of incorporated academies, most of which received public funds, but they had been established as feeders for the early colleges, and were devoted princi- pally to the teaching of Latin, Greek and mathematics, sub- jects of but little interest to the people at large. * Kiddle & Schem, Cyclo. of Education, p. 422. 5 8 TRA FNING OF SECOXDAR Y TEA CHERS [58 The common or district school was in every sense the people's school. It shaped itself SCHOOL . continually to their needs and desires. It dealt with the subjects considered most useful in the ordinary duties of life. It was then, as it has remained ever since, near to the heart of the people. The natural growth of the country, the increasing interest in scientific subjects, and the partial decline of Latin and Greek, the greater need of intelligent citizenship, and the added impetus which came from better teaching as the re- sult of normal schools, caused a most rapid development of the common school system. The Kindergarten in one di- rection and the High School in the other were but outgrowths of this system. Boone in speaking of the High School says, BEGINNING OF ..j. .... . i.1 i 11 1 v Its origin, Its aims, its methods, all mark its HIGH SCHOOLS ..... kinship with institutions below rather than above it." ' But the High Schools did not come into exist- ence full-fledged as we find them to-day. It is true some had taken the place of the old grammar schools or acad- emies and had expanded by adding new subjects to the curriculum, but the greater majority were the result of an expansion of the common school course by the continued addition of new subjects. There are no distinct marks of division to indicate where the elementary school ends, or where the high school begins. Whether the addition of a few new subjects to the common school course makes it a high school, a grammar school, or only a district graded school, is usually determined by the local community. As the high school resulted from an ex- EXTENsioNOF pension of the common schools, the normal THE NORMAL COURSE schools, having been charged with the duty of fitting teachers for the common schools, nat- ' Education in the United States, p. 344. 59] HISTORY OF XOKMAL SCHOOLS 59 urally enough extended their curricula to meet the growing needs of the teachers they trained. Had the high schools been the result of a sudden creation, or had there been at the time other teachers' seminaries, the normal schools might have remained true to their original purpose of train- ing teachers for the elementary schools. Under the circum- stances, however, they gradually extended their field to include the training of teachers for high schools, grammar schools and kindergartens, some even endeavoring to train , teachers for colleges. And as the high schools became more and more developed, the difificulty of trying to cover the whole field became apparent. The work of the normal school was stretched to the utmost, becoming extended in quantity but thin in quality. Another point worthy of notice is the fact CHANGE IN ^j^g^. ^^ ^j^g beginning of normal instruction all HIGHER EDU- .7 CATION. schools in this country, whether higher or lower, were, in the true sense of the word, teaching or instructional institutions, that is, their primary object was to impart rather than to produce knowledge. The colleges had produced their great teachers like Mark Hopkins, but the student-teacher or investigator, like Agassiz, had not yet enlered the field. The office of the college professor, like that of the teacher of the lower schools, was primarily one of instruction and not one of in- vestigation. The scientific spirit which we have already mentioned as afifecting the work in Germany had not yet taken hold of the people. But it was not long until this movement spread throughout the country. The colleges became universities ; and the universities have become insti- tutions of investigation and research, perhaps even more than of instruction. In this change of method the high schools of the country have been correspondingly affected, standing as they do upon the border line between the purely 60 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [60 instructional work of the lower schools and the specialization and research work of the higher. As long as education remained largely a RESEARCH AS ^^^^^^ q{ instruction, or of imparting acquired A FACTOR o i knowledge, the normal schools were very suc- cessful in preparing teachers even for the high school ; because by carefully massing the facts and systematizing the work of instruction according to well-known pedagogical principles the student was enabled to acquire more knowl- edge in less time. But when investigation and research became important factors in higher education, the normal schools, already taxed to their utmost, could not successfully prepare the speciahsts that were demanded for the high schools. To prepare specialists required time, — Agassiz might keep the student for six months on a single fish before proceeding to supply him with the facts already accumu- lated ; but such a use of time was not consistent with the work and purposes of the normal schools. While the normal schools have met with STIMULUS OF . , , , ... , NORMAL considerable opposition from one source and INSTRUCTION anothcr, they have been of great service to the TO HIGHER teaching profession, and have continually grown EDUCATION. . ,, , , ^1 1 in the favor of the people. The following statement, taken from the report of the Educational Committee of the General Assembly of Con- necticut, 1863, expresses almost the unanimous verdict of similar committees in other states: "Testimony has been received from members of boards of education, district com- mittees, principals of large pubHc schools, and others inter- ested in educational pursuits, from every county of the State — testimony which is confirmed by a careful investigation of all seeming opposition — that as a class the graduates and \ undergraduates of our State Normal schools are more sought for as teachers, pass better examinations, are stricter disci- 6i] HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS gj plinarians, are more thorough and systematic in teaching, waste less time in educational experiments, are more ready to improve by suggestions, have more laudable pride in their profession, show larger results, and give to school committees, parents and guardians better satisfaction than teachers from any other sources," The success and aggressiveness of teachers trained in nor- mal schools have had much to do in stimulating universities to establish departments of pedagogy. It is only when the normal schools with limited resources have overreached their bounds and have endeavored to prepare teachers for all grades of school work, that they have received well- merited criticism. CHAPTER III HISTORY OF THE EARLIEST EFFORTS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES As shown in Chapter II, the professional training of teachers for elementary education began in this country- through the establishment of normal schools ; and according to a well-matured and thoroughly efficient plan. Such, how- ever, was not the case with the professional training of secondary teachers. Here the process was one of slow devel- opment, indigenous to the soil, interrupted and modified by the changing conditions of secondary education. Whether as a result of the expanding curricula of normal schools and the formation of normal departments in univer- sities, or, later, the establishment of university chairs of pedagogy and departments of education, the professional preparation of secondary teachers has never been very clearly separated from that of elementary teachers. In fact, the same pedagogical treatment has usually been considered equally valuable for either field. And it is only within the last few years that any serious attempt has been made to differentiate the professional training of elementary and secondary teachers.' As normal schools, driven by what seemed NORMAL DE- ' -^ PARTMENTs IN to bc a nccessity, enlarged their curricula to THEUNivERsi- make provision for teachers in higher educa- ^'^^ tion, so the colleges with a somewhat similar ' See Dr. Harris' article, " The Future of the Normal School," Educational Review, Jan., 1899, and the present School Law regulating Normal Instruction in Massachusetts, California and Connecticut. 62 [62 63] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 63 spirit endeavored to meet the needs of the people by extead- ing their courses to include the preparation of teachers for elementary schools. Especially was this true of the state universities of the West, created at a time when normal schools were making headway in the East and before their establishment in the West. It was through the develop- ment of these normal departments in the universities that the first chairs of pedagogy came into existence. Another independent movement will be considered later. Through the labors of Henry Barnard, while school commissioner of Rhode Island (1841;- UNIVERSITY ^ ^■' 49), the people became thoroughly aroused on educational affairs, and in response to the efTorts of his suc- cessor, Elisha R. Potter, Brown University established a Normal department in 1850, under the charge of Samuel S. •Greene,' superintendent of the Providence schools. He re- tained his position as superintendent while at the same time performing the duties of Professor of Didactics in the Uni- versity. This double relation is of interest in connection with the present arrangement at Brown University, whereby the Professor of Pedagogy being also principal of one of the Providence high schools. PURPOSE AND ^" defining the purpose of the new depart- DEVEroPMENT mcut, thc anuual catalogue of 1851-52, p. 43, OF THE says: " This department is opened for all those DEPARTMENT -u • \^ . y_ i • \ ^ \ a wrio wish to become professional teachers. A course of lectures, commencing on the 5th of November, will be given on the habits of mind necessary to eminent success in teaching; the relation of the teacher to the pupil; the principles which should guide in the organization of a 'The following brief statement taken from the Historical Catalogue (1764- 1894) of Brown University, under the heading of " Professors," is of interest: "Samuel Stillman Greene, LL. D., Didactics, 1851-54; Mathematics and Civil Engineering, 1855-64; Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, 1864-83; died, 1883." 64 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [64 school ; the arrangement and adaptation of studies to the capacity of the learner; the influences to be employed in controlling the passions, forming the habits and elevating the tastes of the young ; and on the elements of the art of teaching, or the best methods of imparting instruction in reading, grammar, geography, history, mathematics, lan- guage, and the various other branches taught in our higher seminaries. All these lectures are accompanied with prac- tical exercises, in which each member is to participate. For the benefit of teachers generally, a class has already been formed, consisting of persons not connected with the University, This class numbers at present fifty members. Lectures are given at the Lecture Room of the High School, on Benefit street, twice a week, on the various topics em- braced in a course of elementary teaching," In carrying forward his work. Prof, Greene established a second class of teachers and students, not members of the University, which in 1852 grew into a private Normal school, with D, P. Colburn, of the Bridgewater Normal, and Arthur Summer, of the Lancaster Normal, as assistant teachers. In 1854 this school, with D. P. Colburn as principal, was made a State Normal school, and shortly afterward was re- moved to Bristol, The purpose for which the normal department of the University had been created having been met by the es- tablishment of a state normal school, the University gave up its normal department and suspended its pedagogical work. The annual catalogue of 1854-55, p. 38, refers to the matter as follows: "In consequence of the establishment in Providence of the Rhode Island Normal school, instructions in this department of the University are for the present sus- pended. Students wishing to pursue a course in didactics may do it in connection with the abovementioned school," No further pedagogical work was offered in the University ^5] ^^ COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES gj until 1893-94, when Walter Ballou Jacobs, A. M., principal of one of the Providence high schools, was made instructor in pedagogy. He gave, during the third term of that year, a three-hour course in " The history, theory and practice of organized education," elective for juniors, seniors and grad- uates. Prof. Jacobs has since been made Associate Professor of Pedagogics, but still continues as principal of one of the Providence high schools. He has been granted one or two extra instructors in the department of pedagogy, who, like himself, are also connected with the teaching staff of the city schools. The department of pedagogics is coordinate with the other departments of the University, and while the work is elective, it may count toward graduation. We purpose giving in another chapter the later develop- ment of this department, but offer in this connection a state- ment showing the present arrangement for practice teaching, which was established in the fall of 1897. I^ 's as follows: " From members of the senior class who have completed the course in Pedagogy offered during the senior year, the school committee of the city of Providence make appoint- ments to the position of student-teacher in the high school. To those thus appointed the high school serves as a school of observation and practice in connection with the graduate course in Pedagogy. In return for the services rendered, the city gives such a student-teacher half the pay of a regu- lar teacher. The time required each day is somewhat more than half the usual period of service. An unusual oppor- tunity is thus offered student-teachers to gain a thorough knowledge of the theory of pedagogy, and at the same time practical experience in the art of teaching." ' NORMAL DE- ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^49. the Iowa legislature made PARTMENT IOWA provisiou for three state normal schools to be UNIVERSITY located in different parts of the state. The * Catalogue, 1899-1900, p. 58. 66 TKAINrNG OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [66 Act carried with it an appropriation of $500 per annum for each school, to be apportioned out of the University Fund, provided that in each case the people of the district contribute an equal amount for the erection of buildings. In accordance with this provision two schools were opened, one at Andrews and the other at Oskaloosa, but failing to receive the expected aid from the University Fund they soon discontinued. The Act appropriating money for normal schools was repealed in 1855, and the State University, in response to a general demand, opened a normal department. For the first year the normal department was in charge of Mr. J. Van Valkenburg, and registered in all about seventy students. Notwithstanding the fact that it was made a de- partment of the State University, it was at first conducted by separate teachers and the work was of the most ele- mentary character. The first circular announcement of the Normal Depart- ment, Sept., 1855, says, under condition of entrance: "The applicant must be twelve years of age if female, and fourteen years of age if male, and must be supplied with slate, pencil, blank-book, Webster's dictionary, and Mitchell's or Mc- Nally's geography and atlas. . . . The course of study in this school will begin with orthography, reading, penman- ship, English grammar, mental and written arithmetic, geog- raphy, and physiology. " The attention of pupils is directed, first, to a thorough review of elementary studies ; second, to those branches of knowledge which may be considered as an expansion of the above-named elementary studies, or collateral to them ; third, to the art of teaching and its modes." In June, 1858, all instruction was suspended for want of funds to meet current expenses. Instruction in the normal course was resumed November, 1858, and in the collegiate courses September, i860. Upon resuming the work in the Cy] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES Qy normal department, the requirements were raised and the age limit placed at fifteen for females and seventeen for males. A model school was attached to the department, and continued in operation until 1866, when it was abolished by the trustees. Daring its continuance the normal stu- dents were required to teach in it from two to four weeks, in their senior year. The abolition of the model school, while in accord with the University authorities who were looking toward the higher de- velopment of the professional training of teachers, was disap- pointing to many of the best school men of the State. The State Superintendent, D. Franklin Wells, in his report for 1868, refers to the matter as follows: " The Normal Depart- ment of the University was opened in the year 1855, since which time upwards of 1 000 persons have received therein a partial course of instruction. A limited number have grad- uated, some of whom are occupying the first places in the common and high schools of the State, and exerting an in- fluence which is felt in constantly widening circles. Others have been called to responsible positions in other states. It is feared, however, that the department, though under the instruction of an able professor, has lost much of its efifi- ciency as an agency for the practical training of teachers by the recent suspension and abolishment by the Board of Trustees of the model and training school formerly con- nected with it." Beginning with 1862, the students in the normal depart- ment were gradually combined with the classes in the Uni- versity and in the preparatory school for their academic instruction. The following is the course of study for the normal department as offered in 1866: 68 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [68 "Junior Year, Fall Term. Winter Term. Higher Arithmetic — Robinson. Algebra— Robinson. History of United States. Theory and Practice of Teaching— Page. Physiology. Reading and Spelling. Senior Year. Fall Term. Winter Term. Rhetoric, Composition. Mental Philosophy— Wayland. Algebra, Geometry — Robinson. Ancient History — Wilson. Natural Philosophy. Inorganic Chemistry — Stockhardt. Spring Term. Moral Philosophy — Wayland. Modern History — Wilson. School Systems of Iowa. Vocal music throughout the course. Students will practice teaching in the Model Training School during the entire course." From this time on the course of instruction mEAL^ND w^s gradually raised, and in 1873 the normal GROWTH department was merged into the academic, the OF THE reasons assigned being that, "Didactics, in the DEPARTMENT j^j^j^^j. ^^^^^^ jg ^ ij^eral study. It includes the philosophy of mind, the laws of mental development, and all those branches of study and methods of instruction that are employed in general education. Besides, the course of study and methods of teaching in the academic department are such as would be selected if that department were organ- ized and carried forward for the sole purpose of educating teachers for advanced schools. Such teachers need pri- marily accurate scholarship united with liberal culture. The instruction given in language, science, mathematics and literature, meets this demand." Again, as to aim it is said, " The design of this department hereafter will be to prepare students for advanced schools. Hence only those academic seniors who intend to become teachers, and special students 69] ^N COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES g^ who may be qualified to be classed with them, will be allowed to pursue normal studies." ' In discussing the status of the normal department in 1877, President C. W. Slagle said : " The Normal Department is included in this category {i. e.^ Collegiate Departments — D. W. A. L. ) . The question of its status was raised in 1 86 1 , in the Board of Trustees upon the proposition that a distinction should be made between the sense in which it was called a department and that in which the other chairs were so- called. After mature consideration the board decided that no such distinction should be made, and it has ever since, whether called a department or chair of didactics, been simply upon the same footing with the other professorships in the collegiate department. For several years a separate normal course was maintained and classes were graduated on completing it, but when the university from the advance- ment of its requirements for admission ceased to give in- struction in the ordinary common school branches and so shut out those preparing for primary teaching, the board determined to offer preparation only for the higher depart- ments of educational work, to which a large portion of the collegiate alumni are called as principals of high schools, superintendents, etc. They have, therefore, placed the studies relating to this branch as electives in the senior year of the collegiate courses, so that any graduate who chooses may receive instruction in this direction. They have further provided that any pupil in the university, though not intend- ing to graduate, may enter these classes. Since the adop- tion of this plan there has been gratifying evidence of its success, and it is believed that in this respect the university is rendering important service in the work of popular educa- tion. It is further gratifying to observe that the thoughts of the most enlightened educators of the time are tending ^ Catalogue of State Univ. of Iowa, i872-'73, p. 46. JO TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [^q toward the adoption of a similar plan for other colleges. The University of Edinburgh has recently established a pro- fessorship of didactics. That distinguished educator, Sec- retary Northrop, of Connecticut, in a recent report comment- ing on this fact uses this language : ' It is a reproach to us that no similar professorship exists in any American college except in the State University of Iowa.' ' The growth of the department is also made clearer by an outline of the teaching staff, with the corresponding titles. Following Mr. Valkenburg, from 1856 to 1866, Prof. D. Franklin Wells was in charge of the work, first as principal of the Normal Department, and later (1862) under the title of Professor of the Theory and Practice of Teaching in the University. He resigned in 1866 to become State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction. The following year Stephen N. Fellows, D. D., was made Professor of Didactics in the University, his title being changed in 1873 to that of Pro- fessor of Didactics and Political and Moral Science, and in 1878 to that of Professor of Mental and Moral Science and Didactics. In 1888 G. T. W. Patrick, A. M., was called to the latter chair, but transferred the following year to that of Professor of Philosophy. The next two years the Depart- ment of Didactics was without a head, and the instruction in pedagogy was given by the professors of Philosophy and Political Science. In 1890 Frank B. Cooper, A. B., was called to the chair, with the title of Professor of Pedagogy, and the following year Jos. J. McConnell was made Professor of Pedagogy. Professor McConnell resigned his position in 1 901 to accept the city superintendency of schools, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and Fred. E. Bolton, Ph.D. was ap- pointed Professor of the Science and Artfof Education. Thus we see from this brief survey that the first inde- pendent collegiate department of pedagogy in the United ^ Pres. C. VV. Slagle, in Report of the State University of Iowa, 1877, p. 33. 7i] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 71 States was the natural outgrowth of an elementary normal school connected with the University. The object at first was to educate common school teachers. The instruction was largely academic and of the most elementary nature. This changed gradually with the conditions of education in the State, until the need for which the department was cre- ated became supplied through other sources and the Univer- sity outgrew its preparatory school ; then a department for the professional training of secondary teachers came as a natural consequence. Since 1864 the degree of Bachelor of Didactics has been ofifered to graduates in the regular courses who have com- pleted the course in pedagogy and are able to give proof of two years' successful teaching after graduation ; and since 1873 all distinctly normal features of the work have been discontinued and the department has been a purely profes- sional one, without practice teaching. The development of pedagogical instruction THE COLLEGE . . . . .. . OF NORMAL IN- ^^ ^"^ Univcrsity of Missouri, while slower and sTRucTioN, UNI- Icss systcmatic, has been in the main similar to vERsiTY OF ^-1^3^ jj^ tj^g University of Iowa. MISSOURI - 0^,1 T,yr- -i-ii J In 1867 the Missouri legislature passed an act establishing in the University of Missouri a chair of theory and practice of teaching. The department was opened in September, 1868, under the title of the College of Normal Instruction, and has been the source of much sub- sequent legislation and misunderstanding. While not so stated in the original statute, it seems to have been the in- tention of the legislature to make the theory and practice of teaching a department of the university co-ordinate in rank with law and medicine. This is indicated not only in subsequent acts, but also in the organization of the depart- ment itself. 72 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [72 In speaking of the college of normal instruction, the re- port of the University of Missouri for 1869 and '70 says: "The Constitution of the State of Missouri prescribes that there shall be established and maintained in the State Uni- versity a department of instruction in teaching. The Normal College, like a Law College, is a professional school. Its distinct design is to prepare teachers for their peculiar vocation. The elementary branches will be thor- oughly taught and reviewed in the preparatory department, while in the normal school proper, prominence will be given to the principles and methods, the theory and practice of teaching!' Mr. E. L. Ripley, A. M., was made principal of the col- lege of normal instruction and Professor of the theory and practice of teaching. A model school was attached to the department and the following course offered : " Freshman Year. Reading, Orthography, Penmanship, Arithmetic, Geography, English Grammar, History of the United States, Drawing, Mapping. Sophomore Year. Algebra, Analytical Grammar, Physical Geography, Natural Philosophy, Phjrsi- ology, General History, Latin, Elocution, Rhetoric, Book-keeping, Art of Teach- ing, Science of Government. yunior Year. Geometry, Trigonometry, Botany, Zoology, Astronomy, General History, Latin and Greek for Gentlemen, Latin and German or French for Ladies, Lectures on Theory and Practice. Senior Year. Latin, Greek and German, Surveying, Chemistry, Agricultural Chemistry, Geology, Mental Philosophy, Moral Philosophy, Philosophy of Education. Three months' practice." The course as given above does not dififer much from the usual advanced normal school course of the period, and a fair proportion of the graduates entered the profession of teaching. Of the twenty-one graduates for the years 1869 and 1870 inclusive, fourteen became teachers. In the 73] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 73 latter year there were eighty-three normal students and two hundred and sixteen pupils in the model school. In 1876 the Normal course was somewhat enlarged and the title of Prof, Ripley changed to that of Professor of Pedagogics and Dean of the Normal Faculty. Graduates were given the degree of Principal, Bachelor, or Master of Pedagogics (Pe. P., Pe. B., Pe. M.). Three years later the Normal courses were rearranged, giving more attention to the elementary branches, and Miss Grace C. Bibb was made Professor of Pedagogics and Dean of the Normal Faculty. Another change occurred in 1884-85, when David R. Mc- Anally became Professor of English and Dean of the Normal Faculty.^ The elementary normal degree (Pe. P.) was con- ferred upon students completing the two years* course, arranged to meet the requirements of the school law of the State for teachers' certificates. The degree of Master and Bachelor of Pedagogics (Pe. M. and Pe, B.) were conferred upon graduates of the University who had taken, in addition to their collegiate work, two semesters of normal instruction. In 1891 J. P, Blanton, A. M., was made professor of theory and practice of teaching and mental and moral philosophy. The following year the legislature repealed the law requiring preparatory courses to be offered in the University, and the first year's work of the elementary normal course was abolished, the work of the normal col- lege being merged into that of the University, The require- ments for entrance to the normal course were made the same as for the Freshman class of the University, The academic instruction was given by the different university professors and the pedagogical instruction by the professor of the theory and practice of teaching. Students desiring to secure the certificate of the elementary normal course, entitling them to teach in the State for a period of two years, 1 He was succeeded two years later in the same chair by Edward A. Allen. 74 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [74 were required to take thirteen hours per week of academic work from the Freshman subjects of any of the academic courses, besides two hours per week of drawing and three hours per week of pedagogics, all to continue throughout the year. The degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy (B. P.) was retained for graduates of the University who had taken the required three hours of pedagogy during the junior and senior years, one-half of which (six hours) might count toward the academic degree. No practice teaching was offered, and the professional work consisted of the study of educational theories, educational psychology, and the organ- ization and management of schools. This is substantially the condition to-day. The Normal department, with its separate teachers, model school and elementary instruction, has given place to a department of pedagogy, with a single professor and distinctly professional work. The development of the department has been more interesting than this brief outline indicates, and it now seems that it will soon become in fact, what it has long been in theory, a professional school of education co-ordinate with that of law and of medicine. WISCONSIN "^^^ preparation of teachers was clearly in UNIVERSITY, m.ind in the foundation of the University of NORMAL DE- Wiscouslu, as showu in the charter which pro- vides for four departments as follows : the De- partment of Literature, Science and the Arts ; the Depart- ment of Law ; the Department of Medicine, and the Depart- ment of the Theory and Practice of Elementary Instruction. a-TTT.««,r AXTrv The first effort to realize the above depart- jixl£OK.Y AND PRACTICE OF ment of Theory and Practice of Elementary ELEMENTARY Instructlou sccms to have been made in 1856 INSTRUCTION ^^^^ Daniel Read, LL. D., in addition to his collegiate appointment, was made professor of normal in- struction in the department of " The Theory and Practice of 75] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 75 Elementary Instruction."' As the school funds were not sufficient to properly organize the department, the Regents in their announcement say: "Professional instruction will, therefore, be rendered in the art of teaching during the sum- mer term of each year, by Prof. Read, and the young men of the state who may connect themselves with the teachers' class will be admitted to the instruction of the other depart- ments of the University, as they may select." ' This resulted in several brief courses on education during the spring or summer terms of 1856, '57 and '58, beginning the last week in April and continuing until commencement, about the fourth Wednesday of July. The members of the teachers' class, in addition to professional instruction, had the privilege of carrying forward such other branches of study from the university courses as they might select. The above arrangement proved unsatisfactory, and no further effort was made until i8*58, when Prof. Charles A. Allen,3 who had been employed by the Board of Regents of Normal Schools, was appointed Professor of the Theory and Practice of Normal Instruction in the University. Prof. Allen continued at the head of the new normal department, which now extended its courses throughout the year, from 1863 to 1865, when, on his resignation, Joseph C. Pickard, A. M., Professor of Modern Languages and Literature, was made head of the normal department. He remained in this capacity for one year, after which the normal department was dropped. In speaking of the department, the Board of Regents, in their annual report for 1865, say: "This department was opened March 6, 1863, since which time it has been in suc- ^ His collegiate appointment was : Professor of Mental Philosophy, Logic, Rhetoric and English Literature. * Regents' Report of the University of Wisconsin for 18^6, p. 10. ' Afterwards Principal of the San Jos6 (California) Normal School. 76 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [76 cessful operation. The primary aim of the department is to fit teachers for their work ; but any who desire to pursue the higher English branches will be admitted to the classes. Candidates for admission to the Normal course must pass a satisfactory examination in the outlines of geography, elements of English grammar, and arithmetic to proportion." Under the heading " Normal Department" the same re- port says: "The Faculty are of the opinion that the Normal department has made the University a more useful institution during the past three years than otherwise it could have been. It is not, however, to be disguised that among former students of the University, and among leading ones now in the institution, there has been a strong feeling of opposition to the department, mainly on the ground of its bringing females into the University. There has been an apprehen- sion that the standard of culture would be lowered in conse- quence. No reason whatever has as yet existed for this apprehension. There has been no such mingling of classes in the higher and more recondite subjects as to render this effect possible even if it would be the result, and, in point of fact, there has not been a period in the history of the Uni- versity when some few students have carried their studies to a higher or wider range than in recent classes. The resig- nation of Professor Allen, who has conducted this department since its existence with signal energy and success, raises new questions for the decision of the Board. As to whether there shall be a professor to fill the place of Professor Allen, or whether there shall be the union of the Normal and Pre- paratory departments by the election of a principal to have charge of both departments, or whether the department shall be dropped altogether." ' The above report is interesting in this connection, showing not only the interest of the University authorities in the ' Regents' Report of the University of Wisconsin, 1865, p. 22. •^-j-^ IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 77 normal department, but also the systematic opposition that it encountered. The reference to the opposition that had been created against the department, based upon the fear that the admitting of females to the University would lower its standard of culture, is rather amusing in the light of pres- ent conditions. The opposition prevailed and a year later the department was discontinued. From the first the academic instruction had been conducted in the preparatory or collegiate depart- ments of the University, and not under separate normal teachers, as in Iowa and Missouri. This may have been a cause of the opposition; besides, in 1866 the Board of Re- gents of Normal Schools opened the first state normal school of Wisconsin at Platteville, and two years later the one at Whitewater, thus removing the necessity for a depart- ment of elementary normal instruction in the University. No further provision was made for pedagogical instruction in the University until 1885, when a University Department of the Science and Art of Teaching was created, and Prof. J. W. Stearns, LL. D., placed in charge. Three years later the title of the department was changed to that of Philosophy, and Dr. Stearns made Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy. Since the beginning of the department, in 1885, the work has been planned primarily with the view of the professional training of secondary teachers. The courses of pedagogy offered in 1885 were as follows: " Fall Term. 1. Educational Praxis, including School Economy, Organization, Management and Methods of Teaching. 2. The Theory of Teaching, including the Psychological Basis of Methods and Courses of Study. Spring Term. 3. The History of Educational Theories and Practices in Europe and America. 4. Superintendence and Comparative Study of Educational Systems of the United States." 78 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [78 In 1897 the department was enlarged and the title changed to the "School of Education," Dr. J, W. Stearns becoming director of the School of Education and Professor of Phil- osophy and Pedagogy, and M. V. O'Shea, B. L., Professdr of the Science and Art of Education. The development of the department has not been, as in Iowa and Missouri, a continuous growth, but, on the con- trary, commencing as a Normal class in the University, then a Normal department, it was discontinued with the beginning of State Normal schools, and, after a rather long interval, re- created into a Pedagogical department for the professional training of secondary teachers. THE UNIVERSITY '^^^^ Univcrslty of Kansas grew out of the OF KANSAS, University of Lawrence, a Presbyterian school NORMAL DE- which was established in 1859, and which con- PARTMENT ^^incd at the time of the transfer a normal de- partment. Such a department was also clearly foreshadowed by an Act of the Legislature approved March, 1864, charter- ing the present State University. Section 10 of the Act says: "The university shall consist of six departments: i. The Department of Science, Literature and the Arts; 2. The Department of Law; 3. The Department of Medicine; 4. The Department of Theory and Practice of Elementary Instruction; 5. The Department of Agriculture; 6. The Normal Department." ' The Normal Department of the University was first opened in 1876 with an enrollment of thirty-five students. Complete courses were ofTered and full instructions given in the common school branches throughout the year. It seems to have been the purpose of the Regents to establish a sep- arate normal department with its own teachers ; but as the law had made no appropriation for the support of this de- ^ University of Kansas Catalogue, i8jl-''j2, p. 43. 79j IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 79 partment it was necessary to modify the original plan. For this reason, in the following year, instead of a separate normal department, " two courses were established, an ele- mentary and a higher normal course. For admission to the latter, the applicant must be prepared in reading, spelling, elements of English grammar, penmanship, arithmetic, algebra through quadratic equations, descriptive and phys- ical geography, elements of natural philosophy, history and constitution of the United States, and industrial drawing."' The expressed object of the higher normal course was to give preparation for instructors in preparatory high schools and teachers' institutes.' All the academic studies of the normal department were pursued in the regular preparatory and collegiate classes. Between the years 1877 and 1885 inclusive, there were seventy-two students graduated from the normal depart- ment, ten of whom were of the class of 1885. The depart- ment, however, had met with determined opposition from the normal schools (public and private) of the state,3 and from the university faculty itself. On this account, by action of the Board of Regents, the normal department was discontinued in 1885, and the Dean, P. J. Williams, D. D , was made the Professor of Didactics in the university. The first course arranged for the new department of Didactics (1885-6) is given as follows: " Studies : The same as those of the Freshman and Sophomore classes in any of the four full courses." " Junior Class. First Term — Didactics. Second Term — Didactics. ^ University of Kansas Catalogue, 1877-8, p. 34. * University of Kansas Catalogue, i88i-'82, p. 39. ' The 6rst State Normal School of Kansas was established at Emporia in 1864-5. 8o TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [go Senior Class. First Term — History of Sciences, half term. Systems of Education, half term. Mental and Moral Science. One of the optional studies. Second Term — Practice teaching. Political Economy. One of the optionals." "Students who take this course are entitled to the degree B. A. or B. S., as in other courses. The practice teaching must cover a year's successful work in the school-room, either before or after graduation. This, in addition to the course, will entitle the graduates to the degree of Bachelor of Didactics (B. D.)." ' For the next two years but two courses were offered in didactics, methods of teaching and the history of educa- tion, the first for five hours per week throughout the year, the second for five hours per week during the second semester. No practice teaching was offered. The former opposition still continued, and in 1888 the department of didactics was closed. It was again reorgan- ized in 1893 under the title of the department of pedagogy, with A. S. Olin, A. B., as instructor. The department has since been changed (1899) to read "Department of Educa- tion," and Prof. Olin's title to that of " Professor of Edu- cation." As far back as 1839 the trustees of the Uni- DEPARTMENT OF . PEDAGOGY, UNI- vcrsity of Indiana began to consider the advisa- vERsiTY OF bility of establishing a department for the INDIANA special preparation of common school teachers. But it was not, however, until 1852 that the agitation be- came crystallized, and a normal school was opened in con- nection with the preparatory department of the University. The expressed object of the normal department was " to fit teachers for the common schools of the state." Its ^ University of Kansas Catalogue, 1884-85, p. 40. 8i] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES gl organization was simple, including the creation of a single " Professorship of Didactics," to which Daniel Read, Pro- fessor of Latin and Greek, was appointed professor, and the establishment of a " Model School," of which Mr. John C, Smith was made first principal. The course at first consisted of a series of lectures on teaching and school management, and a somewhat careful review of the common school branches which was thought to be the principal requisite in the preparation of an ele- mentary teacher. " Intending teachers occasionally took secondary work in the preparatory classes, but the thought was not common that professional qualifications meant something more than better scholastic attainments in the subjects to be taugnt, and the theory of teaching was little studied." ' For a number of years the normal department struggled along under many disappointments and interruptions. It was discontinued in 1858 and remained closed until 1864, when it was again established under the charge of D. E. Hunter, who had formerly been principal of the model school, and who was at the time of appointment city super- intendent of the public schools of Bloomington, Indiana, the seat of the University. The school was now opened to both men and women, but it remained in operation only a few terms and was again discontinued. In 1868 the normal department was once more reorgan- ized, in response to a general demand from the teachers of the State, and ex-State Superintendent George W. Hoss, who was at the time Professor of English in the University, was in addition appointed " Professor of Didactics " in the normal department."* In discussing this period of the school, ' Boone, History of Education in Indiana. ^" Professors of English Literature and the Theory and Practice of Teaching: Rev. Henry B. Hibben, A. M., from i860 to 1861; Hon. Geo. W. Hoss, LL. D., 82 TRAINING OF SECONDAK\ TEACHERS V%2 Dr. R. G. Boone, to whom I am indebted for much of the above, says "Professor Hoss was just fresh from his ofificial term as State Superintendent, and knew well the needs of the State in regard to better teaching. . . . But the work was greatly disappointing; it was made but an incident in the constitution of the college, occurring in the spring term only, and without any well-defined plan." ' Five years later, 1873, the normal department was again closed, and, as the Indiana State Normal School had been established at Terre Haute three years previous, there was now no immediate necessity for the continuance of an ele- mentary normal department in connection with the State University, and its reorganization was not again attempted. Nothing further of interest regarding the professional training of teachers occurred in the University until 1886, when, in response to a different demand and with an entirely different ideal, the university authorities created an inde- pendent collegiate "Department of Pedagogics." Superin- tendent Richard G. Boone, A. M., then of Frankfort, Indiana, was appointed "Professor of Pedagogics" and Acting Pro- fessor of Philosophy, and given the task of organizing the new department. He outlined for the first year ten courses, as follows: I. Educational Psychology, first term, two hours per week; II. School Economics, first term, three hours per week; III. History of Education, second term, daily ; IV. Teaching as an Art, second term, three hours per week; V. School Supervision, second term, two hours per week; VI. Philosophy of Education, third term, daily; VII. Labora- tory Studies; i. Illiteracy as a civil and political factor; 2. Compulsory Education; 3. Industrial Education; 4. The from 1868 to 1871; Rev. John L. Gay, A. M., from 1871 to 1872; Rev. George Parrott, A. M., from 1872 to 1873; Hon. George W. Hoss, LL. D., from 1873 to ." Ajimuil Report of Ind. Univ., 1873-74. * Boone, History of Education in Indiana. 83 J IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 83 Kindergarten; 5. Professional Training, first term, two hours per week; second term, three hours per week; VIII. Foreign School Systems; IX. American State School Sys- tems; X. School Legislation. The catalogue does not state the amount of time given to the last three subjects. The new idea in regard to the professional PROFESSIONAL ° ^ TRAINING FOR training of teachers, or rather the conviction HIGH SCHOOL wliich vvas becoming prevalent that even col- TEACHERs \q^q graduatcs in order to become efficient teachers need professional training, is shown so clearly in the statements regarding the nature and purposes of the new department that it has been thought best to quote in full. "These courses in Pedagogics have been recently added to the curriculum of the Indiana University. Their character may, there- fore, be set forth somewhat in detail. The attention of advanced college Students, of teachers of experience, who wish to make a formal, systematic study of their profession, and of such others as, in the judgment of the faculty, have sufficient preparation and ma- turity for it, is called to the work of this department. It is designed, first and chiefly, with the present social conditions, to meet the demand for well-prepared teachers for the higher posi- tions in the public schools and colleges. The best positions in Indi- ana and elsewhere are held by men whose first qualification is a sufficient scholarship. Their learning secures them recognition. But these also need professional training. To provide adequately for this special culture is the primary aim of the present department. Its aim, secondly, is to dignify and rationalize the professional aspect of teaching. To this end is offered a course (I) in applied psychology, with the purpose of setting forth the fundamental rela- tions of a knowledge of mind to the work of teaching. The text in use is supplemented by lectures and discussions on the general and acquired functions of mind, mental processes, and the nature and conditions of mental growth and development. Never before did teachers, school officers and others interested in education manifest a more earnest desire to understand the philosophy of mental 84 TRAINING OF SECONDARE TEACHERS [84 culture ; and the beginnings "'of that philosophy are found in the nature of mind. Courses II-VI are arranged to cover fully the three phases of peda- gogical study — the practical, the historical, and the theoretical. Many students who do not make a specialty of Pedagogics, and who have no intention of entering the profession of teaching, will find an excellent culture study in courses III and IV. The department of Pedagogics is not in any sense a normal school, and while in entire sympathy with such professional agencies, it is not designed to trench upon any ground now so occupied. Its pro- fessors have no pedagogical dogma to enforce, but hope for the bettering of Indiana schools, and the elevation of the profession." ^ Here, in the above, as just prior in the universities of Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Johns Hopkins, and others, we find what seem to be the true beginnings of departments created for the primary object of the professional training of secondary teachers ; as, formerly, the normal schools had been established for the immediate purpose of the profes- sional training of elementary teachers. Commenting a few years later on the nature of the depart- ment as now constituted, Dr. Boone says : " The work from the beginning was conceived and directed from the point of view of the university — not the normal school. Its original constitution provided a course covering two years, since ex- tended to three, and open to the members of the higher col- lege classes. It includes professional work only. A liberal academic training is presupposed ; not less than Freshman and preferably Sophomore standing. The work is entirely elective, being freely opened to students of other depart- ments. . . . It employs neither practice schools nor model lessons, and is not designed to present an established or exclusive art of teaching. It is content to have studied in a liberal ^ Calalogue of Indiana University, 1886-S7, pp. 48 and 49. 85] IN COLLEG ES AND UNI VERSl TIES g 5 way the nature and conditions of education as the ground upon which to erect, or (with a different figure) as furnish- ing the doctrine out of which may be evolved an approved art. . . . The department is one of eighteen co-ordinate depart- ments in the University, each covering four years, and each leading to the degree of B. A. Every graduate from the department must have had one year of college English, one year of mathematics, one year of laboratory science, and two years of some language other than English, and of col- lege grade ; the full course in pedagogics ; and sufficient work chosen from other, but in general, related departments to make up the minimum of studies required for graduation (thirty-six terms)."' The department as established in 1886 remained without any particular change, other than slight modifications of the courses offered from year to year, until 1894, when Dr. Boone, professor of pedagogics, accepted a call to the presi- dency of the Michigan State Normal School at Ypsilanti. The department of pedagogics in the Indiana University was then made a sub-department to that of philosophy, and W. L. Bryan, Ph.D., professor of philosophy, was given the new title of Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, and placed in charge of both departments. Since then several new instructors have been added, but the department still (1902) remains a sub-department of philosophy. KENTUCKY. ^^ virtuc of an act of the Legislature, ap- STATE COLLEGE, provcd March 13, 1878, the State Agricultural NORMAL and Mechanical College of Kentucky was sep- DBPARTMENT ^^atcd from the Kentucky University, with which it had been connected since its establishment in 1865, and made an independent college of the State. An act of * Boone, History of Education in Indiana, p. 382 ff. 86 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [86 the Legislature, approved April, 1880, created in connection with this college a "Normal Department, or course of in- struction for irregular periods, designed more particularly, but not exclusively, to qualify teachers for common and other schools." ' The normal department was established the following year, and Maurice Kirby, A. M., Professor of Moral and Political Philosophy, placed in charge, under the title of " Professor of Moral and Political Philosophy and Principal of the Normal Department." From the first the school has been looked upon as a co-ordinate department of the college. The academic instruction is given in the other departments of the college, or of the academy, which is also a part of the institution. The professional instruction is given by the principal of the normal school, who is likewise a member of the college faculty. At first the course was three years in length and covered the subjects usually presented in normal schools of that period. The requirements for admission, as given in the catalogue for 1883, are stated as follows: "Applicants for admission into the Normal School must be prepared to stand an exam- ination in English Grammar, Arithmetic and Geography. Normal students who receive free tuition will be required, on entering, to sign an obligation to teach within the limits of Kentucky for a period as long as that during which they receive free tuition." With no provision for practice teaching, the aim of the school seems to be to have all instruction of the college pre- sented in such a way as "to illustrate to the pupil-teachers in the various classes the latest and best methods of teaching these subjects." ^ '^Kentucky State School Law, 1 880. * Catalogue of i8g4-g^, p. 46. 87] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES g/ There are at present four courses offered: i. A four years' course leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy; 2. A two years' course leading to a state diploma; and 3 and 4. Two elementary courses preparatory for county and state certificates. The purpose of the department may best be seen from the statement of Ruric N. Roark, Ph. D., principal of the normal school: "Although organized as a Department of the College co-ordinate with the other departments, yet the Department of Pedagogy is more properly a school in itself, made so by the necessities of the Public School system of the State. Therefore, in addition to offering full work in Pedagogy (Educational Psychology and its applications in School Economy and educational methods), this Depart- ment also provides academic instruction for teachers who desire to fit themselves for higher grades of work. In ad- ministering the Department, the real needs and limitations of the average Public School teacher are kept constantly in view, and the elevation of the common schools of the State is the basic principle of the work." ' Several minor changes have occurred in the work since the organization of the department, but it still remains, prop- erly speaking, only a normal school and not a collegiate department of pedagogy for the professional training of secondary teachers. There are two state normal schools in Kentucky, one at Frankfort for colored students and one at Louisville for whites. There are also a number of colleges in the State that have lately established normal departments ; among the latter is the Kentucky University, a denominational institu- tion controlled by the Disciples of Christ, which established a "Normal College " in September, 1899, quite similar to that in the Kentucky State College above described. It was * Catalogue for i8gq-igoo, p. 30. 88 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [88 the Kentucky University with which the State College was for a number of years affiliated as indicated above. Among the first institutions of higher educa- UNIVERSITY . . , „ , , . . , , OF NORTH *^°" ^" ^"^ South to make provision for the CAROLINA, special preparation of teachers was that of the NORMAL University of North Carolina. The constitution of the State, adopted in 1868, contains the fol- lowing clause, Article IX, Section 14: "As soon as prac- ticable after the adoption of this constitution, the General Assembly shall establish and maintain, in connection with the University, a department of Agriculture, of Mechanics, of Mining, and of Normal Instruction!' The condition under which this constitution was adopted and the stirring times which followed in state administration,' caused but little attention to be given to the fulfilment of the above section. It was in accordance with a provision of the amended constitution, entitled " An act to establish Normal schools," ratified March 9, 1877, that the State Board of Education was authorized to establish such a school in connection with the State University. An appropriation of $2,000 annually for Normal instruction was made by the State Legislature. "The State Board, with the concurrence of the Trustees and Faculty of the University, concluded to have a Summer Normal School of six weeks' duration, beginning the third of July, 1877, the instruction to be by experts trained in Normal methods. No charge was made for tuition. Pecun- iary aid was given out of an annual fund of $500 (one year, ^ The constitution was adopted during the reconstruction period after the Civil War, when the State administration was composed largely of Northern officers and recent settlers in sympathy with the national administration. Hence the legislative acts of this body had but little binding force upon the State administra- tions that followed soon after. — G. W. A. L. 89] I^ COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITLES 89 $800), donated by Rev. Dr. Sears, agent of the Peabody Fund, to those unable to meet their necessary expenses." ' The above arrangement of summer normal schools or teachers* institutes was continued each year during the summer vacations of the University until 1885, when a normal department, continuing throughout the year, was^ established instead. These summer normal schools at the University were largely attended by the teachers of the State, reaching one year 402, and averaging 310. The instruction was mainly academic, devoted almost entirely to a study of the element- ary branches. Prominent teachers were called, both from within and from without the State, to give instruction. Much good was accomplished in arousing the teachers of the State and in creating a desire for graded schools, but the term was too short for ef^cienl instruction, and the lack of prepara- tion on the part of the changing student body made the work somewhat discouraging. To the President, K. P. Battle, LL. D., is due in large part both the origin and the success of the movement for normal instruction, BEGINNING OF ^^^°^ ^° 1 8/7 no uormal schools had been STATE NORMAL cstabHshed by the State, but along with the SCHOOLS establishment of a summer normal school for whites at the state university, the state board of education opened the first state normal school for colored youths at Fayetteville. This was followed shortly afterward (1881) by the creation of four additional summer normal schools for whites and a like number of state normal schools for colored students. The former, however, had no permanent location and were rather of the nature of county teachers' institutes of five or six weeks' duration. In 1885-86 the university authorities discontinued the > Caialogue 0/1877-78, p. 59. rjo TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [90 summer normals and established a normal department in- stead, appointing Nelson B. Henry, professor of the science and art of teaching. The academic instruction was given in connection with the other departments of the university. The aim of the department is set forth as follows: "The Normal Department, designed to train teachers for the schools of the State, has been established in accordance with the Constitution thereof, and by recent Act of the Leg- islature, is free of tuition to young men preparing themselves for the purpose of teaching, on condition that they sign a pledge to teach at least one year after leaving the University. On passing approved examinations upon the studies enu- merated in the Normal Department, the student will receive a certificate attesting this fact, and setting forth the. degree of proficiency attained."' The course as outlined consisted of two years' work as follows : " First Year. First Term. — English (2), Algebra (3), Physiology (3), History of North Carolina (2), Commercial Arithmetic (i), Reviews and Methods of Teaching (5). Second Term. — English (2), Algebra (3), Zoology and Botany (3), History of the United States (2), Book-keeping (i), School Economy (4). Second Year First Term. — English (i), Algebra (4), Physical Geography (l), Elocution (2_), Chemistry (3), or Physics or Latin (4), Graded Schools (3), Seminary (i). Secojtd Term. — English (i), Physical Geography (i), Geometry (4), Chemis- try (3), or Physics or Latin (4), Methods of Culture — Educational Psychology (2), History of Education (3), Seminary (i)."* The degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics (Pe. B.) was granted in connection with the Bachelor's degree from the university to students completing the course in the science and art of teaching. * Catalogue of 1886-87, ?• 44- ' Ibid., p. 45. 9i] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES gi OT^CT.,- ^^ ^„^ In 1^85, in lieu of a lareer appropriation CLOSING OF THE -^ ' -a r r \r NORMAL from the State to the University, the $2,000 DEPARTMENT normal instruction fund was diverted to four summer normal schools in different parts of the State, $500 to each. Two years later the Agricultural and Mechanical College was separated from the state university, and the $7,500 annually received from the Land Grant Fund was thus lost to the University. This curtailment of funds made it necessary to diminish the teaching force, which was done by dropping three departments, z. ^.,the department of Min- ing, of Biology, and of Normal Instruction. With the exception of a few special courses designed to meet the wants of teachers, offered by the heads of different collegiate departments, nothing further was done for the professional training of teachers until 1893, when the univer- sity established a collegiate department of the " History and Philosophy of Education," to which Edwin A. Alderman, Ph. B., was appointed as professor. The following year Professor Alderman was made President of the University, and Clinton White Toms was appointed Professor of Peda- gogy. A year later Professor Alderman was again made the head of the pedagogical department, which position he re- tained until the year 1897-98, when the present incumbent, Marcus Cicero Stephens Noble, became professor of ped- agogy. THE TRAINING Siuce the organization of the pedagogical OF SECONDARY department in 1893, the work has been planned TEACHERS, morc particularly for the professional training of secondary teachers, as is indicated by the following para- graph : " This Department seeks to promote the study of the science and art of education, to give training in the or- ganization and administration of schools, and to prepare university students for the higher positions in the public and private school service. It is also intended to bring the sec- 92 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [92 ondary schools of the State into closer relations with the University. "The courses in the History and Philosophy of Education are intended to have for the student a definite culture value as well as professional value, by interpreting for him institu- tions and ideals of the past."' The courses offered in the department of pedagogy have remained quite constant and are (1901) as follows: i. The Science of Education (2); 2. The Art of Teaching (2); 3. History of Education (2); 4. Philosophy of Education (2) ; 5. The Study of Childhood (2) ; 6. Herbartian Peda- gogy (2). The work of the department is conducted by a single professor and no provision is made for practice teaching. DEPARTMENT ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^°'' ^^^ Organization of the Uni- oF PEDAGOGY, vcrslty of Minnesota was passed by the terri- uNivERsiTY OF torial legislature in 185 i. The following years MINNESOTA , . . .1. T- -^ ' j -i. were trymg ones to the new lerntory, and it was not until 1867 that the preparatory department of the university was opened for the reception of students, and not until two years later that the first collegiate classes were or- ganized. At this time the State was already in possession of three State normal schools, one at Winona, established in i860; one at Mankato, opened in 1868; and one at St. Cloud, opened in 1869. Probably on this account, no pro- vision was made by the university authorities for the estab- lishment of a normal department in connection with the university. The first mention made of pedagogical instruction being offered in the university is in the year 1885-86, when Harry P. Judson, M. A., was called as Professor of "History and ^ Catalos^e of i8gj-g4, p. 53. I'-'^^Ji^O'lC Moi OF 93] IJV COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 93 Lecturer on Pedagogics." The only statement, however, re- garding the work, that I have been able to find, is as follows : " A course of lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching, elective to the Senior class, is given in the third term." ' This arrangement seems to have continued in force until the year 1893, when ex-State Superintendent David L. Kiehle, LL. D., was appointed lecturer on pedagogy, and a separate, co-ordinate department of pedagogy was estab- lished. Between the years 1885-93, Professor Judson offered one pedagogical course, the last term of each year, open as an elective to seniors. OUTLINE OF During the first year of the pedagogical de- THE DEPART- partmcut (1893) there were three courses MENT IN offered, all elective to seniors, designated as follows: I. "The Development of Child Mind;" II. "The American School System, including or- ganization and supervision;" III. "Educational History and Theories." In addition to the above there was established a special university teachers' course, requiring two years for its com- pletion, and designed to furnish preparation for teaching for those students who were unable to complete a full university course. Candidates for entrance were required to satisfy the heads of the various departments under whom they were to receive their academic instruction, as to their fitness. In the year 1894-95, Dr. Kiehle was made professor of pedagogy, and a year later (Announcement for 1895-96), after a number of slight modifications, the university teach- ers' course is described as follows : " This course is provided for those who wish, by a more extended scholarship and a more systematic study of education, to prepare for positions of supervision and teaching in the departments of higher * Calendar for 188^-86, p. 54. c^4 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [q^ education. It is also for the general student who, in the home and in the State, is interested in the proper care, training and education of children and youth, and who is willing to give to this subject the same intelligent study that is accorded to other problems of history and sociology." "The course covers two years, or twenty-four terms' of work. In order to secure reasonable thoroughness in the subject-matter, at least fifteen terms, including pedagogy, must be selected from the following list: Latin, Botany, Geology, French, Zoology, Pedagogy, German, Physics, Philosophy, English, Chemistry, History, Mathematics and Astronomy. and in which no study shall be pursued less than three terms. The remaining terms may be selected under the general regulations of the University. The course of special lectures and the seminars shall be optional without credit; provided, however, that students who take at least ten or twelve special lectures, with the required readings and exam- inations upon the same — equivalent to half a term's work — shall be allowed one-half term's credit. Students completing the course prescribed receive the University Teachers' Certificate." CONDITION "This course is elective to juniors and seniors FOR ENTRANCE pursuing TCgular courses in the college of science, literature and the arts." " It is also open to all graduates from the advanced course of the State normal schools of Minnesota who have had one year's experience in teaching, and to all graduates of State ^ At this time the University was running on a three-term basis, and what is evidently meant by the word " term," as used above, is one study carried for four recitations per week for one-third of a year. 95] IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 95 high schools of the first and second classes, who have had two years' experience in teaching." ' The university teachers' course as outlined above re- mained practically the same until the year 1900, when it was discontinued as a special course ; the university teachers' certificate being granted now only to university graduates as indicated below : " Upon graduation from the college of science, literature and arts, students who have completed two terms of psychology (or one of psychology and one of logic) before the close of the junior year, and the first three terms of pedagogy, and who have attained a general average of 85 per cent, in all studies, may apply for and will receive, upon the vote of the faculty, the University State Teachers' Certificate, which by the State law authorizes them to teach in the public schools of Minne- sota for two years from its date. After that time, upon satisfactory evidence of success, the certificate may be made perpetual by the endorsement of the state superintendent of public instruction and the president of the university." ^ PRESENT The department of pedagogy remains, as CONDITION vvhen first established in 1893, a separate, co- ordinate department of the university. Dr. Kiehle remained professor in charge and sole instructor until his resignation in July, 1902, when Dr. Geo. F. James was called to the department as Professor of Pedagogy. The courses now offered are as follows: I. Philosophy of Education; II. Methodology; III. School Organization and Administra- tion ; IV. Ancient Education ; V. Mediaeval and Modern Education; VI. School Systems; VII. Visitation of Schools ; VIII. Special Seminar Courses. With the exception of the lectures given by Professor Judson of the history department (1885-93), the thought of the work in pedagogy has been aimed rather toward the professional preparation of secondary teachers. This is seen in the first paragraph, quoted above, describing the univer- ^ Catalogue for the year j8g4-gj, p. 93. ' University Bulletin, June i, 1900, p. 89. 96 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [96 sity teachers' course. This paragraph still continues to be published in the university catalogue as indicating the pur- pose of the pedagogical department. UNIVERSITY ^" \^^-3i\i the State University and the State OF UTAH, Agricultural College are separate institutions, NORMAL the former being located at Salt Lake City and DEPARTMENT .11.. . t T^U • 1 ^ the latter at Logan. Ihere is a somewhat peculiar arrangement existing in this State whereby the State University and the State Normal School are combined into one institution, the latter being established as a sub-depart- ment of the former. The State Normal School, as it is called, is conducted in a separate building, and in part by separate instructors. It maintains a model training school, covering the first eight grades, and ofifers a four years' normal course, the fourth year of which ranks on a par with the freshman year in the university. Aside from the normal department (State Nor- mal School), the object of which is to prepare elementary teachers, there is a collegiate department of pedagogy in- tended to provide for high school teachers, principals and superintendents. "The purpose of the university in offering advanced work in pedagogical subjects is more especially to prepare those of its graduates who may select such work for the higher positions in the public service, such as those of school superintendents, principals, teachers in the high schools, etc." ' The department of pedagogy was established in 1888, but the state normal school dates still further back. The professor of pedagogy is also principal of the normal school, and the professional fnstruction seems to be about the same, whether to normal or college students. The pro- fessional courses as ofifered in 1900 were as follows: ' University Annual, 1 900-0 1, p. 49. 97] ^N COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 97- "i. The Philosophy of Education; 2. Advanced Methods; 3. Advanced Psychology; 4. History of Education; 5. Pedagogy; 6. Educational Psychology; 7. Special Methods ; 8. Practice or Training." The pedagogical courses do not lead to any special de- gree, but graduates of the University who complete the pro- fessional requirements receive in addition to the university degree, a special " Normal Diploma." OTHER STATE Undcr qultc similar arrangements to those UNIVERSITIES dcscribcd in the University of Utah, the state WITH NORMAL unlversitics of North and South Dakota and of DEPARTMENTS ttt • i , l.\^ C. ^ ,. -Jr VVyommg began from the first to provide for the professional training of teachers through separate nor- mal departments. Prior to the division of the Territory and the admission of the states of North and South Dakota, which occurred November 2, 1889, the University of Dakota was situated at Vermillion. After the division of the Terri- tory this school became the University of South Dakota, while the University of North Dakota was removed to Grand Forks. In the former, a normal department had been es- tablished at the opening of the institution in 1884, but was discontinued in 1890-91 for the following reasons: "By reason of reduced appropriations and for the further reason that the State has two Normal Schools, the Regents have ordered the normal department discontinued in the Uni- versity."' A department of pedagogy has since been established (1894-95) i" charge of Geo. M. Smith, A. M., Professor of Greek Language and Literature, and Pedagogy, now (1901) Professor of Modern Languages and Literature, and Pedagogy. ^ Catalogue of i8go-gi, p. 48 98 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [98 In the University of North Dakota there was UNIVERSITY OF gg^gblished in 1891 both a collegiate depart- NORTH DAKOTA , , , , , , ment of pedagogy and a separate normal de- partment. Joseph Kennedy, B. S., is both principal of the normal school and professor of psychology and pedagogy in the university. Graduates of the normal department are admitted to junior standing in the university. President Merrifield, in his annual report for 1900, speaks of the nor- mal department as follows: "The Normal Department costs the State practically nothing, for in all academic subjects the Normal students join classes already formed, while in the professional subjects they come under the instruction of the Department of Pedagogy, which in all modern universities is a co-ordinate and essential department." '* The aim of the Normal Department is to prepare teachers for the higher grades and for high schools through- out the State." UNIVERSITY In Wyoming, the State Normal School is OF WYOMING combined with the State University, forming one of three separate departments of the latter — collegiate, normal and preparatory. The principal and professor of pedagogy in the normal department, Henry Merz, M. A., is also professor of philosophy and social science in the Uni- versity. The normal department was established in 1891, and still continues to constitute the only professional de- partment for the training of teachers in the university. T.„x,,^>,TMA In the West, as in the East, denominational DENOMINA- ' ' TioNAL iNSTi- Instltutions for higher education paved the way TUTioNs {qj. g^a|.g universities, but like their eastern prototypes they have been more conservative and far less influenced by the changing ideals of the people. Conse- quently, they have been slower in modifying their courses to 99] J^' COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 99 meet the demands for professionally trained teachers. Nevertheless, many denominational institutions, especially throughout the great central west, have made commendable efforts to bring their schools into direct touch with the people and to establish special departments for the training of teachers. Such institutions have usually followed in the wake of the state institutions as above described and pre- sent but little regarding normal training that is dififerent or especially new. One illustration will suffice. In the early history of Iowa college (in the IOWA COLLEGE, -^ •' fc> V DEPARTMENT sixtlcs) somc cffort was made to provide pros- OF PEDAGOGY pectivc tcachcrs with a little elementary peda- gogical instruction, chiefly in connection with the prepara- tory department of the college. In 1871 a definite movement was inaugurated to raise an endowment for a professorship in the college of the "Theory and Practice of Teaching." This was not successful until 1879, but the trustees had gone forward with the plan and had established a combined "Normal and English Department," authorizing that the normal students be allowed to recite with such classes in the college, academy and English department as they were prepared to johi. The department of pedagogy as first established (1879) was designated the " Department of the Theory and Practice of Teaching" and consisted of one year's course in didactics, covering the history of education, the philosophy of edu- cation and methods of teaching. The non-professional subjects were given in connection with the preparatory, academic or collegiate classes. In describing the advantages of the department the cata- logue of 1890 says : " One of the peculiar advantages of this Department is this : Candidates for the profession of teach- ing, if somewhat advanced in some of the subject matter to 100 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [iqo be taught in our schools, are not obliged to go through an extended Normal School Course of several years, including much repetition in branches already mastered ; but, by giving all their time to one or two branches, for which they have special aptitude or in which they have made comparatively less proficiency, they can accomplish in a year, in these specialties and in Didactics, what would require, under other circumstances several years' time."^ In 1891-92 the title of the department was changed to that of the Department of Pedagogy, and the title of Rev, K. Edson, A. M., who had been with the department from the first, was changed to that of " Iowa Professor of Peda- gogy." The following year the new Department of Philos- ophy and Pedagogy was created, and Jas. Simmons, Jr., A. M., was called as Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogics, an arrangement which still continues in force. Since the com- bination of philosophy and pedagogy in one department, philosophy, psychology, ethics and logic receive more at- tention and pedagogy less. In the latter subject are offered two courses, one on the " History of Educational Theory and Practice," three hours per week. First semester, and one on Educational Psychology, three hours per week. Second semester. There seems to be more of a tendency on the part of de- nominational institutions to combine departments, probably on account of the scarcity of funds. Consequently separate departments of pedagogy are less common here than in more prosperous institutions. We have given in the above chapter a some- SUMMARY , , . , r , 1 • ,1 • 1 what brief survey of the history of pedagogical instruction as it occurred in those universities that were first in making provision for the professional training of teach- * Catalogue oj i8go, p. 39. 1 1 ] IN COLLEGES A ND UNI VE RSI TIES i q j ers. The universities concerned are generally state insti- tutions and belong for the most part to those of the Great Central West. The two schools from the South — the one from Kentucky and the other from North Carolina — are in- cluded, not so much on account of the time when pedagog- ical instruction was first offered, as that they were the first of their class in the South to make provision for the work, and in the treatment of the subject are representative of the southern type. From this brief sketch of the early history of pedagogical instruction in this country, it will be seen that the first efforts made by the universities for the professional training of teachers did not take place in the universities at all, but in their preparatory departments, or in separate normal attach- ments. The East had its academies, and later its high schools, from which students might go thoroughly prepared for college and university work ; but in the West, with its fewer academies and less efificient high schools, preparatory departments became necessary adjuncts of the universities. These took the place of high schools for the few who de- sired collegiate training, for the others a common school ed- ucation sufficed. Under these circumstances, the most pressing need was for more efficient common school teachers. In the East, normal schools had already been established for this purpose (the training of elementary teachers), but in the West, no provision had yet been made. Universities responded to the demand by establishing normal depart- ments. Later, when state normal schools were established, the university normal departments were either discontinued or modified to meet a new demand — the professional train- ing of secondary teachers. The modifications and growth in these normal depart- ments reflect the changing conditions of education. At first, when there was but little need of high school teachers. I02 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [102 attention was given almost entirely to instruction in the elementary subjects, orthography, reading, writing, etc., few or no professional studies were offered ; but later with the coming in of state normal schools, and with the rapidly increasing number of high schools, the preparatory depart- ments of the universities were gradually discontinued and the normal departments were either dropped or changed to collegiate departments of pedagogy. This growth in peda- gogical instruction is interesting in many ways. It shows how the universities have been influenced not only in mod- ifying their courses of instruction, but also in adding new departments in order to meet the real wants of the teaching profession. It calls attention to the antagonism which arose between state normal schools and the normal departments of the universities when the latter seemed to be encroaching upon the field for which the former had been created. Again it brings to light the intense opposition with which the new normal departments with their short cuts and cheapened degrees (B. Pe., etc.) were met by many of the older collegiate departments with their fixed curricula and mediaeval methods ; an opposition that was heightened be- cause these normal departments furnished a loop-hole through which women were gaining entrance to the uni- versities. From the university normal school attachment of the most elementary sort to the present collegiate department of education, devoted entirely to the professional training teachers and to the scientific study of educational problerr has been a simple process of growth and adaptation witl out definite or well defined ideals. This was quite dififere) from the beginning of State normal schools in this country, as shown in a former chapter, and is also different from the second great movement in the universities for the profes- sional training of secondary teachers, to be discussed in the following chapter. CHAPTER IV HISTORY OF THE SPECIAL MOVEMENT FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF SECONDARY TEACHERS In chapter two we gave a brief account of PREFACE ^ , , , . 1 TT • , the early normal school movement m the United States, which had for its principal object the fitting of com- mon school teachers. It was a movement that originated with the common people or those interested in the welfare of the masses. In chapter three we continued the history by giving a brief survey of the earliest university movement for the special preparation of teachers and its gradual growth into something higher. This, Hke the former, was a move- ment that originated with the people — from without rather than from within the universities. It started with no well- ;> defined purpose other than the special training of teachers for all grades of public school work — elementary and sec- ondary — though, at first, the greatest stress was placed upon the preparation of elementary teachers. As already indi- cated, the movement passed through a natural process of evolution, changing with the conditions of education until •^.lally it became most concerned with the professional pre- ^ration of secondary teachers. ! In this chapter we aim to give, in part, the history of the ^aird great movement for the professional training of teach- ers. This movement, like the early normal school move- ment, began with a definite purpose — the professional prepa- ration of secondary teachers, — an ideal which has continued to be its chief concern. 103] 103 104 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [104 While the other movements came from the people through a desire for better schools, this one seems to have originated with scholars and professional men who, seeing the great waste and inefiEiciency of college graduates that enter the profession of teaching (mostly in high schools), desired to remedy the evil. It was a thoroughly scientific movement and has greatly benefited the teaching profession. Prior to the beginning of the m.ovement, in the early eighties, many first-class high schools had been established and the number was rapidly increasing. These furnished a new and import- ant field of activity for college graduates and the stronger normal school graduates ; both, however, were deficient in preparation, the former through lack of professional knowl- edge, the latter through want of scholarship. Hence the need for the movement. In presenting the subject it has seemed best to give an account of the history of the movement as it occurred in a number of the leading universities showing typical charac- teristics. Prior to the establishment of the state nor- MICHIGAN UNI- VERSITY, DE- mal school at Ypsilanti in 1850, an effort had PARTMENT OF bccu madc to have such a school opened in EDUCATION ,. .,, .1 - , • •. TOO connection with the state university. In 1848 the matter went so far as to have a bill for normal instruction in the university pass the senate, but it failed to become a law. The desire for a normal department had come from without rather than from within the university, so when, two years later, the state normal school was established all parties were for the time satisfied. Elizabeth M. Farrand in her History of the University of Michigan says : "Some instruction in Pedagogy had long been desired, when in 1879, Mr.W. H. Payne was appointed Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching. The estab- 105] HISTORY OF Sf*nClAL MOVEMENT 105 lishment of this chair was followed by the ofTer of a "teach- er's diploma" to any one receiving a Bachelor's or Master's degree, provided he had completed one of the courses in Pedagogy."' Three years before the establishment of the department of the science and the art of teaching there was offered a special teacher's diploma, referred to in the catalogue as fol- lows ; " Any member of the senior class, who pursues courses of study with reference to preparation for teaching, and who by special examinations shows such marked profi- ciency as qualifies him to give instruction, may receive a Special Diploma signed by the President and the Professors who had charge of the studies which he has taken with this object in view,"^' However, the real department of educa- tion, or of the " Science and the Art of Teaching," as it was named, was not opened until the fall of 1879, when Dr. W. H. Payne, who has since become so well and favorably known in educational circles, began his first course of lectures as professor in charge. THE NATURE The growth of the department is interesting OF THE WORK q^ account of the strength of the man at the head and because it was the first department of its kind to be established in the United States. 3 During the first year but two courses of study were offered, one for each semester, each representing two hours or exercises per week. The one given the first semester was entitled, " Practical ; em- bracing school supervision, grading, courses of study, exam- * History of the University of Michigan, by Elizabeth M. Farrand, p. 270. * University Calendar for 187J-76, p. 46. 'University normal departments which grew into independent departments of pedagogy, as in Iowa University, had been established earlier, but even in their modified forms their ideals seemed less specific and definite than that of the de- partment of education in the University of Michigan. I06 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [io6 illations, the art of instructing and governing, school archi- tecture, school hygiene, school law, etc."' The course con- sisted of a series of lectures by the professor on the above topics, and of assigned readings for the students. It was followed in the second semester by a course on educational theories and doctrines, entitled, " Historical, Philosophical and Critical; embracing history of education, the compari- son and criticism of the systems in different countries, the outlines of educational science, the science of teaching, and a critical discussion of theories and methods." * The second year of the department the courses were re- peated as above, though the number of exercises per week was increased to four. The manner of instruction was also changed from that of lectures to the study of a text, followed by recitations and lectures. Fitch's " Lectures on Teach- ing " furnished the text for course i, and Bain's " Education as a Science" was used as the text for course 2. The fol- lowing year two additional courses were ofTered, being rather expansions from courses i and 2. Course 3, given the first semester two hours per week, was on " School Supervision ; embracing general school management, the art of grading and arranging courses of study, the conduct of institutes, etc." Course 4, given the second semester, also a two hours' study, was a seminary course, devoted for the first few years to the study of educational classics (Spencer's "Education," Rousseau's " Emile," Laurie's "Life of Comenius") and later to the study of special topics in the history and phil- osophy of education. In 1882-83 (the fourth year of the department) course 5 was added, being a lecture course on the history of education, coming twice a week during the first semester. Three years later (1885-86), course 5 was extended to cover both semesters, thus forming courses 5 and 7 ; and course 6, de- ' University Calendar for i8jg-8o. * Ibid. 10/] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT 107 voted to a comparative study of educational systems, was oft'ered. As will be seen, all these courses are simply en- largements from the general courses i and 2, as offered the first year of the department. From this time forward but few changes have been made in the courses. The number- ing of the courses has been slightly modified, the manner of instruction has varied, and in some cases the number of ex- ercises per week has changed, but the body of the work has remained quite constant. The next change in the curriculum occurred in 1894-95, when course 8, "The great exponents of educational thought and practice ; a historical expository course for general students," was offered instead of the former seminary course now known as course 7, and henceforth omitted. The texts for course 8 were Davidson's Aristotle and Ancient Educa- tional Ideals, West's Alcuin and Browning's Educational Theories. In 1899-1900 two new courses were added to the depart- ment, course 9, " Child Study," two hours per week, first semester, text, Taylor's The Study of the Child; and course 10, " Social Phases of Education," one hour per week, first semester, text. Button's Social Phases of Education. The work of the department as it now stands is outlined in the calendar as follows : FIRST "I. Practical Pedagogy. The arts of teach- sEMESTER jng and governing ; methods of instruction and general school-room practice; school hygiene; school law; lectures with reading. Hinsdale's Teaching the Language- Arts, and How to Study and Teach History. Four hours. 3. History of Education, Ancient and Mediaeval. Recita- tions and lectures. Text-book: Compayre's History of Pedagogy. The subjects treated in the lectures are Oriental, Greek and Roman education, and the Rise and Early De- velopment of Christian Schools. Three hours. I08 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [io8 5. School Supervision. General school management, the art of grading and arranging courses of study, the conduct of mstitutes, etc. Recitations and lectures. Text-book : Payne's Chapters on School Supervision. Three hours. 9, Child Study. Historical sketch ; a discussion of the factors which influence intellectual development; methods of child study; physiology and psychology of childhood; study of special problems, such as the education of the nervous system, the hygiene of studies, motor ability, tem- perament, period of adolescence, children's drawings, inter- ests, literature, fears, anger, lies, etc. The aim throughout is to treat each topic from a distinctly practical pedagogical point of view. Recitations and lectures. Text-book: Taylor's A Study of the Child, Two hours. 10. Social Phases of Education. A consideration of the school as a social factor in its relation to the child, to the home, to the church and to the State ; also a discussion of the relation of education to vocation and to crime. Lectures and recitations. Text-book: Button's Social Phases of Education. One hour. SECOND 2. Theoretical and Critical Pedagogy. The SEMESTER principles underlying the arts of teaching and governing. Lectures and readings. Hinsdale's Studies in Education. Four hours. 4. History of Modern Education. Recitations and lec- tures. Text-book: Compayre's History of Pedagogy. The topics to be dealt with in the lectures are the movements of modern educational thought and practice. Three hours. 6. The Comparative Study of Educational Systems, Domestic and Foreign. Lectures and reading. Two hours. 7. History of Education in the United States. The course deals with the salient features of the subject from the earliest time, but particular attention is paid to the state of 1 09 1 ^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^ ^^^' ^^-^^ ^^ VEMENT 1 09 education in the colonies, and to the common school revival in the first half of the present century. The recent univer- sity development is also described. Lectures and reading. Hinsdale's Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the United States and Documents Illustrative of American Educational History, are subjects of examination. One hour.' 8. History of Educational Thought. The course deals with Greek and Roman antiquity and the Middle Ages, and with the principal of the great movements of thought in modern times. Lectures and reading. Davidson's Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals, West's Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools, and Browning's Educational Theories, are principal books of reference. One hour." ^ Besides the special courses in pedagogics, other depart- ments of the university have organized "Teachers' Courses." In 1880-81 there were at least four such courses offered by the departments of Latin, Greek, French and Physics, and other departments have since been added to the list. teacher's No special pedagogical degree is offered, but DIPLOMA the work of the department is credited toward the regular university degrees in the same manner as that of other literary or scientific departments. A special teacher's diploma had been offered from the beginning of the de- partment, but it was not until 1 891 that the state legis- lature passed an act giving authority to the Faculty of the department of the science and art of teaching to issue cer- tificates to holders of the university teacher's diploma, which certificates " shall serve as a legal certificate of quali- > Course 7, proposed for 1900-01, has been described heretofore as "The Study and Discussion of special topics in the History and Philosophy of Education, two hours per week." — G. W. A. L. * University Calendar i8gg-igoo, pp. 81-2. no TRAINING QF SECONDARY TEACHERS \\\o fications to teach in any of the schools of the State." The teacher's diploma is granted to such students only as have received from the university the degree of B. A., M. A., or Ph. D., and have met the following requirements: 1. "He must have taken courses i and 2 and some other three-hour course in the science and art of teaching." 2. "He must have taken such teacher's course or courses as may be prescribed in some one of the other departments of instruction that offer such courses." 3. " He must have shown such ability in his work as will, in the judgment of the professors interested, entitle him to receive such diploma, it being distinctly understood that work good enough to count towards fulfilling the require- ments for a degree is not of necessity good enough to count for this purpose." ' Dr. W. H. Payne continued at the head of the depart- ment until 1888, when he resigned to accept the Presidency of the Peabody Normal College, Nashville, Tenn., and was succeeded by the present incumbent. Professor B. A. Hins- dale, LL. D., ex-Superintendent of Public Schools, Cleve- land, Ohio.^ THE AIM OF The aims of the University in providing in- THE struction in the Science and Art of Teaching DEPARTMENT ^j.g summarizcd in the University calendar as follows : " I. To fit University students for the higher positions in the public school service. "2. To promote the study of educational science. * University Calendar for i8g(^igoo, p. Il6. ' Professor B. A. Hinsdale died at Atlanta, Ga., November 29, 19CO, and Dr. W. H. Payne accepted a call to return to the head of his old department in the University of Michigan. Ill] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT i \ i " 3. To teach the history of education and of educational systems and doctrines. " 4. To secure to teaching the rights, prerogatives and ad- vantages of a profession. " 5. To give a more perfect unity to our State educational system by bringing the secondary schools into closer re- lations to the Univsrsity." The original aim of the department is shown even more clearly in an early history of the work, written by W. H. Payne in 1886, from which we add the following statements: " The report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for 1883 shows that there were at that time twenty-seven pub- lic schools, each employing fifteen or more teachers. Of these twenty-seven schools, sixteen had superintendents who were educated in the University, six were in charge of men who were educated in schools outside of the State, five were supervised by graduates of the State Normal School." . . . " Under this condition of educational affairs the logic of the case is very simple and very conclusive. ' The function of the university,' says Mr. Fitch, ' is to teach and supply the world with its teachers.' In fact, the University of Mich- igan had for years been performing this function, but in an informal, unintentional way. Why not give the graduate who purposes to teach the opportunity to learn, at least, the theory of his art, in a more or less articulate manner? Why not teach in the University the cardinal doctrines of educa- tion, so that the entire public school system of the State may be affected through a process of downward dif- fusion?" "In organizing the courses of instruction, the general aim was to offer opportunities for the study of education in its three main phases, the practical, the scientific and. the his- torical." 1 1 2 TRAINING OF SECONDAR Y TEA CHERS \\\2 DEPARTMENTS " It WES ncvcr the intent to duplicate, in any OF EDUCATION rcspcct, the work of the State Normal School ; NOT INTENDED . , ^u /: i. "i. C IJ r t' U for, from the first, its held of operations has TO DUPLICATE ' ' ^ NORMAL been predetermined by the limits of its aca- scHooLs demic course of study. It is a school of sec- ondary instruction, and so the scholarship of its graduates is simply on a par with the scholarship that is attained in high schools of the first class. If there is any well-established principle in school economy it is this : the scholarship of the teacher should be considerably broader than the scholarship of his most advanced pupils. This law at once determines, on a priori grounds, the status of normal schools with re- spect to the supply of teachers, and the historical confirma- tion of this law is seen in the facts above recited, and from which it appears that, after a prosperous career of more than thirty years, there were but five schools in the State em- ploying fifteen or more teachers that were under the super- vision of graduates from the State Normal School, while sixteen such schools were supervised by men who had their training in this university. It is thus seen that the upper limit of what we may call the normal field, and the lower limit of the university field, fall somewhat within the high school grade of the public school system. In providing for the professional study of education in the University, there was never a thought of making the slightest encroach- ment on the actual and historical territory of the Normal School ; and during the last seven years there has been no evidence that the line defining the two fields has been sen- sibly disturbed." . . . " In the education of teachers, then, the university and the normal school have independent spheres of activity ; or, if there is any common ground, it is a narrow tract within the high school grade that has always been common ground and is doubtless destined always to remain so." ' • Contributions to the Science of Education, by W. H. Payne, pp. 336 ff. 113] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT j j 3 v,^^ ,.^„ ^T.r- It will be seen from the above th.nt the ob- NOT FOR THE TRAINING OF ject of thc department was not to train clement- ELEMENTARY gj-y tcachcrs, which would have been to en- TEACHERS i ,r j / 1.1. 1 u 1 croach upon the ground of the normal school ; but the object as expressed and carried out was to train teachers for high schools and for supervision. Dr. Payne does not believe that the academic knowledge of normal graduates was sufhcient to prepare them for the higher positions in public school teaching. In another connection he says : " As at present constituted, the normal schools are not fitted to dispense the professional education needed by head masters, principals, superintendents, or even first assist- ants in high schools." ' The quotation which Dr. Payne gives from the report of the State Superintendent for 1883, is certainly an unusually favorable one for college graduates. Most of the data that the writer has been able to find bearing on the subject, in- dicates that, prior to the establishment of chairs of pedagogy in the universities, the majority of the more responsible > positions in the public school service went to normal school graduates in preference to college graduates. In Nebraska it has been within the last six years that university grad- uates have been given preference over normal school grad- uates for positions in high schools and as principals and superintendents. Michigan was one of the early states to establish high schools. Superintendent Mayhew, in his report for 1848, thus mentions these schools : " This class of institutions, which may be made to constitute the connecting link be- tween the ordinary common school and the State Univer- sity, is fast gaining upon the confidence of the people. Some of them have already attained a standing rarely * Contribution to the Science of Education^ by W. H. Payne, p. 307. qi4 TRAmiNG OF SECONDARY TEACHERS {l\\ equaled by the academical institutions of older states." ' Furthermore, the State Normal School, as established in 1850, was for the purpose of preparing common school teachers, and it did not change from this purpose until 1878, when it enlarged its curriculum and endeavored to prepare teachers -for all grades of public school service. •' It is believed that the various courses prescribed will, when thoroughly mastered, fit young gentlemen and ladies for positions as assistants, principals and superintend' '-t'^ in all classes of the public schools." ' It is probably ae in part to the early establishment of high schools and the late enlargement of the State Normal School to make provision for such teachers, that, in the above comparison, so many more college graduates were found in responsible positions. NO PRACTICE No provision has been made in the Univer- TEACHiNG gj^.y Jqj. practice teaching. In speaking on this point. Dr. Payne says: "Considering the particular educa- tional problem I have been set to solve, I could not well have a practice school if I would ; and from all the light that comes to me from observation and reflection, I would/ not have such an adjunct to my work if I could." ^ We have devoted much more space to the history of the professional training of teachers in the University of Mich- igan than was our first intent, and probably more space than will be necessary to give to any other institution. The Uni- versity of Michigan being the first among the institutions of higher education to establish a department of education for the distinct purpose of the professional preparation of sec- ondary teachers; and the work of the department being so well planned and executed, and at the same time so char- acteristic of the work as ofifered by other departments of edu- ^ I'.dtication in Michigan, by W. L. Smith, p. 49. ^ Ibid., p. 102. * Contributions to the Science of Education, p. 340. 115] HIST OR Y OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT i i 5 cation, established later, we have felt warranted in giving to the subject this extra space. iMwvc tir^,.,-,v-c Following the lead of the University of Mich- JOHNS HOI'KINS ^ ^ UNIVERSITY, igan, Johns Hopkins University for a short DEPARTMENT tjme ofifered courses in psychology and educa- OF EDUCATION . • tion. In 1S81-82 G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., was called as lecturer in Psv.^hology. Two years later (1883-84) he was made proi^. >r of Psychology and Pedagogics, but aside from the university announcement that instruction was provided in Pedagogics, there is no further mention of the work until the year 1884-85. It was then stated under the graduate courses in Psychology and Education that " Lectures are also given during the first year on the History of Educa- tion, including the ancient and modern theories, the develop- ment of ancient and modern school systems, learned soci- eties, technical schools, methods in each department, school legislation in different countries, etc." ' It is further stated that, " The second year includes short and special courses of lectures on select topics, and the prosecution of original studies according to a systematic plan announced at the be- ginning of each year. Readings and discussions will be encouraged, with a secondary view to the educational sig- nificance of such work."* The following year (1885-86) the work of the department is described as follows: "The Educational Course includes one year devoted to the history of education, beginning with Greece and making connection with Course I (Histor- ical Course in Psychology), so that the two in a measure supplement each other. The second year is devoted to present educational problems, including legislation, admin- istration, technology, defectives, and the applications of • Annual Report, 18S4-85, p. 97. * Ibid., p. 98. Il6 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS \\\6 ethical and psychological principles to educational questions, etc. A descriptive bibliography just issued will serve in a measure as a syllabus of this course, which is designed not only for those intending to devote themselves to school supervision, but for those in all departments intending to teach specialties in colleges, in technical or high schools."' For the next year Dr. Hall had planned for a triennial course in education covering the three years of graduate study. The lectures of the first year being historical, those of the second, devoted to problems of primary and inter- mediate education, and those of the third, to special chapters in the field of higher education. But he says: " This Course does not lead to a degree. Those who desire to study edu- cation professionally, are advised to give their energy to psychology which is its chief scientific basis, pedagogy being a field of applied psychology."* Dr. Hall, however, resigned in 1886, to accept the Presidency of Clark University, Wor- cester, Mass. The department of Psychology and Peda- gogics in Johns Hopkins University was then discontinued and has not since been reorganized. This was a case in which the department and courses were created to fit the man. What the department of psychology and ped- AiM OF THE i>E-g m\^\i\. have become had Dr. G. Stanley PARTMENT t> to-' & J Hall remained at its head can only be conject- ured. No direct statement outlining the aim of the work in pedagogics seems to have been made ; but judging from the nature of the courses as indicated in the catalogues one would infer that the work was undertaken primarily for the sake of culture and because the field offered many new and practical problems for investigation. It was an outcropping of the student spirit, probably not so much with the thought of training young men for teaching, as that of teaching them ' Catalogue of 1883-86, p. 102. * Annual Catalo^e, 1887-88, p. 88. I I 7] JIISTOK Y OF SPECIAL MO FEME XT I I 7 how to Study, which after all is the first step toward real teaching. The courses in education were offered as graduate studies, which placed them beyond the reach of elementary teachers as well as of most high school teachers. Dr. Hall laid chief stress upon psychology, a subject which he holds to be the true scientific basis of pedagogy. The courses in education were inserted between courses in psychology, philosophy, logic and ethics ; all as the work of a single professor. Aside from the courses in the history of education, the work was devoted principally to the study of special prob- lems, such as defectives, crim.inology, school legislation, administration, etc. For advanced students who were pro- perly prepared for investigation and research the lectures must have proved exceedingly interesting and beneficial. CORNELL UNI- ^" 1 886 Comell University established a de- vERsiTY, DE- partment of education in connection with the PARTMENT OF Sagc School of Philosophy, and appointed S. R. Williams, Ph. D., Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching. Prior to his appointment to the de- partment of education Dr. Williams had been professor of " General and Economic Geology" in Cornell University. DTT.c^KTc r•r^T. The report of the committee recommending K.£ASONS FOR *■ ^ ESTABLISHING thc establishment of the department is in part THE DE- as follows: ''We are of the opinion that great PARTMENT gervicc would be rendered to the university by the establishment of a chair of the science and art of teach- ing. As this is in some sense a state as well as a national university, it seems peculiarly desirable that it should exert a wholesome and elevating influence upon all the grades of schools with which it comes in contact. Such an influence would be greatly strengthened by the establishment of the professorship contemplated. There are, moreover, a very 1 1 8 TRAINING OF SECOND A R Y TEA CHERS [ 1 1 g considerable number of young men and young women in the University who desire to fit themselves for the career of a teacher," ' The above statement showing the reasons for establishing the department, is supplemented by the follow- ing expression of the aim and nature of the department repeated for many years in the annual register: "Believing that a need exists for more thoroughly equipped teachers in our higher educational institutions, the University has made provisions for supplying this want, both by the establishment of a professorship of the science and art of teaching, and by such additions to some of the chief lines of university study as seem best adapted to fit students to teach them success- fully. The lectures of the Professor of Teaching include courses on the general theory of education, its aim, its psy- chological conditions, and its means ; on the nature and methods of instruction fitted for different ages and destina- tions ; on the organization and management of schools, in- cluding an account of the modes of organization which pre- vail in our own and other countries, with their tendencies and results; and on the history of education, with a discus- sion of the theories of famous writers on education. The lectures are supplemented by conferences for the discussion of educational topics, for the special investigation of important educational questions, and for reports on visits to schools." " Arrangements have also been made in several depart- ments of the University, by special classes and by seminaries, to give extended instruction to those who intend to teach, in the best methods of presenting the branches of study to which these departments are devoted." ' The arrangement and nature of the courses, NATURE OF THE ^yj^jjg not SO extcnsivc, remind one of the work WORK offered in the University of Michigan, In * University Records, 1886, ' University Register, 1887-88, pp. 59, 60, 1 1 g ] HIS TOR Y OF SPR CIA L MO VEMENT i \ g fact Professor Williams says: "The courses that have been offered during the past two years, were arranged after a care- ful study of the work done in institutions similar to our own, viz., in the Universities of Michigan and Iowa, in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, and in the teachers* syndicate of Cana- bridge University."' The eight courses arranged for the first year, each cover*- ing a single term (one-third of the school year), were, fofi the second and following years, combined into three courses each continuing throughout the year. The nature of these courses is quite fully indicated in the quotation given above. Course i, occupying three hours per week throughout the year, was a lecture course on the theory and practice o4 Education, of a very general nature ; characterized as fol- lows : "I. The science of education. Philosophic basis; aims; methods; means. School instruction: application of methods to various branches ; recitations ; art of ques^ tioning and examining; illustration and exposition. Organ' ization and management of schools : classification; courses of study; supervision; school buildings and appliances; school hygiene ; school economy, etc." Course 2 was a seminary course of one hour per week, devoted to discus- sions and essays on topics connected with Course i. Course 3 was a two-hour course on the " History of education m various ages and countries. Comparative education ; theo- ries of writers on education, eminent educators, etc.," given the last two terms of the year. Beginning with the academic year 1888-89, there was a fourth course of one-hour added, entitled, "pedagogic Sem- inary devoted to a study of Waltz's Allgemeine Padagogik," which was changed in 1891-92 to read "Waltz's Allemeine Paedagogik," or " Clemens Nohl's Padagogik fiif hohere Lehr- anstalten." This course, though intended only for advanced * Annual Report of the President of Cornell University for i88j~88, p. 72. 120 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [j20 Students, did not prove popular, and had to be omitted on different occasions for want of students. In 1893-94 Course One was divided into two courses: " The Institutes of Education," in which education was treated " as to its aims, its principles and its means from the standpoint of the physical, intellectual and moral nature of man," a three-hour lecture course continuing through the year, and a one-hour course on school supervision, offered during the third term of the year. These courses continued with but little modification until 1898-99, when Dr. Williams became professor emeritus, and Chas. DeGarmo, Ph. D., President of Swarthmore College, was appointed professor of the science and art of education. Dr. DeGarmo continued the course in the history of edu- cation, established a two- hour seminary course in the science and art of education, a three-hour course in psychologic foundations of education, and arranged a one-hour lecture course on the teaching of high school subjects given by the professors of the different departments having these subjects in charge. These courses continue in about the same form to-day. teachers' University Teachers' Certificates were author- cESTiFicATEs jzed soon after the establishment of the depart- ment, on the following conditions : "Certificates of scholarly fitness to teach will, upon application on or before June ist, be given to such graduates of the academic department as have successfully pursued the first course on the science and art of teaching, or that portion of it which relates to the gen- eral theory of education, together with the course on the history of education, and have besides attained marked pro- ficiency in at least five hours of advanced work for two years, in each subject for which the teachers' certificate is given, in such subjects as offer five or more hours of such work." ' ' University Register, 1 899-1900, p. 57. 1 2 I ] HISTOR V OF SPECIAL MO VEMENT 1 2 i The University Teachers' Certificate when approved by the state superintendent becomes a vah'd life license to teach in the public high schools of the state, unless revoked by the* same authority for cause. Besides the instruction that is given by the departments of philosophy and of education for the professional training of teachers, several other departments in the academic col- lege, Greek, Latin and English, offer "teachers' training courses" in the subjects with which they are especially con- cerned. The instruction from the beginning has been with the thought of training secondary rather than elementary teachers. No special pedagogical degree is offered and no provision is made for practice teaching. . The Ohio University, situated at Athens, es- THE OHIO ^ ' UNIVERSITY, tablished a chair of pedagogy in 1886-87, ^"^ DEPARTMENT appointed John P. Gordy, Ph. D., Professor of OF EDUCATION Pgy^hology and Pedagogics. For several years previous there had been normal classes formed^ in connec tion with the spring and fall terms, for the benefit of country teachers. The normal instruction was carried on in the pre- paratory department, and with the exception of lectures on the " principles and duties of school work," was purely academic. In the beginning of the department, psychology, ethics and philosophy seem to have been considered subordinate to pedagogy. At least it is stated : " For the present psy- chology, ethics and the history of philosophy will be re- garded as belonging to this department (pedagogics)."' In 1891-92, Professor Gordy's title was changed to Pro- fessor of Philosophy and Pedagogics, and the department instead of "Pedagogics" was called the "Department of Pedagogics and Philosophy." * Catalogue for 1887-88, p. 27. 122 TRAINING OF SE CONDA R V TEA CHERS [122 The pedagogical instruction that was offered NATURE OF THE ..UU' r^UJ i. ^ t \ at the beginning of the department was as fol- WORK fc. t> r lows: Psychology (educational), History of Education, and Methods. These in addition to the classical course comprised what was known as the " Pedagogical Course," which led to the degree of bachelor of Pedagogy (B. Pad.). The courses of instruction remain practically the same until 1892-93 when the following courses were substituted: "Education from a National Standpoint (Educa. Psych.), Fouillee's, three hours per week; History of Education, Davidson's Greek Education, four hours per week; Science of Education (Methods), Laurie's Institutes of Education (time not given) ; and Seminary (City School Systems) once every two weeks."' In June, 1896, Professor Gordy resigned to become Pro- fessor of Pedagogy in the Ohio State University at Colum- bus, and Arthur Allin, Ph. D.,was appointed to the vacancy in the Ohio University as professor of Psychology and Ped- agogy, and Clyde Brown, Ph. B., was made instructor in Philosophy and Pedagogy. Dr. Allin arranged the following courses of instruction: I, Pedagogical values (Spencer's Education) ; II, History of Education; III, Science of Edu- cation; IV, Educational Systems; and V, Seminary (City- school systems). The following year (1897-98) Professor Allin resigned to accept a similar position in the University of Colorado, and Mr. Brown was made associate Professor of Pedagogy. A year later (1898-99) he became Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy, the title of the department and the courses of instruction continuing the same. From the beginning to the close of Dr. Gordy's administration the following statement DEPARTMENT ^ ^ is made as to the purpose of the department: '* It is the aim of this department to prepare students for the ' Catalogue for i8ga-g3, p. 49. 123] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT 123 profession of teaching. Such preparation requires (i) a vivid conception of the true end of education; (2) a knowl- edge of, and practical acquaintance with, the right method to be used in attaining that end; (3) a knowledge of the principles upon which those methods are based; (4) a true conception of educational values; (5) a broad range of scholarship and general culture. Every opportunity is im- proved to impress upon students the fact that the object of education is not primarily the communication of knowledge, but the training of faculty, and these faculties not merely or chiefly the intellectual, but the emotive, the volitional, and the moral."' The Ohio University, considered above, is THE OHIO STATE , , , ... UNIVERSITY ^"^ °^ ^"^ oldest of state mstitutions, datmg back to 1 801. It received as an endowment the two townships, set aside by an act of the general gov- ernment in 1787, for the support of a university. Since then it has received but little additional support from the state, and is maintained principally through its endowment and tuition fees. The Ohio State University was opened first in 1873 as the State Agricultural and Mechanical College, receiving for an endowment the large appropriation of land made by the gen- eral government in 1862 for the "endowment, support and maintenance " of state agricultural colleges. Five years later, by an act of the state legislature, the institution was enlarged, and the name changed to that of "The Ohio State University." Since that time the University has received many liberal appropriations from the state and greatly over- shadows the other state schools. In 1896-97, the Ohio State University estab- DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY ^'shcd a " Department of Pedagogy," and ap- pointed Dr. J. P. Gordy professor in charge. » Catalogue for 1887-88, p. 26. 1 2 4 TEA rWING OF SECOXDA R Y TEA CHERS ["124 Two years later (1898-99), the name of the department was changed to that of the " Department of Education," and Dr. Gordy's title was changed to read " Professor of Education." As at first organized, the work of the department did not differ materially from that above described in the Ohio Uni- versity, being probably a little more advanced and more theoretical. It opened with the following courses of instruc- tion : " Elementary and Advanced Courses in Educational Psychology ; History of Education ; Herbartian Pedagogy ; Philosophy of Education (Rosenkranz's) ; Institutes of Ed- ucation (Laurie's). At the present time ( 1901), the courses of instruction are as follows: i. Educational Psychology, three times a week, three terms ; 2. Child Study, four times a week, three terms; 3. History of Education, four times a week, three terms ; 4. Methods of Research, twice a week, three terms; 5. Science of Education, four times a week, three terms; 6. Modern Educational Systems, twice a week, three terms; 7. A Study of Scientific Method, twice a week, three terms ; 8. The Recitation, twice a week, three terms ; 9. Seminar, twice a week, three terms." Regarding the aim in the course in education AIM OF THE , , DEPARTMENT ^^ is Said \ " Thc postulate that underlies the course in education is, that there are two lines along which the intending teacher— with a view to his pro- fessional interest — should study: (i) the subject he teaches, and (2) the history and science of education and educational psychology. The first point will probably not be challenged by any intelligent person. No one now supposes that a teacher can teach what he does not know. "But there are still many thoughtful people who suppose that teachers are born, not made ; that if a man has the natural qualifications of a teacher he can teach, otherwise not, and that is the end of it. The principle underlying this course takes sharp issue with this opinion. It assumes that 125] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT 125 the intending teacher may by study acquire clearer ideas of the end of education, and of sound educational methods. It assumes that the practitioner of the art of education may, like the practitioners of other arts, do something to put hlm- seif in a position in which he will be able to do his work from the standpoint of the experience of the best teachers of the world." ^ /'T AT>,^,TMr Clark University, as opened in 1889, was CLARtC UNI* vERsiTv, DE- limited to five departments : Mathematics, PARTMENT OF Physics, Chcmlstry, Biology and Psychology. EDUCATION p^^ ^j^g opening of the Chicago University a few years later the chemistry professors were called in a body to the new institution, and Clark University has since confined its strength to the four remaining departments, as enumerated above. This limited scope of instruction should be kept in mind when considering the nature of the work ofifered for the professional training of teachers. Clark University, properly speaking, is distinctly a Grad- uate School of somewhat limited scope.' The main object for which it was established was one of research and investi- gation — a spirit to which it has ever remained true. Dr. G. Stanley Hall was called from the chair of psychol- ogy and pedagogics in Johns Hopkins University to the Presidency early in 1888, but occupied the year in travel and study abroad. On his return President Hall assumed the duties of Professor of Psychology and Education, a position which he still retains. In 1889, Dr. W. H. Burnham was appointed Docent in Pedagogy and sent to Europe to study educational institutions and methods. * University Catalogue for igoi-02. ' Since the death of the founder of Clark University, Hon. Jonas G. Clark (19CO), owing to a desire as expressed in his will, an undergraduate department or college has been established and organized (1902) with Carroll D. Wright as president. 126 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS \\2^ NATURE OF The first courses in education were offered in 1890-91, and consisted of two lectures, each THE WORK one hour per week; the one by Dr. Burnham on " Pedagogical principles, topics in the history of educa- tion, and present problems in higher and lower education in this country and in Europe," the other by Dr. Hall upon " Special institutions and educational systems." From this time forth Dr. Hall has devoted at least one hour per week to lectures on special problems of education. These lectures, like the related ones given by Dr. Hall on psychology, usually come fresh from the laboratory and are always stimulating and helpful. The following year (i 891-2) Dr. Burnham offered a one- hour lecture course on " School Hygiene and Physical Education," treating the subject comparatively and from the standpoint of the hj'giene of the nervous system. This was followed in turn, by a course on the psychology of reading, and the methods of teaching reading, mathematics, and geography, treated historically and comparatively. During these years the educational seminary was established, a weekly meeting of students devoted to the study and dis- cussion of special problems of research in education. Most of the articles found in the " Pedagogical Seminary," pub- lished at Clark University, are the results of studies which have been reported and discussed first in this educational seminary conducted by Dr. Burnham. In 1892-93 Dr. Burnham became instructor, and in 1900-01 assistant professor of pedagogy. From the first he has devoted about two hours per week to lectures on special topics of education, which are nearly always the immediate results of investigations that later find currency in educational publications. Looked at from the standpoint of the last ten years these lectures have covered a wide range, but their scope in any one year has been unusu- 127] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT i2f ally limited. Dr. Hall's work in psychology (philosophy) is generally planned on a three-year basis, courses re- peating themselves triennially, but if any such sequence is arranged for the department of pedagogy the writer has failed to discover it. A few courses have been re- peated in the past ten years but without any seeming regularity. The principal topics that have been considered during these years are as follows: i. Child Study, Educa- tional Psychology, School Hygiene; 2. Principles of Edu- cation, History of Education and Reforms, Methods, devices, apparatus; 3. Organization of Schools in Dififerent Coun- tries, Typical Schools and Special Foundations, Motor Edu- cation, including manual training and physical education, Moral Education, Ideals. No observation and practice- teaching is provided, and the work as planned is intended only for advanced students who are interested in, and capable of pursuing with profit, original problems of research and investigation. The department of pedagogy still continues, as established in 1893, a sub-department of psychology. In the treatment of the subject a close relation is maintained between psy- chology and anthropology on the one hand and pedagogy on the other, the former furnishing the principles and facts upon which the latter is based. Pedagogy may be taken as a minor, but not as a major, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The instruction has been devoted more to the scientific and theoretical phases of the subject than to the practical and applied. " The aim of the department is twofold : first, to give instruction and training to those who DEPARTMENT ° ° are preparing to be professors of pedagogy, superintendents, or teachers in higher institutions ; second, to make scientific contributions to education. These two ends are so closely related that the pursuit of one involves much of the work required for the other also." 128 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TFACHERS \\2% "Assuming that a student has adequate preparation, three things are essential for higher pedagogical training; first, a general knowledge of the organization of education in differ- ent countries and of literature in the field of education, in- cluding the history of education, psychology in its relation to education, and school hygiene; second, actual experience in teaching, together with observation of good teaching, and some direct study of educational institutions of dififerent character and grade; third, some experience in independent research, involving not only the thorough study of all authorities upon a subject, and of all work that has been done in the same field in different countries, but also original investigation leading to a scientific contribution." " In this University the study of educational literature, by lectures and independent reading, and the investigation of some problem, are usually carried on simultaneously; but practical experience in teaching must be gained before or after the University course." " But, while at present the University has no practice school, as a matter of fact, most of those who have been members of the educational depart- ment have had experience in teaching before coming to the University; and the lack of direct connection with the schools is in part supplied by visits to educational insti- tutions."' One who is unfamiliar with the work at Clark University may be surprised at the few hours per week devoted to lec- tures, but the student who is engaged in an investigation of some new problem, is not desirous of dropping his work every few hours to listen to lectures on some unrelated topic, the remembrance of which is made necessary as preparation for a final examination. Such instruction may be weak when considered as a formative process, but it certainly furnishes the best means for individual development. Besides, *Dr. Burnham, in Clark University Decennial Celebration, 1898-99, pp. 162-3. 1 29] HISTOR Y OF SPECIAL MO VEMEXT i 29 the few lectures that are offered by the instructors are usually the results of the original investigations of the instructors, in progress at the time, and cover a vital phase of the topic or topics under investigation by the students. Such work would hardly be suitable for undergraduate students, but for graduates who have naturally passed the formative period it seems to the writer to be most appropriate. As early as 1871, there were special courses for teachers established in connection with the VERSITY, DE- PARTMENT OF Lawrence Scientific School. There was no EDUCATION, examination required for admission to the SPECIAL ^^ Tcachcrs' Course," which was intended espec- COURSES FOR . ,, , , , , . TEACHERS, '^^v 'OJ* tcachcrs of the sciences, or students looking toward that profession. Many similar courses have been offered during the sum- mer sessions for the benefit of teachers who could not attend during the school year. In fact, the summer courses at Harvard have always been adapted, in the main, " to the needs of teachers and to those who intend to be teachers." The instruction has been for the most part academic, but some attention has been given to the best methods of teach- ing the subjects in question. The catalogue for 1880, p. 147, makes mention of these courses as follows : " The school also offers facilities to teachers, and to persons preparing to be teachers, who de- sire to qualify themselves in the modern methods of teaching science by observation and experiment. A one-year's course of study, adapted to this purpose, may be selected from the elements of Natural History, Chemistry and Physics, includ- ing any of the following subjects: Physical Geography and Elementary Geology ; General Chemistry and Quantitative Analysis; Mineralogy; Physics; Botany; Comparative An- atomy and Physiology ; Zoology. 130 TRAINING OF SECOADARY TEACHERS [^130 "This Course is flexible and comprehensive; the instruc- tion is mainly given in the laboratories and museums of the University, and is of the most practical character, every student being taught to make experiments and study specimens." " Special Courses in Botany, Chemistry and Geology are given during the vacation to teachers and others who are unable to attend during term time." ' Special Courses for teachers, not only in the Scientific School but in the Literary Department as well, have been an important feature of the university instruction ever since. To these courses have since been added instruction in psy- chology and pedagogy. In the catalogue of 1897-98, under the head ''Science for Teachers," is found the following: *' This programme is intended for men wiio wish to qualify themselves to teach science in secondary schools, or to be- come supervisors of science teaching in elementar}' schools. It prescribes courses in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Geology and Physical Geography, Psy- chology, the General Principles of Education, the History of Education, the Organization and Management of Schools and Classes, and Methods of teaching Science in Elementary and Secondary Schools, and offers a voluntary summer course in Physical Training." "^ This Course covers four years and leads to " the degree of Bachelor of Science in Science for Teachers." In 1891-92 Paul H. Hanus, B. S., was appointed "Assist- ant Professor in the History and the Art of Teaching," and the new department of education was established, and still remains, as a sub-department of philosophy. During the first year Professor Hanus offered NATURE OF ^]^j.gg courscs : a two-hour course on " The His- THE WORK tory of Teaching and of Educational Theories ;" * Catalogue for 1880-81, p. 148. * Catalogue for iSgj-gS, p. 418. J 3 I ] HIS rOR Y OF SPE CIA L MO YEMEN T 131 a one hour course on " The Theory of Teaching, the psychological basis of methods, Critical examination of educational doctrines," and a two-hour course on " The Art of Teaching, school-room practice, management, super- vision, government and organization of public schools and academies, including visits to the public schools of Cam- bridge and vicinity." The following year the department offered four courses as follows: I. The history of educational theories and prac- tices, two hours a week; 2. Introduction to educational theory, discussion of educational principles, one hour a week; 3. Organization and management of public schools and academies, supervision, courses of study, and instruc- tion, two hours a week; and 4. Pedagogical seminary, aims, organization, equipment, and methods of secondary educa- tion. From this time forward these courses have remained quite constant. Two years later (1894-95) a fifth course was given by the department on " Methods of Teaching Sciences in element- ary and secondary schools," one hour per week. In the year 1896—97 and following, this course has alternated an- nually with a course on " Methods of Teaching Latin, Greek, English, German, French, and History, in Elementary and Secondary Schools," consisting of about ten exercises on each subject. The instruction in the courses on Methods of Teaching is given by Professor Hanus, college professors, and teachers from nearby secondary schools. In the establishment of the department of education, "the corporation wished to make a modest beginning of systematic instruction in the history and art of teaching." The instruction is planned for juniors, seniors, and grad- uates. It does not cover a wide scope, but it is intended to be thoroughly practical and adapted to the immediate professional requirements of secondary teachers. It is I 3 2 TRAINING^ OF SECOND AR V TEA CHERS [132 probable that the department will soon be enlarged and made co-ordinate with philosophy and other collegiate de- partments. The popularity of Harvard University is due in large part to its manifest interest in the professional training of teachers. Instead of a mere department of education, COLUMBIA UNI- U' TT • U U .. T^ I, r W vERsiTY DE- Columbia University has "leachers College PARTMENT OF whlch is thc most richly endowed and thor- EDucATioN oughly equipped School of Education in the country. The purposes of this paper will permit only the briefest outline of its history. In 1889-90, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler was promoted from the position of Tutor in Philosophy to that of "Adjunct Professor of Philosophy and Lecturer on the History and Institutes of Education." During this year under the title of "Pedagogics" is found the following statement: "Lec- tures are given to the senior class one hour weekly through- out the year on the history of educational theories. This course includes a review and analysis of the most celebrated writings on education from Plato's Republic to Herbert Spencer's Education."' Dr. Butler was a young man of energy and NATURE OF g^holarly attainments and his scholastic career THE WORK •' . . T- 11 had been a path of rapid promotion, rellow from 1882 to 1885 he had become Professor of philosophy, ethics, and psychology, and lecturer on the history and in- stitutes of education, 1890, and Dean of the University Fac- ulty of Philosophy, 1891.=' In 1890-91 he gave two one- hour 1 Columbia University Hand-book of Information, 1889-90, p. 40. » Nicholas Murray Butler (Educ), A. M., 1883, Ph. D.. 1884; Fellow Col. Coll., 1882-85; Asst. in Philos., 1885-86; Acting Prof, of Philos., 1886-87; Tutor in Philos., 1887-89; Adj. Prof, of Philos., 18S9-90; Prof, of Philos., Ethics and Psychol., and lecturer on History and Institutes of Educ, 1890-; Prest. Teachers' Coll., N. Y., 1887-91 ; Member Iv. J. State Bd. of Educ, 1888-; Prest. N. J. Coun- 133] ^^^^ '^'^^ ^ ^^' ^^^'- ^^-^^ MOVEMEN T 133 per week lecture courses in education, extending throughout the year; one on the science of education, the other on the history of education. The following year he gave a one-hour course on "Systematic Pedagogics" and devoted two hours weekly to a Pedagogical Seminary, In 1892-93 but one course was offered in education ; a one-hour per week lecture course on " The History of Educational Theories and Institu- tions." Since this time Dr. Butler has usually offered about three lecture courses in education annually, each covering one hour per week : The History of Educational Theories and Institutions ; Educational Seminary; and Principles of Education; including Psychology of Childhood, Didactics, the Ethical and Religious Elements in Education. The latter is usually considered to be one of Dr. Butler's strongest courses. Of late years this course represents two hours per week, the first course mentioned above being omitted. Having early conceived the idea of a great school of edu- cation in connection with Columbia University, Dr. Butler was destined, in his organization and direction of Teachers College, to do more for practical education and the profess- ional training of teachers than is indicated from this brief account of his lectures on education. ^,..^„T,„<. Teachers College may be said to have origi- I COLLEGE, nated in a philanthropic movement started in ; COLUMBIA 1880 to promote domestic arts and industrial/ UNIVERSITY 1 .• i.U 1 U • 1 TU " education among the laboring classes. Ine aim of the movement was soon enlarged to include the intro- duction of industrial education — cooking, sewing, manual training, etc. — into the field of general education, believing thereby to strengthen education by giving new life and mean- ing to the subjects already studied. cil Educ, 1890-91; Dean Univ. Faculty of Philos., 1890-; Prest. Paterson, N. J., Commts. of Pub. Instr., 1892-93; Memb. Nat. Council Educa., 1891-; Editor Educa. Rev., 1890-; Prest. Nat. Teachers' Assn., 1894. — Gen. Cat. Columbia Univ., 1 754-1 894, p. 147. 1 3 4 TRAINING OF SEC ON DA R V TEA CHERS T j 3 4 In order to successfully carry forward this ORIGINATED TO ■' '' SUPPLY THE work, teachers were needed, and their proper NEED FOR training became a matter of immediate neces- iNDusTRiAL gj^ Skilled mechanics might prove very in- TEACHERS , i i • , . . efincient teachers of children m manual trammg, especially when the aim was not to make craftsmen, but rather, broad-minded and intelligent citizens. Neither could the ordinary teacher be relied upon to carry forward this work, since he lacked the knowledge and experience neces- sary to conduct and give meaning to the manual training laboratory. In order to make provision for teachers, found necessary to the success of the movement, the Industrial Education Association (the name by which the society was now known) established classes for the training of teachers. Dr. Butler was appointed President of the Association (1886-91) and assigned the duty of organizing a training college for teach- ers, which at first was intended to represent only one phase of the work, but which later came to absorb the whole in- terest and attention of the society. As already noted, Dr. Butler was intent on having a school of education established at Columbia University. In an article on "The Beginnings of Teachers College," he says: "The idea which led to the foundation and development of Teachers College was suggested by reading the remarkable discussions of education as a subject of university study which were contained in the annual reports of President Barnard for 1881 and 1882."' The remark of President Barnard that attracted special attention was as follows : " Education is nowhere treated as a science, and nowhere is there an attempt to expound its true philosophy." Dr, Butler was of the opinion that the time was ripe to ' Columbia University Quarterly, 1899. 135] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT 135 begin the systematic exposition of education on a high plane in the University, but says: " After a full conference with President Barnard, the opinion was arrived at, chiefly at his instance, that it would probably be easier to build up a teach- ers' college outside of the University, and to bring it later into organic relations with the University, than to undertake at that time its establishment under the control and at the expense of the Trustees. By a fortunate circumstance, the results of which have been almost too happy to attribute wholly to chance, the Industrial Educational Association served as the occasion for the realization of the ideal of a teachers' college on a university basis." ' Teachers College, founded in 1888, began its organization with the following departments : History and Institutes of Education; Methods of Instruction; Mechanical Drawing and Woodworking; Industrial Arts; Domestic Economy; Kindeigarten Methods, and Natural Science. Tiie school was backed by a number of wealthy men and women who were deeply interested in its prosperity, and its growth was consequently rapid. The college course as first arranged occupied but two years and led to a teacher's diploma. The requirements for admission were scarcely equal to those of a good high school. At first the chief aim of the Industrial Edu- CHANGE OF . IDEAL cation Association was the advancement of domestic science and industrial training among the masses, but it was not long before the professional prepar- ation of teachers for all grades of public school-work became the overshadowing interest. Industrial training, however, continued to remain one of the most prominent and influ- ential features of the instruction. A most fortunate incident for the future of the College occurred in 1892 when the society found it necessary to en- * Columbia University Quartfrly, 1899. 1^6 TRAIXING Of SECONDARY TEACHERS [135 large its quarters. The committee appointed to look up a site selected twenty lots (since increased to thirty one) at Morningside Heights, one of the most beautiful and health- ful parts of New York city. The money for the land was obtained through Mr. George W. Vanderbilt, who purchased the property at $100,000 cash and donated it to Teachers College. Two days later it became known that the old Bloomingdale property, which lies just across 120th street to the south had been purchased for the new site of Colum- bia University; so without anticipating it, Teachers College was to come under the immediate shadow of a great uni- versity. In its enlarged quarters the school was able to greatly strengthen its curricula and to increase its requirements both for entrance and for graduation. In 1 893-94 Teachers College became afifiliated with Colum- bia University, certain courses of the former being "accepted by Columbia as counting toward the Columbia College de- grees." ' Since 1898 Teachers College has become incorporated as a real part of Columbia University, exchanging its President for a Dean but retaining its separate Board of Trustees. It is now in fact the "professional school of Columbia Univer- sity for the study of education and the training of teachers." The Teachers College of Columbia University has thus be- come a great school of education which, besides its four years of undergraduate academic courses, and its one to three years of graduate professional courses, " maintains two schools of observation and practice ; one, the Horace Mann School, the other known as the Experimental School. The Horace Mann School comprises three departments — a kindergarten for children of three to six years of age, an ' Historical Sketch of Teachers College, by ex-Pres. W. L. Hervey, Teachtrs College Record, i, 33. 137] ^^'^ "^'^^ ^ ^^ SPECIAL MO VEMENT 1 3 7 elementary school of eight grades, and a high school of four grades. The Experimental School consists of a kindergar- ten, elementary school and special classes in sewing, cooking and manual training. Each department of the Horace Mann School is in charge of a principal, who ranks with directors of departments in the College. The Experimental School is under the immediate supervision of the College Professor of the Theory and Practice of Teaching. Both schools are under the general direction of a Superintendent of Schools, who is also the College Professor of School Administration."' The Horace Mann School, which maintains all grades from the kindergarten to the college, is a pay school, the other is free. These schools furnish the professional laboratory of Teachers College. The aim of the School is thus set forth in the AIM OF TEACH- i. 1 j .. T^U x T" U current calendar: " Ihe purpose of leachers ERS COLLEGE _ ^ f College is to afford opportunity, both theoret- ical and practical, for the training of teachers of both sexes for kindergartens, elementary and secondary schools, of principals, supervisors and superintendents of schools, and of specialists in various branches of school work, including normal schools and colleges." As at present conducted it impresses one as an unusually high grade normal. It is a school of instruction and of methods rather than one of re- search and investigation, formative rather than creative. But its professors, selected primarily because of their teaching ability and scholastic attainments, are young and vigorous, and the future may tell a different story. In its entirety Teachers College is ist, a large public school representing all grades from the kindergarten to the univer- sity; 2d, a great industrial school; 3d, an academic college, though at present, in order not to duplicate courses in Columbia University, but few collegiate courses are ofTered ; ^ Teachers' College Annotmcetneni, 1901-02, p. 16. 138 7'-^^ INfNG OF SECOND A R / TEA CIIERS [138 4th, a thoroughly equipped and efficient school of education for the professional training of teachers. A list of the pro- fessors in the professional school alone will indicate the scope of the work. They are (not including the professors of special methods) : Jas. E. Russell, Ph. D., Dean, and History of Education; Nicholas Murray Butler, LT^. D., Principles of Education ; Frank M. McMurry, Ph. D., Theory and Practice of Teaching; Samuel T. Button, A. M., School Administration ; Jas. McK. Cattell, Ph. D., Psychology ; Paul Monroe, Ph. D., History of Education ; Edward L. Thorndike, Ph.D., Genetic Psychology (Child Study); Mary D. Runyan, Kindergarten. All degrees are conferred by Columbia University, but Teachers College ofifers two graduate diplomas: a Higher Diploma, won after at least one year of resident graduate study, intended " to fit teachers of superior ability and special academic attainments for the work of training teachers in colleges and normal schools, and for positions in the public-school service requiring a high degree of professional insight and technical skill;" a Secondary Diploma, likewise won after at least one year of graduate study, intended to fit specialists for teaching in high schools and colleges. Be- sides the above there are a number of undergraduate courses leading to special diplomas, such as the elementary teachers' diploma, the kindergarten diploma, the domestic science diploma, the manual training diploma, etc. ; all self-explan- atory, and nearly all based on a four years college course with the subject mentioned in the diploma made specially prominent. Many advantages are afforded for the observation of actual teaching and school administration, and practice-teaching is made an important requirement for any and all diplomas. The plant of Teachers College represents a capital of nearly two million dollars, and the annual expenditures are 139] J^^^ TORY OF SPE CIA L MO YEMENI ' 139 more than two hundred thousand dollars, which is probably more than the entire expenditures of many of the state uni- versities. The New York University, founded in 1831, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY ^'^^ limited for many years to the single college SCHOOL OF of "arts and science." To this college have PEDAGOGY since been added a school of applied science, a graduate school, a school of pedagogy, a school of law, a school of medicine, and a veterinary college. The School of Pedagogy was formally established fn 1890, though its origin properly dates back to the school year of 1887-S8. It was in the latter year that Dr. Jerome Allen was appointed "Professor of Pedagogy" and offered a course of " instruction in Pedagogics for graduate students" who were candidates for advanced degrees. At the earnest solicitation of several prominent teachers, he was induced to ofifer, in addition to the above, courses of university exten- sion lectures upon pedagogics to classes ojt non-matriculants, not candidates for degrees. These courses were largely attended by resident teachers and became sufficiently popu- lar to lead to the establishment of the school of pedagogy a few years later. In the Minutes of the Council creating the PURPOSE OF ui/ J •i.U/11-~i.i. school of pedagogy is the following state- THE SCHOOL r o oy o ^ ment : " The School of Pedagogy of the Uni- versity of the City of New York is established this third day of March, i8x^0, to give higher training to persons who may have devoted themselves to teaching as their calling, and who are graduates of colleges of Arts and Science ; or who are graduates of Normal Schools or Colleges of the State of New York ; or who are able to present testimonials of gen- eral scholarship and culture equal to those received by the graduates of the New York State Normal Schools." It is 140 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [i^q claimed that this was the first purely professional university school of pedagogy established in America, ranking on the same plane as schools of medicine and of law. " The aim of the School of Pedagogy is to AIM OF THE furnish thorough and complete professional SCHOOL . . ° . training for teachers. For this purpose it brings together all that bears upon pedagogy from the his- tory of education, from analytical, experimental and physi- ological psychology, from the science of medicine, from ethics, from philosophy, from aesthetics, from sociology, from the principles and art of teaching, and from a compar- ative study of different national systems of education. It unifies this knowledge into a body of pedagogical doctrine, and points out its application to the practical work of the educator."' The school of pedagogy is purely a professional school devoting its entire attention to psychology and pedagogy. From two professors in 1890, it now has four professors and ten or more lecturers. The school has had to depend for support upon student fees and voluntary contributions and has been unable to expand as rapidly as other schools of education established later. The School of Pedagogy is situated at Washington Square, New York city, right in the midst of the great body of city teachers, but being a purely graduate school and separated from the academic or undergraduate department of the Uni- versity (ten miles away at Washington Heights), it does not attract as it probably otherwise would. It has no model or experimental school, and makes no provision for practice- teaching, though it is probable that the great majority of its students have had experience in teaching. The school offers two graduate courses, one leading to the degree of Master of Pedagogy, the other to the degree ^ Neiv York Univ., School of Pedagogy Announcement, 1901. 141 ] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT j^I of Doctor of Pedagogy, both requiring a thesis and at least one year of resident graduate study. At present (1901) there are about 350 students in attendance, many of whom are superintendents and teachers of long experience. From its establishment in the early seyen- UNIVERSITY OF , . . . ~"*7 ~~ CALIFORNIA ^^^^ ^^ Berkeley, the University of California has DEPARTMENT takctt the leading position among the better OF EDUCATION univcrsitics of the far West. It received great impetus and benefit from the pleasant rivalry created by the opening of Leland Stanford Jr. University in 1891-92, and for a time seemed likely to be overshadowed by the rapid growth and greater originality of the newer mstituliQn. But the early deatli of Senator Stanford. the consequent loss and delay in appropriations, and the late unfortunate, and prob- ably unforeseen, difficulties affecting the teaching body, have resulted in placing the University of California again notice- ably in the lead. The University easily ranks with the best institutions of its kind in this country. It is first and foremost a teaching institution, and its department of education is representative of the best type of such departments in state universities. No State ranks higher than California in its teaching body, and this condition is due in large part to the immediate influence of the State University. Beginning with the early eighties the follow- TEACHERs -^ Statement is made in the University regis- COURSES " JO ter: "Upon recommendation of the Faculty, a diploma from the University entitles the holder to a teacher's certificate." From this time forward "Teachers' Courses" have been scheduled in different departments. Such courses increased in number until in 1891-92, the year preceding the establishment of the department of education, there were " Teachers' Courses " scheduled in English, 1 4 2 ^^'^ INING O F SE CO A' DA R Y TEA CHERS \\\2 Greek, Latin, History and Political Science, Mathematics, and Philosophy. But prior to the establishment of the department of education these courses seem to have been designated teachers' courses because of the content or nature of the subject matter, and not because of the manner of the treatment nor because they were devoted to the methods of teaching the subject. In other words these courses were equally appropriate to students who had no thought of teaching. In the University register for 1891-92, under the head of " Pedagogics," is published the following resolution, taken from the minutes of the meeting of the Board of Regents for May 14, 1889: "Resolved, That the Academic Senate be authorized to announce the intention of this Board to establish a course of instruction in the science and art of teaching as soon as the same can be properly organized." The same year under the department of philosophy is to be found the following statement: "It is the intention of the ^/Department oi' Philosophy, not later than the year 1892-93, to offer at least one Course in addition to the above (a course in Empirical psychology, including formal logic, de- ductive and inductive. — G. W. A. L.), especially designed for teachers, upon some essential branch of pedagogics." Such -was the apparent condition of affairs when, in 1892 93, the Department of Pedagogy was established, and Dr. Elmer E, Brown, instructor in Pedagogy University of Michigan, was appointed Associate Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, in charge of the department. An incident which probably had much to do with focus- sing the desires for a department of education at the State University was the opening the year previous of the Leland Stanford Jr. University with its department of educa- tion. The establishment of a department of education by the latter institution was appreciated by the teachers of the 143] ^^^^ '^^^ ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^■'^^ '^^^ ^'^ ^'^^^ ^' 1 43 State, and many experienced teachers who were planning to enter the State University changed their plans and went to Stanford instead. It should also be mentioned that at this time California had two good and prosperous state normal schools, and no provision for free public high schools ; these facts would tend to lessen the real necessity for a collegiate department of education. The undercurrent of feeling which soon found NATURE OF • • J u • u 1 1 l • i i- expression m a good high school law, in addi- THE WORK ^ & & tion to what has gone before, made the times seem especially propitious for the establishment of a univer- sity department of education. Dr. Brown was able to organ- ize the isolated "Teachers' Courses" in the different acad- emic subjects, into complete and extended pedagogical courses with definite meaning, covering both professional and academic instruction. Such a group of professional courses was established the first year leading to the Univer- sity Teachers' Certificate. The requirements for the University Teachers' REQUIREMENTS ^ . ^ r • FOR UNIVERSITY Certificate, as first established, were quite sim- TEACHERs' CER- liar to thosc of the University of Michigan, and TiFicATE are as follows : " (a) Special Knowledge. The completion of work amounting normally to ten hours per week for one year, in the subject or group of closely allied subjects that the candidate expects to teach ; the ultimate decision as to the candidate's proficiency resting with the heads of the departments concerned. (b) Professional Knowledge. The completion of work in Pedagogy (which may include the Course on the Philosophy of Education) amounting to six hours per week for one year. (c) General Knowledge. Courses sufficient to represent (with the inclusion of Special Studies) four groups from the following list: Natural Science, Mathematics, English, For- 144 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS \\AA eign Languages, History, Philosophy. This requirement is intended to secure as broad culture as possible and sympa- thy with the various lines of High School work."' The requirements for the University teachers' certificate as outlined above cover two years of university study, but since the work is also credited toward the university degree, it does not necessarily lengthen the college course. A slight modification has been made in the professional requirements in that at least eight of the twelve hours (per week for one half year) must be taken in the department of education, while the remaining four hours may be devoted to an ap- proved course on methods of teaching as ofifered in the academic department in which the student is most interested. With this exception the requirements remain the same as when first established. Many other universities have estab- lished similar courses, each leading to a university teachers' certificate. Such certificates are usually granted only to graduates of the institution, and are accepted in lieu of all teachers' examinations in the state in which they are granted, and frequently in many other states. The aim of the department as first expressed AIM OF THE ^^^ since maintained is given in the University DEPARTMENT . ° . ' Register as follows : " It is the purpose of the Courses in Pedagogy to afiford such instruction in the prin- ciples and the history of education as is desirable in a truly liberal culture, and to provide adequate professional prepa- ration for University students who expect to teach. The courses are reserved for the third and fourth years of college residence." The courses offered by the department of NATURE OF g^ju^ation in 1892-93 were as follows: i. The THE WORK practice (art) of teaching, four hours per week, second term; 2. School Supervision, two hours per week, * University Rugisier for i8g2-gj, p. 41, 145] HISTORY OF SPECUL MOrEAfENr 145 first term; 3. The History of Education, earlier periods, three hours per week, first term ; 4. The History of Educa- tion, later periods, three hours per week, second term; 5. The Theory of Education, four hours per week, first term ; 6. The Origin and Development of School Systems, one hour per week, second term ; 7. Seminary for the compar- ative study of schools and school systems, two hours per week, two terms. To these courses have since been added courses on : Child Study ; School Hygiene ; Practice, and Visitation of Schools ; Studies in Secondary Education ; Ethnology; The Development of Character ; and Seminaries for the study of special problems in education. Some opportunity is afTorded for practice-teaching, and visitation of schools and observation of teaching arc provided for all. " The Tompkins School in Oakland is conducted as the regular observation school of the Department of Pedagogy." The teaching force in the Department of Education in 1900 was as follows : Elmer E. Brown, Ph. D., Professor of the Theory and Practice of Education ; Thomas P. Bailey, Jr., Ph. D., Associate Professor of Education as Related to Character; Fletcher B. Dresslar, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching; and T. L. Heaton, B. L., LL. B., Assistant in Pedagogy. r.^„,.T, rTv,T-^„ There are many other departments of educa- OTHER UNIvER- ^ >■ siTY DEPART- tion conccming which the length of this chapter MENTs OF vvill permit only the briefest mention. Attention has already been called to the De- partment of Education in Leland Stanford Jr. LELAND STAN- tt • -i. i.- l. j -^.1, i.U U University which was opened with the begin- FORD JR UNI- .... vERsiTY ning of the institution in 1891. Earl Barnes, who was placed at the head of the department as Professor of Education, was full of ideas, vigorous, and 1^6 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [146 original, though more suggestive than critical. He was a true student wedded to no traditions. In his lectures throughout the State and in his conduct of the department he aroused the teaching force and stimulated thought as but few others have been able to do. His work was more that of an investigator than that of an instructor. Among his strongest courses were : The History of Education; Child Study; Educational Classics; and the Seminary for the study of special problems. Professor Barnes resigned his position in 1897 to travel and study abroad, and the department was temporarily filled by transferring E. H. Griggs, A. M., from Professor of Ethics to Professor of Education and appointing E. P. Cubberley, A. B., and E. D. Starbuck, Ph. D., as Assistant Professors of Education with Margaret E. Schallenberger, Instructor in Education. Professor Griggs was a brilliant man and a popular lecturer but did not possess the training requisite for the head of a modern department of education. Twenty odd courses were scheduled in the department many of which had but little immediate interest for teachers. The following year Mr. E. P. Cubberley was made Asso- ciate Professor of Education in charge of the department, and Dr. Starbuck continued as Assistant Professor of Edu- cation. Since the change from the administration of Pro- fessor Barnes the department has attracted less attention, but has probably been as successful in instructional work. In January, 1888, twelve or more members NORTHWESTERN Qf \\-^^ senior class, looking forward to the teach- ' ing profession, requested Rev. Herbert F. Fisk, EVANSTON, fc> r ' M ILLINOIS D. D., Principal of the Academy of the North- western University, to ofifer a course of lectures on Pedagogy. These were given for three months without university credit. In March the Faculty voted to recognize 147] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT j^jr the course for the next term as elective work. The interest and appreciation shown by the students seemed to the trus- tees to be sufficient reason to warrant the estabHshment of the work permanently. Consequently, in June of that year, a co-ordinate department of pedagogy was established in the University, and Dr. Fisk, the present incumbent, ap- pointed " Professor of Pedagogics," while still continuing as principal of the University Academy. The department of pedagogy in the Univer- UNrVERSITY . r » »y OF TEXAS, DE- ^^^7 °^ Tcxas was established in \'6()\-2, and PARTMENT OF Jos. Baldwin, LL.D., appointed professor in EDUCATION charge. The department began as a co-ordi- nate department of the University, and the courses were open as electives to juniors and seniors. The annual cata- logue gave as the purpose of the department: "to prepare teachers for the best positions by uniting liberal scholarship with the most helpful professional training." The subjects first offered were : the art of school management ; the art of teaching; applied psychology; and the history of education. In January, 1896, the Regents abolished the department, but re-established it again the following year. Dr. Baldwin was made Professor Emeritus of Pedagogy, W. S. Sutton, M. A., Professor of Pedagogy, and A. Caswell Ellis, Ph. D., Adjunct Professor of Pedagogy. Since the re-organization the department of education has been unusually successful, and ranks with the best of its kind in the South. In 1890-91 Dr. Chas.DeGarmo was called to UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS DE- ^"^ University of Illmois as professor of Psy- PARTMRNT OF chology, and seems to have offered courses in EDUCATION philosophy and pedagogy which students might elect in their junior and senior years. The professional sub- jects mentioned are: educational psychology; science of 148 TRAINING or SECONDARY TEACHERS [148 instruction; special methods; school supervision; the his- tory of education ; and the philosophy of education. The next year Dr. DeGarmo resigned and the following year (1892-93) Dr. W. O. Krohn was appointed Assistant Pro- fessor of Psychology. He devoted about one half of his time to pedagogy and presented courses somewhat similar to those ofTered by Dr. DeGarmo. In 1893-94 a department of pedagogy was created, and Dr. Frank M. McMurry appointed Professor of Pedagogics. No outline is given of the courses that were offered this year. The statement, however, is made that, " The work in Pedagogics includes both the theory and practice of teaching." The next year (1894-95) Wm. J. EckofT, Ph. D., was called as Professor of Pedagogics in place of Dr. McMurry, who had resigned to accept the Presidency of the School of Ped- agogy, University of Buffalo. Like his predecessor, Dr. EckofT remained but one year and the chair was then filled by Arnold Tompkins, A. M., as Professor of Pedagogy. The chair is now occupied by Dr. E. G. Dexter. Since the organization of the department in 1893 it has re- mained a separate co-ordinate department of the University. Pedagogical instruction was first organized RUTGERS COL- fc> i=> & LEGE, DEPART- in Rutgcrs College, New Brunswick, New Jer- MENT OF sey, in 1892. It began as an independent EDUCATION department. The Head Master of Rutgers Preparatory School, Dr. Eliot R. Payson, was appointed Professor of History and Art of Teaching, and was directed to give lectures to the seniors during one term of the year. In 1894 the University of Pennsylvania to UNIVERSITY OF j^ggt ^-^g nccds of teachcrs, who on account of PENN SYLVAN I A department' ^^^"^ duties could not attend the regular college OF education courses in the morning hour, offered a series of courses for teachers, extending throughout 149] HISTORY OF SPECIAL MOVEMENT 149 the year. These courses were arranged so as to avoid con- flict with the hours of public school service. The instruction was both academic and professional, and was adjusted to students having at least a normal or high school training. At this time Martin G. Brumbaugh, A. M., was made Pro- fessor of Pedagogy in the University, and chairman of the committee on " Courses for Teachers." The Department of Pedagogy was established " as a result of a recognized need in the community," enforced by a grant of $100 by the Public Educational Association of Philadelphia. The de- partment of education was created and still remains a sub- department of philosophy. A department of pedagogy was established UNrVERSiTY OF , __ . . tvt , , • r, i i NEBRASKA '" ^"^ Univcrsity of Nebraska m 1895, though DEPARTMENT for scvcral years prior Dr. H. K. Wolfe, pro- oF EDUCATION fgssor of Philosophy, in response to the solicit- ation of teachers and students, had offered annually a few courses in pedagogy. The interest manifested in this peda- gogical instruction was so pronounced that the Regents felt warranted in granting the request for a new department. To the unselfishness of Dr. H. K. Wolfe is due the fact that pedagogy was established as a separate co-ordinate depart- ment instead of a sub-department of philosophy. In 1900 the title of the department was changed to read " Depart- ment of Education " instead of " Department of Pedagogy " as at first established. In 1895 the subject of pedagogy was added UNIVERSITY OF , , , , ., i i • , i i COLORADO ^° *"^ department of philosophy which already DEPARTMENT iucludcd, bcsidcs philosophy proper, ethics OF EDUCATION jogic and psychology. This arrangement con- tinued until 1898 when the department of philosophy was divided into two departments, the one including "Philosophy, Logic, and Ethics," the other designated the " Department of Psychology and Education." Professor Arthur AlHn> I 5 o TRAINING OF SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS [150 Ph. D,, is head of the latter department. Hence pedagogy is not a separate department. In Syracuse University, New York, pedagogical instruction was first offered in the department of philosophy, but a sep- arate co-ordinate department of pedagogy was established in 1896. In 1901 the Chicago Institute, established SCHOOL OF , . , T»,r T- -r., • EDUCATION ^"^ y^^^ previous by Mrs. bmmons Blame as a CHICAGO school of pedagogy, was consolidated with the UNIVERSITY Chicago University forming with the latter a great "School of Education" which furnishes instruction to teachers of all grades from the kindergarten through the college. This school as now equipped and planned is quite similar to that of the Teachers College Columbia University already described. It does not do away with the pedagog- ical instruction offered by Professor John Dewey in connec- tion with the department of philosophy but supplements and enforces it. Wellesley, Bryn Mavvr, Smith College, Mid- CHAiRs OF PED- diebury College, Vermont University, Univer- AGOGY ESTAB- ^ ^^ Dcnvcr, and the University of Chicago LISHED IN ^ ^ c 1898 AND IN all provided for pedagogical instruction in 1899 1898. In most of these schools pedagogy has been made a sub-department of philosophy, due in part to the limited amount of teaching force and in part to the old idea that philosophy is the subject /^r excel- lence for the teacher. In 1899 the University of Maine, the University of Ala- bama, Howard University, Washington, D. C, Furnam University, Greenville, S. C, Ottawa University, Kansas, and Mount Holyoke, Mass., opened departments of pedagogy. Since then many other institutions have been added to the hst, so that to-day, with but two or three exceptions, every university of prominence in the United States has a depart- I 5 I ] HIS TORY OF SPE CIAL MO VEMENT \ 5 i merit of pedagogy, or better of ediication, the name by which these departments are now most frequently designated. ' It is quite probable that a number of institutions have been omitted which should have been included in this ar- ticle ; although it has not been the intention to give an exhaustive list of institutions having pedagogical depart- ments, which has not been done, but rather to give a brief account of a sufificient number of characteristic departments to show the development, purpose, nature, and trend of pedagogical instruction in this country. To recapitulate briefly, the history of the RECAPITULATION professional training of teachers in the United States shows three distinct movements; the normal school movement described in chapter two which began with the educational revival in the middle of the first half of the nineteenth century, the movement for the establishment of normal departments in colleges and universities described in chapter three which began with the second half of the nine- teenth century, and the movement for the establishment of university departments of education described in the above chapter and which has taken form within the last twenty years. The movement which led to the establishment of normal schools had for its clearly expressed purpose the preparation of elementary and district school teachers. This object, though frequently modified by the normal schools to meet new conditions, has remained at base the main reason for the establishment of normal schools from that day to the present. In the movement for the establishment of normal depart- ments in colleges and universities the expressed purposes have been far less definite and uniform. In many instances these departments have been the direct outgrowth of legis- 1^2 TRAINING OF SECONDAR Y TEA CIIERS [152 lative action in creating state universities, and in such cases they have usually been intended to take the place of state normal schools and to prepare teachers for the elementary grades. In some instances these departments have been called forth in order to aid university students in their rivalry with normal school graduates for positions in the public school service. They have varied in their objects from the preparation of elementary teachers on the one hand to the preparation of teachers for any and all grades of public school work on the other; in one case loosely affiliated with the university, in another connected with the preparatory department or even taking the place of this department, and again established as a coordinate department of the univer- sity itself. From the lack of clearly defined purposes and because of covering ground thought to be pre-empted by other institutions these departments have met with the almost continued opposition of the normal schools from without, and the university faculties from within. Through the processes of growth and development they have come, for the most part, to take on one of two forms ; either they have become actual state normal schools combined with the state university, as in Nevada, Utah and Wyoming, or they have grown into regular university departments of education for the special professional training of secondary teachers, as in the universities of Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Wisconsin, and others. The movement for the establishment of university depart- ments of education co-ordinate with other collegiate depart- ments of the same institution had a more definite and clearly expressed ideal. From the first the main object of depart- ments of education has been the professional training of secondary school teachers — city superintendents, elementary and high school principals, high school, normal, and college instructors ; a second and almost equal purpose has been 153] HIS rOR Y OF SPE CIAL MO VEMENT i 5 3 the study and scientific investigation of educational prob- lems — a sort of educational laboratory or clearing-house for the purpose of intelligently co-ordinating and adjusting the various problems connected with public education. When they have fallen short of this ideal it has usually been on account of the lack of appreciation and support on the part of the administration, or because a weak, inefficient man has been placed at the head of the department. These depart- ments have come in for their full share of criticism ; first, as should have been anticipated, by professors in the older departments of the universities whose territory thus seemed to have been infringed upon ; second, by their brethren in the normal schools who had come to look upon the profess- ional training of secondary teachers as their legitimate field ; another class of criticisms has been the result of the want of knowledge, while still others have been just and valuable. Yet, notwithstanding the criticisms, these departments have continually grown in scientific and popular favor and have become a permanent and important addition to the educa- tional system. CHAPTER V PEDAGOGICAL INSTRUCTION— WHAT, WHEN, HOW The greater number of the departments of education in colleges and universities in the United States have been in existence for less than ten years, a period scarcely long enough to give them an established curriculum and a defi- nite form, but a period probably long enough to indicate what are considered to be the more essential subjects in the professional training of teachers and the more important lines of cleavage for future adjustment. In the working out of a new problem by LACK OF , . .. . .... UNIFORMITY Qincrent persons under different environments, although the end in view be the same, the means to that end are apt to show great individuality of character. A certain amount of variation in educational courses is essential to healthy growth and is a sign of virility, but a study of the courses scheduled by departments of education has convinced the writer that much of the varia- tion is due to the inefficiency and lack of proper training of the professors themselves.' * It is not an uncommon occurrence for a president of a university to call to the professorship of education a man who has had absolutely no scientific training for the field over which he is given control. These calls have resulted, no doubt, as a reward of merit, but too often it has been for merit in other than pedagogical lines, and in some cases it seems that the call has been the result of an effort to find a place for a man who is thought to be able to do less harm in a department of education than elsewhere. The friends of no other department at the present day would be thus insulted, and there is no longer any valuable reason why the professors of education should not be as carefully trained for their work as are the professors of other departments. No one would think of caUing a man to the 154 [154 155] PEDAGOGIGAL INSTRUCTION 155 The librarian must often be puzzled in cataloguing new books owing to the variance between title and content, so, in the table given below, it has been a difficult matter to arrange a proper grouping of subjects from the title of courses to be found in the university catalogues. To illus- trate ; the terms "Philosophy of education," "Science of education," " Principles of education," " Institutes of educa- tion " and "Educational theory," are all different in mean- ing, and yet as titles to universitiy courses they are used to cover almost similar ground. Under the head of " Prin- ciples of education" one professor says: "This course aims to lay the basis for a scientific theory of education con- sidered as a human institution. The process of education is explained from the standpoint of the doctrine of evolution, and the fundamental principles thus arrived at are applied from the threefold standpoint of the history of civilization, the developing powers of the child, and the cultivation of individual and social efficiency." Another professor under the head of "Institutes of education," says: " In this course education is treated first, as to its aims, its principles and its means from the standpoint of the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of man." Likewise school organization, school management, and school supervision are frequently com- bined in a single course under the head of school super- vision and management, and may even include lectures on methods of instruction and the art of teaching, though the latter subjects are more often given separate treatment. Even the common phrase " Plistory of education," which has taken on so definite a meaning, is not always used consist- ently as indicative of the content of university courses. So eminent an educational writer as the late Thomas Davidson entitles a treatise on education — " A History of Education '» professorship of Latin, of Physics, of History who has not had special training in these lines, neither should a man be called to the chair of education who has not had the best university training afforded in the particular lines he is to follow. I 5 6 TRAINING OF SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS [156 which might have been designated more appropriately, a history of the philosophy of education. Notwithstanding the difficulties mentioned EVOLUTION OF abovc, an effort has been made to show in tabular form the evolution and relative import- COURSES ^ ance of the courses offered by departments of education during the past ten years. For this purpose twenty representative universities, that were among the first to establish departments of education, have been selected, as follows : The Universities of Iowa, Indiana, Michigan, Wis- consin, Missouri, Texas, California, Minnesota, Kansas, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Nebraska and Ohio (State) ; Columbia (including Teachers College), Clark, Leland Stan- ford, Harvard, Cornell, Brown and New York universities. Some of these institutions did not have departments of edu- cation prior to 1896-97, while only seven of the departments herein represented date back to the year 1890-91. A list has been made of the principal courses offered by the de- partments of education in the above institutions for the ten years beginning with the school year 1 890-91 ; showing the number of departments represented in each case and the total number of hours of college recitations (reduced in all cases to a two-semester basis, an hour representing one recitation or class period per week for one-half year). From these points it is quite easy to note the relative attention given to the different subjects and the average number of hours which each subject that is offered receives. In the preparation of the table the thought has been to group together related subjects in order to facilitate comparison. The courses seem naturally to fall under the following heads: {a) Historical; {b) Theoretical or Philosophical; {c) Practical, including school organization, management, methods of instruction, observation and practice-teaching; and {d) Psychological, including child study, genetic and applied psychology. 157] PEDAGOGICAL INSTRUCTION 157 •[BDi2o[oiioXsj -*o -t-i Hco -*^ 1 1 •Xpms PUHD I I n t;)- n rj- N lOvO t^ ir> rj- t^ao ON -^ N "" N >-i 1 IO30 1 "T* n" •X2o[oqoXsj Dijauag III'II!IIIIIn-<1-n\ono fooo On Tj- N to •XSopqoXsj p3i[ddv -0 mvO On t-»0 t--. 0\ OnSO OsvO m ro « « « N ■-" ■!j-r^Tft~»uT^T}-0 On «0 PO ON •uoijorujsui JO poqiaj^ On " " ON rO •juaiuaSa -UEj^ puB uoistAiadni^ N u-i "^ t-»30 ■* "* w (^ mX) u-i N rh -i- ■>4- -51- * M ON o» N •[BOijaaoaqx Mn e*o c«) On N M « N •uopEDnp3 jo saimusui -1 ■* •uon -Bonp3 jo Xqdosoiiqj -ims -iw -iico N lONOOM 10- r^OwO t^MiO u^0^roC^" ««-MNNror<0 1000 ■UOtlBOnpa JO 3DU3pg r-tn -iB;fN't'->N"NN\ONO 00 T)- 1-1 TT N •uoijBDnpa JO Xaoaqx n Tj-^ T;fro« ^— -"l-JO ■^rOT}-rOT)-iy-)Ttir)-^iy-i ro ON ro •|BDU0}SIH u->On M On 1 •SDISSBI3 iBuoijBonpa I I>-N<^^ooNoo^^o^^^o•-lT^N^o roio fOX) 00 -^ •suiajsXg poqag » 1-, N«ro«rOMro>-'Tri-i'^ •uopBonpa JO iCiojsijj — rOi-ivoi-iioi-it^i-cvOi-iON«30NONi-'0\ rt- 1-1 4 •pajuas -aadsj s;u3ui}jBd3Q 3 "o 3 _c u 2 > t^.»H .ro.t~^.00 .On.O -O -O -O • in u ^ . I . . ; I • ; . I ! ' 3 3 •••••••••-•• I • I •' ' 8 2 ::::::::;••:•::• : • • 015 ^ ::::::: 1 :::::::; : 00 : : . . : : :z;f^ ................. . olja ri^ rt^ rt-2 rt^ rt-2 rt-a citJO c3.a rt-Q ^,^_^ N rOTj-vo'vO t^OO 0\0 •V^ OiCnOsOnOnOnoOnO Ron "i "i "i 'i 'i 'i 'i "i "i M:yo-" M rOT^uovo r^&O On „„OnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnon I 5 8 TRAINING OF SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS [158 From what has already been said, the above table will no doubt be self-explanatory. The column headed " Depart- ments of education" represents the total number of such departments in the above universities for the year indicated. Beginning with the second column, headed *' History of education," and reading from left to right, the upper row of figures marked a, represents the number of departments ofTering courses in the subjects named at the head of the column, while the second row of figures marked b, repre- sents the total number of hours given to the subject by all the departments for the years designated. The row of figures at the bottom marked " Average hours of course." indicates the average time given to the subject by all the departments represented for the ten years covered by the table. The grouping of the courses under the heads COMMENTS ON HistoHcal, Theoretical, Practical, and Psycho- PEDAGOGICAL .... i . i -i. i i- logical IS a somewhat arbitrary one depending as much upon the nature and treatment of the subjects themselves as upon the titles by which the courses are designated. No grouping of subjects can be made to fit all cases, and the one here given is intended only to be sug- gestive. The list of courses as given above does not include all subjects, but only the principal ones. To illustrate, in 1890-91 besides the subjects enumerated above, there were scheduled courses in didactics, libraries, school law, school hygiene, special method courses (under different depart- ments), kindergarten and primary instruction; in 1895-96 there were scheduled, in addition to the above, courses in secondary education, educational doctrines (theory), educa- tional ideals (theory), seminaries (devoted to original prob- lems), Herbartian pedagogy, leading present topics and problems of education, educational reforms, school economy, current educational movements, experimental psychology, 159] FED A G GICAL INS TR UCTION j 5 9 descriptive psychology, physiological pedagogics, aesthetics in relation to education, sociology in relation to education, ethics, development of character, biological aspect of educa- tion, and to these have been added a few other courses in later years. Most of the subjects, however, not found in the table add but little to the general make up in the profes- sional training of teachers, and may be omitted from the list of essential subjects. A few institutions seem to be a law unto themselves, and for that reason it has been difficult, in some cases, to classify the courses ofifered by them with those of other institutions. For instance, the courses on education scheduled by Clark University in 1893-94 are as follows: Present status and problems of higher education in United States and Europe, outline of systematic pedagogy, organization of schools in Europe, school hygiene, educational reforms, motor educa- tion of children, and pedagogical seminary ; while in 1897-98 the New York University School of Pedagogy scheduled courses as follows : history of education, physiological and experimental psychology, descriptive psychology, history of philosophy, physiological pedagogics, elements of ped- agogy, systems of education, aesthetics in relation to edu- cation, sociology in relation to education, child study, institutes of pedagogy, ethics, school organization, man- agement and administration, and original investigations. These schools are both graduate institutions, which probably accounts for some of the variations in courses. The former is limited in the number of students and confined to a sep- arate department of education, while the latter represents a complete school of education with many departments. The treatment of the subject matter also varies, in the former the treatment is largely historical, in the latter psychological. Reverting to the table it will be seen that most attention is given to the subjects designated historical, the history of 1 60 TRAINING OF SECOND A R Y TEA CHERS [ 1 60 education leading all other subjects. Following historical courses, come in order practical, theoretical and ps}'cholog- ical courses. The latter group, however, is only partially represented in the above table, since courses in educational psychology and child study are occasionally offered in de- partments of philosophy and psychology which are not in- cluded in the table. The subject of observation and practice- teaching is likewise not fully represented, for in many cases it is combined with school supervision and other subjects and is not made a separate course. By means of a questionnaire, the views of EDUCATIONAL ^ REQUIREMENTS ^^^7 ^"^ niorc collcgc and university professors FOR HIGH of education were obtained to the following SCHOOL questions pertaining to the educational require- TEACHERS , i • i i i , ments of high school teachers. In general, what ought to be expected as a minimum re- quirement, both {a) academic and {b) professional of teachers for secondary education? {c) In the above minimum professional requirement what do you consider to be the essential subjects, the length of time to be devoted to each, and the manner of treatment, i, e., by lecture or recitation, by text or topic, etc? {d) In departments of education where the instruction is limited to a single professor, what work can be undertaken to best advantage? A few professors instead of answering the questions directly referred the writer to literature wherein their thoughts had already been expressed, but by far the larger number answered directly. Quoting briefly from a number of these persons we are able to present the following im- portant data : iglj PEDAGOGICAL INSTRUCTION t6i Arthur Allin, University of Colorado, VIEWS OF PRO- Boulder. FESSORS OF EDUCATION {a) A college degree with specialization in some one department. Blanket certificates should not be offered to a student. (^) The same, largely, as in that for elementary training phis foreign secondary school systems, method of teaching his specialty, and advanced psychology and sociology. {c) I cannot answer this briefly. {d) The more general subjects which would interest all. John A. Bergstrom, Indiana University, Bloomington. {a) College course in which election and major subjects are permitted, and he should become a teacher of his major subject. {b) A year's pedagogical work. {c) A general course for high school teachers in the pedagogical department; the teachers' course in his major subject, and an observation and apprentice course. {d) I regard the course given under {c) especially for high school teachers, as just about the minimum. Stratton B. Brooks, University of Illinois, Champaign. («) A Bachelor's degree. (b) Two years pedagogy, one year practice teaching. {c) (i) Psychology one-half year, lectures and text; (2) Pedagogy, historical, theoretical and practical, one and a half years, by lectures and topics; (3) Teachers' courses in academic subjects, as in Latin, etc. ; (4) Practice teaching under supervision, one year. {d) I, 2 and 4 above. The other professors should attend to 3. Elmer E. Brown, University of California, Berkeley. (^) A full course for Bachelor's degree in which at least 1 62 TRAINING OF SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS [162 20 hours a week for one-half year are devoted to the candi- date's specialty. {b) Twelve hours a week for one-half year in education, in addition to a course in general psychology. (r) 3 or 4 hours of history of education, a like amount of general theory of education, including the introduction to general methodology, the study of at least one system of schools, the close study of some other narrow topic, and at some point in the course there should be an introduction to the psychology of development, broadly considered. Methods should vary according to the individuality of the instructor. {d) Only a part of that indicated above — the part he is best qualified to teach. Julia E. Buckley, University of Chicago. {a) This is a very broad question. Roughly answered, I should say («) a Bachelor's degree; for higher work of a superintendent a Doctor's degree. {b) A knowledge of theory as implied in answer to the first question, history of education, and practice. {c) (i) Knowledge of fundamental theory : (2) History of education. (3) Practice. The time and treatment, I think, would vary with individuals. (^d) The department ought to ofifer these subjects which I have indicated successively if not simultaneously. Nicholas Murray Butler, Columbia University, New York City. {a) College graduation. {b) One year of professional study, either as part of the college work or supplementary to it. {c) Principles of education ; History of education ; Edu- cational organization in the United States and abroad ; 163] PEDAGOGICAL INSTRUCTION 163 Methods of presenting an allied group of secondary school subjects ; Knowledge of contemporary problems in second- ary education, etc. Manner of presentation is unimportant. It de[)ends on the particular teacher. (^) Principles of education ; History of education ; Con- temporary problems. W. H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. {a) The minimum academic requirement should be the B. A. degree. {b) The minimum professional requirement should be one year of professional training, and also one year of practice teaching under supervision would be desirable. {c) Among the essential subjects are the physiology and psychology of development in childhood, and adolescence, educational psychology, school hygiene, and a general out- line of the aims and principles of education, with a brief course in the history and organization of education. The questions of method, whether by lecture, recitation, text, etc., must be determined by the special conditions of the locality. {d) The answer to this is relative to the instructor and the school. In college the instructor should use those parts of the field that he is best able to treat, and the courses should be culture subjects rather than directly practical. In Normal Schools the character of the work must be de- termined with regard to the preparation of the students, other instruction given in the school, and so on ; but it , should include courses in child study, school hygiene, edu- cational psychology, and the most important parts of the history and general principles of education. Ellwood P. Cubberley, Leland Stanford University, Cali- fornia. {a) Not less than the A. B, degree, with particular em- phasis on one or more lines. 1 64 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [164 {b) 15 to 18 hours of educational work of such a nature as will give some skill in applying principles, and will tend to remove the drudgery side. (r) The subject matter is less important than the per- sonality of the instructor. The same is true of plans of teaching. There should be some general course which will introduce the student to the work of teaching — its aims, methods, and ideals. ( reached the rank of senior and be within one year of the requirements for the university teacher's certifi- cate. During this year of practical school experience the students carry on their university work as usual, with prob- ably few interruptions. In the department of education, during the first semester they take the course in systems of education, and the second semester they take the course in school supervision and management. These courses are made to supplement and strengthen their observation and practice work. Partly for their convenience, and partly on account of their strength, the students are divided into two classes : cadets and student-teachers. The former give attention only to observation of the regular school work and to the assisting of the regular teacher in the class work ; the latter, in addition to the work of cadets, are called upon as substi- tutes, or supply teachers, to fill temporary vacancies. Cadets receive no pay, but student-teachers, when supplying, re- ceive pay at about one-half the usual salary. There are fifteen public school buildings in the city, to each of which may be assigned one or more cadets or student-teachers, depending upon the size of the building and the number of students registering for practice work. Students visit the building to which they have been assigned 212 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [212 at least twice a week, spending two hours on each visit. They report to the principal for duty, and are sent by her to one of the rooms, where they make themselves useful by assisting the teacher in the seat and class work of the pupils, in distributing material, etc. In this way they become familiar with the general plan of the school work, with the names of most of the pupils ; so that, when later they are called upon to supply temporarily the place of any teacher in the building to which they have been assigned, they feel at home, and the pupils look upon and respect them as regular employees or teachers. Consequently their success is more assured, and they gain experience under the most favorable conditions. The student-teacher obtains the needed prac- tice and the school board the most efficient service that can be procured for the outlay. When two or more students are assigned to the same building, they arrange to have their visits come at different hours. The position of student-teacher calls for more respon- sibility than that of cadet, since the former may be called upon at any time to supply in the building to which he has been assigned, though the supply work of any student- teacher will probably not exceed ten days per year. This may seem to be an insufficient amount of practice-teaching, but when taken in connection with the cadet work, which is carried on faithfully throughout the year, it becomes ex- ceedingly valuable, and is accepted by the school board as equivalent to two years of ordinary school experience. To aid in giving strength and additional meaning to the course in observation and practice, the city superintendent. Dr. C. H. Gordon, has been appointed university lecturer on school supervision and given the practical direction of the cadets and student-teachers. The above plan of observation and practice has been in operation for the past two years, and while there are a few 213] PEDAGOGICAL INSTRUCTION 213 weak places that need strengthening, it has proved in the main thoroughly satisfactory. The students feel that they are doing work that is really worth while, and the school authorities receive, as well as furnish, benefit by the arrangement. A limited number of advanced students who are carrying fewer hours of university work are employed as regular assistants to the ward principals, and as assistants and readers in the high school. They give daily service, and receive pay for the same at the rate of twenty-five cents per hour. This furnishes additional opportunity for experience in teaching, but it is of necessity limited to a small number of strong students who have sufficient time at their disposal. CHAPTER VI THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF ELEMENT- ARY AND OF SECONDARY TEACHERS COMPARED Every one who is familiar with the nature of the profes- sional training of teachers in Germany, is aware of the specific differences made in the training of elementary and of secondary teachers. There is but little in common. The great bulk of the instruction tends to make a distinct gulf between the fields of elementary and of secondary edu- cation. The training which the elementary teacher receives, while probably well adapted to its purpose, really unfits him for entrance upon, or success in, secondary education. In this country there is not that marked distinction made between elementary and higher education, the purposes of the one not being clearly distinguished from those of the other. Likewise in the professional training of teachers, there has been little or no distinction made in the prepara- tion, regardless of the field upon which the candidate is to enter. We have shown in another chapter how the state normal schools, created for the distinct purpose of preparing ele- mentary teachers, naturally enlarged their curricula to meet the demands for more efificient secondary teachers. It was simply the natural operation of the law of supply and de- mand. But this has tended to make the professional train- ing of all teachers the same without regard to their future field. Later, when state universities took up the problem of the 214 [214 215] ELEMENTAR Y AND SECONDAR Y TEA CHERS 2 1 5 professional training of teachers, the same law of supply and demand influenced them to make the same training answer for both elementary and secondary teachers. Hence it is that we find in the same classes in the history of education, methods of instruction, etc., students, some of whom are preparing to become teachers in the elementary, and others in secondary education. Is this according to well-established pedagogical principles? Tc ^TTTrr.r. A The main problem which has been raised for IS THERE A ^ DIFFERENCE considcratioH in this chapter, therefore, may be IN THE stated as follows : Is there sufficient difference METHOD j^ ^^ methods to be pursued in elementary and secondary education to make a noticeable difference in the preparation of teachers for the one field or the other? If there is a difference, in what does it consist? Since the establishment of departments of education in colleges and universities, and the more general spread and development of public high schools, there has been a grow- ing feeling that the professional preparation of elementary and secondary teachers should take place in different classes, if not in different institutions. On this point Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, says: "I have tried to set down in this paper the grounds for com- mending the normal school as it exists for its chosen work of preparing teachers for the elementary schools, and at the same time urging the need of training schools with different methods of preparation for the kindergarten below, and for the secondary school, the college, and the post-graduate school above the elementary school." ' For the purpose of discovering how general is the thought, that there should be different methods of preparatioji for elementary and secondary teachers, the writer submitted the ' The Future of the Normal School, by Dr. W. T. Harris, Educational Review, January, 1899. 2i6 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS \2l6 above questions to the presidents of the various state normal schools, and to the professors of education in colleges and universities. The questions were sent out in the spring of 1900, and were so worded as to obtain the individual views of this large body of educators who above all others should be able to speak with authority upon the subject. Most of them have, no doubt, given to the question much serious thought. Many of them have been engaged for years in the profes- sional training of teachers, and have thus been in positions to make intelligent observations. The first question might be answered by the definite yes, or no, and in many cases that was the form in which the answer was given. Returns were obtained from 108 presi- dents of state normal schools and 52 professors of education in colleges and universities. As will be seen, the returns were quite general, representing all parts of the United States, and furnishing sufficient material upon which to base intelligent judgments. To facilitate comparison, the results which follow are given in per cent. In answer to the question, Is there sufficient difference in the methods to be pursued in elementary and secondary education to make a noticeable difference in the preparation of teachers for the one field, or the other? 34 per cent, of the state normal school presidents answered in the affirma- tive and 66 per cent, answered in the negative. Of those answering in the affirmative 8 per cent, qualified their an- swers, and of those answering in the negative 20 per cent, qualify their answers. To illustrate: "Yes, if methods, as used above, include course of study and training in teach- ing." ' " Yes, in the different emphasis to be laid on methods » D. J. Waller, Jr., Prin. State Normal School, Indiana, Pa. 2 1 7] ELEMENT A R V AND SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS 2 1 J in comparison with principles of teaching."' Or: "No, but there are practical difficulties here in Massachusetts which settle the question for our normal schools." ' " No, unless it be in scholarship." 3 " No, methods are methods for all, and are best mastered with elementary work and elementary pupils." ■♦ "No, principles are the same, teaching different; the teacher of small children makes more use of devices." ' ■" I do not ; the same psychology and philosophy underlie both." ^ " No ; the theory of education in high school teaching is not very different from that of elementary educa- tion, yet there is a treatment of the subject of a higher order because of the development of the pupil that calls for a different adaptability of the work." ^ By far the larger number of affirmative answers came from the following states in about the order named: Vermont, California, Wisconsin, Minnesota, West Virginia, Pennsyl- vania, and Massachusetts. These states furnished 90 per cent, of the affirmative replies and less than 20 per cent, of the negative ones. It is interesting to note that in most of these states the school law requires that the high school teacher be a college graduate. In response to the above question, 82 per cent, of the professors of education in colleges and universities answered in the affirmative, being of the opinion that there is a differ- ence in the methods to be used in the preparation of elementary and secondary teachers; 18 per cent, thought there is no difference, or if a difference it is slight. Most of ' Edward Conant, Prin. State Normal School, Johnson, Vt. 'Chas. S. Chapin, Prin. State Normal School, Westfield, Mass. * John M. Milne, Prin. State Normal School, Gencseo, N. Y. * Francis B. Palmer, Prin. State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y. • C. L. Hayes, Prin. State Normal School, De Funiak Springs, Fla. • W. M. Stewart, Prin. State Normal School, Salt Lake City, Utah. ^ H. H. Secrley, Pres. State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa. 2 1 8 TRAINING OF SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS [218 those who answered in the affirmative were decided in their opinions. A few, however, in both classes qualified their answers : as " Yes, there is a difference, but the danger per- haps lies in insisting on it too much ; " ' " Not as regards their professional training; " " "There is no such difference as is meant by those who would arbitrarily mark off one part of the work of preparing teachers for one class of schools and another part for another class of schools;" 3 " Yes, if by the word methods one means everything that pertains to secondary work;"* "Under proper conditions, no, under present conditions, yes;"5 "Yes, the difference consists largely in additional secondary training." ^ REASONS FOR ^^ therc is a difference in the methods to be DIFFERENCE IN uscd in thc preparation of elementary and METHOD. secondary teachers, in what does it consist? As might have been anticipated, most of those who re- sponded to the first question with the statement that there is no difference, omitted the second question regarding the nature of the difference. A few of these, however, re- sponded to the second question giving the reasons for their faith. In this connection we are interested most, to be sure, in the thought of those who believe that there is a difference. Nevertheless we present a few of the negative views along with many affirmative ones in order to give greater variety and clearer setting. We quote first from the replies of nor- mal school principals, and later from professors of education in colleges and universities. ' W. G. Smith, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. * R. N. Roark, Kentucky State College, Lexington, Ky. * J. J. McConnell, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. * D. R. Majors, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. * D. E. Phillips, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado. * Arthur AUin, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. 219] ELEMENTARY A^'D SECONDARY TEACHERS 219 We realize that this subject is one upon which public opinion is rapidly changing, and since the quotations given below were obtained in the spring of 1900 they may not in all cases represent the writers' present views. VIEWS OF NOR- " There is no difference, as I understand it, MAL SCHOOL itt the principles of methods to be pursued, but PRINCIPALS, there must be a difference in the amount of work done per day and to some extent in what is done, since allowance must be made for the age of pupils taught. Higher scholarship should, of course, be required of those who are preparing themselves for secondary work." ' " A different set of tools, the principles are the same. There is work to be done in adding skill in application of the same principles, and normal schools do not generally get time to secure this for secondary instruction." * "There should be a review of the common branches by one expecting to teach them, in the light of higher studies. Extended and continuous practice is more necessary for those in the elementary stage." 3 " If a man or woman can successfully instruct the youth of our public schools, he has mastered the art of arts well enough to teach anywhere. I must dissent from the able authority referred to." ^ " Such a proposition is arrant nonsense. That dogma is already the prevailing notion of ignorant people. It is already in operation. Discrimination in favor of the high school has done irreparable injury by turning over the grammar school boys and girls to a race of stupid, insipid, lifeless women who are incapacitated for all teaching." ^ ' John M. Milne, Prin. State Normal School, Geneseo, N. Y. ' Francis B. Palmer, Prin. State Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y. * D. J. "Waller, Jr„ Prin. State Normal School, Indiana, Pa. *L. J. Corbly, Prin. Marshall College, Huntington, W. Va. * John R. Kirk, Prin. State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. 220 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [2 20 "There is a great difference between the play of the kindergarten and the systematic, self-directed, and strong work of a well-trained senior of a secondary school. The gradual change of work from lowest primary to highest secondary corresponds with the needed change in methods of teaching, and creates the difference in extremes. It seems too much for the normal school to try to cover the field of thirteen grades successfully. Let there be a division of work, giving six years to the secondary class, and the normal school will still have enough work. Training for primary work is not the best training for secondary. The difference is sufficiently noticeable to warrant two classes of training schools." ' " One essential qualification of any teacher, in my mind, is an intimate and personal knowledge of the beings he is to teach. Secondary teachers deal chiefly with adolescents; elementary teachers with pupils before they have reached the adolescent period. Because of this fact there should he considerable difference in the training of elementary and secondary teachers. Elementary teachers should constantly study and be in the presence of children of the ages they are to teach. They should become as intimate with children of these ages as may be possible in the school-room, on the play-ground, and even in the home. Secondary teachers, on the other hand, should have the same relations with older children, or adolescents. As far as subject-matter goes, elementary teachers should have just as good an education as secondary teachers." ' " The chief difference consists in the different methods that must be used in the different grades, due to the process of mental development in the child. Of course, the division of elementary and secondary education is arbitrary, but, in * "Walter E. Ranger, Prin, State Normal School, Johnson, Vt. * John G. Thompson, Prin. State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. 32l] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 221 general, it represents the beginning of the period of adoles- cence, when the child's mental activity and capacity are greatly accelerated. Hence, the methods must be changed considerably." ' "The difference consists in the greater emphasis which should be placed upon the empiric methods in the lower grades and the rational in the upper." " " I think there is no doubt that Dr. Harris expresses an important truth in his analysis of the subject of methods for the different grades of educational work. At the same time, it is impossible to draw hard and fast lines that will separate secondary school work from grade work, on the one hand, in its method, or from the university, on the other hand, in its method. Following the principle that a teacher of any grade should have mastered the subject-matter of the next educational step beyond that in which he is teaching, I be- lieve that it is equally true that any teacher's knowledge and appreciation of methods of work should include the methods to be used in the grades of educational work both above and below that in which he is teaching." 3 "The difference is determined by the difference of mind of pupils taught. Pupils in elementary schools are seven to fifteen years old ; in secondary schools from thirteen to twenty. The mental development of the two groups varies widely." ♦ " In the instincts that develop at these periods. Secondly, the scholarship of normal graduates quite unfits them as teachers in secondary schools." ^ ^ Chas. B. Dyke, Head of Normal Department, Hampton, Va. ' W. H. Cheever, Pre». State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. * Geo. R. Kleeberger, Pres. State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn. * Geo. A. McFarland, Prin. State Normal School, Valley City, N. Dakota. * Frederick Burk, State Normal School, San Francisco, Cal. 222 TRAINIXG OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [222 " The difference between the child and the adolescent. For both some principles are alike, many are different." * VIEWS OF " ^^^ fundamentals are the same in both PROFESSORS OF cases ; the nature of the being to be educated, EDUCATION ^i^g means in view of that nature, the environ- ment, and the principles of education." ^ " The fundamentals are the same in either case. The difference is mainly in the practice, which should ever be subordinate to a comprehension of, and even a saturation with, the fundamentals." 3 " The difference consists for the most part of the methods of instruction to be followed. Without going into particu- lars, I may say that the proper adjustment of inductive and deductive teaching for the grades, and especially the lower grades, is not the same thing as the proper adjustment for the secondary schools." ■♦ " One special difference is that the secondary teachers should give special attention to the psychology of adoles- cence. The study of adolescence should hold the same place in the preparation of the secondary teacher, that child study does in that of the elementary teacher." s " The fundamental difference is a difference between the classes of students, necessitating a difference in the treat- ment of the subject matter. The difference between the students is a difference in scholarship and corresponding mental power. The secondary school teacher should always be a college graduate. The elementary need not be. This difference renders it impossible to address the same instruc- * C. C. Van Liew, State Normal School. Chico, Cal. * Julia E. Buckley, formerly of Chicago University. * D. E. Phillips, University of Denver, Col, * B. A. Hinsdale, late of the University of Michigan. * W. H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 223] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 223 tion in scope and in intensity to both classes of students at the same time." ' "/« addition to what the elementary teacher needs, the secondary teacher needs the broad general culture best secured by a college education and high professional train- ing, as high as the best professional training in law and in medicine." ^ " The elementary teacher cannot afford to do without child study, and should be familiar with kindergarten method, even though she has not a special kindergarten training. The primary teacher should have a great deal of practice work in her preparation, and should know some- thing of a large number of subjects, while she does not need to be a specialist in any. The secondary teacher has not the same use for child psychology, does not need to know so much of the kindergarten methods, and will probably suc- ceed with less practice work." 3 "The child needs more guidance and help. The subject matter must be adapted in a far greater degree for children. In giving instruction it is more important to know the full psychic personality of children than of grown-up people. In primary work the minds of teacher and pupil are not so nearly on parity with each other." ■♦ " The basis of education is different. Secondary instruc- tion and education should recognize the existence of adoles- cence, which has little importance in primary schools. There is a different individual outlook, hence the work should be in the hands of teachers who have been trained for secondary education." s * Paul H. Hanus, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. * A. F. West, Princeton University, N. J. ' Celestia S. Parrish, Randolph Macon Woman's College, Lynchburg, Va« * T. C. Karns, formerly University of Tennessee, Knoxville. * A. H. Yoder, University of Washington, Seattle. 33^ TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [324 "There is essential similarity on principles and methods for all schools ; but in practice, those preparing to teach in high schools have studied longer, have in general perhaps more ability and higher aspirations, that pedagogy with them may be treated in a much more advanced way. There are besides, of course, differences between elementary schools and high schools in subjects, history, general social function, so as to make high school pedagogy a distinct subject." ' " Methods suitable to children fail when applied to boys and girls passing into adolescence. The awakening man and woman need different treatment than that suitable for children." » " We all tend to project ourselves into others ; we natur- ally teach others in the way in which we think we would best learn ourselves. Now, the mind of the pupil in the secondary school works in the same way, in essential re- spects, as the mind of the adult; while the same is not so true of the mind of the child in the first grades. It is a very different problem to guide a mind attacking arithmetic for the first time from what it is to direct it when it is mastering geometry in the high school. The first grade pupil is on such a different plane with respect to practically all he has to learn from the adult who teaches him, that long and careful study is required to give the teacher that knowledge which can make his teaching appropriate and efficient. I would not say that there is such a difference in method in its essential principles as in the knowledge in the mind of the pupil which is required for intelligent understanding on the part of the teacher." 3 ' John A. Bergstrom, Indiana University, Bloomington. * S. D. Brooks. University of Illinois, Champaign. * M. V. O'Shea, University of Wisconsin,Ma dison. 225] ELEMENT A R V AA'D SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS 2 2 J " Secondary school students are more intelligently self- conscious as a rule. Consequently they view themselves and the world under other categories. They take causal relations among natural phenomena more seriously, and work with a more intelligent sense of the significance of school life to themselves and to others ; hence the differ- ences in methods of teaching." ' " In preparation for elementary schools, training must be prominent, theory and psychology must be concrete. In college the treatment should be historic and philosophical."^ " The difiference between elementary and secondary schools is about the same kind of difference that exists be- tween the primary school and the grammar school. Pupils require treatment that is suited to their ages year by year. As a pupil grows older he becomes a stronger person, and his treatment by his teacher should change accordingly. " It seems to me that the difiference of which you are speaking is a sort of arbitrary one which has been assumed, because it seems to meet the exigencies of our system of educational organization. Of course, allowance must be made in school administration for adolescence and other incidents of school life, but these are problems which, I think, are not contemplated in your questions. " The university can do real university work of high order in fitting teachers for a primary school, and if its circum- stances seem to warrant the doing of this kind of work, it ought not to be debarred by the fear of getting into normal school territory." 3 " The teacher must know his pupils. One may know pupils of the elementary school years and still be in utter darkness regarding the make-up of high school pupils. I ^ G. A. Townly, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. ' D. L. Kiehle, University of Minn., Minneapolis. ' J. J. McConnell, formerly of the University of Iowa, Iowa City. 226 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [226 am positive that the special training for a high school teacher should be different from that of an elementary teacher."' " The widely different psychology of youth of high school age; emotions, ideals, reason, versus sense training. The discipline should be very different." '^ " More special study of early phases of child development for one, and of adolescent phases for the other ; each should know both, however." ^ "The methods of instruction in secondary schools approx- imate somewhat more nearly to the methods of scholarly research. The teachers in those schools need to be in closer touch with university research than it is possible for the great body of elementary teachers to be." ^ " In the quantity of scholarship upon which to base pro- fessional training; different kind of knowledge needed; different amounts of the same subject needed, as, for ex- ample, in sciences." s "All secondary teachers should have a certain amount of professional training. The science of education, history of education, and the methods of elementary education ought certainly to be a part of their course. In addition, they ought to have a thorough training in secondary educational problems. The difference consists largely in this additional secondary training." ^ "I. In material to be used, which requires a different method of treatment. 2. In character of the pupils, which • D. R. Major, Ohio State University, Columbus. • E. G. Lancaster, Colorado College, Colorado Springs. • A. Casewell Ellis, University of Texas, Austin. • Elmer E. Brown, University of California, Berkeley. • Ellwood P. Cubberly, Leland Stanford University, California. • Arthur Allin, University of Colorado, Boulder. 227] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 227 requires study of adolescence and kindred topics in psy- chology." ' We have quoted somewhat freely from the expressions of those who think that there ought to be a difference in the method of training elementary and secondary teachers, be- cause we have felt that there is sufficient value in the mate- rial to prove of interest. We have endeavored to report accurately the thoughts of others upon the subject, in so far as expression has been given, and are ready to assume the responsibility for mistakes of thought or language. The aim has been to give variety of content rather than extension of individual views, the latter being preferred when it could be accomplished without too great repetition. It is thought that the quotations ofTered cover in the main all the reasons that were advanced for the difiference in method. It is of interest to note the somewhat marked MARKED differences of opinion between the normal DIFFERENCES ... OF OPINION school principals and the college professors of education. As will be remembered, 66 per cent, of the former were of the opinion that there is not sufficient difference in the methods to be pursued in element- ary and secondary education to make a noticeable difference in the preparation of teachers for the one field or the other, while 82 per cent, of the college professors were of the opinion that the difference is sufficiently great to necessitate a difference in the training of the teachers. It has occurred to the writer that the difference of opinion might not have been so pronounced had the matter been referred to profes- sors of psychology and education in normal schools instead of^the principals. But there is no doubt that environment has^had much to do in shaping individual opinions. Too often it is true, that "whatever is, is right." ' Jas. R. Russell, Teachers' College Columbia University, New York City. 228 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [228 Up to the present time in the United States, with the single exception of the kindergarten and a few special insti- tutions, there has been little or no discrimination made in the professional preparation of elementary and secondary teachers, and many people have come to look upon this uniform training as the proper thing. The training must be of a general nature, fitting the student equally well for any and all fields, but properly and efficiently for no field. As many students become teachers without any special prepara- tion, it may be maintained that this general training is better than no training; and so it is, but the time has probably come in which to make the training more specific. The more important reasons that have been THE DIFFER- ^gslgned for the difTerences in the methods of ENCES IN . , 1 1 , METHOD preparation of elementary and secondary teachers, may be stated briefly as follows: (i) an academic difference ; (2) a professional difference ; and (3) a difference due to the inherent nature of children of different ages. The academic difference is one of scholarship and speciali- zation, greater maturity of thought and judgment, more strength and ability in working out original problems. This is taking for granted that the secondary teacher is a college graduate and somewhat of a specialist, while the elementary teacher is probably not a college graduate, or if a graduate, has given less attention to specialization. The professional difference is one that results, in part, from the nature and previous training of the students receiv- ing the instruction, and, in part, from the nature of the future work to which they are to apply the instruction. For instance, no one who is at all familiar with the subject would think of treating the history of education in the same way to classes composed of university seniors on the one hand, and high school graduates or normal school students on the 229] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 229 Other, no matter what might be the future aim of the student. Neither is one justified in giving a course on special methods of teaching the various high school subjects to a student in preparation for primary teaching. The differences which come under this head in the preparation of secondary teachers may be stated as follows : more attention to theory and the general principles of edu- cation, and less to practice, empiric methods and devices; more stress placed upon the historical and philosophical treatment of the subject; special method as against general method ; with probably less attention given to details and the simplification of processes. The third difYerence or that due to the nature of the chil- dren to be instructed may be summed up in the difference between the child and the adolescent. The secondary teacher must study the nature of the adolescent as the ele- mentary teacher studies the nature of the child. Each should have a general knowledge of both fields, but the one must be especially familiar with the psychology of child- hood, and the other with the psychology of adolescence. The method of the professional training of teachers will naturally be adjusted so as to fit the student most appropri- ately for the field into which he is to enter. To express the matter in another way, all THE DIFFER- differences to be observed in the methods of ENCES IN METHOD DUE TO ^"^ profcssioual training of elementary and of DIFFERENCES sccondary teachers must rest ultimately in the BETWEEN nature of the child. If there is sufhcient differ- CHILDHOOD . , , 1 1 , 1 1 -ij »,«„ vr^TTTu ence m the nature and outlook of the child AND YOUTH from that of the adolescent or adult to necessi- tate a different way of approach, and a different method of instruction, then there should be a difference made in the preparation of elementary and secondary teachers. But if the child does not differ materially in his general nature 230 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [230 from the adolescent, then it is unnecessary to lay stress upon any difference to be made in the preparation of teachers. Prospective primary teachers may continue with equal propriety in the same professional studies and in the same classes with prospective high school teachers. We are still too ignorant of the true psychology of child- hood and of youth to answer this question finally or even definitely. But the study of children has gone far enough, in late years, to assist us in forming intelligent judgments. These studies indicate that there is a marked difference be- tween the child and the youth, a difference so great as to necessitate a wholly different manner of approach. We have endeavored to express this difference in a form for comparison, but we realize the difficulty of drawing hard- and-fast lines that will truly represent growing individuality, and have given the characterization that follows simply as a suggestion and as an approximation to truth. 231] ELEMENT A R Y AND SECOND AR Y TEA CHERS Predominant Elements at Different Periods 231 Child. 1. Sensation, feeling, doing. 2. Sensory, self-consciousness, i. e., play-activity, in which means and end are one — not separated. 3. Vegetative stage, receptive, reten- tive, expressive. 4. Physical activity foremost. 5. Imitative, especially in the field of concrete images and events (un- conscious imitation), symbolizes. 6. Impulsive, vacillating, attention changeable. 7. Will weak, somewhat passive. 8. Talkative, frank, open. 9. Obedient, submitting to authority. 10. Dependent, confiding, appreciates definite answers. 11. Gathering facts, looking out. 12. Lives in the present, an objective life, memory and imagination deal with the outside world — ex- ternalities. 13. Planning for the present; the chief interest ends with the thing itself. 14. Animal instincts, sensation and simple feeling, largely selfish or self-centered. Youth. 1. Judgment, emotion, willing. 2. Motor self- consciousness, i. e., games and work in which means and end are separate and distinct. 3. Intellectual stage, interested in re- lations, classifying, harmonizing, unifying. 4. Psychic activity foremost. 5. Higher form of imitation, imitating acts and ideals (conscious imita- tion) constructive. 6. Thoughtful, more stable, greater concentration of attention. 7. Will strong, persistent, active. 8. Inhibitive, evasive, often morbid. 9. Self-assertive, fretting under re- straint, desiring greater freedom. 10. Becoming independent, self-reliant, secretive, doubting,desiring proof, prefers suggestive answers. 11. Relating, classifying facts, intro- spective, reflective. 12. Looking to the future, a subjective life, memories assimulations se- quential, richer and more lasting, imagination deals with events in which the invidual plays an im- portant role. 13. Planning for the future, desire of conquest; chief interest not in things, but in their origin and reason for being. 14. Emotional life prominent, sympa- thy, love, admiration, devotion, worship, esteem; hatred, jealousy, disrespect, contempt; truth, good- ness, beauty, virtue; probably al- truistic. 232 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [232 There are in the above table some repetitions and over- lappings which were made necessary in order to facilitate comparison. Other differences might have been added, but probably a sufficient number have been given to make clear the point under consideration. The place where childhood ends and youth begins is a continuous rather than a clearly marked line, and yet the characterization given above represents with fair accuracy the great differences in the nature of the child on the one hand, and the youth on the other. WHAT SHALL BK THE NATURE OF THE INSTRUCTION? youth? What does this suggest regarding the meth- ods of instruction for the child and for the I. A Child, formative stage, in which the work of the teacher is chiefly one of instruction, 1. e., the orderly and systematic imparting of knowledge. The teaching should be direct, adapted to the needs and interests of the child. Discipline is very different; kind but firm, insistent and uniform, habituating to right action, in part natural punishments, duties made plain and imperative, obe- dience made a matter of course. Youth. The stage of orientation, in which the work of the teacher is more one of guidance or assistance in new discoveries and investiga- tions. The teaching should be indirect and suggestive, adapted to the needs and interests of the adolescent. Firm and just, govern by reason and indirection, typical cases of con- duct presented as examples of right action, punishments made more a matter of honor, the method more rational, advisory and suggestive, obedience made the most reasonable as well as the most desirable course. Many more points might be added concerning the differ- ent methods of instruction or approach, some of which are even more marked than those already given. But enough have been presented to call forth the question, what then 233] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 233 should be the difference in the training of teachers for ele- mentary and secondary instruction? Supplementary to what has already been said upon this point, let us add the following regarding the preparation of elementary and sec- ondary teachers. Elementary Teacher. 1. Less extended scholarship, more practice, readier and richer knowledge of the common school branches. 2. More attention given to general methods of teaching the elemen- tary subjects. 3. Methods more empiric, concrete and stable, more guidance for the teacher. 4. More attention given to details and and to devices, greater skill in im- parting knowledge, i. e., the period of mechanics and memory, the years in which the child is to be- come familiar with the tools (forms) of thought. 5. The elementary teacher must become familiar with the physiology and psychology of childhood. Secondary Teacher. 1. Greater scholarship, less practice, deeper and richer knowledge of an allied group of high school sub- jects. 2. More attention given to general principles and the special methods of teaching the allied high school subjects. 3. Methods more scientific, historical and varying (individualistic"), more stress placed on theory and the understanding. 4. More attention to the generalization and classification of material, greater skill in arousing slumber- ing (budding) humanity, and in- spiring students toward loftier ideals. 5. The secondary teacher must be fa- miliar with physiology and psychology of adolescence. MEANING OF Education has been defined as the process of mental development, or the adjustment of EDUCATION ... r ' J the individual to his environment. But a more complete though somewhat awkward definition is the follow- ing : Education is the process of the reconstruction and utilization of experiences by means of which the individual is brought into sympathetic relation with, and given ever- increasing control of, his environment. With this definition before us, teaching becomes the intelligent guidance in this 2 34 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [234 adaptation ; teaching then is, in the truest as well as the broadest sense, character building. To be efficient and vital the teaching must be adapted at all points to the interests, the nature, and the immediate needs of the child who is to be influenced by it. The pupil must feel at every point that what he is doing is worth while. In order to put into operation such teaching, it is necessary to make a specific difference in the methods of the preparation of elementary and of secondary teachers. The material for mental development nat- urally covers two fields : the great commercial THOUGHT •' ° and industrial subjects — the objective or scien- tific world ; the great literary and culture subjects — the sub- jective or humanistic world. The one administers most to man's material wants, the other, to his spiritual. In early school life the child is more interested in the ob- jective world — nature, things, and natural objects. These furnish the key by means of which he becomes familiar with the symbols and forms (tools) of thought. In secondary education he is better prepared for, if not more interested in, the humanistic world — history, language, literature, and begins to lay the foundation for broad culture and scientific research. In higher education he naturally limits the field of his activity, selecting one or more subjects from either the sci- entific or humanistic field. He brings to bear upon them the searchlight of his experiences, and makes them the foundation for further investigations and philosophic thought, the relating and unifying of all experiences. The mental development of the individual STAGES OF covers three important periods: the early MENTAL . *■ . , . , DEVELOPMENT ^ormativc period, extending from birth to puberty; the period of orientation or mental adjustment, extending from the beginning of puberty to 235] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 335 probably 18; the period of manhood, specialization, and professional life. The first period is covered by elementary, foundation studies; formative disciplinary work; general information concretely represented. The second is covered by the high school studies; less of form, more of content; a period of relating, adjusting and classifying knowledge ; a period of orientation and transition from that of the acquisition of knowledge through instruction to that of the acquisition of knowledge by original research and investigation. The third period is covered by the last years of the college, and the special professional schools. It is the work of specializ- ing for a vocation. The instructional method, which is best DIFFERENT adapted to the education of children, and the METHODS OF ..,..- INSTRUCTION laboratory method, or method of scientific re- search, more suitable for the work of advanced students, have but little in common. They represent the two extremes in the methods of teaching. The high school, representing the transition period, possesses some features belonging to each. In the elementary school all subjects yield to the instruc- tional method, i. e., the method through which the teacher brings together, in an orderly and systematic arrangement, all the essential material on the subject in the form most easy of acquisition by the learner. In the high school some of the subjects are formative, or disciplinary, and require the instructional method, while other subjects are more a matter of content, mental adjustment, individual effort and dis- covery, and yield more readily to the laboratory or scientific method, a method in which the student is placed under greater responsibility and given greater freedom for inde- pendent action. The secondary teacher, therefore, must be a master of 236 TRAINING OF SECOND A R Y TEA CHERS [236 both methods. He must be skilled in imparting knowledge when dealing with those subjects, or parts of subjects, in which the material is largely a fixed quantity, with which the student must become familiar. But he must also be a stu- dent, master of the tools and the method of research, and capable of interesting and intelligently guiding his students in independent action and original investigations. Shall there be separate schools for elementary and second- ary teachers? Will the difference in the method of preparation of ele- mentary and secondary teachers require that the professional training be given in separate institutions? This question is easier to propose than to answer. Under favorable conditions, such as exist at Teachers College Columbia University, probably all the training, both acad- emic and professional, can be given to best advantage in one institution. This would require in many studies separate classes, but not separate institutions. In colleges and universities, where it is possible to have a large and thoroughly equipped school of education, there are many advantages in preparing teachers for all grades of the public school service. It is certainly much more eco- nomical than to have the work of the different grades given in different institutions, and the association of students work- ing along somewhat different lines has a broadening and beneficial effect. But there are only a few institutions that have met the above requirements regarding a school of edu- cation. Most universities have only a department of educa- tion, limited in equipment to one or two instructors. In such institutions the proper preparation of teachers for all grades is impossible, and it becomes simply a question as to what work can be done to best advantage. This question has been decided in several universities in favor of the training of secondary teaehers, other interests remaining subsidiary. 2 3 7 1 ELEMENT AR V AND SECONDAR Y TEA CHERS 237 Are not normal schools institutions properly THE MISSION equipped for the preparation of teachers for all OF NORMAL t UV U 1 1 :> SCHOOLS grades of public school work? The severest criticism that has been raised against normal schools has been along the line of the shal- lowness, confidence, self-assurance, and egotism of the teach- ers they send forth. This criticism has weight only with such institutions as endeavor, with meager equipment, to prepare teachers for all grades of public education, from the kindergarten to the university. In the judgment of the writer no institutions have been, nor are, of greater service to the public welfare than the normal schools of the United States. They have been an inspiration to the teaching profession everywhere, and have created a public demand for more efficient teachers. Many an educator of world-wide fame is wont to attribute the in- spiration which led to his success to his early normal school training. Their strong points far outnumber their weak ones. However, as now constituted, the true mission of the normal school begins and ends with the training of element- ary teachers. Not that normal school professors are insufficiently quali- fied to give the training most appropriate for secondary teachers, for in many instances the normal school instructors have had equal if not stronger preparation than the best col- lege professors. It is no uncommon occurrence for college professors to be called to normal school chairs and vice versa. But the normal schools under their present equip- ment can not serve both fields well, and it is simply a matter of what they can do best. This question has been decided for them a priori, partly on account of the great need for efficient elementary teachers, partly on account of environ- ment and their nearness to the people, and partly on account of the age and academic qualifications of the 238 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [238 majority of their students, which unfit them for entrance upon the professional training most suitable for secondary teachers. To the question, " Do you consider it a part of the work of the normal school to prepare teachers for secondary edu- cation?" "ji per cent, of the normal school principals answered in the affirmative, and 28 per cent, in the negative. This shows that a large preponderance of the normal school principals, in the 108 state normal schools reporting, feel that it is a part of their duty to make provision in the in- struction for the special training of secondary teachers. In one-half of these institutions special provisions are made for college and university graduates. These provi- sions consist for the most part in a shortened course, usually one year in length, of purely professional study and no academic requirements. The college graduates, when there are any, recite in their professional studies along with the regular normal students. The reports indicate that but few college graduates take advantage of these courses. Out of 25 institutions reporting in 1 899-1 900, there were only 52 college graduates in attendance, being an average of about two for each school. A few institutions reported as many as five or six, but many more reported none. One writer says, "Yes, we make special provision for college graduates, but to no purpose. We have never had more than two col- lege graduates in attendance in any one year, and more often none." Another principal says, " We have a course designed especially to meet the wants of college and university grad- uates. But in the whole history of this school, not to ex- ceed two or three college graduates have taken advantage of the opportunity afforded." The following counter question was sub- MISSION OF . DEPARTMENTS mittcd to profcssors of education in colleges OF EDUCATION and universities: "Do you consider the pro- 239] ELEMENT A RY AND SECONDAR Y TEA CIIERS 239 fessional preparation of elementary teachers a proper func- tion of departments of education in colleges and universities, or can that training be given to better advantage in normal schools as now constituted? " There were fifty-two replies. As ^^:ill be seen, the ques- tion is divided into two parts. In answer to the first part, 42 per cent, of the professors of education were of the opinion that the professional preparation of teachers for elementary schools is a proper function of departments of education in colleges and universities, while 58 per cent, hold a contrary view. In regard to the second part of the question, 74 per cent, of the college professors believe that the professional training of elementary teachers can be given to better advantage in normal schools as now constituted, while 26 per cent, are of the opinion that such training could be given to better advantage in colleges and univer- sities. A few of these institutions, as Chicago University and Teachers College Columbia University, are thoroughly equipped and well adapted for the training of teachers for all grades of public school work. But the great majority of these colleges and universities are as limited in their equip- ment for the training of teachers on the one hand as the state normal schools are on the other, and in many cases they are far more limited. Many persons are of the opinion that the elementary teacher should have the same or equivalent academic train- ing to that required of the secondary teacher; hence the importance of providing for their complete preparation in colleges and universities. It is thought that the environ- ment of the university would be more broadening and ele- vating in its tone; that elementary students would gain much in their social contact with more advanced students which would be strengthening to them in their teaching ; 240 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [24O and that there would be a certain unity and continuity in the work, if teachers for ail grades of education were trained in the same school, that would be both helpful and economical. In accord with the last thought many state normal school men feel that such a-n institution is already to be found in the state normal school; an institution dedicated to the special purpose of preparing public school teachers. They feel that the professional preparation of secondary teachers would be taken up more seriously, and given more efficiently if ofifered in normal schools rather than in colleges. On the other hand, there are many normal school princi- pals and college professors who feel that as a practical prob- lem the work should be divided, the normal schools giving special attention to the training of elementary teachers, and the colleges providing for the training of secondary teachers. During the school year of 1 899-1900 there were over fifteen million children enrolled in the STATISTICS common schools of the United States. These were taught by 421,000 teachers. In the same year there were 630,000 secondary students, 519,000 of whom were in the public high schools. These secondary students were taught by 30,000 secondary teachers, 20,000 of whom were in the public high schools. This indicates that the division between elementary and secondary teachers in the United States is in proportion of about fifteen elementary teachers to one secondary teacher. In the same school year the 172 state normal schools graduated 9,000 students. Judging from the best informa- tion obtainable, these probably found employment in the public schools in the proportion of ten elementary to one secondary teacher, a ratio which is slightly in favor of secondary positions. Or, to be more exact, the writer ob- tained data from 27 state normal schools, showing the actual employment of 1,560 of their graduates for the year 1899. 24l] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 24I Of these normal school graduates 141, or about 9 per cent., found employment as teachers in the secondary schools ; the rest were employed as elementary teachers. This repre- sents a proportion of about eleven to one in favor of element- ary teachers, which is probably near the correct ratio for the year 1899. In comparison with the whole number of teach- ers required in public schools, it is still slightly in favor of secondary employment, /'. e., the actual need for elementary and secondary teachers is in the ratio of about fifteen to one, while normal school graduates find employment as element- ary and secondary teachers in about the ratio of ten or eleven to one. Some schools represent a much larger per cent, of graduates who find positions as secondary teachers, while other institutions have fewer or none of their graduates thus employed. In a large majority of the states, public normal school students receive, on graduation, a teacher's certificate, which entitles the holder to teach in any of the public elementary or secondary schools of the state without further examina- tion. This probably accounts, in part, for the large number of normal graduates who find positions as secondary teachers. It would be interesting if we had the data for comparison showing the school positions that are obtained by university graduates, especially by such graduates as have made special preparation for teaching. Unfortunately, such information is not at hand, but the nearest approach to it is the result obtained from the University of Nebraska. Since the estab- lishment of the university teacher's certificate, in 1897, the proportion has been in the ratio of about eight to one in favor of secondary positions. This may or may not be the true relation. However, excluding such schools as Teachers College, Columbia University, in which special attention is given to the preparation of elementary as well as secondary teachers, it is probably not far from the true relation. 242 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [242 In other words, under present conditions, the public schools of the country are in need of fifteen efficient ele- mentary teachers for every efficient secondary teacher. About 90 per cent, of all the normal school graduates find employment in the elementary schools, while probably between 80 and 90 per cent, of the university graduates who teach find places in the secondary schools, or in supervision where secondary education is involved. Can colleges and normal schools afTord to give attention to the few at the neglect of the many ? What would be the effect if normal schools EFFECT OF SEPARATE gave entire attention to the training of element- TRAiNiNG ary teachers, while colleges and universities SCHOOLS devoted special attention to the training of secondary teachers? Unfortunately, this question was found to be somewhat ambiguouS; and consequently did not bring as definite re- turns as the writer had anticipated. The results, however, are more or less interesting. In reply to the question, 44 per cent, of the normal school principals thought that the effect would be on the whole injurious; 33 per cent, thought the results would be beneficial ; and 23 per cent, were either undecided in their opinions or thought the results would not show any material difference. The professors of education in colleges and universities were almost equally at variance in their opinions as to the effect of such division of work. 55 per cent, of the college professors thought the results would be beneficial; 34 per cent, thought the effect would be injurious or detrimental; and II per cent, were undecided in their opinions. Many are of the opinion that while it would be beneficial and advisable for normal schools to devote their entire attention to the preparation of elementary teachers, it is, nevertheless, 243] ELEMENTARY AXD SECOXDARY TEACHERS 243 quite proper and essential that colleges and universities make provision for the suitable training of teachers for all grades of public education. The writer has been especially interested in many of the thoughts expressed by normal school principals and pro- fessors of education, some of which are given below. " Their work would become more definite, VIEWS OF NOR- „ . , , MAL SCHOOL Dctter understood, and more efficient through PRINCIPALS a greater concentration of aim." FAVORING (( j^ would aud does increase its efficiency by DIVISION ... , ,- , , ,, focusing Its work on a narrower held. " I should expect for the normal school increased effi- ciency and a larger attendance." " To include the training of secondary teachers, we should need a high school, according to our plan, containing about ten times as many pupils as we had teachers in training. This would not be possible for us now." " I believe it would tend to strengthen the preparation of elementary teachers." " One must be made the important feature if a given school would succeed financially." •* The schools of this State prepare only for elementary instruction, with a higher grade of instruction for more ad- vanced pupils. Such a division would raise the tone of the work." " It would be more economical. It would simplify and unify the aim, and solidify the work." " I think if the state normal schools as they are, in gen- eral, constituted, would devote themselves to the work of preparing teachers for the elementary schools; give all their energies in this direction; use all their money to this end; and that, on the other hand, if the universities would estab- lish proper higher pedagogical schools for the preparation of secondary teachers, that the normal school would be very 244 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [244 much more effective in its work ; and the pedagogical col- lege in the university would enlarge and grow and become proficient in furnishing properly prepared teachers for secondary schools. Under all circumstances, it is a division of labor that is logical and bound to be productive of good results." "The tendency would be to lower the scholarship in all normal schools. People are slow to understand that a kindergartner should know geometry." " It would be fatal to the New York State schools." " It would result, under the present educational condi- tions, in minimizing the dignity of the work of elementary education and unduly emphasize the difTerence in the grades of work." " I fear the instruction in normal schools would become very much more elementary." " It would fill the normal school with plodding non-entities without hope, without energy, and without much ability." " It would make the normal school superficial and one- sided." '* To deny the normal school a part in the preparation of high school teachers would inevitably tend to lower the standard of the normal school; it would lose in dignity and public estimation. The presence of higher and broader courses in the normal school tends to stimulate and help even those who are taking the shorter courses ; and many of those who are preparing for elementary instruction will take the higher courses after they once get started." " It would largely destroy their ability to do the work. This for several reasons, one of which is that the higher makes both possible and efficient the lower." " In case the preparation for teachers for secondary edu- cation is not accompHshed in normal schools, either state 245] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 245 normal schools or university professional schools, the present unsatisfactory condition of secondary teachers, prepared only in a scholastic sense, will continue to exist. If it is assumed, on the other hand, that the state normal schools shall prepare teachers only for the elementary schools and not undertake to impart methods adapted to secondary education, while university professional departments attempt to impart professional instruction and methods adapted only to teachers in secondary schools, we shall then have the anomalous condition now existing, which, to my mind, is extremely unsatisfactory." " The state normal schools, under their charters and pro- visions, especially in this part of the country (Iowa), will be granted almost the entire control of the preparation of teachers. Since they are offering pedagogical courses for college graduates, they will likewise do a large amount of work, before very long, in preparing high school teachers," " It would not affect the normal school CHANGE NOT fjiaterially, as such a condition practically MATERIAL . "^ '^ "^ exists now," "I should not regard such a division as necessarily detri- mental to the success of the school attempting it," " I cannot see any material change. Proper normal train- ing fits for any kind of teaching, whether in the kindergarten or the university," "The difTerence would not be marked. However, with the present low wages and brief tenure, elementary teachers cannot afford to fit themselves also for secondary work. There should be, for a few years at least, many normal schools for the distinct purpose of training elementary teachers alone." "I believe the results would be beneficial, as QUOTATIONS ' FROM PRO- it would give a greater concentration of aim, FEssoRs OF put more meaning and definiteness in the in- EDUCATION struction." 246 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [246 "I believe it would increase the efficiency of the candi- dates for both elementary and secondary schools." "If colleges undertook the work of preparing teachers for elementary schools, it would detract from their success in training secondary teachers. Such a division of work would be highly commendable." " It is desirable that secondary teachers have a thorough acquaintance with the elementary schools, but the work should be done in separate classes or institutions. There is a dififerent point of view." " The main things of course, is for colleges to train secondary teachers. The normal schools are best equipped for the preparation of elementary teachers." " It would dignify the whole business, and be advan- tageous all around," " If colleges were to give as much attention to the prep- aration of elementary teachers as to the preparation of teachers for secondary schools, the effect, as a rule, would be to lower the grade of work in case of secondary teachers. Normal schools are better fitted to prepare elementary teachers." "Secondary education would be much more intelligible to a student if he could take a general view, at least, of the work from the bottom up. It does not seem to me neces- sary, however, to enter in any detail into the training of teachers for elementary schools in order to do efficient work in the training of teachers for secondary schools." " Should colleges give attention to the prep- aration of teachers for elementary schools, it VIEWS •' would necessitate on their part a study of the problems of education from a dififerent point of view. It would reveal to them the difference which now exists be tween the method and practice of teaching in elementary schools and the method and practice of teaching in sec- 247 j ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 247 ondary schools. They would at length perceive the abrupt change in method, and they might gradually, with great ad- vantage to the elementary school and the secondary school, make the transition in method almost imperceptible." " It is certainly advisable for normal schools to limit their instruction to the preparation of elementary teachers, but it is not necessary nor advisable to limit colleges in their train- ing to the preparation of secondary teachers." " The effect, in part at least, would be good. The academic conditions of normal schools no longer prepare their students for secondary teachers, while colleges with their preparatory departments are most favorably situated to prepare teachers for all grades." "We have found by experience that it is helpful to all, to interest them in the work of the grades, and especially to teach in the grades. We believe that all teachers for secondary schools should know the work below." " I believe the plan is fraught with danger both for the col- lege and the normal school. To narrow the field would lower the dignity of the work and diminish the size of the classes." " It would probably have a bad effect by emphasizing the difference between elementary and secondary teachers, and weaken the work in both fields." " I see no reason to believe that any peculiar effect, harm- ful or otherwise, would appear provided the quality of the instruction addressed to the students is what it ought to be." " The college properly equipped ought to do both. I do not see any reason why there should be any detriment be- cause the college assumes the duty of the professional train- ing of elementary teachers." The question of the advisability of separate THE TRUTH training schools for elementary and secondary DIFFICULT • Ti 1 1 1 1 TO FIND teachers, or more especially the thought that would limit the normal schools or colleges to a 248 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [248 narrower field in the training of teachers than is now the usual practice, is one that is surrounded with much sentiment and tradition which are apt to arouse in its discussion consid- erable feeling and partisan spirit. It is often difficult to give fair consideration to a question that seems to offer in its solu- tion the curtailment of the individual's power and influence. The commonly expressed thought that any one can teach children, and its equally absurd counterpart, that any col- lege graduate can teach English, are still to be found in but slightly modified form in our best institutions of learning. And kindred to these is the thought quoted above from a normal school principal who says, " Proper normal training fits for any kind of teaching, whether in the kindergarten or in the university." Such men are doubtless honest in their opinions, but they certainly fail to comprehend the true situation. A study of the quotations given above will con- vince the reader that somebody must be wrong. Most students of education are aware that there are great dififerences in individual minds, especially between the atti- tude of the child and of the youth, which must be met by dififerences in the method of instruction. City superintend- ents are likewise aware that some teachers are best adapted for primary work, others for intermediate grades, and still others for the high schools. In imparting information, every true method must be adapted to the nature and intelligence of the individual instructed. That there should be a differ- ence in the requirements for elementary and secondary teachers is quite apparent. But in what way can we give the most effective training to each with the appliances at our command, is the question under consideration. Many persons are of the opinion that ele- coLLEGEs vs. rn^ntarv teachers should have a college educa- NORMAL . ' .... SCHOOLS *'°"' ^"" hence, that colleges and universities must be better fitted for the training of teachers 249] ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS 249 for all grades of public education, even including the ele- mentary, than are the normal schools. This opinion is shared less by professors of education who have given the subject serious thought than by others. But since it is the honest opinion of a number of intelligent people it deserves consideration. The statistics of state normal schools show that they are still on the increase at a fairly rapid rate. During the past decade there have been 37 new state normal schools estab- lished, an average of about four per year. In the year 1900 there were in the United States 172 state normal schools, with a property valuation, including grounds and buildings, of about thirty million dollars. The annual appropriation for that year for buildings and support is given at three mil- lion five hundred thousand dollars. Such an accumulation of property and of interest is not the result of a day. Neither could the services of these schools be set aside without seriously crippling the whole educational system. It would require years for the colleges and universities to become as well fitted for the training of elementary teachers as the state normal schools now are, and all to what pur- pose? — simply to do the normal work over again. The nor- mal schools might be converted into colleges and the col- leges into normal schools, but what would be gained by the change? Normal schools are admirably fitted by nature, environ- ment, equipment, and teaching force, for the professional training of elementary teachers. In order to enable colleges and universities to perform the work of the training of elementary teachers as successfully, it would be necessary to establish in connection with each institution a separate nor- mal school, with ample provision for the study of the elementary subjects and for practice-teaching, and also with a teaching staff large enough to put the work in operation. 250 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [25O The establishment of such normal departments or schools would be, under many circumstances, a most fortunate thing to do. However, it would simply mean the creation of a new normal school under the favorable environment of a good university. It is a matter of economy, of practical utility, and of good sense that state normal schools should be given chief re- sponsibility in the training of elementary teachers. It is the problem for which they were created, and for which they are so admirably fitted. The field is large enough and im- portant enough to occupy the best talent that is to be found in the entire country. There is need for many more such schools, and the demand for well trained teachers is sure to increase with the supply. But notwithstanding the fitness of the normal school for the training of elementary teachers, it is not adapted to the training of secondary teachers. To continue to fool the public in a make-believe poHcy is wrong. To properly train secondary teachers, the normal school must become in truth a college and modify its methods to meet the needs of high school teachers. To do this would destroy its usefulness for the training of elementary teachers, or necessitate the com- bining of two separate training schools into one institution. It is thought by many that to limit the normal schools to the training of elementary teachers, would fill these schools " with plodding nonentities, without hope and without energy." That it would make them " superficial and one- sided," destroy their " dignity and weaken the instruction." It does not seem, however, that these inferences are cor- rectly drawn. Take, for instance, the kindergarten training schools: has it destroyed their dignity or weakened their influence because they have limited their instruction to a narrow but important field? Look at the names that do us honor: Emma Marwedel, Kate Douglas Wiggin-Riggs, 251] FLl'.MEh TAR Y AND SECOND AR V TEA CIIERS 2 5 I Maria Kraus-Boehe, Eudora L. Hailmann, Elizabeth Har- rison, Jenny B. Merrill, Sara E. Wiltse, Lucy VVheelock, Susan Blow, Amalie Hofer, Mary D. Runyan ; and we might add twenty more without reducing the quality. Who will say that such a list of educators is not sufficient refutation to the argument that to narrow and intensify the field — providing it still remains large enough and important enough to be worth while — weakens the output? The elementary schools cover a much larger and more important field than the kindergarten, but, with the possible exception of primary education wherein the overflow from the kindergarten has influenced the teaching, where in the whole field of elementary education can we find such an arra)' of educational leaders? It is a great honor to be a good kindergartner, but it is an equal honor to be a good elementary teacher, and there is more need for the latter. A good kindergarten training school may be connected with a normal school, a college, or a university, and in the judgment of the writer it is fortunate for the training school to be so situated, but in every case it remains a kindergarten still. Its students may all be college graduates, and pre- ferably so, but while in special preparation for their future vocation, they have but little in common with prospective teachers of other departments. They may study many of their academic and a few of their professional subjects in common, but the rest of their studies will lead them into entirely different lines. The same condition is equally true of elementary and of secondary teachers ; a part of their studies they can mutually share with profit, but the rest of the way they must go in separate paths. In the judgment of the writer we have THE NEED FOR reached a stage m the educational develop- TRAINED . , . , . , , TEACHERS mcut of this country m which it has become almost imperative for us to demand higher 252 TRAINING OF SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS [252 qualifications, and more definite and more truly professional training on the part of our teachers. To overlook this need, or to fail to properly provide for it, means a loss to the people, and to the republic, which can never be re- gained. At the last meeting (1902) of the National Education Association of the United States — an organization that has been of incalculable value to the teachers' profession — the following statements were adopted as a part of that organi- zation's " Declaration of Principles : " " We heartily commend every step which may be taken for increasing the necessary qualifications of teachers, and hope soon to see as definite a standard for the training of teachers as is now fixed by the best schools in the country for the training of physicians or lawyers. We believe that the fixing of such a standard and a strict adherence to it would elevate the work of the teacher to that of a profession. We further commend any movement that may be in- augurated for securing uniformity of requirements in the training and the licensing of teachers in the various states and territories, and which would bring about a just recogni- tion by these states and territories of the diplomas or certifi- cates granted under this system. The crossing of the boundary line of any state should no longer be assumed to nullify the qualifications of the skilled teacher and the expert supervisor, or the scholastic fitness of men and women whose energies are devoted to the cause of educa- tion." Probably no other nation is so dependent upon the in- telligence and character of the whole people as the United States. This fact has been brought into greater prominence since the active cooperation of this country in the family of nations. Culture, virtue, and true diplomacy should be the prevailing characteristics. And for all these we must turn to our schools and their teachers. 253] ELEMENTAR Y AND SE CONDAR Y TEA CHERS 253 Owing to various circumstances the great majority of the people spend but few years in the public schools. These years should be prolonged if possible, but in any event they should be made the most profitable years of the individual's entire life. Through efificient teaching they should lay the foundation for true character, for intelligence, virtue, and Christian integrity that would give success and stability to the individual, and happiness and encouragement to others. But in the majority of cases these important years are spent under the influence of a teacher, probably not yet out of her teens, who has had absolutely no special preparation for teaching. She lacks in maturity, in scholarship, in judg- ment, in ideals, in character, and in a knowledge of human nature; but, since she is legion, she has within her power and moulding the destiny of the nation. The writer is not in favor of the German plan THE WAY OUT , . „, , . . for this country. We are too democratic in spirit to make such a plan feasible. To make the boundary line between the work of the elementary teacher, on the one hand, and the secondary teacher, on the other, more diffi- cult of passage, would be injurious in its effect. The teacher should always feel free, and with slight additional preparation be able to change from one field of teaching to the other. If the elementary teacher feels that with some additional study, she can change at will to the kindergarten field, on the one hand, or to the secondary field, on the other, she is happier, more contented, and more efificient in her work. Nothing is apt to disturb the average individual's equilibrium more than to feel that he is doomed to remain in one position. We do not wish to change half as much when we know we can. We have reached a point in our educational REASONABLE pj-Qgress — at least in many states — wherein the STANDARDS ^ ^ minimum standard for the preparation of ele- 254 TRAIXLXG OF SECOSDARY TEACHERS [254 mentary teachers can be, and ought to be, the equivalent of a four years' high school course, and at least tv\o years of additional training at some good state normal school. The minimum requirement for secondary teachers should be, in addition to the above high school course, a four years' col- lege course, supplemented by the professional requirements as outlined in the preceding chapter: the latter to be in- sisted upon as earnestly as the normal school training is in the former case. These standards are attainable, thoroughly practical, and in some states already in operation. When put in operation they will elevate the teacher's profession ; lengthen and in- crease the school attendance ; be far more economical to the taxpayer, while at the same time increasing the teacher's salary ; and will more than treble the efficiency of the teach- ing. The educators of the country should unite in bringing about these conditions. State superintendents and state boards of education should be urged to take the required action, state legislatures should be appealed to, and all along the line there should be concerted action in arousing public sentiment to demand of teachers the qualifications herein set forth. The certificating or licensing of teachers for CERTIFICATING ill l IIJU j/ ^i any and all grades should be removed from the OF TEACHERS •' ... hands of separate institutions and local authori- ties, and should be placed in the hands of a non-partisan state board of education. The members of this board should be chosen on account of their interest and scholarly fitness for the duties which devolve upon them. All certificating of teachers should be in the hands of this central board. There should be no blanket certificates issued. On the contrary, every certificate should be made to cover only such sub- jects or such parts of the field of education as the candidate is especially fitted to teach. This would give meaning and 255] ELEMENTAR Y AND SE COXDAR Y TEA CHERS 255 value to teachers' certificates, that would go a long way toward securing their universal recognition. All institutions of the state properly fitted to prepare teachers for the elementary or secondary schools should be subject in that part of their work to the inspection and direction of the state board of education. The recom- mendations for teachers' certificates for the specially quali- fied graduates of these schools might come from the proper authorities of the institutions concerned, but the granting power as well as the certificate itself should remain in the hands of the state board. There should be a strong effort among all state boards of education, where, as in New York state, such a law of uniform licensing is put in operation, to have these states add a reciprocity clause, by means of which teachers* certificates of the different states might find mutual recognition. To this end all teachers should labor and strive. It is worth a struggle to elevate one's profes- sion, and to receive in the end the universal appreciation of his fellow-countrymen. If we are right in our conclusions, the stu- CONCLUSION , ,.,,., , , , , dent who is lookmg forward to the teachers profession should begin her preparation by completing a good high school course. This will fit her for entrance upon college or university study on the one hand, or upon professional study at a first-class normal school on the other. In the first instance she will need at least four years to com- plete the course provided for her, and in the second case, two. When she has completed her high school course she comes to the parting of the way and must decide upon which road to enter. If she desires to become a teacher in the elementary schools, or if she can spend but two years in further preparation, the state normal school will probably be best adapted to her needs. If, on the other hand, she desires to become a high school teacher, and has four years 256 TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS [256 to devote to the preparation, it is best for her to enter at once upon college or university training. She will profit greatly by selecting a school that has a good department of education. She should not allow the temptations of early employment to prevent her from completing one of the above courses. It will pay many times over in a richer, happier, and more prosperous life, even though she is destined to re- main but a few years in the teachers' profession.' When normal schools can adapt their instruction to the needs of high school graduates, the work will become much more specific and valuable. The two years' normal course can then be made to cover at least the freshman year at college, besides a review of the essential features of the common school branches coupled with the proper profes- sional training; the latter to be scattered over the entire two years' work. Should the teacher thus trained desire later to become a secondary teacher, the way is open. With three years of additional study she can complete a university course, including the special requirements for a secondary teachers' certificate. She has lost one year in time by the normal school route, but she ought to be a year stronger on this account for even high school teaching. There is one fact that cannot be overlooked : under present conditions university graduates are not contented and will not remain in district or grade positions, except under the most favorable circumstances of city life. As a rule, they have been separated in thought for at least eight years from the elementary subjects which they are expected to teach ; four years in the high school, and four years in 1 What has been said regarding the preparation of women teachers applies equally well to the preparation of men. We have used the pronoun she simply because it has come to represent the larger number. There are many vital reasons vrhy there should be more male teachers in the elementary schools, especially ia the 6th, 7th and 8th grades, and as principals. 2 5 7 1 ELEMENTAR Y AND SECOND AR Y TEA CHERS 257 college. Their natural environment, education, and associa- tions have, except in a few cases, put them out of touch and sympathy with children. But there should be some feasible plan inaugurated by means of which the children in the elementary schools, who represent at least 95 per cent, of the whole, shall be given efficient instruction. Under proper conditions of preparation and of salary many persons would be just as contented, if not more so, to spend their lives with children as with youth. When state normal schools and departments of education in colleges and universities properly adjust their instruction after some such plan as has been herein outlined, there will result great economy of effort, of money, and of time ; and the training will be more efficient, and more appreciated both by students and the general public. Even under these conditions, there will be found in the normal school classes students who are best adapted for high school teachers, and who will naturally find such positions. Likewise in the university that has no normal department, there will be found students especially fitted by nature for primary or grade teachers. These, also, should be encouraged to enter the field for which they are best adapted. But under the plan suggested these students would be the exception, not the rule. This, in the judgment of the writer, is the solution of the problem. SIBl^lOGRAPHY REFERENCES A College for Teachers. Editorial. Dial. (Ch.), 25: 249 (Oct. 16, 1892), Ailing, Mary R. Causes of Failure Among Teachers. Educa., 6: 62 (i{ Ailing, Mary R. Ratio of Men and Women in High Schools of the United States. Sch. Rev., 4 : 86 (F. 1896). Atkinson, F. W. The Professional Preparation of Secondary' Teachers in the United States, pp. 64, 1893. Atkinson, F. W. Study of American Normal Schools. 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Problems which Confront the Normal School. Educa., 21 : 1-15 (1900). Bramwell, A. B., and Hughes, H. M. Training of Teachers in the United States of America, D. 12 + 198 pp., London, 1894. Brown, E. E. Fine Art of Teaching. Educa. Rev., 16: 328 (N. 1898). Burk, F. Training of Teachers. Atlan., 80: 548 (O. 1897). Bucham, W. II. Some Aspects of the Profession of Teaching. Forum, 25:481 (June 1898). Butler, N. M. The Training of the Teacher. Cent., 16: 915 (1889), 258 [258 259] BIBLIOGRAPHY 259 Cook, J. W., and McHugh, J. V. A History of the Illinois State Normal Uni- versity, pp. 255. Normal, 111, 1882. Cook, J. W. Practice Teaching in Normal Schools. Educa. Rev., 3 : 267 (Mar., 1892). Dana, M. T. The New York State Normal Schools. Educa. Rev., 21 : 82-87 (190O. DeGarmo, Charles. School Reform: a Reply to Prof. Miinsterberg. Educa. Rev., 21 : 118-31 (1901). Dinton, L. Practice Teaching in Normal Schools. Educa. Rev. (1891), 2: 261, 366, 476. Dutton, S. T. Training of College Graduates for Work of Teaching. Educa. 16: 528 (May, 1896). Fitch, J. G. Notes on American Schools and Training Colleges. London, pp. ^7>7> ('S90). Reprinted from the Report of the Eng. Educa. department (i888-'89). Gallaudet, T. H. Plan of a Seminary for the Education of Instructors of Youth, pp. 39. Boston, 1825. Gilbert, J. I., and others. New York State Normal Schools (Report of the Special Committee of the Assembly), pp. 44. Albany, 1879. Gordy, J. P. Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States, Washington (1891), pp. 145. Bureau of Education, Circular of Informa- tion, No. 8, 1 89 1. Gray, T. J. Report of the Chicago Committee on Methods of Instruction and Courses of Study in Normal Schools, pp. 19. In School Issues of the Day, No. 4, 1890. (No title page.) Hall, Baynard R. Teaching, a Science; the Teacher, an Artist, pp. 305. Scribner, N. Y. 1848. Hall, G. S. Research the Vital Spirit of Teaching. Forum, 17 : 558 (1894). Hall, G. S. The Training of Teachers. Forum, 10: 11 (1890). Hall, G. S. American Universities and the Training of Teachers. Forum, 17: 148. (Apr., 1894.) Hall, G. S. Teachers, an Educational Need. Nation, 38: 522 (1S84). Hanus, Paul H. The New Department of Pedagogy at Harvard University. Educa. Rev., 2: 252 (^1891). Harris, W. T. The Future of the Normal School. Educa. Rev., 17: 1-15 (1899). Harris, W. T. Chairs of Pedagogics. Educa., 3: 153 (1882). Harris, W. T. How to Improve the Qualifications cf Teachers. Educa., 2: 6o5 (1882). Hart, Albert B. Studies in American Education, pp. 150. Longmans, N. Y. 1895. (Has the Teacher a Profession ? and other papers.) Hervey, W. L. New York College for Training of Teachers. Rev. of Rev. (N^ Y-) ; 5' 434 (^ly*)' -Also Historical Sketch of Teachers' College from its foundation to 1897. Teachers' College Record, i : 12 (190c). 260 BfBUOGRAPffy [260 Hill, Dr. Thomas. The Study of Didactics in Colleges. Am. Jour. Educa., 15 : 179 (1864). Hill, Frank A. State Examination and Certification of Teachers, pp. 22. Boston, 1895. Hinsdale, B. A. Pedagogical Chairs in Colleges and Universities. Proc. N. E. A. 1889. Also, in Studies in Education, pp. 166-281. Werner School Book Co. (1896). Hinsdale, B. A. The Training of Teachers. Monographs on Education in the United States. Edited by N. M. Butler, i : 259. J. B. Lyons & Co., Albany, N. Y., 2 vols. 1900. Hinsdale, B. A. Study of Education in Colleges and Universities. Educa. Rev., 19: 105 (Feb., 1900). Hollis, A. P. The Present Status of Practice Teaching in State Normal Schools. Ped. Sem., 8: 495-509 (1901). Holt, Rosa Belle. The Teachers' College, Cosmop., 16: 579 (Mar.. 1894). Jacobs, W. B. Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. Educa. Rev., 1 1 : 245 (Mar., 1896). James, Edmund J. Chairs of Pedagogics in Our Universities, pp. 46. Philadelphia, 1887. Laurie, S. S. Training of Teachers and Methods of Instruction, pp. 304. Mayo, Rev. A. D. Assault on the Normal Schools. (In American Institute of Instruction, pp. 39-43, 1877). Newell, M. A. Contributions to the History of Normal Schools in the U. S. Re- port of Comm'r of Educa., 1898-99, 2: 2263-2470. Nightingale, A. F. Preparation of Teachers for Secondary Schools. School Rev,, 4: 149 (1896). North, Ed. Normal Instruction in Colleges. Univ. of New York, Regents' Reports, pp. 701. 1869. O'Shea, M. V. Professional Training of Teachers. Pop. Sci. Mo., 45 : 726 (Oct., 1894). O'Shea, M. V. Function of the University in the Training of Secondary Teachers. School Rev., 8: 157-70 (1900). Payne, W. H. " Teaching as a Trade and as a Profession," and " Education as t University Study." In Contributions to the Science of Education. Harper Brothers, 1886. Payne, W. II. Training of the Teacher. Educa. Rev., 16 : 469 (1898). Payne, W. H. Aspects of Professional Teaching. Educa., 3 : 327 (1883). Payne, W. H. The Education of Teachers, pp. 272. B. F. Johnson, Richmond, Va. 1901. Pierce, E. T. The Normal School as a Source of Teaching Force. Overland, N. S., 28; 219 (Aug., 1896). Pierce, E. T. Professional Education of Teachers. Annals of Education, 4 : 49 (1884), Boston. Putnam, Daniel. A History of the State Normal School at' Ypsilanti Michigan, from 1849-1899. Ypsilanti, Mich. 1899. 26 1 ] BIBLIOGRAPHY 26 1 Ross, G. W. Training of Teachers in Ontario, Canada. School Rev., i : 400 (1893). Rounds, lola. Training of Teachers. Educa., 5 : 581 (1885). Russell, James E. The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. Educa. Rer., p. 364 (Apr., 1892). Also Proc. of N. E. A., p. 285 (1899). Organiza- tion and Administration of Teachers' College. Teachers' Coll. Rec, i : 36-59 (1900). Salisbury, Albert. Historical Sketch of Normal Instruction in Wisconsin. Whitewater, Wis., pp. 79, ill. 1893. Salisbury, Albert. Historical Sketch of Normal Instruction in Wisconsin, pp. 103. Madison, 1876. Also Proc. of N. E. A. 1897. Normal Schools of Wisconsin. Salmon, L. M. Training Teachers in France. Educa. Rev., 20: 383-404 (1900). Schurman, J, G. Teaching: A Trade or Profession? Forum, 21:171 (Apr., 1896). Seaver, E. P. The Professional Training of Teachers, American Institute of In- struction, pp. 59-77 (1890J. Smith, M. K. Professional Preparation of Teachers in Secondary Schools at At- kinson. Criticism, School Rev., 1 : 688 (Dec, 1893). Snyder, Z. X., Chairman. Report of Committee on Normal Schools. Proc. N, E. A., p. 836 ff. 1899. Very valuable. See also Preliminary Report in Proc. N. E. A., p. 729 ff. 1898. Stowe, Calvin E. Normal Schools and Teachers' Seminaries. Am. Jour. Educa., 15:683 (1887). Tarbell, H. S., and Others. Training of Teachers. Educa. Rev., 9: 200 (1895), Report of Com. of Fifteen. Proc. N. E. A. 1895. Tarbell, H. S., and Others. Training of Teachers. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, No. 2, p. 26 ff. (1889). Butler, Jackraan and others. Tarbell, H. S., and Others. Training of Teachers. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, No. 6 (18S8). Draper, Wickersham and others. Williams, S. G. Study of Pedagogy at Cornell University. Educa. Rev., 3 : 374 (1892). Reports, PublicationB and Catalogues of Universitiea, Colleges, and State Normal Schools. APPENDIX OUTLINES ON THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION AS OF- FERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, 1901 In order to make clearer some of the points raised in chapter five concerning pedagogical courses and the method of treatment, it has been thought advisable to publish a set of outlines as furnished to the students, covering one of the pro- fessional courses. The outlines on the history of education were used rather than others, partly on account of the many calls that are received for these outlines, and partly on account of the stress placed upon this subject by schoolmen, and its broader and more general treatment. The body of the work remains somewhat constant, but the refer- ences and questions change slightly from year to year. The refer- ences cover only the English material on the subject in the university library. Other references are added in class, especially the more important references in foreign languages which can be read with profit by members of the class. The method of treatment has already been described in chapter five. But we may add that the student is required to keep a note- book, not alone on account of the value of its content, but far more on account of the educational value that comes from learning how to select wisely and express clearly. The questions answered in the note-book are only in part similar to those found on the different outlines to be answered in the class. The student's final grade is made up from four different sources : ^ depends upon his note-book ; ^ upon his class work ; ^ upon his monthly conferences with the instructor; and y^ upon a final examination. The committing to memory of a text-book, however valuable the content, may store the mind with facts, but it does not educate. It 263] 263 264 APPENDIX [264 is only when facts are seen in their true relations that they become of real value. True education consists in knowing the best, and in being able to express that knowledge clearly and effectively. For this reason the course in the history of education aims to develop the student's power in acquiring and imparting knowledge, as well as to give him a broader and richer conception of the human race in its educational development. I desire in this connection to acknowledge my indebtedness to Professor Earl Barnes, formerly of Leland Stanford University, for much that is contained herein. It was under his instruction that I obtained the first real knowledge of the history of education, and the nucleus from which these outlines have resulted is traceable to those early lessons. APPENDIX HISTORY OF HDUCATION DIRECTIONS FOR NOTE-BOOK. Directions to be followed in the preparation of Note-book on Pre- Christian Education. Make a complete bibliography of all readings for permanent record. Give the references read upon each topic and the time spent in reading, naming the reference found most helpful. Put complete title of subject on first line of first page and the main word of the title on the first line of each succeeding page devoted to that subject. Put answers and paragraphic parts of answers in paragraphic form. Make answers clear and concise. Use marginal-ruled paper and place the name of the author or authors in the right hand margin at the close of the paragraph. Use quotation marks for all direct quotations. TOPICS FOR NOTE-BOOK. 1. Environment of the people. a. Extent, topography and climate of the country. b. Principal productions, industries and activities of the people. c. Nature of the surrounding country. 2. Origin and character of the people. a. Form of government. b. Classes of society, how determined. c. Religious belief. d. Social and family life. e. The ideal man, judged from the standpoint of the nation studied. f. The ideal woman. 3. Education. a. Who are the teachers? How esteemed? What are the neces- sary requirements for teaching? 265] 265 266 APPENDIX [266 b. Sources of information and subjects of study. c. Nature and efficiency of the instruction. d. Kind of buildings — books and apparatus used. e. Who receive the benefit of education. f. Length of term and age at which the different subjects are presented. 4. Ideal or aim of education, and its practical results. 5. Good and bad features of the educational system. 6. Great teachers or leaders in educational thought. 26;] APPENDIX 267 GENERAL REFERENCES ON THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Baumeister, A. Handbuch der Erziehungs und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen ; Vol. i. Pt. i, on Geschichte der Piidagogik, by T. Zeigler. 1895. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, pp. 402. Appleton & Co. 1890. Browning, Oscar. Introduction to Educational Theories, pp. 237. E. L. Kellogg & Co. N. Y., 1888. Cadet Felix. Port Royal Education, pp. 406. C. W. Bardeen. Syra- cuse, N. Y., 1898. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 598. (Trans, by W. H. Payne.) D. C. Heath & Co. 1885. Conway, M. M. History of Education, pp. 75. C. W. Bardeen. Syra- cuse, N. Y., 1901. Cubberley, E. P. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education,^ pp. 298. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1902. Davidson, Thos. Aristotle and the Ancient Educational Ideals, pp. 256. Chas. Scribner's Sons. N. Y., 1899. Education of the Greek People, pp. 229. Appleton & Co. N. Y., 1894. History of Education, pp. 292. Chas. Scribner's Sons. N. Y., 1900. Rousseau and Education According to Nature, pp. 253. Chas. Scribner's Sons. N. Y., 1898. Hailman, W. N. Lectures on the History of Pedagogy, pp. 130. Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. N. Y., 1874. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, pp. 385. Lippincott Co. Phila., 1902. Laurie, S. S. Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education, pp. 411. 2d ed. rev. Longmans, Green & Co. N. Y., 1900. Mahaffy, J. P. Old Greek Education, pp. 139. Harper Brothers. N. Y., 1882. Monroe, Paul. Source-Book of the History of Education for the Greek and Roman Period, pp. 515. Macmillan Co. N. Y., 1901. Munroe, James P. The Educational Ideal, pp. 262. D. C. Heath & Co. Boston, 1895. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 343. D. Appleton & Co. N. Y., 1886. Paulsen, Fr. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts. (2d ed., 2 vols., 1896.) ' A valuable book for departments of education. It was received after the major part of the present work was in print and its helpful suggestions could not be utilized. 268 APPENDIX [268 Payne, Jos. Lectures on the History of Education. Works. Vol. 2. Longmans, Green & Co. N. Y., 1892. Payne, W. H. History of Education, pp. 105. C. W. Bardeen. Syra- cuse, N. Y., 1881. Quick, R. H. Essays on Educational Reformers. Rev. ed., pp. 335. E. L. Kellogg & Co. N. Y., 1890. Published also by D. Apple- ton & Co., N. Y. Raumer, Karl G. von. Geschichte der Padagogik vom wiederaufbliihen Klassiker Studien. sth ed., 1877-80. Translated in Barnard's Am. Jour. Educa. Schiller, Hermann. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Padagogik. 2d ed. 1891. Schmidt, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung vom Anfang an bis auf unsere Zeit. 4 vols. 1884-1896. Schmidt, Karl. Geschichte der Padagogik. 4 vols., 4th ed. 1878-1886. Seeley, Levi. History of Education, pp. 343. American Book Co. N.Y., 1899. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, pp. 315. American Book Co., 1891. Swett, John. American Public Schools, pp. 320. American Book Co. N. Y., 1900. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, pp. 395. C. W. Bar- deen. Syracuse, N. Y., 2d ed., 1896. Cyclopedias. Buisson, F. Dictionnaire de pedagogic et d' instruction primarie. Two parts, each in 2 vols. Pt. i contains the historical articles. 1886- 1887. Kiddle, H., and Schem, A. J. Cyclopedia of Education, 1883. Lindner, G. A. Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Erziehungskunde, mit besonderer Beruck-sichtigung des Volksschulvi^esen. i vol. 1884. Rein, Geo. W. Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik. 7 vols. 1895-1899. Sander, F. Lexikon der Padagogik. i vol. 1889. Schmid, K. A. Encyklopadie des gesammten Erziehungs- und Unter- richtswesen. 2d ed., 10 vols. 1876-1887. Piidagogische Handbuch fvir Schule und Haus. 2d ed., 2 vols. 1883-1885. Sonnenschein's Cyclopedia of Education. A. E. Fletcher, editor, i vol. 1889. Magazines and Periodical Literature. American Journal of Education; edited by Henry Barnard, 31 vols., 1855-1881, with Index. Contains valuable articles on history of education. 269] APPENDIX 269 Education; Kasson & Palmer, Boston, i88i to date, 22 vols., ipcj. Contains occasional articles on the history of education. Educational Review ; edited by Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, 1891 to date, 2^ vols., 1902. Occasional articles on history of education. Pedagogical Seminary; edited by G. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass., 1891 to date, 9 vols., 1902. Proceedings of National Educational Association; 1857 to date, except- ing the years 1861, 1862 and 1878. Index covering the years 1857-1897. Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of Education ; 1870 to date. Two volumes per year since 1888. In connection with the Circulars of Information, Bureau of Education, most valuable on the his- tory of education in the United States and recent history of edu- cation in foreign countries. School Review; Chicago University Press, 1893 to date, 10 vols., 1902. 270 APPENDIX [270 CHINESE. References: Baldwin, S. L. Education of the Chinese. Proc. N. E. A., 1886, p. 211. Barnes, Earl and Mary S. Historic Ideals and Methods of Chinese Education. Earl Barnes' Studies in Education, vol. i, pp. 112-118. Bullock, T. L. Competitive Examinations in China. 19th Cent. 36:87. Clarke, J. F. Confucius and Chinese. Atlan. Mo., 24:336. Chinese Examinations. Sat. Rev., 62 :582. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 11-16. Competitive Examinations. Blackwood's Mag. 138:479. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 41 ff. Dresslar, F. B. Chinese Pedagogics in Practice. Educa., 20:136-143. Eudo, H. Confucius and His Educational Ideals. N. E. A. Proc, 1893, p. 308. Hailman, W. N. Lectures on Education, pp. 9-17. Hue, E. R. Travels in Chinese Empire, vol. i, pp. 130-143. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, pp. 17. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 132-134, 244. Laurie, S. S. History of Pre-Christian Education, 2d ed., pp. 103-152. Lee, Yan Phon. When I Was a Boy in China, p. 50 ff. Legge, Jas. Life of Confucius, p. i. Also the Chinese, pp. 1-96, and the Chinese Classics, 7 vols. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 3-6. Payne, Jos. History of Education, vol. 2, pp. 3-6. Rosenkranz, J. K. F. Philosophy of Education, pp. 196-200. Seeley, Levi. History of Education, p. 20. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, pp. 141-143. Smith, A. H. Village Life in China, pp. 70-140. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 373-376. Taylor, H. O. Ancient Ideals, 1:17-57. Williams, S. G. Woman in China. New Eng. 38:184. Boys and Young Men. New Eng. 27 -297. For further reference, see Encyclopedia, and recent magazines. Some of the Questions to be Considered in the Education of the Various Countries. 1. What are our principal sources of information? 2. Territorial limitations and natural conditions of the country. 3. Government and religion in their effect upon education. 4. The instruments of education employed, i. e., books, buildings and apparatus, and also teachers. 5. The methods of education. 271] APPENDIX 271 6. Divisions or classes of society. 7. Social and family life. 8. Who received the benefits of education? 9. What distinction is made in regard to sex? 10. How is education managed? 11. What is the aim or ideal of education? 12. What are its practical results? 13. Good and bad features of the educational system. From Chinese Records, the Hsiao King and the Li Ki. " The Master said, Now filial piety is the root of (all) virtue and (the stem) out of which grows (all moral) teaching. Sit down again, and I will explain the subject to you. Our bodies — to every hair and bit of skin — are received by us from our parents, and we must not presume to injure or wound them; this is the beginning of filial piety. When we have established our character by practice of the (filial) course, so as to make our name famous in future ages, and thereby glorify our parents : this is the end of filial piety. It commences with the service of parents ; it proceeds to the service of rulers ; it is com- pleted by the establishment of the character." ^ " The Rules of Propriety are simply (the development of) the prin- ciple of Reverence. Therefore the reverence paid to the father makes (all) sons pleased; the reverence paid to an elder brother makes (all) younger brothers pleased; the reverence paid to a ruler makes (all) subjects pleased. The reverence paid to one man makes thousands and myriads of men pleased. The reverence is paid to few, and the pleasure extends to many — this is what is meant by an " All-embracing Rule of Conduct." 2 " If a man observe the rules of propriety, he is in a condition of security ; if he do not, he is in one of danger. Hence, there is the saying, * The rules of propriety should by no means be left unlearned.' Pro- priety is seen in humbling one's self and giving honor to others. Even porters and peddlers are sure to display this honor (in some cases) ; how much more should the rich and noble do so (in all) ! When the rich and noble know to love propriety, they do not become proud nor dissolute. When the poor and mean know to love propriety, their minds do not become cowardly." ' ' In Sacred Books of the East. Translated by Jas. Legge, edited by F. Max Muller. 3d edition. Oxford, 1S99. 3:466. *Ibid.. 3:482. " Ibid., Oxford. i88s. 27:65. 272 APPENDIX [^2y2 INDIA AND THE HINDUS. References: Clarke, J. F. Brahmanism, Atlan. Mo., 23 :548. Clarke, J. F. Buddhism or Protestantism of the East. Atlan. Mo., 23713- Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 2-6. Davidson's History of Education, p. 58. Davies, William. Religion of Gotama Buddha. Atlan. Mo., 74:334. DuBois, A. J. People of India. North Amer. Rev., 9:38. Hewitt, A. F. Catholic Education in India (Modern). Cath. World, 6s :289. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 26. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 456-457. Laurie. S. S. Pre-Christian Education, pp. 165-188; 2d ed., pp. 155-177. School Rev., i :668. Martin, W. A. P. The Renaissance in China. New Eng. 28:47. McLauren, J. Anglo Education in India. Missionary Rev., n. s., 13 -.^og. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 15-21. Payne, Jos. History of Education, v. 2, pp. 6-8. Rosenkranz, J. K. F. Philosophy of Education, pp. 200-202. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, I. Seeley, Levi. History of Education, p. 29. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, pp. 138-140. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 379-385. Taylor. H. O. Ancient Ideals, i :84. Vas, S. Some Religious Temples in India (Modern). Cath. World, 73 :569. Ward, W. Writings, Religion and Manners of the Hindus. Edin- burgh Review, 29:377. Wilder, R. P. Educated Classes in India. Missionary Rev., n. s., li :897. In your study of Hindu education, follow suggestions as given in the former lesson. 1. Note political and religious variations from the Chinese and their effect upon education. 2. Account for these changes. 3. Do they represent a higher or a lower civilization? Why? 4. What industries were known to the Hindu? 5. What classes of society were recognized? 6. On what was class distinction based? What effect has caste on education ? 7. Characterize their ideal man ; the ideal woman. In pre-Christian education our thought will be confined largeK to the " Golden Age " of the people. 273] APPENDIX 273 Extracts from Hindu Records. ,;{ "Natural dispositions can be altered by education." ''')■'. " Water though heated gets back its chilliness." "A man will, without any doubt, become similar to those by whom he is waited upon, or to those on whom he himself waits." From Pant?chatantra : Trans, by Ludwig Fritze, 1884. " To learn and to understand the Vedas, to practice pious morti- fications, to acquire divine knowledge of the law and of philosophy, to treat with veneration his natural and spiritual father, these are the chief duties by means of which endless felicity is obtained." " Women have no business to repeat texts from the Vedas. This is the law established." " Let not a husband eat with his wife, nor look at her eating." ■' No act is to be done according to her own will by a young girl, a young woman, or even by an old woman, though in their own houses." Laws of Manu, Lect. V. 147. "In her childhood a girl should be under her father; in her youth, of her husband ; her husband being dead, of her sons ; a woman should never enjoy her own will." Lect. V, 148. " She who. restrained in mind, speech, and body, is not unfaithful to her husband, attains the abode of her husband, and is called virtuous by the good." Lect. IX, 29. " One who understands the Veda-treatise deserves rule over armies, kingly power, the right to adjudge punishment, and the governorship of all the world." Lect. XII. 100. " Those who have perused many literary compositions are superior to those who are ignorant; those who remember what they learn are better than those who have perused many literary compositions ; those who understand what they learn are superior to those who remember it ; those who practice what they learn are better than those who un- derstand it." Lect. XII. 103. " The best source of deliverance for a Brahman is (ascetic) austerity and (Vedic) wisdom; through (ascetic) austerity one slays sin, through (Vedic) wisdom one gets immortality." Lect. XII. 104. The last para- graphs have been quoted from The Ordinances of Manu, Triibner's Oriental Series, edited by E. W. Hopkins, Columbia College, N. Y., 1884. 274 APPENDIX [274 PERSIANS. References: Arnold, Mathew. Persian Passion Play. Cornh., 24:668. Benjamin, S. G. W. A Glance at the Arts of Persia. Cent., 10:716. Domestic and Court Customs. Harper, 72:217; also, The Tazieth or Persian Passion Play, Harper, 72 -.^60. Clarke, J. F. Zoroaster and the Zend-Avesta. Atlan. Mo., 24:150. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 66. Emerson, R. W. Persian Poetry. Atlan. Mo., i :724. Herodotus. History, Trans, by Cary, pp. 61-62. Jackson, A. W. Teaching of the Ancient Zoroastrian Religion. Public Opinion, 21 :53i. Karib, Ruel B. Persian Women. Cosmop., 13 :668. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 34. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 691-693. Laurie, S. S. History of Early Education. School Rev., 2:129. Survey of Pre-Christian Education, pp. 189-208; 2d ed., pp. 178-195- Macaulay, G. C. The History of Herodotus, i :6oh7i. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 21-26. Pelly, Sir Lewis. Persian Miracle Play. Edinb. Rev., 151 :73. Payne, Joseph. History of Education, 2 -.g. Persian Manners. All the Year, 9:371. Rawlinson, G. Five Great Monarchies, i :39i ; 3 :238-247. Rosenkranz, J. K. F. Philosophy of Education, p. 207. Sayce, A. H. The Ancient Empires of the East. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, i. Seeley, Levi. History of Education, p. 36. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 133. Tennyson, Lionel. Persia and its Passion Drama. 19th Cent., 9:623. Williams, Monier. Religion of Zoroaster. 19th Cent., 9:155. Persian Characteristics. Nation, i :3i4. Strachey, Edward. Persian Poetry. Atlan. Mo., 71 :322. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 385-388. Xenophon. Cyropedeia, Book L Ch. 2. 1. Compare Persian Education with the education of the countries already studied. 2. Does Persia represent an earlier or later civilization? Give rea- sons for answer. 3. Who received the benefits of education? 4. Show how their religious belief influenced their education and political life. 2/5] APPENDIX 275 5. What did they consider the three cardinal virtues? Why? 6. What was their ideal man? Their ideal woman? 7. Describe their system of education. 8. Who were the Magi? How did they obtain their office? How educated ? How esteemed ? 9. The nature of the Persian literature? Extracts from Persian Records and Herodotus. " He who is less than thee consider as an equal, and an equal as a superior, and a greater than he as a chieftain, and a chieftain as a ruler. Among rulers one is to be acquiescent, obedient and truth- speaking ; and among accusers be submissive, mild and kindly re- gardful. Good government is that which maintains and directs a pro- vince flourishing, the poor untroubled, and the law and customs true, and sets aside improper laws and customs. It well maintains water and fire by law, and keeps in progress the ceremonial of the sacred beings, duties and good works." " The Persians more than any other men admit foreign usages ; . . . they adopt all kinds of luxuries when they hear of them. ... It is established as a sign of manly excellence, next after excellence in fight, to be able to show many sons ; and to those who have the most, the king sends gifts every year, for they consider number to be a source of strength. And they educate their children, beginning at five years old and going on till twenty, in three things only, in riding, in shooting, and in speaking the truth : but before a boy is five years of age he does not come into the presence of his father, but lives with the women ; and it is so done for this reason, that if the child should die while he is being bred up, he may not be the cause of any grief to his father. . . . Whatever things it is not lawful for them to do, these it is not lawful for them to even speak of: and the most disgraceful thing in their estimation is to tell a lie, and next to this, to owe money." Herodotus, Macaulay's translation, Book i, 135-138. 276 APPENDIX [276 HEBREWS. References: Abbott, L. Ancient Hebrew People. Outlook, 65:72, 172, 218, 351, 396, 593, 735- Andrews, E. Benj. Institutes of General History, pp. 55-56; see also, Islam, pp. 218-231. Bible. Old and New Testament. Blarckmar, W. F. Social Phenomena of Early Hebrews. Overland, n. s., 9:361-368. Compayre, G. History of Education, pp. 6-1 1, 16. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, pp. 77-86. Hosmer, Jas. K. Story of the Jews, pp. 120-129. Josephus, Flavius. Works of Josephus, pp. 27-29. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 45. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 411. Laurie, S. S. History of Early Education. School Rev., i :485-490, 535-546. Pre-Christian Education, pp. 69-105 ; 2d ed., pp. 65-IOO. Levy, C. H. Education among the Ancient Hebrews. Educa., I7:457- Mallery, G. Israelite and Indian ; a Parallel in Planes of Culture. Pop. Sci. Mo., 36:52-76, 193-213. Mielziner, M. Introduction to the Talmud. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 26-32. Payne, Jos. History of Education, II:io-ii. Raphall, Rev. M. J. Education Among the Hebrews. Am. Jour. Educa., I :243-246. Rawlinson, G. Ancient Monarchies, i :6i. Renan, Ernest. History of the People of Israel, v. 4, pp. 190-197. Rodkinson, M. L. The Babylonian Talmud (new edition), Vol. I. (xi.). Rosenkranz, J. K. F. Philosophy of Education, pp. 241-250. Smith, Wm. Dictionary of the Bible, p. 156. Stowe, C. E. The Talmud. Atlan. Mo., 21:673. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 370. Taylor, H. O. Ancient Ideals. Vol. 2, Chs. 17, 18, 21. Questions. The Jews represent the theocratic system of education. 1. What is meant by this system; How does it differ from the systems already considered ? 2. Account for the unusual stability of the Jewish race. 3. Is this stability or permanence of racial characteristics to be de- sired in an ideal system of education? Why? 4. What were the subjects of education? Who were the teachers? Has the position of woman essentially changed? 277] APPENDIX 277 5. What are the five great turning-points in Hebrew life and char- acter ? 6. What is the nature of the Tahnud? 7. What debt do we owe to Hebrew civilization ? Extracts from Hebrew Records, principally the Talmud. A sage met a friend who, having a cloth carelessly tied around his head, was hastily taking his son to school. "Why such haste?" inquired he. " Because," replied the father, " the duty of taking the child to study stands before everything else." "As soon as the child learns to speak, the father should teach him to say in Hebrew, — ' the law which Moses commanded us is the heritage of the Congregation of Jacob,' — and also the first verse of the Shema, — ' Hear, O Israel ! the eternal our God, is One God.' Just as a man is bound to have his son instructed in the law so also should he have his son taught some handicraft or profession. Who- ever does not teach his son a handicraft teaches him to be a thief." " Are both panting under some heavy burden ? — ^the teacher must be relieved first, and then the father ; should both be imprisoned, even then should the teacher be redeemed first ; because the father has given the son temporal life only whilst the teacher is the cause of his gaining spiritual life." " The teacher should strive to make the lessons agreeable to the pupils by clear reason, as well as by frequent repetitions, until they thoroughly understand the matter and are able to recite it with great fluency." " The qualities of the sages are : Modesty, meekness, eagerness, cour- age, bearing wrongs done to them, and being endeared to every one ; submission to the members of their household, fear of sin, and judging every one according to his deeds." " Deliberate before a word passes thy lips, and be thoughtful how thou should'st act in worldly afifairs." " He who occupies himself only with the study of the Scripture pur- sues the right course, yet the sages do not think so ; but he who occu- pies himself with the study of the Talmud pursues a course than which there is no better." "The beauty of the law is wisdom ; the beauty of wisdom is modesty; the beauty of modesty is the fear of heaven ; the beauty of the fear of heaven is noble performance : the beauty of noble performance is secrecy (i. e., not publicly, for the purpose of being praised)." 2/8 APPENDIX [278 EGYPTIANS. References: Baedeker, Karl. Lower Egypt, pp. 124-140, 250-251. Upper Egypt, pp. 101-230. Barnett, P. A. Public Education in Egypt. Acad., 38:414. Bell, R. T. Education in Egypt. 19th Cent., 52 :4i2. Boscawen, W. St. Chad. Egypt and Chaldea in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Harpers 88:190. Boscawen, W. St. Chad. About How the Old Egyptians Lived and Died. Blackw. 108 :302. Breasted, J. H. A Sketch of Egyptian History. Biblical World, 9:415. Brugsch. Bey H. (Review) of Hist, of Egypt under the Pharaohs. Edinb. Rev., 150:40-58. Bunsen, C. C. J. Ancient Egypt. Edinb. Rev. 83:391. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 14. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 2>7- Edwards, Amelia B. Lying in State in Caria. Harper, 65:185. Book of the Dead. Acad., 23 :440. Herodotus. History (Trans, by Cary), p. 108 ff. Hoar, H. H. Religion of the Egyptians. 19th Cent., 4:1105. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 39. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 254-256. Lang, Andrew. Egyptian Divine Myths. 19th Cent., 20:423. Laurie, S. S. Ancient Egyptians. School Rev., i :353. Pre-Christian Education, pp. 13-52; 2d ed., pp. 11-48. Lockyer, J. Norman. Astronomy and Worship in Ancient Egypt. 19th Cent. 32:29-51. Myers, P. V. M. Outlines of Ancient History, pp. 26-44. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 32-36. Payne, Joseph. History of Education, 2:8-10. Petrie, W. M. F. Grand Tour Three Thousand Years Ago. Harper, 77 :297- Petrie, W. M. F. Oldest Pyramid and Temple. Acad., 39 :376. Plutarch's Morals (Goodwin), 4:65. Proctor, R. A. The Pyramid of Cheops. North Am. Rev., 136:257. Rawlinson, G. Ancient Egypt, v. i, pp. 136, 302, 320, 496, 546, 569. Rollins, Chas. Ancient History, i :i38-i56. Rosenkranz, J. K. F. Philosophy of Education, pp. 211-214. Sayce, A. H. Ancient Empires of the East. Seeley, Levi. History of Education, p. 46. Schlegel. History of Philosophy, pp. 166-167. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, pp. 133-137. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 376-379. Taylor, H. O. Ancient Ideals, 1 117. 279] APPENDIX 279 Un.Ierwood, F. H. Egypt under the Pharaohs. Atlan. Mo.. 45:315. Wendel. F. C. H. Education in Ancient Egypt. Pop. Sci. Mo., 35 774. William.s, J. Religious Ideas of Ancient Egyptians. Westm. Rev., 150:655. Wilson, Edward L. Temple of Egypt. Scrib. Mag., 4:387. The Great Pyramid. Scrib. Mag., 3:41-63. Questions. 1. To what race division do the Egyptians belong? 2. What period seems to represent their highest civilization? 3. Into what classes of society were they divided? 4. What education was received by the different classes? 5. Was there any opportunity of changing from a lower to a higher class? 6. What arts and sciences did they know? 7. What would you designate their system of education? 8. What was their religious belief? g. What is the Egyptian ideal of manhood and womanhood? 10. What means had they of preserving their knowledge? 11. What are some of the things that indicate their high state of civilization ? 12. Account for the decadence of Egyptian civilization. Other questions will be added in class to be considered in connection with the general topics given on the first outline. Extracts from Egyptian Records. A Soul's Defence before Osiris. " I have not been idle, I have not been intoxicated ; I have not told secrets ; I have not told falsehoods ; I have not defrauded ; I have not slandered ; I have not caused tears ; I have given food to the hungry, drink to the thirsty, and clothes to the naked." (From the book of the dead.) From Prince Phtah-hotep's Book ^ — A moral treatise on filial obedi- ence. " The obedient son shall grow old and obtain favor ; thus have I myself become an old man on earth and have lived no years in favor with the king and approved by my seniors." On Freedom From Arrogance. "If thou art become great, after thou hast become humble, and if thou hast amassed riches after poverty, being because of that thou art first in the town, if thou art known for thy wealth and art become a great lord, let not thine heart become proud of thy riches, for it is God who is author of them. Despi.«e not another who is as thou wast ; be toward him as toward thy equal." ' Said to be the oldest book in the world (3600 B. C). In National Library, Paris. 28o APPENDIX [280 On Cheerfulness. "Let thy face be cheerful as long as thou livest; has any one come out of the coffin after being once interred?" The Laborer. " Have you ever represented to yourself in imagin- ation the estate of the rustic who tills the ground? Before he has put the sickle to his crops the locusts have blasted part thereof; then come the rats and the birds. If he is slack in housing his crop, the thieves are on him. His horse dies of weariness as it drags the wain. The tax collector arrives ; his agents are armed with clubs, he has negroes with him who carry whips of palm branches. They all cry, " give us your grain." and he has no way of avoiding their extortion- ate demands. Next the wretch is bound and sent off to work, with- out wages, at the canals ; his wife is taken and chained, his children are stripped and plundered." Written by Amenemha, the chief librarian of Rameses the Great, to the poet pentatour (From a papyrus in the British Museum). The Overseer. " I was appointed overseer of the serfs of the temple of the gods of Mah, 3000 bulls with heifers. I was praised on account of it by the palace for the yearly produce of cattle No little child have I injured; no widow have I oppressed; no fisher- man have I hindered ; no shepherd have I detained ; no foreman of five men have I taken from his gang out for the labor. There was no poverty in my days, no starvation in my time ; when there were years of famine, I ploughed all the fields of Mah to its southern and northern frontiers ; I gave life to its inhabitants, making its food ; no one starved in it. I gave to the widow as to the married woman. I made no difference between the great and the little in all I did." From the inscription of Ameni Amenemha in a chamber of a tomb at Benhassan (Records of the Past, 12:63). See also 2:75, Quota- tion from King Rameses H. An affectionate mother to her child. "Thou wast put to school and whilst thou wast being taught letters she came punctually to thy master, bringing thee the bread and drink of her house Thou art now come to man's estate ; thou art married and hast a house ; but never do thou forget the painful labor which thy mother endured, nor all the salutary care she has taken of thee. Take heed lest she have cause to complain of thee, for fear that she should raise her hands to God, and He should listen to her prayer." — From the maxims of Ani — 5th Dynasty. 28 1] APPENDIX 281 GREECE. References: Ball, B. W. Woman's Rights in Ancient Athens. Atlan. Mo., 27:273. Barnard, H. (editor). Schools .... in Ancient Greece. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:72,7-75^; 30:907. Aristotle and His Educational Views. Am. Jour. Educa., 14-131. Bosanquet, B. Education of Children in Plato's Republic. Bryan, W. L. and Charlotte L. Plato the Teacher, and the Republic of Plato. Browning, O. Educational Theories (Kellogg), pp. 7-24. Chauvin, L. Education in Ancient Greece. Educa. Rev., 2:308. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, Ch. 2. Davidson, Thos. Education of Greek People; also History of Educa- tion, p. 86. Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals. Duruy, V. History of Greece, i and 2. Fling, F. M. Studies in European History. Greek and Roman Civilization. Grote, G. Plato and the Other Companions of Socrates. Edinb. Rev., 123 :297. Grote, G. Aristotle. Edinb. Rev. 136:515. History of Greece (see Index). Guhl, E., & Koner, W. Life of Greeks and Romans, pp. 183-199. Hailman, W. N. Lectures on History of Education, Lecture 2. Herodotus. History. Translated by Gary. Hesiod. Theogony — Works and Days (Banks' Trans.). Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 55. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 32, 38, 56, 300, 330, 471, 706, 717, 786. Kirkpatrick, Edw. Higher Education in Greece. Am. Jour. Educa., 24 :453- Laurie, S. S. History of Early Education. School Rev., 2:214, 4I9. 487. Pre-Christian Education, pp. 208-318; also New Edi- tion, p. 196. Lewes, G. H. History of Philosophy, v. i, pp. 127, 196, 275. Mahaffy, J. P. Old Greek Education ; also Social Life in Greece. Monroe, Paul. Source Book of the History of Education. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. ZJ- Payne, Joseph. History of Education, 2:12-21. Payne, W. M. History of Education, pp. 17-21. Plato. Dialogues of Plato, including The Republic, and The Laws (Jowett Trans.). 282 APPENDIX [282 Plutarch. Morals (Goodin Trans.), 1:3-32, 82-101; 5:399-411. Reinhart, J. Outline of the Historj' of Education, pp. 13-20. Schiller, H. Lehrbuch der Geschiclite der Padagogik. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, I. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 68. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 148. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 31, 144, 299, 272. Taylor, H. O. Ancient Ideals, 1:127, 201. Zeller. Socrates and Socratic Schools. Plato and Older Academy. Periodicals. Bent, J. T. Education of Greece. Fortn. Rev., 48 :267. Burnside, M. Study of Greece. Educa., 10:541 ; 11:23, 106, 158, 220. Cesaresco, E. M. Peasants of Ancient Greece. Contemp., y2 :887. Chase, T. Early Days of Ancient Greece. North Am. Rev., 87:481. Children's Plays in Ancient Greece and Rome. Cornh. 20 :285. Donaldson, J. Female Society in Ancient Greece (Athens). Contemp., 34 :700. Sparta. Contemp. 32 :647. Gladstone, W. E. Greek Mythology. 19th Cent. 21 :46o, 748 ; 22 :79. Godwin, E. W. The Home in Ancient Greece According to Homer. 19th Cent., 19:914. Gribble, N. Religion and Conduct of Ancient Greece. Fortn. Rev., 55 :439- Lowery, Chas. E. (Trans.) Physical Education Among the Greeks. Report U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1897-1898, 1:571-589. Mah^fFy, J. P. Theatre of Dionyses at Athens. Acad., 35 :3i3. Muore, E. C. Philosophy and Early Education in Greece. Calif. Univ. Chron.. 3 :i24. Prrrott, Geo. The Environment of Greek Culture. Pop. Sci. Mo., 42:193. I'omeroy, J. N. Religion and Laws of Ancient Greece. Nation, 18:204. Quinn, Daniel. Education in Greece. Report U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1896-1897, I, pp. 271-280. Sterrett, J. R. S. The Spade before the Sword. Nation, 64:313. Wenley, R. M. The Socratic Method. Educa. Rev., 2:406. Whitaker, F. E. Young Greek Boys and Old Greek Schools. Pop. Sci. Mo., 53:809-821. Xenophon. Memorabilia. Suggestions and Questions. In the Greek, we have the highest and richest expression of the Aryan civilization. No other people offer in so short a period so much that is worthy of our admiration. In many lines of thought they seem to have exhausted human capabilities and set the standard for future generations. For this reason the student of pedagogy must turn with more than usual interest to the study of the Greek ideals and their processes of attaining them. UNIVERSITY ? OF 283 ] ""■■^'*''* '- ' '"^ • " ^'■Afi'ENDIX 283 Some Important Dates in Greek History. "Trojan War, 1183 B. C. (?); Homer about 950 and Hesiod about 850 B. C. ; Spartan Power dominant in the Peloponnesus, 650 B. C. Athens, — Legislation of Solon, 590 B. C. ; Persian invasion and battle of Marathon, 490 B. C. ; Invasion by Xerxes, burning of Athens, and battle of Salamis, 480 B. C. ; Battle of Plataea, 479 B. C. Supremacy of Athens. Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B. C. ; Defeat of Athens and supremacy of Sparta, 404 B. C. ; Spartan Wars vi^ith Persia and Darius ; divisions of Greece ; ascendency of Philip of Macedon over Greece, 338 B. C. ; Alexander the Great. Greece made a Roman pro- vince, 146 B. C." S. S. Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, p. 208, ist edition. 1. In what lines of activity did Greece produce masters? 2. Name a few of these masters. 3. How do you account for Greek versatility and greatness? 4. Note religion, form of government and principal pre-Socratic means of education. Extracts from Thucydides' account of Pericles. "And in the matter of education, whereas they (the Spartans) from early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which are to make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they face." " Then we are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness." ..." The great impediment to action is in our opinion, not discussion, but the want of that knowledge which is gained by discussion preparatory to action; for we have a peculiar power of thinking before we act and of acting too, whereas other men are courageous from ignorance but hesitate upon reflection." ..." I say that Athens is the school of Hellas, and that the individual Athenian in his own person seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace." Suggestions. 1. Many schools of Philosophy took their rise in and about Athens as the result of some great teacher, around whom many students con- gregated. Such were the schools of Pythagoras, Socrates, the Academy of Plato, the Lyceum of Aristotle, and the schools of the Epicureans and the Stoics. 2. The nature of these schools. 3. Other schools that existed at the time, including the teachers and subjects of study. 4. Compare earlier and later Grecian civilization and education, i. e., pre-Socratic and Socratic periods. 284 APPENDIX [284 Spartans. References: Browning, O. Educational Theories, Chap. I. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 18. Davidson, Thos. Education of Greek People. Aristotle, Spartan Education, p. 42; also History of Education, p. 86. Education among Spartans. Am. Jour. Educa., 3 : 85; 14:611. Duruy, V. History of Greece, i 1457. Falke, J. von. Greece and Rome: Their Life and Art (see Index). Fustel de Contanges. Ancient City. (Read whole book during year.) Hailman, W. N. Lectures on History of Education, Lecture IL Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 57. Laurie, S. S. History of Early Education. School Rev., 2 :337-356. Pre-Christian Education, p. 240: new edition, p. 226. Lambros, S. D. Olympic Games. Mahaffy, J. P. Old Greek Education. Chaps. 13, 27, 77, 108. Monroe, Paul. Source Book of the History of Education. Muller, C. O. History and Antiquities of the Doric Race. Edinb. Rev., 53:119- Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 40. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2:14. Plutarch's Morals (Goodwin). 1:82, 385. Lives (see Lycurgus) ; see also Ideal Commonwealth. Sayce, A. H. Phoenicians in Ancient Greece. Contemp., 34 :6o. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 68. Shoup, W. J. History of Education, p. 145. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 174. Xenophon. Cyropedeia. Questions. 1. Compare the education of the Spartans with the Persians on the one hand and the Athenians on the other. 2. Was their education in any sense individualistic? 3. Are we justified in classing the Spartan system of military train- ing among the system of education? Why? 4. What was their ideal man? their ideal woman? 5. By what means were these to be obtained? 6. Who were the subjects of their training? 7. Did they pursue the best means of accomplishing their object? 8. What may be said of their speech, their music, their courage, their efficiency? 285] APPENDIX 285 Extracts from Plutarch's Lives (Lycurgus). " After regulating the marriages, he ordered the maidens to exercise themselves with wrestling, running, throwing the quoits, and casting the dart, to the end that the fruit they conceived might in strong and healthier bodies take firmer root and find better growth." " Nor was it in the power of the father to dispose of the child as he saw (fit) ; he was obliged to carry it before certain triers at a place called Lesche ; those were some of the elders of the tribe to which the child be- longed ; their business it was to carefully view the infant, and if they found it stout and well made they gave order for its rearing, and allotted to it one of the nine thousand shares of land. But if they found it puny and ill-shapen they ordered it to be taken to a sort of chasm .... thinking it neither for the good of the child itself nor for the public interest that it should be brought up. Nor was it lawful indeed for the father to bring up his children after his own fancy ; but as soon as they were seven years old, they were enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived on the same order and discipline. Reading and writing they gave them just enough to serve their turn; their chief care was to make them good subjects, and to teach them to endure pain and to conquer in battle. After they were twelve years old they were no longer allowed to wear any under garment ; they had one coat to serve them a year. They lodged to- gether in little bands upon beds made of rushes which grew by the banks of the river Eurotas." 286 APPENDIX [286 SOCRATES. For references see former outlines, also Card Catalogue, and Cyclopedias. 1. Socrates as a man, a scholar, a teacher. 2. What do you understand by the Socratic Method? 3. Why did Socrates ask direct questions? 4. What can the mind discover through reflection alone? 5. What subjects of study yield themselves to the Socratic Method? 6. What are the dangers of this method? 7. Did the death of Socrates advantage or disadvantage Greece? Illustration of Socratic Method. Socrates — Do you observe, Meno, that I am not teaching the boy anything but only asking him questions ; and now he fancies that he knows how long a line is necessary in order to produce a figure of eight square feet ; does he not ? Meno — Yes. Soc. — And does he really know? Meno — Certainly not. Soc. — He only guesses that (because the square is double) the line is doubled. Meno — True. Soc. — Observe him while he recalls the steps in regular order. (To the boy.) Tell me, boy, do you assert that a double space comes from a double line? Remember that I am not speaking of an oblong, but of a square, and of a square twice the size of this one — that is to say, of eight feet ; and I want to know whether you still say that a double square comes from a double line? Boy — Yes. Soc. — But does not this line become doubled if we add another such line here? 5ov— Certainly. Soc. — And four such lines will make a space containing eight feet? Boy — Yes. Soc. — Let us describe such a figure : is not that what you would say is the figure of eight feet? Boy — Yes. Soc. — And are there not these four divisions in the figure, each of which is equal to the figure of four feet? Boy — True. Soc. — And is not that four times four? Boy — Certainly. Soc. — And four times is not double? Boy — No. indeed. 287] APPENDIX 287 Soc. — But how much? Boy — Four times as much. Soc. — Therefore the double line, boy, has formed a space, not twice, but four times as much. Boy — True. Soc. — And four times four are sixteen, are they not? Boy — Yes. Soc. — What line would give you a space of eight feet, as this gives one of sixteen feet? Do you see? Boy—Yts. Soc. — And the space of four feet is made from this half line? Boy — Yes. Soc. — Good ; and is not a space of eight feet twice the size of this, and half the size of the other? Boy — Certainly. Soc. — Such a space, then, will be made out of a line greater than this one, and less than that one. Boy — Yes ; that is what I think. Soc. — Very good ; I like to hear you say what you think. And now tell me, is not this a line of two feet and that of four? Boy — Yes. Soc. — Then the line which forms the side of eight feet ought to be more than this line of two feet, and less than the other of four feet? Boy — It ought. Soc. — Try and see if you can tell me how much it will be. Boy — Three feet. Soc. — Then if we add a half to this line of two, that will be the line of three. Here are two and there is one ; and on the other side, here are two also and there is one : and that makes the figure of which you speak? Boy— Yes. Soc. — But if there are three feet this way and three feet that way, the whole space will be three times three feet? Boy — That is evident. Soc. — And how much are three times three feet? Boy — Nine. Soc. — And how much is the double of four? Boy — Eight. Soc. — Then the figure of eight is not made out of a line of three? Boy — No. Soc— But from what line ? Tell me exactly ; and if you would rather not reckon, try and show me the line. Boy — Indeed, Socrates, I do not know. Soc. — Do you see, Meno, what advances he has made in his power 288 APPENDIX [288 of recollection ? He did not know at first, and he does not know now, what is the side of a figure of eight feet : but then he thought that he knew, and answered confidently as if he knew, and had no difficulty; but now he has a difficulty, and neither knows nor fancies that he knows. Meno — True. Soc. — Is he not better off in knowing his ignorance? Meno — I think that he is. Soc. — If we have made him doubt, and given him the " torpedo's shock," have we done him any harm? Meno — I think not. Soc — We have certainly done something that may assist him in find- ing out the truth of the matter ; and now he will wish to remedy his ignorance, but then he would have been ready to tell all the world that the double space should have a double side. Dialogues of Plato, Jowett's Translation, i :257-259. 289] APPENDIX 289 PLATO AND XENOPHON. See former references ; also index to Am. Jour, of Educa., card catalogue and cyclopedias ; Plato's Republic and Laws, and Xenophon's Cyropedeia and Economics ; Plato's Republic, W. L. Bryan, and B. Bosanquet. Education of the Young in the Republic of Plato (trans.). Suggestions and Questions. A study of the early life, education and environment of Plato and Xenophon will aid in a better understanding of their writings. Plato becomes deeply impressed with the dangers that seem to threaten the social order of Greece on account of the faulty education of c'nildren, the neglect of women and the disorganization of the state through ignorant individualism. This feeling is no doubt heightened by the teachings and tragic death of Socrates. He gives in his Re- public a plan for overcoming and escaping these threatened dangers. The State is simply the individual writ large, and like the individual who has three faculties, the intellect, the spirit and the appetites, the ideal state is composed of three classes of society (i) the intelligent, i. e., philosophers and sages ; (2) the spirited, i. e., warriors and soldiers; (3) the money makers, i. e., tradesmen and husbandmen. As the strength of the individual depends upon the harmonious develop- ment of his three faculties, so the well-being of the State depends upon the proper relation and harmonious action of these three classes of so- ciety. It is from the development of this thought that Plato gives voice to the four cardinal virtues, wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. 1. Are all grades of society provided for in Plato's Scheme? 2. How is this ideal state to be brought about? .3. What becomes of the family? Judging from Plato's standpoint was this a weakness or a strength? 4. How were children to be cared for and educated? 5. What were the steps in Plato's scheme of education? 6. Point out some of the more noticeable defects. 7. What changed views did Plato reach in later life, as seen in the "Laws?" 8. What writings of Xenophon are of special interest to a teacher, and why? 9. Xenophon, though a student of Socrates and educated in the literature of the Greeks, makes no provision in his scheme of educa- tion for intellectual or literary pursuits. Why? Compare the ideal man and woman of Plato and of Xenophon. 290 APPENDIX [ofjo ARISTOTLE. 384-322 B. C. Sec references already cited. Aristotle was born at Stagira, Thrace, of noble and well educated parents. After the death of his father his early education was directed by Proxenus of Atarneus. At 18 he en- tered Plato's Academy, where he remained an apt student for twenty years. On the death of Plato he returned to Atarneus. At 40 he was entrusted with the education of Alexander, son of King Philip of Macedonia. He establi.shed a school at Mieza which he called Nym- phaeum. In 335 B. C, when Alexander, then King of Macedonia, prepared to invade Persia, Aristotle moved to Athens and established a school in the Lyceum, or Periclean Gymnasium, where he spent his twelve most important years in teaching and writing. Banished from Athens he retired to Chalcis in Euboea, where he died of disease of the stomach in 322 B. C. Among his principal writings are his works on logic, metaphysics, ethics and politics. 1. How did Aristotle's system of Education as seen in the ideal State (Politics: chs. 4 & 5), differ from that given by Plato? 2. How did it differ from the usual system of Athenian education in his time? 3. Account for these differences. 4. What were the studies pursued by the different classes of Greek Society? How did these studies differ in number, kind and efficiency from the studies required of the student to-day? 5. What requirements in the Spartan or Athenian education impress you as worthy of being ingrafted into our own? What were the weak points of these systems of education? 6. Do you consider the plans of education as proposed by Plato and Aristotle better than those they were to supersede? Why? Extracts from Aristotle's Writings. Politics, Book V , I. " Education should be regulated by the state for the ends of the state, and each citizen should understand that he is not his own master, but a part of the state. What we have to aim at is the happiness of each citizen, and happiness consists in a com- plete activity and practice of virtue." " Up to the age of fourteen it is not desirable to make children apply themselves to study of any kind or to compulsory bodily exer- cise, for fear of injuring their growth. They should be allowed only so much movement as to not fall into sluggish habits of life. Their amusements should not be of too laborious a sort, nor yet effeminate." Education, in the strict sense, begins at seven and may be divided into two periods, seven to fourteen, and fourteen to twenty-one. We may say that there are four usual subjects of education, viz.: 291 ] APPENDIX 291 reading, writing, gymnastics, music, and further, although this is not universally admitted, the art of design. Book V. 2. " Care for the body must precede care for the soul ; next to care for the body must come care for the appetite ; and last of all care for the intelligence. We train the appetite for the sake of the intelligence, and the body for the sake of the soul." " No citizen has a right to consider himself as belonging to himself ; but all ought to regard themselves as belonging to the State, inas- much as each is a part of the State, and care for the part naturally looks to care for the whole." " Since the whole State has but one end, it is plainly necessary that there should be but one education for all the citizens." " Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here." — Motto above the door of Plato's private home. 292 APPENDIX [292 ROMANS. References: Abbott. The Eternal City. Harper, 44:1 (Illustrated). Arnold, Thomas. History of Rome, 3 vols. Barnard, H. Higher Education in Ancient Rome. Am. Jour. Educa., 24:467, 514. Bancroft, G. Slavery in Rome. North Am. Rev., 39 :4I3. Becker, W. A. Gallus, pp. 182-198. Browning, O. Educational Theories (Kellogg), p. 26. Chauvin, M. L. Education of the Romans. Educa. Rev., 2 :4i4. Clarke, Geo. Education of Children at Rome. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 43. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 105. Donaldson, J. Ancient Life of the Romans. Chaut., 10:5, 134, 262. Draper, John W. Intellectual Development of Europe, I. Duruy, Victor. History of Rome and of the Roman People, I. Dyer, T. R. The City of Rome. Gibbon, E. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gilman, A. Story of Rome. Granger, P. Moral Life of the Early Romans. Intern. Jour, of Ethics, 7:281. Guhl, E., & Koner, W. Life of Greeks and Romans. Hailman, W. N. Lectures on History of Education, p. 42. Hodgkin, T. The Fall of the Roman Empire, Its lesson for us. Contemp. 73:51. Ihne, W. History of Rome, IV. K^mp, E. L. History of Education, p. 84. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 744. Lawrence, C. E. The Roman Capitol. Harper, 44:570. Lanciani, R. Underground Christian Rome. Atlan. Mo., 68 :i4. Notes on Ancient and Modern Rome. Cosmop., 15:702. Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Gambling and Cheating in Ancient Rome. North Am. Rev., 155:97- Lossing, B. J. Old Romans at Home. Harper, 46:66, 174. Laurie, S. S. History of Early Education. School Rev., 3:i43, 211. Pre-Christian Education, p. 319, (2d ed., p. 3oO. Mivart, S. T. G. Roman Society and Christianity. Cosmop., 17:102. Christianity and Roman Paganism. 19th Cent., 34:822. Mommsen, T. History of Rome, Abridged for Colleges and Schools. Monroe. Paul. Source Book of the History of Education, Greek and Roman Period. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 65. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2:22. 293] APPENDIX 293 Pliny. Letters of Younger Pliny. Preston & Dodge. Private Life in Ancient Rome. Atlan. Mo., 69:597, 819. Plutarch. Lives — Miscellanies and Essays. Quintilian. Roman Thoughts on Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 11: 111-132; also Institutes of Oratory, i. Rosenkranz. J. K. F. Philosophy of Education, p. 229. Sallustius, Crispus Caius Florus and Velleius Paterculus : Trans, by J. S. Watson. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, i. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 74. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 156. Sonnen?chein. Cyclopedia of Education. Stillman, W. J. Old Rome and New. Atlan. Mo., 68:23. Taylor, H. O. Ancient Ideals, I and II. Wells. D. A. Taxation in Ancient Rome. Pop. Sci. Mo., 48:580. Suggestions and Questions. Lesson one will include the education of Regal and Republican Rome, 752-727 B. C. Lesson two and following will include Early Imperial Rome. Observe in your study the suggestions given in the first lesson. Note especially the government, religion, chief occupation, ideals of Edu- cation and means of obtaining them, branches of study, types of man- hood and womanhood in demand, and general character of the early Romans . 1. What changes took place in education under imperial Rome? 2. Compare Roman with Grecian civilization. Note especially the characteristic differences in the education. 3. If the following extracts from the Twelve Tables of Roman Law were the only sources of information, what could you infer of Roman civilization ? Extracts from the Tioelve Tables of Ronton Law, about 451 B. C. "A father may kill at its birth a child monstrously deformed. He shall have a right of life and death over all his lawful children, and also of selling them. If a father sells his child thrice, the child shall afterwards be free from him. If a child be bom to him within ten months after his death it is his lawful child." " Let there be an interval of two feet and a half between the wall of one house and that of another." '' If roadside fields are left without enclosure, any one may drive cattle over them." " If any one takes more than eight and a third per cent, interest on a loan, he shall forfeit four times the amount." 294 APPENDIX [294 " Let there be no exception of law in favor of the individuals. Let there be the same law to the obligor and the obligee, to the con- stant ally and to him who has been restored to an alliance formerly violated. If a judge or arbitrator lawfully appointed take a bribe for his decision, let it be a capital offence. Let no capital punishment be pronounced against a Roman Citizen except in the great assembly of the people. Let inquisitors of murder be created by the people to in- quire into capital crimes. If any person collect nightly meetings in the city, let it be a capital offence. If any one incite an enemy against Rome, or betray, or deliver up, to the enemy a citizen, let it be a cap- ital offence." " Let not the dead be buried or burned within the city. Abolish ex- pense in mourning and funeral ceremonies sacred to the infernal deities. Let not the funeral pile be made of carved wood. Let there be no more than three mourning women, and ten flute players. Let not the women tear their hair, nor use loud bowlings. Let not the separate bones of a dead man be preserved for a second funeral, excepting in the case of one killed in battle, or in an enemies' country. Let the anoint- ing of slaves and the handing around of liquors be abolished. Let no perfumed liquors be sprinkled on the deceased. Let no long garlands, nor altars covered with perfumes, be carried before the corpse, but if the deceased has gained a crown of honor by his bravery, let the praise of himself and his ancestors be celebrated, and let it be placed before the corpse, both within doors and when it is carried forth. Let not several funerals be made for one man, nor many couches be spread. Let no gold be used, but if any one has had his teeth fast- ened in with gold, let it be lawful to bury or burn that gold with the body. Let no funeral pile nor sepulchre be erected within sixty feet of another person's house against his will. Let the sepulchre and its vestibule be forever incapable of becoming private property." " Let that which the people have ordained be settled law. Let there be no right of marriage between the Patricians and the Plebeians." For a somewhat different and more detailed account, see Studies in General History, by Mary D. Sheldon, pp. 145-146, and Source Book of the History of Education, by Paul Monroe, pp. 334-344. 4. What are the chief educational characteristics of the Romans during (a) the Primitive Period, (b) during early Greek influence, and (c) during the period of decadence? 295] APPENDIX 295 IMPERIAL ROME. References: Cicero. On Orators and Oratory. Dennis, John. Rome of To-Day and Yesterday, p. 114. Davidson, Thos. Aristotle, pp. 214-224. Granger, F. S. Worship of the Romans, pp. 53-73, 134-136. Horace. Satires and Epistles (Kerkland), pp. 241, 250, 258, 267, 272, 279, 293, 3 10. Juvenal. Satires. Lancimi, R. Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome. Middleton. T. H. Ancient Rome in 1885, p. 181. The Romans of Ancient Rome, 1:289-329; 2:40-81, 104, 113, 158, 263, 300, 314, 352. Monroe, Paul. Source Book of the History of Education. Pellison, H. Roman Life in Pliny's Time, pp. 19-57, 151-185, 295. Plutarch Morals (Goodwin), 1:3 (Training Children). A Discussion on Children. Am. Jour. Educa., 11 :99. Persius. Satires, pp. VII-XIV. 75. 104, 118 (edited by B. L. Gilder- sle;ve), 1875. Preston k Dodge. The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 135, 157, 159. Quintiliai. Sayings of. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:39, 42, 74, 75; 13:81, 85; 10:126-7. 188. 195. Quintilian Institutes of Oratory. Ramsey, V. M. Childhood of Horace. Macmil., 76:450. Ramsey ii Lanpinni. Manual of Roman Antiquities, pp. 109, 165, 285,364, 475- Shumway, E. S. A Day in Ancient Rome. See also tie references on the former outline. Questions and Suggestions. 1. At v\liat period did Rome give forth expressions of its highest civilizatioi? 2. In \viat way has this civilization been preserved? 3. Wha Roman writers are especially interesting to the student of pedagogy' 4. Give their leading views on education and compare these views with the expressions of the Greeks covering similar subjects. 5. Notie the subjects of study, their order of presentation, and the amount ncluded in each, also schools and teachers, and the subjects which rceived the greatest attention. 6. Corpare the ideas of Quintilian and Plutarch as seen in their writings on education. 7. Ho: do these views compare with the present thought and practice? 8. Wht is the main criticism of the ideals of education advanced by these v/riters ? 2Cj6 APPENDIX [296 Extracts from Roman Writers. ■'A man must augment his substance, and he is deserving of praise and full of divine spirit whose account books at his death show that he has gained more than he has inherited." " BeHeve me, those statues from Syracuse were brought into this city with hostile effect. I already hear too, many commending and admiring the decorations of Athens and Corinth, and ridiculmg the earthen images of our Roman Gods that stand on the fronts of their temples." — Cato. '■ If they disseminate their literature among us, it will destroy every- thing ; but, still worse, if they send their doctors among us, for they have bound themselves by a solemn oath to kill the barbarians and the Romans." Id. " Every duty which tends to preserve human relations and human society must be assigned a higher place than any which stop shcrt with knowledge and science." Cicero. '■ What greater service can we of to-day render the Republic than to instruct and train the young." Id. " I pass to the pleasure of oratorical eloquence, the delight of which one enjoys not at any one moment, but almost every day atd every hour." Tacitus. " It is my desire that all children whatsoever may partale of the benefits of education alike ; but if any person, by reason of th? narrow- ness of their estates, cannot make use of my precepts, let them not blame me that give them, but Fortune, which disableth thtm, from making the advantage by them they otherwise might." Plutsrch. " The civil man, and he who is truly wise, who does not da^ote him- self to idle disputes, but to the administration of the comnonwealth (from which those folks who are called philosophers havt farthest withdrawn themselves), will be glad to employ every availabe orator- ical means to reach his ends, having previously settled in his twn mind v/hat ends are honorable." Quintilian. 297] APPENDIX 297 CHURCH FATHERS AND CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. References: Carr, Rev. A. The Church and the Roman Empire. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 61-70. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 121. Draper, J. W. Intellectual Development of Europe, i :266 ff. Earliest Christian Schools. Origen at Alexandria, St. Benedict and his rule. Am. Jour. Educa., 24:515- 544- Erdmann, J. E. History of Philosophy (Ancient and Mediaeval), p. 253 ff. Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers. Vol. i. (Catacombs, i :io.) Ignatius, St. Primitive Conception of the Christian Religion. Brit Qr., 1876, p. 161. Jerome, St. Letter to Laeta. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 :594 ; also in Rep. U. S. Comr. Educa. on Female Education, Misc. Pubs., 1867, pp. 371-376. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 106. Lea, H. C. History of Sacerdotal Celibacy. Chs. i and 2. Merivale, Chas. Conversion of the Northern Nations, pp. 11-30, 31-47, 48-65, 150-170. Menzies, Allan. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 9 (Clement, 9:227) ; also Origen. Letter and Commentaries, pp. 295, 297, 413. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 80. Pfleiderer, O. Influence of Paul on Christianity, pp. 201, 238. Plummer, A. Church of the Early Fathers. Schaff, P. History of the Apostolic Church : The family, marriage and celibacy, pp. 443-468, Peter in Rome, 362-377. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. loi. Shedd, VV. C. T. History of Christian Doctrine, i :62-68. Ueberweg, F. History of Philosophy (Ancient and Mediaeval), pp. 274-335- Westcott, B. F. Origen and the Beginnings of Christian Philosophy. Contemp., 35:324- 489- Henry. C. S. History of Philosophy, 1:186. (See also Histories and Cyclopedias of Education.) Thoughts for Consideration. (a) The New Spirit of Christianity and its progress; (b) The great change in educational ideas, (c) Intellectual poverty of the early Christian centuries and its cause; (d) The division of the Church Fathers into two classes, those opposed to the study of pagan literature and religion, as Tertullian, St. Augustine and St. Jerome; and those favoring such study, as St. Basil, Clement and Origen of 298 APPENDIX [298 Alexandria, and others ; (e) The cause and outcome of this division ; (f) What dangers did the pagan schools offer to Christian education? " It is better by far to be ignorant than to know what you ought not to know, since you know what you ought and need to know." " Thy faith," says Luke (XVIII, 42), hath saved thee," not inquiry into scripture. Curiosity yields to faith ; love of glory to the hope of sal- vation. To know nothing opposed to our law is to know all." " What use is it to talk with men who themselves confess that they have hitherto been seeking? If indeed they have hitherto been seek- ing, then hitherto they have found naught." — Tertullian. " The choice lies between two alternatives, a liberal education which you may get by sending your children to school (public), or the sal- vation of their souls, which they secure by going to the monks. Which is to gain the day, science or the soul?" If you can unite both advant- ages, do so by all means, but if not, choose the most precious." — St. ChrysostoBi. " I am anxious that you should devote all your strength to Chris- tianity, and in order to do it I wish you to extract from the philosophy of the Greeks what may serve as a course of study or preparation for Christianit}', and from Geometry and Astronomy what will serve to explain the sacred Scriptures, in order that all that the sons of philosophers are wont to say about geometry and music, grammar, rhetoric and astronomy, as fellow-helpers to philosophy, may we not say of philosophy itself in relation to Christianity." — Origen. " We may also see in their own houses, shoe-makers, wool-weavers, fullers, and the most illiterate and rustic men, who dare not say any- thing in the presence of more elderly and wiser fathers of families ; but when they meet with children apart from their parents, and certain stupid women with them, then they discuss something of a wonderful nature ; such as, it is not proper to pay attention to par- ents or preceptors, but that they should be persuaded by them. For, say they, your parents and preceptors are delirious and stupid, and neither know what is truly good nor are able to effect it, being pos- sessed of trifles of an unusual nature; they add, that they alone know how it is proper to live, and that if children are persuaded by them, they will be blessed and also the family to which they belong." — Argu- ments of Celsus vs. the Christians. "I was fasting just before I meant to read Cicero. After many night-long vigils, after the tears which the recollection of my past sins drew from my very heart, I used to take up my Plautus. If, when I returned to myself, I began to read the Prophets, their rude speech made me shudder ; and because I did not see the light with my blind eyes, I thought it was not the fault of my eyes, but of the sun. While the old serpent was thus mocking me, about the middle of Lent a fever, 299] APPENDIX 299 of which the seeds were in me, seized on my exhausted frame ; and, without any respite (which sounds incredible), so fed on my luckless limbs that my skin scarcely held to my bones. Meanwhile, my funeral was being prepared, and the vital heat of my soul barely palpitated in the slight warmth of my breast, while all my body was growing cold ; when suddenly I was rapt in the spirit before the tribunal of the Judge, where there was such a flood, of light, and such resplendence from the glory of the angel spectators, that, prostrate on the earth, I did not dare to uplift my eyes. Asked about my state, I answered that I was a Christian. ' Thou liest,' answered He; 'thou art a Ciceronian, not a Christian; for where thy treasure is, there is thy heart.' Instantly I became dumb, and, amid blows (for He had ordered me to be scourged), I was tortured still more by the fire of conscience, thinking over that verse, 'In hell who shall confess to Thee?' Yet I began to cry, and, wailing aloud, to say, ' Pity me, O Lord, pity me,' amid the sounds of the lash. At length they who stood by, casting themselves before the knees of the Judge, prayed Him to pardon my youth, and to grant a place for repentance of my error, but to inflict torture on me afterwards if at any time I read the books of Gentile literature. I who, in these dread straits, would have been willing to promise even greater things, began to swear, and call on His name, and say, ' O Lord, if I ever possess secular manuscripts, if I ever read them, I have denied Thee.' Dismissed after having taken this oath, I returned to the upper air, and, to the astonishment of all, opened my eyes bathed with a flood of tears, that my anguish convinced even the incredulous. Indeed, this had been no slumber nor vain dream, by which we are often deceived. That tribunal before which I lay, that grim judgment which I feared, is my vvitness ; may I never again be thus brought to trial ! I confess that my shoulders were dark with welts ; that, after awaking, I felt the blows, and that thenceforth I read Divine books with a zeal more ardent than I had read human books before." St. Jerome, Ep. xxii. 30. Farrar's Lives of the Fathers, 2:183-184. Prominent names among the early Church Fathers and Teachers. St. Ambrose, Apollinaris, St. Athanasius, St. Augustine, St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom, Clement of Alexandria, St. Cyprian, Dionysius of Alexandria, St. Gregory of Nazianzus, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St Ignatius of Antioch, St. Jerome, St. Justin, St. Martin of Tours, Mon- tanus of Phrygia, Origen of Alexandria, St. Polycarp, TertulHan, Cas- siodorus. St. Benedict, Cassianus of Marseilles, Boethius, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodore of Tarsus. What were their views concerning education, pagan literature, and celibacy of priesthood? 300 APPENDIX [300 ASCETICISM AND MONASTICISM. Cody. E. G. Daily Life in Modern Monastery. 19th Cent., 16:517. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 61-70. Farrar, F. W. Lives of the Fathers, — Monasticism and asceticism, 2:159. Gieseler, J. K. L. Ecclesiastical History, — History of Monachism, 1 :397- Jessopp, Aug. Daily Life in a Mediasval Monastery. 19th Cent., 15:100. Lea, H. C. History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, Ch. 2. Lecky. W. E. H. History of European Morals, 2:164, 188, 194, 338, 356. McClintock & Strong. Biblical, Theol. and Eccles. Encyc. Milman, H. H. History of Christianity, vol. 3 (see contents). History of Latin Christianity, vol. 5, ch. 9. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 109. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 93, 99. Plummer, A. The Church of the Early Fathers. Robertson, J. M. A Short History of Christianity, p. 191 fT. St. Francis and the Franciscans ; Am. Jour. Educa., 24 :393. St. Dom- inic and the Dominicans; A.m. Jour. Educa., 24:375. (See Early Christian Schools and Teachers ; Am. Jour. Educa., 24 :2>2>7, 374- (i) What was the form, nature and purpose of the early Christian schools? (2) How was ancient learning preserved? (3) What criti- cism may be justly offered concerning education of that period? (4) Account for the ascetic tendency of the early Church Fathers. (5) What was the result of asceticism on education and religious progress? 301] APPENDIX 301 EARLY SCHOOLS OF IRELAND AND BRITAIN. References: Asser, John. Alfred the Great, Six Old English Chronicles, pp. 43-86, 154, 161. St. Germans, Six Old English Chronicles, pp. 397-409. St. Patrick, Six Old English Chronicles, pp. 400-412. Druids and Religion, Six Old English Chronicles, pp. 429-434- Alfred the Great. Am. Jour. Educa., 10:323; 27:822. Ancient Church of Ireland. Dub. Univ., 17:407, Apr., 1841. Bede. Ecclesiastical Hist, of England, pp. IX, 26, 55, 211. Conversion of England to Christianity. Blackwood, 102 :702. Creasy, Edward. History of England, i -.126, 119, 441. Cutts, Rev. Edw. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. (Secular Clergy of Middle Ages, 195; Our Lady of Walsingham and St. Thomas of Canter- bury, 176- ; Pilgrims, 157; Hermits, 93-; Mon- astery, 176- ; Origin of Monachism, i; Orders: Benedictine, 6-; Augustine, 18- ; Military, 26-; Friars, 36-). Character of Ancient Irish. Dub. Univ., 20: 422, Oct., 1842. Florence of Worcester's Chronicle. Alfred the Great, Transl. by Forrester, pp. 53-86. Floyd, J. A. The Church in Britain before the Coming of St. Augus- tine. Cath. World, 66:173. Green, J. R. History of the English People, i :70. Haureau, Bart. The Irish of the Past. North Am. Rev., 94:125. Hallam, H. State of Europe during Middle Ages. Hughes, Thos. Alfred the Great, chs. Ill, IV. Ingulfs Chronicles of Abbey of Croyland, p. 80. Jonas the Monk. Life of St. Columba. Penn. Univ. Transl. and re- prints, vol. 2, No. 7, p. 2. Knight, Chas. History of England, 1:91-107; 129. Laws of the Ancient Irish. Dub. Univ., 67 :3, Jan. 1866. Laurie, S. S. Rise and Constitution of Universities, pp. 54, 236. Leach, A. F. Our Oldest School. Fortn. Rev., 52:638-650. Morris. Irish Character. Contemp., 20:104. Morley, J. An attempt towards a history of English literature, i :8. Mullinger, J. B. Schools of Charles the Great, p. 171. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2 :29-34. Pauli. R. Life of Alfred the Great, p. 164 flf. 302 APPENDIX [302 Pierson, C. N. The Early Middle Ages of England, 109. Putnam, G. H. Books and their Makers in the Middle Ages, Intro- duction ; Columba, 45 : Monks of England, 90 ; Scriptorium, 61 ; Early Monastic Schools, 106-122; Exchange of Books, 133; Books in Early Universities, 178. Stanton, H. The Great Schools of England, XIV-XXI. West, A. F. Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools, p. 28 ff. See also the Histories of Education. 1. Account for the growth and influence of the early Christian church in Ireland and Britain. 2. What encouragement did King Alfred offer to education? 3. What means did he use in attaining his object? 4. What were the principal subjects of study, and the nature and condition of the schools? 5. In Alfred's time what was the Ideal Man, the Ideal Woman? " In the year of our Lx)rd's Incarnation 849 was born Alfred, King of the Anglo-Saxons. The mother of Alfred was named Osburga, a religious woman, noble by birth and by nature ... In the year of our Lord's Incarnation 858 King Ethelwulf sent his son Alfred above named to Rome with an honorable escort, both of nobles and of com- moners. Pope Leo IV. at the time presided over the Apostolic See, and he anointed for the King the aforesaid Alfred and adopted him as his spiritual son . . . He (Alfred) was loved by his father and mother and even by all the people above all his brothers, and was educated altogether at the court of the King. As he advanced through the years of his infancy and youth, his form appeared more comely than that of his brothers ; in look, in speech and in manners he was more graceful than they. His noble nature implanted in him from his cradle a love of wisdom, but with shame be it spoken, by the un- worthy neglect of his parents and nurses, he remained illiterate even till he was twelve years old, or more, but he listened with serious at- tention to the Saxon poems which he often heard recited and easily retained them in docile memory. He was a zealous practicer of hunt- ing in all its branches, and hunted with great assiduity and success." From Assar's Life of Alfred the Great. 303] AFFENDIX 303 CHARLEMAGNE AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. References: Azarias, Brother. The Christian Schools. (A criticism of West's Alcuin.) Educa. Rev., 5:499. Bryce, Jas. Holy Roman Empire, pp. 50-75. Davidson, Thos. The Seven Liberal Arts. Educa. Rev., 2 1467 ; also History of Education, p. 149. Duruy, Victor. History of Middle Ages, p. 135. Eginhard. Life of Charlemagne, pp. 51, 61, 66. Educational Institutions under Charlemagne. Am. Jour. Educa., 20:212, 447; 24:XLIV. Emerton, E. Introduction to the Middle Ages, pp. 225-232. Gibbon, Ed. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 5 :44-48. Guizot, F. P. G. History of Civilization, 1:82-125; 3:30-74; 144-188. Hallam, H. Introduction to Literature of Europe, i :25-39. Henderson, E. F. Historical Documents of Middle Ages, pp. 189-201, 267-314. Henderson, E. F. (Review.) Household of Charlemagne. North Am. Rev., 81 :ii2. James' History of Charlemagne. Blackv^rood 32 :790-8o2. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 122. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 122. Laurie, S. S. Rise and Constitution of Universities, pp. 39-77. Mombert, J. I. History of Charles the Great, p. 241. Mullinger, J. B. History of Modern Europe, vol. i :30-33, and Schools of Charles the Great. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, II, Pt. i. West, A. F. Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools, Chs. I and 3. White, Jas. Eighteen Christian Centuries, pp. 171-216. (See also the various Histories of Education.) 1. What is meant by the Seven Liberal Arts? 2. How did the phrase originate, and what subjects were included? 3. Why was Charlemagne interested in education? 4. What were the subjects and methods of study in Charlemagne's school ? 5. What were the principal difficulties in the way of progress? Letters of Charlemagne to the Lectors of the Churches. " The indolence of our ancestors has brought the study of let- ters to almost nothing. We are trying to revive it, and we invite all those whom we can influence by our example to urge the utmost study of the holy scriptures. All the books of the old and new testa- ments were disfigured by the awkward stupidity of copyists. With 304 APPENDIX [304 the help of God, who helps us in all things, we have had their mis- takes entirely corrected. Inspired by the example of Pepin our father who introduced into all the Gallic churches the fine traditions of the Roman chant, we are engaged with like anxiety to procure for them a collection of the most important reading (Lessons). Those who have attempted to read one of them for a night service have lest their pains in spite of their best intentions. The lessons have been written down without the names of the authors, and have been scribbled down full of mistakes. We cannot bear that during our reign people should hear in the midst of the lessons of the sacred office such jar- ring mistakes, and we have given into the charge of our friend Paul, the Deacon, to put the finishing touches to the work." 305] APPENDIX 305 UNIVERSITIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. References : Bush, G. G. Origin of the First German University. Educa., 4:384, 534- Brodrick, G. C. History of the University of Oxford, pp. 1-43. Macmillan, 56:150. Compayre, G. Abelard and the Rise of the Universities, p. 46. Dollinger, J. J. I. von. Universities, Past and Present. Am. Jour. Educa., 20:72,7 ■ University of Paris. Am. Jour. Educa., 24: 403, 745- Duruy. V. History of the Middle Ages (Transl. by Whiting), pp. Emerton, E. Mediaeval Europe : The Rise of Universities, p. 465. Hallam, H. Introduction to Literature of Europe : Universities, i :35 ff. Middle Ages, . . . Universities, etc., 3 :396-408. History of University College, Oxford. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:826, 827, 831. Holland, F. E. Origin of Oxford University. Acad. 2iZ'-Z7^\ 34=40. Howard, G. E. Evolution of the University, p. 3. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 138. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 831. Kirkpatrick, Edw^. Historical Development of Superior Instruction. Am. Jour. Educa.. 24:453; see also p. 371. Lang, Andrew. Oxford, Chapters i and 2. Laurie. S. S. Rise and Constitution of Universities, p. 91. Mediaeval Student. Pennsylvania University, Transla- tions and reprints from the original sources of Euro- pean History, vol. 2, No. 3. Mullinger, J. B. History of the University of Cambridge, pp. 1-31. The University of Cambridge from the earliest times, pp. 49, 126-131. Payne and others. Early History of Universities. Acad., 31 :27, 43, 61, Newman, J. H. The University of Books, Affairs and Living Teachers. Am. Jour. Educa.. 24 :XVII. Raumer, K. G. von. Universities in the i6th Century. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:535- Savigny, F. E. Universities of the Middle Ages. Am. Jour. Educa., 22 :273. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 456. Stedman, A. M. M. Oxford, its life and schools, Ch. i. University of Tiibingen. Am. Jour. Educa., 9:57. Tappan, H. P. Progress of educational development in Europe. Am, Jour. Educa., i :246-258. Tappan, H. P. Universities. North Am. Rev.. 27 :67. 3o6 APPENDIX [306 Suggestions and Questions. It is not easy to fix the date of the beginning of the universities. Many of them seem to have been long in existence before obtaining any patent or charter from King or Pope to give them legal sanction. Laurie says, that the Church did not found universities any more than it founded the order of chivalry. They were founded by con- currence (not wholly fortuitous) of able men who had something they wished to teach, and of youths- who desired to learn. None the less were the acquiescence and protection of the Church and State necessary in those days for the fostering of those infant seminaries. The many important Roman-Hellenic schools like those at Rome, Athens, Byzantium, Byretus, Alexandria, Rheims, etc., were not known as universities. This term is of later origin. 1. In the Middle Ages, what authority takes the place of the State in directing education? 2. What is the prevailing ideal ? How does it compare with the Greek ideal? 3. What was the condition of physical, intellectual and moral education ? 4. What was the principal factor in preventing education from wholly lapsing? 5. How did the following schools differ: Monastic, Cathedral, Pala- tine, Village or City? 6. Describe the Mediaeval University, including government, relation to State and Church, instructors, students, subjects of study, length of course, influence upon education and society, and means of support. List of Some of the More Important Mediaeval Universities. Italy: Salerno (iioo), unchartered, medicine; Bologna (1119), un- chartered, law; Modena (1116), unchartered, law; Naples (1224), char- tered by Frederick II, four faculties. France: Paris (1200), unchartered, four faculties; Toulouse (1200), chartered by Pope Gregory IX, four faculties; Montpelier (1196), char- tered by Pope Nicholas IV (1289). England: Oxford (1140) ; Cambridge (1109?) ; the former charter by John I (1201), the latter by Henry III (1231) ; both schools were the outgrowth of earlier monastic schools; dates of founding involved in doubt. Spain: Salamanca (1243), chartered by Ferdinand III, King of Cas- tile; Valencia (1245), chartered by James I, King of Aragon ; Seville (1254), chartered by Alonzo X, King of Castile. Germany and Austria: Prague (1348), chartered by Pope Clement VI and Charles IV; Vienna (1365), chartered by Rodolphus IV and Pope Urban V; Cologne (1388), chartered by Pope Urban VI. For chronological table of the earlier universities, see Am. Jour. Educa., 24:XV, and Abelard (by Compayre), p. 50. 307] APPENDIX 307 Abllard and Scholasticism. Abelard, P. (1079-1142), Am. Jour. Educa., 24:371; Anselm, Am. Jour. Educa., 24:368. Bush, Mrs. Wm. Mediaeval Popes, Emperors, Kings, and Crusaders, I :ioi; 2:428; 4:432, 435- Compayre, G. Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Univer- sities. History of Pedagogy, pp. 74-82; also Sat. Rev., 74:259. Cutts, Rev. Edw. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. Chs. 22, 23. Davidson, Thos. Philosophy of Thos. Aquinas. Jour, of Specula. Philos., 13:87; Fortn. Rev., 38:16; Mind, 8:610; History of Edu- cation, p. 156. Duruy, Victor. History of the Middle Ages (transl. by E. H. and M. D. Whitney), pp. 248, 326-332. Emerton, E. Mediaeval Europe, pp. 446-464. Encyclopedia Britannica, or Johnson's. See Abelard, Albertus Magnus. Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, Duns Scotus, Thomas Aquinas, Scholasticism. Erdmann, J. E. History of Philosophy, Ancient and Mediaeval, pp. 290, 423, 485- Fisher, Geo. P. History of the Christian Church, pp. 208-226, 271-286. France, Anatole. Abelard and Heloise. Cosmop., 18 :407. Hallam, H. Introduction to Literature of Europe. See Abelard, Al- bertus Magnus, Scholasticism, vol. i, pp. 36-54. Hallam, H. View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, pp. 396-408. Lewes, G. H. The History of Philosophy. See Scholasticism, vol. 2, ch. I ; Scotists and Thomists, vol. 2, p. 87. Milman, H. H. History of Latin Christianity, 7 :234 ff. Morley, Henry. English Writers, 3:104-106, 179, 335-337. Mullinger, J. B. Schools of Charles the Great, ch. 5, p. 171. Mullinger, J. B. The University of Cambridge, from Earliest Times (see index). Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. 2, pt. 1. Seeley, L. History of Education, pp. 121, 139. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education. See Scholasticism, p. 357. Taylor, H. O. The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages. Ueberweg, F. History of Philosophy, Ancient and Mediaeval, pp. 358, 433. See also St. Anselm, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Abelard. Windelband, W. History of Philosophy (Philosophy of the Middle Ages), p. 263. Scholasticism (Townsend on). Sat. Rev., 53:776; Harper's Meta- physics, 58:410. 3o8 APPENDIX [308 SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Explain the meaning of Scholasticism. 2. Who were the leaders among the schoolmen? Name some of their writings. 3. In what subjects of study were the schoolmen most interested? 4. In what did Scotists and Thomists differ? 5. How did scholasticism influence educational theory and practice? 6. What effect had scholasticism upon the Church ? 7. To what was this second revival of learning due? 8. Why should the name of Abelard receive mention among great educators ? 309] APPENDIX 309 THE RENAISSANCE, OR EDUCATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Burckhardt, J. The Renaissance in Italy. (Nat'l Sc. in Italy), 2:9. (The perfect man of society), 2:150. (The position of women), 2:160. Reviewed by Henrietta S. Gardiner, in Dial, 11:192. Bruno, G. Lewes' History of Philosophy, 2:92 ff. ; Mind, 9:236; Fortn. Rev., 52:234. Clarke, Sarah. The Portraits of Dante. Cent., 5 -.siA- Exile of Dante. Cent., 5:734, 833. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, ch. 5, p. 83. Cox, K. Sculptors of the Early Italian Renaissance. Cent., 7 :62. Drane, A. T. Christian Schools and Scholars, II, chs. 5-9. Draper, John W. Intellectual Development of Europe, 2:190 ff. Duruy, Victor. History of the Middle Ages. Emerson, A. Petrarch and the Universities. Overland (2d series), 8:190. Fisher, Geo. P. History of the Christian Church. Gardner, Ida. Renaissance. Educa., 8 :547 ; The Great Revival. Educa., 8 :663. Hallam, Henry. Introduction to the Literature of the Middle Ages, I. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 149. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education. Erasmus, Humanities, Sturm. Laurie, S. S. The Renaissance and the School. School Rev., 4:140, 202. Lewes, G. H. History of Philosophy, 2 :89. Liscomb, W. S. The Loss and Recovery of Classical Manuscripts. Educa., 2 :22-37. Morley, Henry. English Writers, 7:1-20. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 119. Palgrave, J. K. Chaucer and the Italian Renaissance. 19th Cent., 24: 340. Paulding, J. K. The Wandering Scholar of the i6th Century. Atlan. Mo., 66:480-491. Paulsen, Fr. German Universities. Also in Report U. S. Com. of Educa., 1891-1892, I : 247-368. Payne, Jos. History of Education, vol. 2, Lecture IV. Platter, Thos. School Life in the 15th. Century. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 :79, 90, 603. Putnam, Geo. H. Books and Their Makers During the Middle Ages, I. Quick, R. H. Renaissance and Its Influence. Educa., i -.2,7, 177. Renaissance Tendencies. Educa., 9 :583 ; Sturm, Educa., :o :379. 3IO APPENDIX [310 Raumer, K. G. von. Eminent Teachers in the Netherlands. Am. Jour. Educa., 4:714-728. The Hieronymians. Am. Jour. Educa., 4:622-628. The Renaissance in Italy. Am. Jour. Educa., 7: 413-460. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, II, Pt. 2. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education. See Renaissance, p. 334. Stillman, W. J. Italian Old Masters, with engravings. Cent. Lippi, 18:462; Botticelli, 18:501; Gozzoli, 17:58; Mantegna, 17:395; Bel- lini, 17:852; Signorelli, 19:73; Leonardo da Vinci, 19:838. Symonds, J. A. Renaissance in Italy : Age of despots, ch. I ; fine arts (see index). The New Spirit; Fortn. Rev., 59:427. Renais- sance ; Encyc. Brit., 20 :38o. Tatham, E. H. R. Erasmus in Italy. Eng. Hist. Rev., 10:642. " Beginning as the hand-maid of the Church, and stimulated by the enthusiasm of the great popular monastic orders, painting was at first devoted to embodying the thoughts of Mediaeval Christianity. In pro- portion as the painters fortified themselves by study of the natural world, their art became more secular. Mysticism gave way to realism. It was felt that much beside religious sentiment was worthy of expres- sion." J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy ; Fine Arts, p. 185. 1. Account for the Renaissance. 2. Describe briefly the more important phases of this period. 3. In what fields of activity was there a decided revival? 4. What was the immediate effect of the Renaissance on the methods of instruction? 5. Note in particular the growth of the national spirit; language, literature, government, schools. 6. Describe the life and schools of the Bacchants, or wandering stu- de;its. 7. What nation led in the schools of the Renaissance period? 311 I APPENDIX 311 HUMANISM AND REALISM. ERASMUS (1467-1536). STURM (1507-1589). Barnard, Henry. Jolin Colet and St. Paul's School. Am. Jour. Educa., 16:657-688. Sir Thomas More's Letters on the Education of Children. Am. Jour. Educa., 23 :369-376. Browning, O. ICducational Theories: Humanistic, p. 35 ; Realistic, p. 51. Humanism in Education. Science, 9:161 (Feb. 18, 1887). { ompayre, G. History of Pedagogy (see index). Drummond, R. B. Erasmus, His Life and Character, vols, i and 2. Erasmus. Quart. Rev., 180:1 (Jan.). Erasmus. Cornhill Mag., 12:116. Eraser, A. Psychological Foundations of Natural Realism. Am. Jour. of Psy., 4:420. Froude, J. A. Life and Letters of Erasmus, pp. 1-22, 58, 67, 100, 138, 181. 321. For criticism of Fronde's Life of Erasmus, see Acad., 46:343; Dial, 18:73: Sat. Rev., 78:384; Ath., Oct. 6, 1894, p. 447; Spec, 73:524- Harris, W. T. Realism. Johnson's Encyc, 7:15. Humanism in Germany. Westm., 119:155. Jebb, R. C. Humanism in Education. Pamphlet. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 282, 435, 795. Knight. Labors of Erasmus for St. Paul's School. Am. Jour. Educa., 16 :672-682. Laugel, A. Precursors of the Renaissance. Nation, 34:312, 2Z^- Marsh, A. R. Humanism. Johnson's Encyc, 4 :402. McCosh, J. Realism, Its Place in the Philosophies. New Prin. Rev., 2:315- Mullinger, J. B. History of the University of Cambridge, I. Earliest Times. Norcross, Geo. Erasmus, the Prince of Humanists. Annual Report of Am. Hist. Assoc, 1898. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education. See Erasmus, Humanists, Sturm. Palgrave, F. T. The Oxford Movement in the Fifteenth Century. 19th Cent., 28 :8i2. Payne. Jos. History of Education, vol. 2. See index. Powell. J. W. The Humanities. Forum, 10:410; Science, n. s., 1:15. Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (Appleton), pp. 27, 66, 149, ig8. Ranmer, K. G. von. Verbal Realism of Erasmus; Am. Jour. Educa., 5:657. John Sturm; Am. Jour. Educa., 4:167, 401. Educational Views of Erasmus; Am. Jour. Educa., 4:729- 312 APPENDIX [312 Seebohm, F. The Oxford Reformers : Colet, Erasmus, More. Shaler, N. S. Humanism in the Study of Nature. Science, 6:64 (1885). Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education. See Erasmus, Humanities. Thurber, Chas. H. Vittorino da Feltre. School Rev., 8:295. Ueberweg, F. History of Philosophy, Modern, pp. 5, 467 (see Realism in index). Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, pp. 52, 88. Works of Erasmus Cited. Am. Jour. Educa., 13:12. Woodward, W. H. Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanistic Educa- tors. 1. What is known as Humanism? How different from Classicism? From Realism? 2. Account for Sturm's great success as a teacher — Rector of the Gymnasium at Strassburg, 1537-1582. 3. Outline his course of study. How does it compare with the pres- ent high school course? 313] APPENDIX 313 CHANGES IN EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. RABELAIS (1483- 1553)- MONTAIGNE (1553-1592). Besant, W. Francis Rabelais, chs. i, 2, 4. ■* Browning, O. Educational Theories (see index). Conway, M. D. Rabelais at Rome. Harper, 61 :820. Emerson, R. W. Representative Men (Montaigne), p. 143. Francois Rabelais. Edinb. Rev., 169:111. Johnson, F. M. What is Reality? Andover Rev., 11:225, 449; 12:73, 453; 15:280. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education. See index, Montaigne. Lafleur,, P. T. Rabelais. Andover Rev., 15:215. Montaigne, M. Essays (edit, by W. Hazlitt). See Essay on "The Education of Children" (edit, by Rector). Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideals, pp. 8, 95. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 175. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2 :63 ff. Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (Kellogg), p. 46. Rabelais and His Educational Views. Am. Jour. Educa., 14:147-158. Rabelais, F. Edinb. Rev.. 169:111. Raumer, K. G. von. Montaigne on Learning and Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 4:461-478. Sainlsbury, Geo. Readings in Rabelais. (Review of Besant's Rabe- lais.) Acad., 24:392. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, 3, Pt. i. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education. Montaigne. Stout, G. F. Physical Reality. Mind, 15:22. Tuckerman, H. T. Montaigne. North Am. Rev., 87:356. Note especially the educational views of Rabelais, as expressed in his " Life of Gargantua," and of Montaigne, as expressed in his essay on " The Education of Children." What is your criticism of these views. 314 APPENDIX [314 THE REFORMATION AND THE PROTESTANT REFORMERS. Adams, Geo. B. Civilization During the Middle Ages. Adams & Cunningham. Swiss Confederation. Allen, Jas. H. Christian History: Third Period. Beard, Chas. Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany, chs. 1-9. Carlyle, Thos. Lecture of Martin Luther. Acad., 41 :i58. Carlyle, Thos. The Hero as Priest; in Heroes and Hero Worship. Cheatham, S. Early Treatises of Martin Luther. Acad., 25:197. Chejmey, E. P. Early Reformation Period in England. Univ. of Penn., Reprints from Original Sources of European His- tory, vol. I, no. I. Christian Brothers. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:729. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 112. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 175. Drane, A. T. Christian Schools and Scholars, H, ch. xi. Draper, John W. History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (5th ed.), pp. 476-494- Dyer, T. H. Life of Calvin, from his correspondence. Emerton, E. Koestlin's Life of Luther. Nation, 37 :357. Ernst, C. W. Personal Characteristics of Luther. New Eng. (n. s.), 43:261. Fisher, G. P. Luther After Four Hundred Years. Cent., 4:860. The Reformation, pp. 85-169. History of the Reformation. Flower, B. O. Reformation and Some of Its Leading Spirits. Arena, 1 1 :266. Froude, J. A. Martin Luther. Contemp., 44:1, 183. Gardner, I. M. Outline Notes on the Renaissance and Reformation. Educa., 9:35, 109. Gieseler, J. K. L. Church History, 4 -.g flF., 385 ff. Melancthon, 423 ff. ; Zwingli, 75-99; Calvin, 209-218. Guizot, F. P. G. St. Louis and Calvin. Guizot, F. P. G. History of Civilization, I. Hodge, F. H. Luther and His Work. Atlan. Mo., 52:805. Hutton, W. H. The Universities. Social England, 4 :88. Jackson, S. M. Selections from H. Zwingli. Jessopp, A. Parish Priest in England (before the Reformation). 19th Cent., 36:468. Kapp, F. The Luther Celebration and Its Sequel. Nation, 37:466. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 162. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 282, 532, 727. Laugol, A. Youth of Calvin. Nation, 48:112. Lawrence, E. Luther and Leo X. Harper, 39:91. Lea, H. C. Studies in Church History, pp. 480 ff., 494 ff. 315J APFENDIX 315 Luther. Martin. Views Concerning Public Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 8 :350. Luther, Martin. Am. Jour. Educa.. 6:40-. Views on Education, 4: .121-442. Luther, Martin. W. Ila/.litt. Table Talk. 117, 280, 338-346, 369 (see also contents). Luther, Martin. Quart. Rev., 186:1-43; Rev. of Revs., 16:350. Luther, Martin. First Principles of Reformation (edit, by Wace), p. 44 ff. Theses, 3. Letter to Nobility, 17. Letter to Leo, 95. Luther. Martin. Babylonish Captivity of Church, 141. Montgoinery, J. E. Luther and Germany. Harper. 61 :38. Merk, C. H. Luther's Translation of the Bible. Criticism. Acad., 47: 127 ; also 151, 217, 238. Munro, D. C. Luther's Influence on Literature. Chaut., 26:11. Mullinger, J. B. The Educational Reaction. Social England, 3 :228. Mullinger, J. B The University of Cambridge, 2 :20-34. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 131-154. Painter, F. V. N. Luther on Education, pp. 128 ff., 169, 210-271. Palgrave, F. T. The Oxford Movement of the 15th Century. 19th Cent., 28 :8i2. Paulding, J. K. Wandering Scholar of the i6th Century. Atlan. Mo., 66 :430. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2 :35, 53. Perry, G. G. History of Reformation in England, pp. i-g, 142-151. Ranke, L. von. History of the Popes, i -.57. Raumer, Karl G. von. The Hieionymians. Am. Jour. Educa., 4:622. Educational Views of Erasmus. Am. Jour. Educa., 4 :729. Educational Views of Luther. Am. Jour. Educa., 4:421. Life and Educational Services of Melancthon. Am. Jour. Educa., 4 :745. Eminent Teachers in the Netherlands Before 1500. Am. Jour. Educa., 4:714. Robinson, J. H. Pre-Reformation Period. Univ. of Penn. Reprints from Original Sources, 3, No. 6. Robinson & Whitcomb. Period of Early Reformation in Germany. Univ. of Penn. Reprints from Original Sources, 2, No. 6. Schaff, Philip. History of the Reformation in England. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, H, Pt. 2. Sears, Barnas. Life of Luther. Education and Educational Views. Abridgement from Life of Luther. Am. Jour. Educa., 24:97. Seebohm, F. Era of Protestant Revolution. 316 APPENDIX [316 Seeley, L. History of Education, pp. 174-181. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education. See Luther, Zwingli, Calvin, Melancthon. Spalding, M. J. History of the Reformation. Stedman, A. M. Oxford, Its Life and Schools, pp. 13-26. Tulloch, J. Luther and Recent Criticism. 19th Cent., 15:652. Warfield, E. D. Boyhood of Melancthon. Educa., 17:385. Whitcomb, M. Period of the Later Reformation. Univ. of Penn. Reprints from Original Sources, 3, No. 3. Williams, S. C. History of Education, pp. 48, 84. Zschokke, Emil. History of Switzerland (see contents). Zvvfingli. Blackw., 24:194. QUESTIONS. 1. What were the principal causes which led to the Reformation? 2. What new ideas did the Reformation present? 3. Were these favorable or unfavorable to popular education? Specify. 4. What part did Feudalism play in the Reformation? 5. In what ways and to what extent did Luther assist in advancing education? 6. What important educational tendencies in his times did Luther fail to recognize? 7. Why was the association of Luther and Melancthon an exception- ally fortunate one? 8. Compare the educational views of Luther with those of Erasmus, Zwingli, Calvin and Melancthon. 9. What were the most important educational principles advocated by these Protestant reformers? 10. What system of schools in England was largely the outgrowth of the Reformation? Luther on Compulsory Education. " It is my opinion that the authorities are bound to force their sub- jects to send their children to school. ... If they can oblige their able- bodied subjects to carry the lance and the arquebuse, to mount the ram- parts, and do military service, for a much better reason may they, and ought they, to force their subjects to send their children to school, for here it is a question of a m.uch more terrible war with the devil." . . . And again he says : " You ask, Is it possible to get along without our children and bring them up like gentlemen? Is it not necessary that they work at home? I reply: I by no means approve of those schools where a child was accustomed to pass twenty or thirty years in study- ing Donatus and Alexander without learning. Another world has dawned, in which things go differently. My opinion is that we must send the boys to school one or two hours and have the boys learn a trade at home for the rest of the time." 317] APPENDIX 317 ROGER ASCHAM (1515-1566) AND CLASSICAL LEARNING. Ascham, Roger. Abstract of Schoolmaster. Am. Jour. Educa., ii:S7; Am. Jour. Educa.. 3:23, 39, 41; 4: 155-166. The Schoolmaster. Cassells' Nat. Lib. Series. Arber, Edw. Roger Ascham's " Toxophilis." Roger Ascham's " Scholc- master." Bain, A. Education as a Science, pp. 359 ff. Bancroft, G. Classical Learning. North Am. Rev., 19:125. Barnard, Henry. Milton, Life and Educational Views. Am. Jour. Educa., 2:61-85; 11:12; 13:719; 14:159; 22:181; 23:151; 28:383. Browning. O. Place of Classics in Modern Schools. Educa. Rev., 3: 270. Classical Criticism in Oxford. Sat. Rev., 79:88, 120. Browning, Oscar. Milton's Tractate on Education, p. 167. Fitch, Sir J. G. Educational Aims and Methods, pp. 215, 220, 223, 225. Gill, John. Systems of Education, pp. 4-13. Goodwin, W. W. Educational Value of Classics. Educa. Rev., 9:335. Hallam, H. Introduction to Literature of Europe, vol. 4 (see index). Hazlitt, Wm. C. Schools, School-Books, and Schoolmasters, ch. 15. Holm.an, H. Education, p. 151. Johnson, S. Roger Ascham. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 180. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 54, 139. Mcrley, Henry. First Sketch in English Literature, pp. 305, 351. Morley, Henry. English Writers, VIII, pp. 160, 167-170, 298-305. Mullinger, J. B. University of Cambridge, p. 624. Payne, W. H. Contributions to the Science of Education, pp. 175-179. Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (Kellogg), p. 40. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, III, Pt. i. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 190. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 29, 59. The Great Public School of England. Winship, A. E. Ascham and the Schoolmaster. Jour, of Educa. (Bos- ton), 45:410. See the topic "Classical Instruction" in the index to the Am. Jour. Educa. Woodward, W. H. Vittorino da Feltre and Other Humanist Educa- tors, p. 182. QUESTIONS. 1. What was the condition of society in the time of Ascham? 2. How general was education ? 3. What means had been provided for the education of the people? 4. What were the subjects of study? 5. Why should Ascham be classed among educators? Why among classicists? 3l8 APPENDIX [318 6. Name other educators who held somewhat similar views. 7. What incident caused Ascham to write the " Schoolmaster?" 8. What are the strong arguments in favor of classical learning? 9. Compare the educational views of Milton, as expressed in his " Tractate," with those of Robert Ascham in the " Scholemaster." Extract from the " Scholemaster." " After the child has learned perfectly the eight parts of speech, let him then learn the right joining together of substantives with adjec- tives, the noun with the verb, the relative with the antecedent. And by learning further his syntax, by my advice, he shall not use the common order in common schools for making of Latin, whereby the child com- monly learneth, first, an evil choice of words (' a right choice of words,' saith Caesar, 'is the foundation of eloquence'), thena wrong placing of woids, and, lastly, an ill-framing of the sentence, with a perverse judgment both of words and of sentences. These faults taking root in youth, cannot be plucked away in age. Moreover, there is no one thing that hath more either dulled the wits, or taken away the will of children from learning than the care they have to satisfy their masters in making of Latin. For the scholar is commonly beat for the making, when the master were more worthy to be beat for the mending, or rather, marring of the same, the master many times being as ignorant as the child what to say properly and fitly to the matter." Book i. " The way prescribed in this book being straight, plain and easy, the scholar is always laboring with pleasure and ever going right on for- ward with profit. Always laboring, I say, for when he has construed, parsed, twice translated over by good advisement, he shall have neces- sary occasion to read over every lecture a dozen times at least ; which, because he shall do always in order, he shall do it always with pleasure, and pleasure allurcth love." ■■ When, by this diligent and speedy reading over those forenamed good books of Tully, Terrence, Caesar and Livy, and by this second kind of translating out of English, time shall bring skill and use shall bring perfection, then you may try, if you will, your scholar with the third kind of translation, although the first two ways, by my opinion, be not only sufficient of themselves, but also surer, both for the master's teaching and the scholar's learning, than this third way is, which is thus : Write you in English some letter, as it were from his father, or to some other friend, naturally according to the disposition of the child, or some tale, or fable, or plain narration, and let him translate it into Latin again, abiding in such a place where no other scholar may prompt him. U?e yourself such discretion for choice therein as the matter may be within the compass, both of words and sentences, of his former learning and reading." Book 2. 319] APPENDIX 319 FRANCIS BACON AND THE REVOLT AGAINST CLASSI- CISM: INDUCTION AS THE METHOD OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY. Argyll, Duke of. Bacon against Huxley. 19th Cent., 36:959. Browning, O. Educational Theories, pp. 51, 52. Compayre, G. History of Education, pp. 123, 136. Encyclopedia Britannica ; topic. Bacon. Erdmann, J. E. History of Philosophy, pp. 668-684. Fowler, Thos. Bacon's Novum Organum. Hallam, H. Introduction to the Literature of Europe (see index). Hailman, W. N. Lectures on Education, pp. 54-57. Hill, F. A. Educational Value of Mathematics. Educa. Rev., 9:349. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education (see index). Lewes, Geo. H. The History of Philosophy, Vol. II. Macaulay, T. B. Francis Bacon ; In Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, II. Also, Edinb. Rev., 65: No. CXXXII, p. i. Morley, J. First Sketch in English Literature (see index). Nichol, J. Francis Bacon, ch. i ; also pp. 206-209. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 179 ff. Payne, Jos. History of Education (see index). Raumer, Karl G. von. Philosophy of Lord Bacon. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:663-681. Realism in Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 : 657. Universities of the i6th Century. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:535. Rawley, Wm. Life of Bacon. In Works of Bacon, edited by Jas. Sped- ding and others, vol. i, pp. 35-38. Reynolds, S. H. The Essays of Francis Bacon. Of Truth, p. 5; Par- ents and Children, p. 43 ; Custom and Education, p. 275. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, 3, Pt. i. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 205. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 36, 396. Thompson, F. Bacon and His Works. Acad., 52 :53. Ueberweg, F. History of Philosophy (Modern), pp. 33-38, 5I9- Wasson, D. A. Francis Bacon (Review). New Eng., 10:333 (1852). Whipple, E. P. Francis Bacon. Atlan. Mo., 22:476, 573. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education. Windelband, W. History of Philosophy, p. 378 flF. ; p. 383 ff. QUESTIONS. 1. In what ways did Bacon aid in the advancement of learning? 2. Why was the time especially ripe for his doctrine? 320 APPENDIX [320 3. Was his moral life in keeping with his writings aijd the spirit of the time? 4. What language did Bacon use in his writings? Why? 5. Name a few pedagogical principles advanced by Bacon. 6. What other educators were prominent in the change from classical learning? 7. How do you account for the various changes in educational theory and practice? Macaulay says that two words form the key of the Baconian doc- trine: utility and progress. Extract from Bacon. " Man being the servant and interpreter of nature, can understand so much, and so much only as he has in fact or in thought of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can he do anything." Novum Organum. "Certainly custom is most perfect when it beginneth in young years; this we call education, which is, in effect, but an early custom." Essay on Education. 32 1 ] APPENDIX 321 LOYOLA AND THE SCHOOLS OF THE JESUITS. Bacon, L. W. Forgery in Polemics. Secret Instructions of Jesuits (2d part of article on "Great Educators"). New Eng., 28:533. Barnard, Henry. The Jesuits and Their Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 15:455- Browning. O. Educational Theories, p. 118 ff. Cartwright, W. C. The Jesuits : Their Constitution and Teaching. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 138. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 183. Draper, John W. Intellectual Development of Europe, II. Dzicwicki, H. Glimpse into a Jesuit Novitiate. Blackw., 146:366. Life in a Jesuit College. 19th Cent., 30:813. Fisher, G. P. The Protestant Reformation. Hughes, T. Educational System of the Jesuits. Cath. World, 56:80. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits. On the Jesuits. Sat. Rev., 74:174. Jesuits : Loyola. Encyc. Brit. Ignatius Loyola and His Associates. Edinb. Rev., 75: 297. Ignatius Loyola and Society of Jesus. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:165. Doctrines of Jesuits. Quart. Rev., 138:57. Jesuits. North Am. Rev., 5 :309 ; 6 :i2g, 405 ; 7 : 112 ; 8 :200. Baffling of Jesuits. Edinb. Rev., 173:495. Johnson's Encyclopedia. Jesuits and Loyola. James, H., Jr. Jesuits in North America. Nature, 4 :450. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 184. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 492. Law, T. G. Jesuits and Seculars in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth. Ath.. I :i7i (1890). Jesuits and Benedictines in England. Eng. Hist. Rev., 4 730. Lawrence, E. Loyola and the Jesuits. Harper, 39:697. Mullinger, J. B. History of the University of Cambridge, II, p. 25-26. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideal (see index). Nicolini, G. B. The History of the Jesuits. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 166. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2 :45. Perkins, J. H. The Founder of the Jesuits. North Am. Rev., 59:412. Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (Kellogg), pp. 21-38. Raumer, K. G. von. The Jesuits and Their Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:213; 6:459. 615. Rose, S. St. Ignatius Loyola. Sat. Rev., 73:548. 322 APPENDIX [322 Reinhart, J. A. Outline of History of Education, p. 40. Schiller, Hermann. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Padagogik. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, HI, Pt. i, pp. 100-159. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 182. Shea, J. G. Reminiscences of an ex-Jesuit. Putnam, 2 :2I4. Starbuck, C. C. The Ignatian Question : Genuineness of the Writings of Loyola. Andover Rev., 18:283. Thompson, R. W. The Footprints of the Jesuits. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, p. 103. QUESTIONS. 1. Give the part played by Loyola in establishing the order of Jesuits. 2. What special qualifications did he possess for his work? 3. What was the aim of the Jesuit schools? 4. What were the chief subjects of instruction? What age and class of students were included in their provisions? 5. How were these schools maintained? How controlled, and how supplied with teachers and students? 6. Describe what seem to be the principal features in their method of instruction and manner of discipline? 7. Account for the rapid spread and influence of the Jesuit Schools. 8. What estimate was placed upon these schools by the leading men of the times? 9. In what way were the Jesuit schools especially strong? Wherein were they weak? 10. How would you characterize the ideal man and woman of the times? ^2S] APPENDIX 323 THE JANSENISTS AND FENELON. American Encyclopedia. Fcnelon and Port Royal. Beard, Chas. Port Royal, I ; II, ch. 2. Bowen, H. C. Jansenists and Their Schools. Educa. Rev., 6:485;7:64. Browning, O. Educational Theories, pp. 1 18-134. Cadet, F. Port Royal Education, pp. 1-7, 46-59, 200-209, 221-245. Compayre. G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 138 ff., 164 ff. Fenelon, Jansenism, Port Royalists. Encyc. Brit. Fenelon and His Educational Views. Am. Jour. Educa., 13:477; 20:481. Cummings, Rev. J. W. Fenelon. Cath. World, 11 :6i3. Johnson's Encyclopedia. Fenelon, Jansenism, Port Royalists. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 225. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 305. Laugel, A. Janet's Fenelon. Nation, 55 :45. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideals, p. 124. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, pp. 224, 234. Port Royalists and Their Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 28:1 ; 30:707. Payne, Jos. History of Education, vol. 2, p. 45. Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (see index). St. Cyres, Francois de Fenelon (Review). Ath., 1901, 2 :864. Nation, 74 :237. Reinhart, J. A. Outline of History of Education, p. 42. Sander's Fenelon, and His Friends and Enemies (Review). Ath., 1901, 2:866. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, IV, Pt. i. Seeley, L. History of Education, pp. 188-189, 223-227. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 163. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, pp. 197-216. QUESTIONS ON THE JANSENISTS. 1. Compare the schools of the Jansenists with those of the Jesuits. Characterize their principal difference in subject-matter, method of in- struction, discipline, aim, influence, etc. 2. What prominent leaders of thought were directly or indirectly connected with the schools of the Jansenists? 3. How did the suppression of these schools affect education? Suggestions and Questions on the Study of Fenelon. I. (a) Advantages of birth, environment and education. (b) Fenelon as a scholar, as a teacher, and as a writer. (c) State of society and condition of education in time of Fenelon. 324 APPENDIX [324 ((/) Leaders of thought during Fenelon's time. 2. (c) What was the nature of Fenelon's Education of Girls? Tele- maque, Fables, and Dialogues of the Dead? {b) How were these writings received at the time? (c) How are they held to-day? 3. What were some of the best educational ideas advanced by Fenelon? 4. In what way was Fenelon connected with Bossuet, Madame de Maintenon, Madame Guyon? 325] APPENDIX 325 RATICH (1571-1635) AND COMENIUS (1592-1671). Bardeen, C. VV. The Text-Books of Comenius. Educa. Rev., 3:223. Browning, O. Educational Theories, p. 51 fif. Busse, F. Object of Teaching. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:421-422. Butler, N. M. Place of Comenius in the History of Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1892, p. 723. Calkins, N. A. Educational Work of Comenius. Am. Jour. Educa., 12:634, 647. Comenius, John A. The Orbis Pictus. Educa. Rev., 3 :209. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:45, 76, 78, 351 (Ratich and Comenius) ; 10:116, 145- 146; 9:135; 13:83-84. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45:95. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 121. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 193. Field. Mrs. E. M. The Child and His Book, pp. 155-159. Gill, J. Systems of Education, p. 13. Hanus, Paul H. The Permanent Influence of Comenius. Educa. Rev., 3:226; also in his Educational Aims and Values, pp. 195-21 1. Hark, John Max. Comenius : Private Life and Characteristics. Proc. N. E. A., 1892, p. 703. Keatinge, M. W. Great Didactica of Comenius (Review). Sat. Rev., 83 :6i4. Kemp, E. L. Historj' of Education, p. 193. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 159, 720. Laurie, S. S. Comenius. Educa. Rev., 3:211 ; and John Amos Comenius. Maxwell, W. H. The Text-Books of Comenius. Proc. N. E. A., 1892, p. 712. Monroe, W. S. Comenius, the Evangelist of Modern Pedagogy. Educa., 13:212; Educa. Rev., 12:378; and Comenius' School of Infancy. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideals, p. 68 (for Ratich, see index). Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 200. Payne, Jos. History of Education (see index). Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers, pp. 51, 60; Acad., 21:57. Raumer, Karl G. von. John Amos Comenius. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 : 257- Ratichius and His Associates. Am. Jour. Educa., II :4i8. Wolfgang Ratich. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 :229. Ratich and Comenius. Am. Jour. Educa., 6: 462, 585 fT. Seeley, L. History of Education, pp. 209-217. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 217. Vostrovsky, C. European School of the Time of Comenius. Educa., 17 :356. 326 APPENDIX [326 Watson, F. Comenius. Acad., 43:149. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, p. 154 ff. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. Ratich is remembered chiefly through his method of teaching foreign languages (which see), by means of which he was able to teach Latin, Greek and Hebrew in six months ; also an account of his giving prece- dence to the mother-tongue over other languages. A summary of the essential pedagogical principles of Ratich is given in Quick's Educa- tional Reformers ; also in Barnard's American Journal of Education. 1. What is your criticism of these principles and of his method of teaching language? Ratich and Comenius were heirs to the educational thought of Luther and the Reformers; to the classicism of Sturm, Erasmus, and Ascham; to the systematic schools of the Jesuits, and to the change from the classics, as seen in Rabelais, Montaigne and Bacon. It remained for Comenius to unite the philosophy of Bacon with the democratic, or in- dividualistic, view of Luther into a system of public education. 2. Comenius' birth, environment, early education and character; his various wanderings and disappointments? 3. What was the nature of his most important writings? 4. What were the essential principles of the pedagogy of Comenius? 5. What new ideas in education did he advance? 6. What would you give as the educational ideal of Comenius? OrBIS SeNSUALIUM PiCTUS.l A World of Things Obvious to the Senses Drawn in Pictures. I. Invitation — The Master and the Invitatio — Magister et Puer. Boy. M. Come, boy, learn to be wise. M. Veni, Puer, disce sapere. B. What doth this mean, to be P. Quid hoc est, Sapere? wise? M. To understand rightly, to do M. Intelligere recte, agere lecte, rightly, and to speak all things et eloqui recte omnia neces- that are necessary. saria. B. Who will teach me this? P. Quis docebit me hoc? M. I, by God's help. M. Ego, cum Deo. B. How? P. Quomodo? M. I will guide thee through all. M. Ducam te per omnia. I will show thee all. Ostendam tibi omnia. I will name thee all. Nominabo tibi omnia. ' Sample copy of the first and last lessons of the Orbis Pictus by Comenius, as pub- lished by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, N. Y, 327] APPENDIX 327 B. See, here I am ; lead me, in the name of God. M. Before all things, thou ought- est to learn the plain sounds, of which man's speech consist- eth ; which living creatures know to make, and thy tongue knoweth how to imitate, and thy hand can picture out. Afterwards we will go into the world, and we will view all things. Here thou hast a lively and vocal alphabet. P. En, adsum ; due me in nomine Dei. M. Ante omnia, debes discere simplices Sonos ex quibus Sermo humanus constat; quos Animalia sciunt formare, et tua Lingua scit imitari, et tua Manus potest pingere. Postea ibimus Mundum et spec- tabimus omnia. Hie habes vivum et vocale Al- phabetum. The Close. Thus thou hast seen, in short, all things that can be showed, and hast learned the chief words of the English and Latin tongues. Go on, now, and read other good Books diligently, and thou shalt become learned, wise and godly. Remember these things : Fear God, and call upon Him, that He may bestow upon thee the Spirit of Wisdom. Farewell. CHL Clausula. Ita vidisti summatim in res omnes quae poterunt ostendi, et didi- cisti voces primarias Anglicae et Latinae Linguae. Perge nunc et lege diligenter alios bonos Libras, ut fias doctus, sapiens, et pius. Memento horum ; Deum time et invoca eum, ut largiatur tibi Spiritum Sapientiae. Vale. 328 APPENDIX [328 JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704). Barnard, H. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:46; 11:14, 461; 13:548; 14:305; 22: 30; 23:145; 27:842. Browning, O. Educational Theories, ch. 8. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 194. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 197 ff. Everett, A. H. Philosophy of Locke. North Am. Rev., 29:78. Fowler, Thomas. John Locke, in " Morley's ' English Men of Let- ters,' " vol. 3 ; also in separate edition. Gill, J. Systems of Education, pp. 19, 83, 221. Hailmann, W. N. Lectures on Education, p. 63. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 524. King, Peter. Life and Letters of John Locke. Also Edinb. Rev., 50: 1-31 ; Westm. Rev., 107:77-92 (1879). Ladd, G. T. Introduction of Philosophy, pp. 13, 85, 125. Lewes, Geo. H. The History of Philosophy, H. Lindner, G. A. Encyklopadische Handbuch der Erziehungskunde, p. 495- Locke, John. Human Understanding (edited by Eraser). Some Thoughts Concerning Education (see his works, vol. 8:6). The Metaphysician — On the Philosophy of Locke. Blackw., 39:796. Murray-Nairne, C. John Locke. Harper, 53:917. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, 213 ff. Mark, H. T. History of Educational Theories in England. See In- dex. Locke. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideal, p. ici. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2:83, 170, 173. Quick, R. M. Locke on Education. Educational Reformers (Kellogg), p. 85; (Appleton), p. 219. Raumer, K. G. von. John Locke, His Pedagogical System Analyzed. Am. Jour. Educa., 6:209; 11:460. Russell, John E. The Philosophy of Locke. Schiller, H. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Padagogik, p. 143. Schmid, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehvmg, IV, pt. i. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 220. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 197. Tate, T. Philosophy of Education, p. 30. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, p. 181. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. I. Birth, health, environment, education? 329] APPENDIX 329 An accomplished humanist in education, he becomes an active scien- tist in thought and practice. Lectured at Oxford on Greek, Rhetoric, Philosophy. Student and teacher of children in the home of Lord Shaftsbury. As a result of this experience, gives forth his memorable " Thoughts Concerning Education." The essential principles of this work, which every teacher should read entire, are summed up by Com- payre as follows : " c. In Physical Education, the Hardening Process. b. In Intellectual Education, Practical Utility, c. In Moral Education, the Principle of Honor set up as a rule for the Free Government of Man." 2. What do you understand by each of the above terms? 3. What other educational writers seem to have paved the way for Locke? In future lessons make note of educators who seem to get their inspiration from Locke. Compayre speaks of Descartes as a spiritualist ; of Malbranche, as an Idealist ; and of Locke, as a Sensationalist. 4. What are the meanings of these terms? 5. What is your opinion of the characterization? 6. How would faith in one or the other ideal influence the theory and practice of education? 7. Prepare a synopsis of the more important principles given in the " Thoughts Concerning Education." Designate those with which you agree by the letter " a," and others by the letter " b." 8. How did these principles of Locke differ from the practices of his time? How do they differ from the practices of to-day? Extracts from " Thoughts Concerning Education." " Play in the open air has but one danger that I know : and that is, that when he is hot from running up and down, he should sit or lie down on the moist or cold earth. This, I grant, and drinking cold water when they are hot with labor or exercise, brings more people to the grave, or the brink of it, by fevers or other diseases, than anything I know." " And thus I have done with what concerns the body and health, which reduces itself to these few and easily-observed rules : plenty of open air, exercise, sleep, and plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic, not too warm and straight clothing, especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet." " Having under consideration how great the influence of company is, and how prone we are, especially children, to imitation, I must here take the liberty to mind parents of this one thing, viz., that he that will have his son have great respect for him and his orders, must himself 330 APPENDIX [330 have a great reverence for his son. You must do nothing before him which you would not have him imitate." "That which every gentleman (that takes any care of his education) desires for his son, besides the estate he leaves him, is contained, I suppose, in these four things : virtue, wisdom, breeding, and learning. " You will wonder, perhaps, that I put learning last, especially when I tell you that I think it the least part. This may seem strange in the mouth of a bookish man. . . . When I consider what ado is made over a little Latin and Greek, how many years are spent upon it, and what a noise and business it makes to no purpose, I can hardly forbear think- ing that the parents of children still live in fear of the schoolmaster's rod, which they look on as the only instrument of education." 331] APPENDIX 331 ROUSSEAU (1712-1778). Browning, O. Educational Theories (Kellogg), p. 152. Carlyle, Thos. Heroes, p. 214. Character of Rousseau. Nat. Mag., 3 1257. Carlyle, Thos. The Hero in Literature, in Heroes and Hero Worship. Caird, E. Character of Rousseau. Contemp., 30 :625. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 278 ; also lectures on teaching (see index). Davidson, Thos. Rousseau; also History of Education, p. 211. E^gleston, Edw. The Schoolmaster in Literature, p. 41. Everett, A. H. Life of Rousseau. North Am. Rev., 15:1. Finch, C. E. Rousseau. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45:319; also 46: 211 (Emile). Garrison, W. P. Rousseau. Harper, 58 :229 ; Nation, 51 :.233. Genius and Character of Rousseau. BladtW., n: ^27- Hallam, H. Introduction to the Literature of Europe, 3:218. Hobbes, T. Leviathan. Hailmann, W. N. Lectures on Education, p. 74. Huxley, T. H. Natural Inequality of Man. 19th Cent., 27:1. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 255. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 745. Lang, Ossian L. Rousseau and His Emile. Locke, J. Treatise on Civil Government, 4:338 of Locke's Works. Morley, John. Rousseau, vol. i, ch. 5; vol. 2, ch. 3, 4. Influence of Rousseau on European Thought. Fortn. Rev., 17 :494. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideal, p. 153. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 247. Payne, Jos. History of Education, vol. 2, p. 84. Payne, W. H. Education According to Nature. Proc. N. E. A., 1895, 1 14-125. Pestalozzi, J. H. Influence of Rousseau's Writings. Am. Jour. Educa., 3 :404- Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (Kellogg), p. 113; (Appleton), p. 235. Raumer, K. G. von. Analysis of the Emile. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:463- Reviews and Criticisms of Rousseau's Literature. Acad., 45:267; 53:404; 54:267. Critic, 30:93. Dial, 25:261. Nation, 66:133, 391; 75:362. Sat. Rev., 86:416. Educa. Rev., 16:192. Pop. Sd. Mo., 53 :848. Rousseau, J. J. Confessions, and Emile. 332 APPENDIX [332 Rousseau, J. J. Biographical Sketch of Rousseau. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 :459- Educational Views of Rousseau. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:68, 80; 13:11, 88-90. Saintsbury, G. Jean Jacques Rousseau. Encyc. Brit, 21 :23. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 241. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 224. Steeg, Jules. Jean Jacques Rousseau. In Buisson's Dictionnaire de Padagogie, 2:2641-2647. Street, A. E. Rousseau's Theory of Education. Educa. Rev., 5 :278- 290. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 348. Schmid, K. A. Encyklopaedie des Gesammten Erziehungs- und Unter- richtswesens, Rousseau, 7 :284 ; also, Geschichte der Erziehung, IV, pt. I. Weir, S. Key to Rosseau's Emile. Educa. Rev., 16:61. Williams, S. G. History of Education, p. 261. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Early life, education and character; the nature and influence of his associates ; the condition of society during this period ; his wander- ings, ingratitude and enigmas? 2. His writings — their nature and influence? 3. The Emile: Its nature, leading principles, and influence upon edu- cation ? 4. Who were the forerunners of Rousseau? 5. How did Rousseau differ from them? 6. Name some of the contemporary writers and philosophers. 7. What was the principal difference between the teachings of Rous- seau and those of Helvetius? 8. Were the principles advocated by Rousseau new? 9. How do you account for his great influence upon humanity? 10. What are some of the merits and some of the defects of Rous- seau's teachings, as seen in Emile? 11. According to Rousseau, what is the ideal, or end of education? 12. In education, shall we follow or direct nature? Why? Rousseau, speaking of his early reading, says : " There began to be formed within me that heart, at once so proud and tender, that effemi- nate, but yet indomitable character which, ever oscillating between weakness and courage, between indulgence and virtue, has, to the last, placed me in contradiction with myself, and has brought it to pass that abstinence and enjoyment, pleasure and wisdom, have alike eluded me." Again he says : " I do evil, but I love good. My heart is pure." 333] APPENDIX 333 Extracts from the Emile. " Coming from the hand of the author of all things, everything is good ; in the hands of man, everything degenerates." " In the natural order of things, all men being equal, the vocation common to all is the state of manhood ; and whoever is well trained for that cannot fill badly any vocation which depends upon it." " He among us who best knows how to bear the good and evil for- tunes of life, is, in my opinion, the best educated ; whence it follows that true education consists less in precept than in practice. We begin to instruct ourselves when we begin to live ; our education commences with the beginning of our lives ; our first teacher is our nurse." 334 APPENDIX [334 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. Arnold, Matthew. Popular Education in France. Barnard, Henry. Public Instruction in France, 1789-1808. Am. Jour. Educa., 22:651. Buisson, F. Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, vol. 2, pt. I. Carlyle, Thos. The French Revolution. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, chaps. 16, 17. DeToqueville, Alexis. On the Causes of the French Revolution; also (Review) Putnam, 8:471. Dobson, Austin. Four French Women. Mason, Amelia G. Salons of the Revolution and the Empire. Cent., 19:803; 20:12. Morley, John. Edmund Burke. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 296. Stephens, H. M. History of the French Revolution. Taine, H. A. Paris before the Outbreak of the French Revolution. Contemp., 32 :234. The French Revolution, i. The Conditions of the People on the Eve of the Great Revolution, A. D. 1789. In History for Ready Ref- erence, 2:1256. Williams, S. G. History of Modem Education, chaps. 11, 12. Following closely on the publication of Rousseau's Emile, was the publication of La Chalotais' essay on " National Education." This little book was favorably received by the philosophers and educators of the time, and was thoroughly imbued with the revolutionary spirit. It gave occasion to the ideas of secularization, centralization, uniformity, obligation, gratuity, which were destined to play such a large part in the educational discussions of the Revolution. In speaking of secular- ization of education, La Chalotais says : " I do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics, but I protest against the exclusion of laymen. I dare claim for the nation an education which depends only on the state, be- cause it belongs essentially to the state; because every state has an in- alienable and indefensible right to instruct its members; because, finally, the children of the state ought to be educated by the members of the state." Again he says : " Education cannot be too widely dif- fused, to the end that there may be no class of citizens who may not be brought to participate in its benefits. It is expedient that each citizen receive the education which is adapted to his needs." Rolland, in commenting on the necessity of establishing a central uniform system of education, says: "Through uniformity of instruc- tion, there will be secured a uniformity in manners and in laws. The 335] APPENDIX 335 young men of all the provinces will divest themselves of all their preju- dices of birth; they will form the same ideas of virtue and justice. They will demand uniform laws, which would have offended their fathers." Turgot, in his memoirs to the king (1775), says: "Without opposing any obstacle to the instructions whose object is higher, and which already have their rules and their expounders, I think I can pro- pose to you nothing of more advantage to your people than to cause to be given to all your subjects an instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to society and to your power which protects them, the duties which these obligations impose upon them, and the interest they have in fulfilling those duties for the public good and their own." 1. In the discussion of secularization, centralization, obligation, gra- tuity, etc., what were the leading arguments? 2. What was the final outcome? 3. What were some of the difficulties encountered in organizing a system of public instruction? 4. What provisions were made for the training of teachers? 5. What provisions were made for the education of women? 6. Did the French Revolution tend to advance or retard education? Why? 336 APPENDIX [336 PESTALOZZI (1745-1827). Assistants and Disciples of Pestalozzi. Am. Jour. Educa., 7 :285-3i8. Beust, F. Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Primary Schools. Educa., 3 142. Pestalozzi's Poor School at Nenhof. Am. Jour. Educa., 3:585. Boutwell, G. S. The Pestalozzian System. Pop. Sci. Mo., 44 155. Bradley, J. C. Pestalozzi, the Teacher of Children. Educa., 11 :352, 423- Brown, N. Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude. Educa., 15:176. Browning, O. Educational Theories (Appleton), pp. 151-165; (Kel- logg), p. 170. Buisson, F. Pestalozzi. In Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, 2 :2283-2354, Channing, Eva. Translation of Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 413. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 229. DeFellenberg, Wm. Pestalozzi, DeFellenberg and Wehrli. Am. Jour. Educa., 10:81 ; 21 :765. De Guimps, R. Life of Pestalozzi. Diesterweg, F. A. W. Pestalozzi and the Schools of Germany. Am. Jour. Educa., 4 :343. Froebel on Pestalozzi. In H. Barnard's papers on Froebel's Kinder- garten and Child Culture, p. 49 ; also, Am. Jour. Educa., 31 :49. Hailmann, W. N. Lectures on Education, p. 93. From Pestalozzi to Froebel. Proc. N. E. A., 1880, p. 128-137. Hamilton, C. J. Henri Pestalozzi. Educa. Rev., 3:173-184. Harris, W. T. Herbart and Pestalozzi Compared. Educa. Rev., 5: 417-423. Holland, Lucy E., and Turner, F. C. Translation of Pestalozzi's How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 282. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 693. Klemm, L. R. Interview between Dr. Bell and Pestalozzi. Educa., 7: 559-562. Krusi, Hermann. Pestalozzi ; His Life, Work, and Influence. Memoir of Hermann Krusi (1775-1844). Am. Jour. Educa., 5 :i6i. Monroe, W. S. Joseph Neef and Pestalozzianism in America. Educa., 14:449-461. Munroe. J. P. Educational Ideal, p. 179. Painter, F. V. N. History of Education, p. 266. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2 :97. Pestalozzi. Account of His Own Educational Experiences. Am. Jour. Educa., 7:671, 703. 7^2, 715. 337] APPENDIX 337 Pestalozzi. Evening Hours of a Hermit. Am. Jour. Educa., 6:169. Pestalozzi's System of Education, Methods, etc. Blackw., 66:93; Am. Jour. Educa., 7:675, 503; 521 (Leonard and Gertrude); 665 (Christopher and Alice) ; 669 (How Gertrude Teaches Her Children) ; Paternal Instruction, 720; Stu- dent Life at Yverdun under Pestalozzi, 31:35; Edinb. Rev., 47:118. School in Bonnal. Am. Jour. Educa., 7:651. Pestalozzi in the United States. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:561. Bibliography of Pestalozzian Literature. Am. Jour. Educa., 7:513. Quick, R. Educational Reformers (Appleton), ch. 16; (Kellogg), ch. 7. Ratimer. K. G. von. Karl Wilhelm Christian von Turk. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:155- Life and Educational System of Pestalozzi. Am. Jour. Educa., 3 :40i ; 4 :65. ^ Rousseau and Pestalozzi. Am. Jour. Educa., 5: 48s. _ Valentine F. Trotzendorf. Am. Jour. Educa., 5: 107. Rein, Wm. Pestalozzi and Herbart. Forum, 21 :346-36o. Schmid, K. A. Encyklopaedie des Gesammten Erziehungs- und Unter- richtsvi^esen, 2 :578 ; 5 :756. Seeley, L. History of Education, pp. 257-271. Syffarth, L. W. Pestalozzi's Sammtliche Werke, 16 vols., 1872. Warren, G. W. Pestalozzi. Nation, 22:399 (Review of Krusi's Pes- talozzi). Williams, S. G. History of Education, p. 299-316. SITGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. We should not omit, in our study. Francke and the Schools of the Pietists, nor his disciples, Niemeyer, Semler and Hecker, who in turn were the founders of the real schools nf Germany, the natural out- growth of the scientific spirit. For references see Am. Jour. Educa., 3:275: 5:441, 691, 695; 8:52, 352; 10:110; 13:496, 502; 19:630; 20:338, 369. We should also include the work of Basedow and the Philanthro- pists. For references see Am. Jour. Educa., 5:487; 26:557. Pestalozzi as a child ; effect of the early environment upon his char- acter. Pestalozzi as a student ; as an agriculturalist ; as a philanthro- pist. His experiments with his son. Pestalozzi at Neuhof ; at Stanz ; at Burgdorf; at Yverdun. Pestalozzi as a writer; as a teacher; as an inspirer of men. 338 APPENDIX [338 1. What prominent educators of the time were associated with, or influenced by, Pestalozzi? 2. Compare Rousseau with Pestalozzi as to character, teaching and influence. 3. What were some of the things that exerted great influence in shap- ing Pestalozzi's character? 4. What was the leading motive of his life? 5. What do you understand from Pestalozzi's idea of educating the head, the hand, the heart? 6. Also from his three divisions of knowledge, i. e., form, number, sound ? 7. In what consists his greatest influence? Read the following chapters from Leonard and Gertrude : Chap. I. A weak man, a brave woman, and a fatherly ruler. Chap. 2. A tyrant appears and finds his master. Chap. 8. A good mother's Saturday evening. Chap. 25. Gertrude's method of instruction. Chap. 31. The organization of a new school. " Seeking to understand the real aim of life, the real motive of that work which took such entire possession of me that I found no rest in anything else, I seemed to hear an internal voice saying that it was the need to free man from the sensual domination of his animal nature, and raise him above the view of his being. " That which I long for and seek after, that which is holy, unchang- ing and eternal in the aim of my life, is in no way mine : it is humanity's and God's. What am I — what are we all — in such a work as this? A nothing, that passes with the moment, like the insect of a day." From a discourse of Pestalozzi, 1817. 339] APPENDIX 339 HERBART (1770-1841). Adams, John. The Herbartian Psychology Applied to Education. Browning, O. Educational Theories, p. 174. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 232. DeGarmo, Chas. Coordination of Studies. Educa. Rev., 4 :422-437. Herbart and the Herbartians, and Essentials of Method. Herbartian System of Pedagogics. Educa. Rev., i : 33-45, 244-252, 453-462. Significance of Herbart for Secondary and Higher Education. Educa. Rev., 11:40. DeGarmo, McMurry, Noss and others. Herbart and Herbartianism. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 47:259-264. Douglas, C. H. Views of Herbart on Mathematics and Natural Science. Educa. Rev., 3 :490. Gilbert, C. B. Some Suggestions to Herbartian Teachers. Educa., 14:75- Harris, W. T. Herbart's Doctrine of Interest. Educa. Rev., 10:71-80. Correlation. Educa. Rev., 9:274. Herbart and Pestalozzi. Educa. Rev., 5:417-423. Herbart, J. F. Science of Education (Felkin's translation). Text-Book on Psychology. Hughes, J. L. Herbart and Froebel. Educa. Rev., 10:239. Kemp, E. L. History of Education, p. 298. Lange, A. F., and DeGarmo, Chas. Herbart's Outline of Educational Doctrine. Lange, K. Apperception, a Monograph on Psychology and Pedagogy. Lukens, H. T. Correlation of Studies. Educa. Rev., 10:364. Also discussion by W. S. Jackman. Educa. Rev., 11:72. McMurry, C. A. Elements of General Method Based on the Prin- ciples of Herbart (revised edition) ; also related works on Special Methods. Geography as a School Subject. Educa. Rev., 9: 448. McMurry, F. M. Concentration. Educa. Rev., 9:27. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideal, pp. 89, 189, 201. Parker, F. W. Talks on Pedagogics, and How to Teach Geography. Rein, W. Outlines of Pedagogics. Herbart and Pestalozzi. Forum, 21 :346-36o. Rooper, T. Apperception or Mental Operation ; A Pot of Green Feathers. Schmid, K. A. Encyklopaedie des Gesammten Erziehungs- und Unter- richtswesen, 3 :367. 340 APPENDIX [340 Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 278. Tompkins, A. Herbart's Philosophy and Educational Theory. Educa. Rev., 16:233-241. Ufer, C. Attitude of Scientific Thought in Germany toward the Doc- trine of Herbart. Educa. Rev., 12 :209-220. Watson, F. Herbart's Science of Education, Reviewed. Acad., 43 :8. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Herbart's early life and education. 2. Herbart as a student, as a teacher in the home of Herr von Steiger, and as a university professor. 3. Herbart as a philosopher and writer. 4. What changes were occurring in education during this period? Jour, of Spec. Philosophy, 10:166. 5. What leaders in education were contemporary with Herbart? 6. What are the chief educational doctrines of Herbart? 7. Were these new or only differently clothed? 8. What would you give as his educational ideal ? 9. What would you consider the most helpful thing he did for edu- cation? 10. How have his ideas been received in Germany? In America? 11. How do you account for this? 12. How did Herbart differ from Rousseau and Pestalozzi? Herhartianism and Instruction. 1. What does Herhartianism include? 2. Define interest as used by Herbart? 3. What do you understand as the meaning of apperception? 4. What other terms are similarly used? 5. Explain the formal steps of instruction. Of what importance are they to the recitation? 6. What do you understand by Concentration, Culture Epoch, Cor- relation, Coordination, etc.? Why are these terms associated with the name of Herbart ? 7. What form of coordination appeals to you? 8. What is your criticism of Herhartianism? 9. How do you account for the seeming lack of appreciation of Her- hartianism in Europe and the greater interest in this country? 341] APPENDIX 341 KANT (1724-1804). FICHTE (1726-1814). Browning. O. Educational Theories, p. 165. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 332, 336. Fichte, J. G. The Nature of the Scholar. Dub. Univ., 62:60 (1863). Immortality of Man. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:29. Pestalozzi's System of Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 4: 150; 8:192. Kant's Educational Views. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:28, 48; 10:135, 137, 191; 11:235. Kant's Appeal for Basedow's Philanthropinum. Am. Jour. Educa., S :. 504. Seth, A. Adamson's Study of Fichte. Mind, 6:583. 342 APPENDIX [342 FROEBEL (1782-1852). EDUCATION THROUGH SELF- ACTIVITY. Barnard, H. Kindergarten and Child Culture, p. 279. Froebel's System of Infant Gardens. Am. Jour. Educa., 2:449-451. Bates, Lois. Kindergarten Guide. Blow, Susan E. Froebel — Symbolic Education. The Songs and Music of Froebel's Mother Play. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 332. Bowen, H. C. Froebel and Education through Self-activity. Browning, O. Educational Theories, p. 164. Buchner, Edw. F. Froebel from a Psychological Standpoint. Educa., 15:105-113; 169-173. Butler, N. M. Some Criticisms of the Kindergarten. Educa. Rev., 18: 285-291. Carter, Marion Hamilton. The Kindergarten Child — After the Kin- dergarten. Atian. Mo., 83 :358. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 446 ff. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 235. Froebel, F. Pedagogics of the Kindergarten. Mother-play and Nursery Songs. Autobiography. Education of Man. Autobiography. Am. Jour. Educa., 30 :643-67o. Gill, John. Systems of Education, p. 154 ff. Hailmann, W. N. Kindergarten Culture ; also Lectures on History of Pedagogy. From Pestalozzi to Froebel. Proc. N. E. A., 1880, 128-137. Hanschmann, A. B. The Kindergarten System : Its Origin and De- velopment. (Translated by Fanny Franks.) Harris, W. T. Early History of the Kindergarten in St. Louis. Report U. S. Com. Educa., 1896-1897, i :899-922. Heinemann, A. H. (editor). Froebel's Letters. Herford, W. H. The Student's Froebel. Hughes, J. L. Froebel's Educational Laws ; also Review. Pop. Sci. Mo., 51 :4i9. Infant Schools in New Lanark. Am. Jour. Educa., 26: 411. Hughes, Jas. L. Comparison of the Educational Theories of Froebel and Herbart. Proc. N. E. A., 1895, 538-551. A Natural System of Education. Pop. Sci. Mo., 45 : 207. Future Evolution of the Kindergarten. Educa., 22: 459 (Ap.). 343] APPENDIX 343 Kemp, E. L. History ot Education, p. 291. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 328. Lange, W. Reminiscences of Froebel. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:833-845. Marenholtz-Biilow. Educational Views of Froebel. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:81, 324. Reminiscences of Froebel. (Translated by Mary Mann.) Meyer, Bertha. Aids to Family Government, p. 116. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideal, p. 195 ff. Normal Schools of Home and Colonial Infant and Juvenile School Society. Am. Jour. Educa., 9 :44g. Normal School at Battersea. Am. Jour. Educa., 9:170. Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2:117. Peabody, E. P. Principles and Methods of Froebel in the Nursery. Am. Jour. Educa., 30 :499. Plea for Froebel's Kindergarten. Am. Jour. Educa., 30 :493- Individuality and Personality in His System. Educa., I :6i6. Origin and Growth. Educa., 2 :507. Quick, R. Educational Reformers (Appleton), p. 384. Kindergartens. Encyc. Brit., 14:79. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 272. Shirreff, E. Educational Principles of the Kindergarten. Educa., 1 : 425- Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 229. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 125. Wendhausen, Baroness von Biilow. Froebel's System of Education and the Spread of the Kindergarten. Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1899-1900, I :883-904. Wiggin, Kate D. Froebel's Gifts and Froebel's Occupations: Kinder- garten Principles and Practice, pp. i, 43, 92, 145. Children's Rights. White, E. W. Christian. Kindergarten of Froebel. Cath. World, 56: 507. Williams, T. Kindergarten Movement. Cent., 23 :369. Winship, W. E. Sketch of Froebel's Symbolic Education. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45 :ii2. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. Froebel, a student of Pestalozzi, was also an original thinker and ad- mirable teacher. I. His early life, environment, education and character? The follow- ing outline, to be filled in and enlarged in class, is given as a guide to the above topic : 344 APPENDIX f344 Frederick Wilhelni August Froebel, son of a Lutheran minister, born April 21, 1782. His motiier dying during his infancy, he is left to the care of servants and (age 4) to a stepmother. Educated by his uncle in the town school of Stadt-Ilm, from his tenth year to his fourteenth; spends two years in surveying and forestry, and nearly two years in mathematics and science at the University of Jena ; accepts a position as clerk of forestry at Bamberg, and later becomes an accountant of a large estate near Baireuth. He begins, in 1805, through the advice of his brother, the study of architecture at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he meets Dr. Gruner, who discovers that he is a born teacher. Through Dr. Gruner's advice he gives up architecture and enters Frankfort Model School as a teacher. Dr. Gruner is a disciple of Pestalozzi, and through him Froebel visits Pestalozzi at Yverdon, and is delighted, puzzled, dis- satisfied. Two years later Froebel resigns his position in the Frank- fort schools to devote his time to making himself a better teacher, but accepts complete charge of the three sons of Frau Holzhausen. He tries to follow in their education Rousseau's idea of isolation, but be- comes dissatisfied with the principle, and spends two years with the boys at Yverdon, under the shadow of the institute. Finishing his task with the boys in iBii, he enters Gottingen University to devote himself to further study of language and science. In 1812 he enters the University of Berlin, where he soon becomes an assistant to Professor Weiss in natural history and mineralogy. In 1813 he enters the Prussian army against France, and becomes intimately acquainted with Middendorfif and Langethal. He resigns his university position in 1816 to open his " Universal German Educational Institute " at Griesheim, later at Kiel- hau, where he becomes the private tutor of the five sons of his two brothers, Christopher and Christian. 1. Compare the life and work of Froebel with that of Rousseau and of Pestalozzi. 2. With Rousseau and Pestalozzi the emotions swayed the intellect. How was this in regard to Froebel? 3. Describe Froebel as a writer, teacher, philosopher. 4. Describe the school at Kielhau. 5. What are the leading educational works of Froebel? 6. What are some of the important educational principles found in his "Education of Man?" 7. What was Froebel's leading educational ideal? Upon what philo- sophical belief was it based? 8. Although anticipated before, the Kindergarten was Froebel's best gift to humanity. What benefit to the child did Froebel hope to gain by the Kindergarten ? 9. What are the Gifts and Occupations, and their purposes? 345] APPENDIX 345 10. Name some of the strong and some of the weak points of the kindergarten, as at present conducted. 11. Frocbel believed that children were elevated by mutual associa- tion, while Rousseau believed that such association would be injurious. Which is right? 346 APPENDIX [346 EDUCATION OF WOMEN AND WOMEN AS EDUCATORS. THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Among the prominent changes in educational thought at the close of the i8th century was the increasing belief in universal education, includ- ing the principles of gratuity, obligation, secularization, and centraliza- tion. Note in regard to centralization the establishment of the Imperial University of France, with its feeders, the National System of Educa- tion of Germany, the beginning of the Monitorial System in England, and the development of the State Systems in the United States, etc. Compare these systems of education with our own of to-day. Up to the closing years of the i8th century, the education of girls was almost wholly neglected. The instruction of children and the edu- cation of women was rarely considered necessary. Among the things for which the nineteenth century will be remembered is the advance in the education of women and the greater attention given to the educa- tion of children. Barnard, H. Am. Jour. Educa. (see index). Case, Thomas. Against Oxford Degrees for Women. Fortn. Rev., 64 :89. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, pp. 212, 478. Crow, Martha F. Women in European Universities. Nation, 54 :247. Davidson, Thos. History of Education, p. 220 ff. Dobson, Austin. Four French Women. Dupanloup, F. A. P. Thoughts on Female Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 17 :623. Everett, E. Education of Women. Am. Jour. Educa., 9:635; 12:723. English Home Life and Education of Women. Am. Jour. Educa., 26 :369. Fawcett, Mrs. Henry. Some Eminent Women of Our Times. See index : Jane Austin, Maria Edgeworth, Hannah Moore. Fenelon, F. Education of Girls, in vol. 2 of his works (in French) ; see also Am. Jour Educa., 13 :486. Gill, J. Systems of Education, p. 48. Hall, G. S. Educational Reforms. Ped. Sem., i :i-i2. Hitchcock, E. Mary Lyon. Am. Jour. Educa., 10 :649. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 299, 862. Lange, Helene. Higher Education of Women in Europe. Earned, J. N. History for Ready Reference and Topical Reading, i : 710 (England) ; i :7i5 (France) ; i :7i9 (Prussia) ; i :743 (Educa. of Women in U. S.). Luxembourg, Adele. Women at Leipzig. Nation, 59 :247. Munroe, J. P. Educational Ideals, p. 207. 347] APPEN'DIX 347 Payne, Jos. History of Education, 2 :50. Raumer, K. G. von. Education of Women. Am. Jour. Educa., lo: 227, 613. Seeley, L. History of Education (see index). Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education, pp. 140, 147, 152, 159, 161, 206, 251. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, pp. 100, 509. Special Training of Women. Am. Jour. Educa., 3 : 485. 495- U. S. Bureau of Education. Annual Reports (see index). Steffens, J. B. Women Students and Women Teachers in Germany. Nation. 59:232. See afto Nation, 58:116, 137, 154, 193, 212, 271. 1. Account for the rapid increase of woman's influence in education. 2. Who were some of the women educators ushering in the change? 3. Upon what phases of education did their writings principally treat? 4. What ideas advanced by them of woman's place and work are held to be true to-day? 5. Compare the educational views of Maria Edgeworth with those of Froebel. 6. To what do you attribute the increasing importance placed upon the education of women at the beginning of the 19th century? Madame de Remusat's Characterization of Women. " We lack continuity and depth when we would apply ourselves to general questions. Endowed with a quick intelligence, we hear promptly, and we even divine and see just as well as men ; but too easily moved to remain impartial, too mobile to be profound, perceiving is easier for us than observing. Prolonged attention wearies us ; we are, in short, more mild than patient. More sensitive and more devoted than men, women are ignorant of that sort of selfishness which an independent being ex- hibits outwardly as a consciousness of his own power. To obtain from them any activity whatever, it is almost always necessary to interest them in the happiness of another. Their very faults are the outgrowths of their condition. The same cause will excite in man emotions of pride, and in woman only those of vanity." Compayre's History of Pedagogy, p. 488. 348 APPENDIX [348 BELL (1753-1832) AND LANCASTER (1778-1838) ; OR, THE MONITORL\L SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. Barnard, H. Am. Jour. Educa., 1:307; 10:323, 355, 461, 467, 503; 13: 150; 14:626; 15:106; 16:529. Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, p. 514. Gill, J. Systems of Education, pp. 162, 189. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 594. Bell and Lancaster's System of Education. Quart. Rev., 6:264. Leitch, Jas. Practical Educationalists and Their Systems, pp. 121, 142, 163, 204, 237. Lancastrian System of Education (Sydney Smith). Edinb. Rev., 9:177; 17:67; 19:1; 21:207. North Am. Rev., 18: 188. Educa., I :265. Mark, H. T. Educational Theories in England, pp. 118-119. Seeley, L. History of Education, p. 305 ff. Sharpless, Isaac. English Education, ch. i. Sonnenschein. Cyclopedia of Education, p. 225. 1. Give an account of the origin and manner of conducting the moni- torial system. 2. What are its advantages? Its disadvantages? 3. How do you account for the rapid spread of the system? 4. Is the monitorial system now used outside of Sunday-school work? 5. What was the general condition of education at the beginning of the 19th century? What provisions were made for the preparation of teachers ? 349] APPENDIX 349 HERBERT SPENCER (1820 ). Account of Spencer's Life. Rev. of Revs., 12:698. Adams, L. The Metaphysics of Evolution — Spencer's Principles of Psychology. New Englander, 34:419. Barnard, H. Thoughts on Education, from Works of Herbert Spencer. Am. Jour. Educa., 11:485; 13:372. Agnosticism of H. Spencer. Rev. of Revs., 12:88. Butler, N. M. What Knowledge is of Most Worth? Educa. Rev., 10: 105 ; also chap. 2 in " The Meaning of Education." Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, chap. 22, p. 535 f¥. Harris, W. T. Spencer and What to Study. Educa. Rev., 24:135. Henderson, C. H. Critics of Herbert Spencer. Educa., 10:297. Hudson, W. H. Herbert Spencer, with portrait ; also Arena, 5 :273. Spencer's Guiding Principles. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Herbert Spencev, with biographical sketch. Educa., 16:78, 144. The Man and His Work. Pop. Sci. Mo., 50 :433. Jordan, D. S. Spencer's Essay on Education. Cosmop., 29:266-276. Laurie, S. S. Herbert Spencer's Chapter on Moral Education. Educa. Rev., 4:485-491. Leitch, Jas. Educationalists and Their Systems, p. 239. Payne, Jos. Lectures on History of Education, 2:185. Quick, R. H. Educational Reformers (Appleton), p. 493; (Kellogg), pp. 234-268. Sper.cer's Essays. Sat. Rev., 71 :446. Spencer, Herbert. Principles of Psychology. New Englander, 32 :468. The Rights of Children and the True Principles of Family Government. Replies to Criticisms, Fortn. Rev., 20:581, 715. Education : Intellectual, Moral and Physical. Williams, -S. G. History of Modern Education, p. 337. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. 1. Ht;rbert Spencer's early life and education; writings; influence in changi^-ng thought? 2. 'rhe conditions of education in England at the beginning of this peri/od ? 3. What new view of life and of society was just beginning to dawn? '4. In what field of thought has Spencer been most prominent? A Study of Spencer's Education. Chapter I. What knowledge is of the most worth? I. What is the importance of knowing the relative value of studies? How is this value to be determined? 350 APPENDIX [350 2. What is Spencer's ideal of education ? 3. Does a knowledge of the laws of health prolong life? " Thus to the question with which we set out — What knowledge is of the most worth? — the uniform reply is, Science. This is the verdict on all the counts. " For the direct preservation, or the maintenance of life and health, the all-important knowledge is — Science. '■ For that indirect self-preservation which we call gaining a liveli- hood, the knowledge of the greatest value is — Science. " For the due discharge of parental functions, the proper guidance is to be found only in — Science. ■' For that interpretation of national life, past and present, without which the citizen cannot rightly regulate his conduct, the indispensable key is — Science. Alike for the most perfect production and highest enjoyment of art iP.-all its forms, the needful preparation is still — Science. And for the purposes of discipline, intellectual, moral, relig- ious, the most efficient study is, once more— Science." " We do not mean to say that tijese divisions are definitely separable. We do not deny that they are intricately entangled with each other in such way that there can be no training,, foi" any that is not, in some measure, a training for all. Nor do we qjiestion that for each division there are portions more important than cef^^'" portions of the pre- ceding divisions." '^ 1. What is included under the term Science? "\ 2. Give the principal arguments upon which the, ^^°^^ conclusions are reached? 3. What is your criticism of the chapter? Chapter II. Intellectual Education. " Were we in possession of the true method, divergci'^^^ from it would, of course, be prejudicial; but the true method ha ^'"^ ^^ ^^ found, the effects of the numerous independent seekers cari"^'"^ °"* their researches in different directions constitute a better agti^^^ finding it than any that could be devised." " Of the three phases through which human opinion passes"' unanimity of the ignorant, the disagreement of the inquiring, anc^ ^ unanimity of the wise — it is manifest that the second is the parent the third." " People are beginning to see that the first requisite to success in In * is to be a good animal." " In the acquirement of languages, the grammar-school plan is being superseded by plans based on the spontaneous process followed by the child in gaining its mother-tongue." " There is a spreading opinion that the rise of an appetite for any 35 1 ] APPENDIX 351 kind of knowledge implies that the unfolding mind has become fit to assimilate it, and needs it for the purpose of growth ; and that, on the other hand, the disgust felt toward any kind of knowledge is a sign that it is prematurely presented, or that it is presented in an indigestible form." " But if there is a more worthy aim for us than to become drudges ; if there are other uses in the things around us than their power to bring money ; if there are higher faculties to be exercised than acquisitive and sensual ones ; if the pleasures which poetry, art and science, and phil- osophy can bring are of any moment, then it is desirable that the in- stinctive inclination which every child shows to observe natural beau- ties and investigate phenomena should be encouraged." 4. What should be the range of object lessons? 5. What are some of the most helpful suggestions in the chapter on " Intellectual Education ?" Chapter III. Moral Education. 1. What is the use of ideals in education? 2. What does Spencer consider to be the true aim in moral education? 3. What are natural punishments? Are they uniform and just? 4. How is the law of natural consequences to be applied by parent and teacher? 5. When is Nature's method of discipline violated by society? 6. What is your opinion of Spencer's views as expressed in the chap- ter on Moral Education? " From whatever basis they start, all theories of morality agree in considering that conduct whose total results, immediate and remote, are beneficial, is good conduct ; while the conduct whose total results, imme- diate and remote, are injurious, is bad conduct." Advantages, as enumerated by Spencer, to be obtained by the appli- cation of the principle of natural consequences in discipline : " First, that it gives that rational comprehension of right and wrong which re- sults from actual experience of the good and bad consequences caused by them." " Second, that the child, suffering nothing more than the painful effects brought upon it by its own wrong actions, must recognize, more or less clearly, the justice of the penalties." "Third, that, recognizing the justice of the penalties, and receiving those penalties through the workings of things, rather than at the hands of an individual, its temper will be less disturbed ; while the parent, occupying the comparatively passive position of taking care that the natural penalties are felt, will preserve a comparative equanimity." " Fourth, that, mutual exasperation being thus, in great measure, prevented, a much happier and more influential state of feelings will exist between parent and child." 352 APPENDIX [352 " Command only in those cases in which other means are inapplicable, or have failed." " Bear constantly in mind the truth that the aim of your discipline should be to produce a self-governing being — not to produce a being to be governed by others." " Not only will you have constantly to analyze the motives of your children, but you will have to analyze your own motives — to discrimi- nate between those internal suggestions springing from a true parental solicitude, and those which spring from your own selfishness. ... In brief, you will have to carry on your higher education at the same time that you are educating your children." Chapter IV. Physical Education. 1. Account for the greater interest manifested in the training of ani- mals than of children. 2. Why is the physical development of children of so much import- ance? 3. To what organic laws are all living creatures subject? 4. Which is the more dangerous, under or over-feeding? Why? 5. What is the proper guide in determining the kind and amount of the child's food? 6. What are the best foods? 7. What is Spencer's view of the hardening process? 8. Does Spencer agree with Locke on physical education? Explain. " But, paying due regard to those two qualifications, our conclusions are : that food of children should be highly nutritive, that it should be varied at each meal and at successive meals, and that it should be abun- dant." " With clothing, as with food, the established tendency is towards an improper scantiness." " Among the sensations serving for our guidance are those of heat and cold ; and a clothing for children which does not carefully consult these sensations is to be condemned. The common notion about hardening is a grievous delusion." " Our conclusions are, then, that while the clothing of children should never be in excess, so as to create oppressive warmth, it should always be sufficient to prevent any general feeling of cold." " We do not yet sufficiently realize the truth that as, in this life of ours, the physical underlies the mental, the mental must not be devel- oped at the expense of the physical." 353] APPENDIX 353 ALEXANDER BAIN (1818 ). For references, see Card Catalogue and Pool's Index. 1. What are the most important divisions of his work on "Education as a Science?" 2. What is the nature and educational importance of his work? 3. Compare the educational views of Spencer and Bain. 4. Make a list of the three best references in the library on Bain as an educator. 5. Name a few other educational writers of England during this period who have won international fame. 6. What were some of the more important changes in the educational system of England during the 19th century? 354 Arrn^^mx [354 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN AMtRICA A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA Adams, Francis. The Free School System of the United States. Lon- don, 1875. Adams, H. B. Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia. U. S. Bureau Educa. Circ. Information, No.i, 1888. Bacon, Leonard. Genesis of New England Churches. Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education. 31 volumes ; and Index published by the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Also, American Pedagogy — Education, the School, and the Teacher. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States. Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. Campbell, D. The Puritan in Holland, England, and America. Clews, Elsie W. Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Governments. Coflfin, Chas. C. Old Times in the Colonies. Drake, S. A. The Making of New England. Earle, Alice M. Customs and Fashions in New England. Eggleston, E. The Beginnings of a Nation. Also, The Transit of Civi- lization from England to America. Fiske, John. The Beginnings of New England. Also, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. Ford, Paul L. The New England Primer. Gilman, A. History of the American People. Green, J. R. History of the English People. Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contemporaries. Johnson, C. The Country Schools in New England. Kiddle, Henry, and Schem, Alex. J. Cyclopedia of Education. Lodge. H. C. The English Colonies in America. History of the English Colonies in America. Mann, Horace. Life and Works. 5 volumes. Martin, Geo. H. Evolution of Massafhusetts Public School System. Meriwether, C. History of Higher Education in South Carolina. U. S. Bureau Educa. Circ. Information, No. 3, 1883. Powell, L. P. History of Education in Delaware. U. S. Bureau Educa, Circ. Information, No. 3, 1893. 355] APPE^rDIX 355 Randalls, S. S. History of the Common School System of the State of New York Since 1795. Shoup, W. J. History and Science of Education. Smith, Chas. L. History of Education in North Carolina. U. S. Bureau Educa. Circ. Information, No. 2, 1888. Steiner, B. C. History of Education in Maryland. U. S. Bureau Educa. Circ. Information, No. 2, 1894. Also, History of Education in Connecticut. U. S. Bureau Educa. Circ. Information, No. 2, 1893. Stockwell, Thos. B. History of Public Education in Rhode Island. Tolman, W. H. History of Higher Education in Rhode Island. U. S. Bureau Educa. Circ. Information, No. i, 1894. Wickersham, Jas. P. History of Education in Pennsylvania. Wightman, Jos. M. Annals of the Boston Primary School Committee, 1818-1855. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education. For a more complete bibliography, add to the above the important histories of the United States, cyclopedias, state educational histories and reports, annual reports from the United States Commissioner of Education, circulars of information U. S. Bureau of Education, pro- ceedings of the National Educational Association and the American In- stitute of Instruction, and such educational periodicals as Education, School Review, and Educational Review. The following bibliographies will be of service to the student in the history of education : Bibliog- raphy of Education, by G. S. Hall and J. M. Mansfield, 1886; Catalogue of Pedagogical Library, Philadelphia, by Jas. MacAlister, 1887 ; Bib- liography of Education, by W. S. Monroe, 1897 ; Books on Education, in the Columbia University Libraries, 1901 ; and Bibliography of Cur- rent Educational Literature, by J. I. Wyer and Isabel E. Lord, as pub- lished annually since 1900 in the Educational Review, New York City, appearing usually in the June number of each year. The last reference is especially valuable on account of its careful evaluation of most of the educational literature referred to. 356 APPENDIX [356 EARLY COLONIAL EDUCATION, 1607-1660. a. Our European ancestors : English, Dutch. French, Spanish, Swedes, etc. GENERAL DIRECTION FOR STUDY. 1. Who were they? 2. Whence did they come? 3. Where did they settle? 4. General intellectual development in their old homes, i. e., educa- tional conditions, including schools, educational and religious ideals? 5. Class of people who came? 6. Object in coming, whether for mere adventure, or to better their social, religious, or educational condition ? 7. How did their new environments change their views of life? 8. What provisions did they make for education? 9. How did these differ from the educational conditions they left? Puritans. Bacon, L. Genesis of New England Churches, p. 67. Bancroft, G. History of the United States (D. Appleton & Co.), I :224, 311. Bjnngton, E. H. The Puritan in England and New England, pp. "jg, 222-225, 249. Campbell, D. Puritan in Holland, England and America. Coffin, Chas. C. Old Times in the Colonies. Davis, W. T. Who were the Pilgrims? Harper, 64:246. Doyle, J. A. English Colonies in America, vol. 2, chaps, i. 2. Drake, S. A. Making of New England. Edwards, T. Pilgrims and Puritans. Scrib. Mo.. 12:212. Ellis, G. E. Puritan Age, etc., chaps. 3, 4, 5. An English Nation. Harper, 66:706. Gilman, A. History of American People, pp. 91, 576 ff. Green, J. R. History of the English People, vol. 3, chaps, i, 2. Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contemporaries (Family Life), I :5i2. Hildreth, R. History of the United States, vol. I, chaps. 6, 7. Lodge, H. C. Short History of English Colonies in America, pp. 344, 436, 464 fif. Palfrey, J. G. History of New England. Stowell, W. H.. and Wilson. D. History of Puritan and Pilgrim Fath- ers, pp. 468, 475. 477, 480, .485. 4S7-9, 497. Thwaites, R. G. The Colonies, pp. 178-194. Winsor, J. Narrative and Critical History of America, 3:240. 242, 281. 357] APPENDIX 357 Cavaliers. Bancroft, G. History of the United States, i :84, 408. Coffin, Chas. C. Old Times in the Colonies, pp. 211-215. Cavaliers in America. New Eng., 23:651. Cooke, J. E. Virginia: A History of the People, pp. i, 167 ff. Doyle, J. A. English Colonies in America, i :38i-395. Fiske, J. Beginning of New England, chaps, i and 4. Green, J. R. History of the English People, 3 :58. Hildreth, R. History of the United States, 1:99, 204, 335, 509; 2:25. Ridpath, J. C. History of the United States, p. 85. Thwaites, R. G. The Colonies, pp. ii-iii. Winsor, J. Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. 3, chs. 4, 5. " I have a . . . thrice seven years' experience in this despicable, but comfortable, employment of teaching Schoole. . . . But, alas, we that wholly undergo the burden of school-teaching, can tell by our own ex- perience how laborious it is, both to mind and body, to be continually intent upon the work, and how irksome it is (especially to a man of quiet temper) to have so many unwilling provocations into passions ; what good parts for learning and right qualifications in all points of behavior are required of us ; how small our yearly stipend is, and how uncertain all our other incomes are. Again, we call to mind the too much indul- gency of some parents, who neither love to blame their children's un- towardness, nor suffer the Master to correct it. We remember their generall ingratitude for the Master's well-doing, and their open clamour for his least doing amisse ; we observe their common indiscretion in wholly imputing the Scholar's lesse profitting to the Master's more neglect, and their own happy thriving to their own onely towardliness ; not to mention their fond ambition in hastening them too fast. Besides, small account which the vulgar have, the too censorious eye which the more judicious cast, and the slight regard which our Academicians (for the most part) carry toward the poor School-Master makes us some- times judge our calling (as many do) too mean for a scholar to under- take or desire to stick to too many years." A New Discovery of the Old Art of Teaching Schoole. By Charles Hoole. London, 1659. " If any christian, so called, . . . shall contemptuously behave himself toward the word preached, or ye messengers thereof called to dispence ye same, in any congregation, ... or, like a sonn of Corah, cast upon his true doctrine, or himself, any reproach, . . . shall for ye first scan- dole be convented . . . and bound to their good behaviour; and if a second time they breake forth into ye like contemptuous carriages, either to pay £5 to ye publike treasury, or to stand two houres openly upon a block 4 foote high, on a lecture day, with a pap fixed on the breast, with 358 APPENDIX [358 this, "A WANTON GOSPELLER," written in capitall letters, yt others may fear and be ashamed of breaking out into the Hke wicked- ness." Records of Massachusetts. II:i79 (4 Nov., 1646). Quakers. Adams, C. F. Three Episodes in Massachusetts History (see index). Applegarth, A. G. Quakers in Pennsylvania. Mag. Am. Hist., 28:353. Arnold, S. G. History of the State of Rhode Island, 1:264-270; 2:85, 137, 510. Bancroft, G. History of the United States, i :528. Clarkson, T. Portraiture of Quakerism. Edinb. Rev., 10, 85. Coffin, Chas. C. Old Times in the Colonies, p. 216. Fiske, J. Beginnings of New England, p. 177 flf. Garrison, W. P. Some Primitive Quakers. Nation, 5 :392. Gilman, A. History of American People, pp. 129, 152-162. Greene, G. W. A Short History of Rhode Island (see index). Hildreth, R. History of the United States, i :339, 453, 474, 475. Lodge, H. C. English Colonies in America (see index). Modern Quakerism. Edinb. Rev., 87 :503. Winsor, J. Memorial History of Boston, i :i79, 195. Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. 3 (see index). Dutch. Bancroft, G. History of the United States, 1:475; 4:i30- Barnard, H. Development of Public Instruction in Holland. Am. Jour. Educa., 8:595; 14:495, 641. Scheme of Education by Synod of Dort, 1618. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 -.77. Campbell, D. Puritan in Holland, England and America, 1:32, 158; 2: Z2,7 ff-- 466. Coffin, Chas. C. Old Times in the Colonies, pp. 42, 195, 224. Drake, S. A. The Making of Virginia and Middle Colonies, p. 108 Q.. Draper, A. S. Public School Pioneering in New York. Educa. Rev., 3:313- Eggleston, E. The Beginnings of a Nation. Migrations of American Colonists : Dutch. Cent., 3 :724. Fiske, J. Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, chaps, i, 2, 8, 15. Griffis, W. E. Dutch Influence in New England. Harper, 88:213. Leyden and Its Archives. Nation, 55:143. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education. See Netherlands. Lamb, Mrs. M. J. History of the City of New York. Lodge, H. C. A Short History of the English Colonies in America (see index). 359] APPENDIX 359 Martin, G. H. Public School Pioneering. Educa. Rev., 5:232, 345, 406. Motley, J. L. History of the United Netherlands. Life and Death of John of Barneveld, 2:405, O'Callaghan, F. B. Documentary History of New York. Roberts, E. H. New York, vol. i, chaps. 2-6. Thwaites, R. G. The Colonies, pp. 50, 195 ff. Huguenots. Arnold, S. C. History of the State of Rhode Island (see index). Baird, C. Huguenot Emigration to America (a review). Atlan. Mo., 55 :843. Bancroft, Geo. History of the United States, i :432. Coffin, Chas. C. Old Times in the Colonies, pp. 30, 148, 341. Carlyle, Thos. French Revolution. Guizot, F. P. G. History of France. Graves, H. The Huguenots in New England. New Eng. Mag., 11:497 (New Series, 1894-1895). Jackson, S. M. Huguenots. Johnson's Cyclopedia, 4:400. Kitchin, G. W. History of France, 3:1 ff., 78, 182. Lawrence, E. Huguenots. Harper, 41 :8oi. Ramsey, D. History of South Carolina, p. 23. Taine, H. A. Ancient Regime (transl. by J. Durand), pp. 62, 135, 209, 287. The Huguenot Captain. Blackw., 38:790; 39:17- Tocqueville, A. Old Regime and the Revolution. Thwaites, R. G. The Colonies (see index). Van Laun, H. French Revolutionary Epoch. Weiss, G. French Protestant Refugees (a review). Blackw., 74:1. SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS. Observe in your study the questions and suggestions as offered in the first outline on American education. I. Whence originated our common school system? In addition to the references given above, see : Am. Jour. Educa., 10:32. E. Ingle, in Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Pol. Sci., 3: 116 ff. Also for Scotch-Irish Ancestors: Bancroft, Hist, of the U. S., 1 :43i, 500; 2:266; 3 :28. J. Palfrey, Hist, of the N. E., I, p. 8; cf. pref., II, 389; IV, table of contents, see p. 461. Also German ancestry: Ban- croft, Hist, of the U. S., 2 :265. Kiddle & Schem, Cyc. of Educa., p. 361. 36q appendix [360 EDUCATION DURING COLONIAL PERIOD. 1. What provisions were made for elementary education in the dif- ferent colonies? 2. To what extent were these early schools free? 3. What were the subjects of study, the kind of text-books, and the nature of the discipline and instruction ? 4. How did the schools of the colonies differ from those of Europe during the same period? 5. Who were the teachers? How esteemed? How prepared? How supported ? 6. Compare the provisions for education among the various settle- ments. 7. What other sources of education had the colonists? New England. Adams, C. F. Three Episodes of Massachusetts History, 2 '.764, 800. Bacon, Leonard. Genesis of New England Churches, p. 306 ff. Bailey, Sarah L. Historical Sketches of Andover, p. i. Barry, J. S. History of Massachusetts Colonial Period, chaps. 2-7. Biography of Ezekiel Cheever. Am. Jour. Educa., i :297. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 14. Dexter, F. B. Influence of English University. Mass, Hist. Soc. Proc, 17 :340. Dexter, H. M. As to Roger Williams and His Banishment from the Massachusetts Plantation, with a few further words concerning the Baptists, Quakers, and Religious Liberty. Drake, S. A. Making of New England. Earle, Alice. Customs and Fashions in New England. Eggleston, E. Transit of Civilization from England to America, chaps. I, 3 (see topics on margins of pages), 4, 5. Early New England Schools and Teachers. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:7^,7. Fiske, John. The Beginnings of New England, p. 151. Goodwin, J. A. The Pilgrims' Republic (Schools of New England), pp. 494-497- Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contemporaries. New Eng- land Life, I 1467. Connecticut Laws, i :493. Intellectual Life of the Colonies, 2 :255-2go. Hawthorne, N. Wonder-Book and Tanglewood Tales, p. 505. Kiddle & Schem. Cyclopedia of Education — Mass., N. H., Conn., R. L Lodge, H. C. History of the English Colonies in America, p. 464. Mann, Horace. Life and Works, 2:273; 4:106. 36 1] APPENDIX 361 Martin, Geo. H. Evolution of Massachusetts Public School System. New Haven Early Educational Movements. Am. Jour. Educa., 11:328; 28: 286. Tyler, M. C. History of American Literature, i :98 ff. Periodicals on New England. Adams, H. Palfrey's History of New England, 1689-1740. North Am. Rev., 121 :473. Beane, C. Johnson's Wonder-Working Providence in New England. North Am. Rev., 106:319. Common Schools in Rhode Island. North Am. Rev., 67 :240. Cram, Sarah E. Leaves from an Old Church Record. New Eng. Mag., 16:309 (new series, 1897). Eggleston, E. Planting of New England. Cent., 3 :350. Fathers of New England. Edinb. Rev.. 102:542; North Am. Rev., 68:82. Fiske, John. New England in the Colonial Period. Harper, 66:111. Kigginson, T. W. Puritan Minister. Atlan. Mo., 12:265. Hill, A. L. Travel in Early New England. New Eng. Mag., 17:83 (new series, 1897-1898). Mead, E. D. Why Did the Pilgrims Come to New England? New Englander, 41 :yii. Mowry, W. A. The First American Public School. Educa., 21 :535. New England Primer. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:379; Bookman, 4:122; Dial, 24:139; Nation, 66:309; Am. Hist. Rev., 3:372; Mag. Am. Hist., 20:148 (1888). New England in the 17th Century. Cath. World, 12:702. O'Callaghan, Rev. P. New England and the Formation of America. Cath. World, 64 :344. Palmar, R. Puritan Clergy of New England. New Englander, 14 :497. Palfrey, J. G. New England Character. North Am. Rev., 44:237. Phipps, A. J. High Schools of Massachusetts, Origin and Progress. Fortieth Annual Report of Secretary of Board of Education for Massachusetts, 1875-1876, B, p. 34. Poole, W. F. Witchcraft and Cotton Mather. North Am. Rev., 108: Z2,7- Slade, W. A. Two Champions of Religious Liberty. New Eng. Mag., 17:342 (new series, 1897-1898). Small, W. H. Girls in Colonial Schools. Educa.. 22:532. Ye Colonial School Wood Tax. Educa., 21 :592. Warner, O. Colleges. Fortieth Annual Report of Secretary of Board of Education for Massachusetts, 1875-1876, C, p. 48. See also Report on Academies and Normal Schools. 362 APPENDIX [362 Middle Colonies. Answer to Request Concerning College of New York. In Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New York, 8:296. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, pp. 7, 53-58. Brantly, W. T. English in Maryland, 1632-1691. In Winsor's Nar. and Crit. Hist., 3:517. Fernow, B. Middle Colonies in Winsor's Nar. and Crit. Hist., 5:189. Fiske, J. Middle Colonies before the Revolution. Harper, 66:913. Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contemporaries : Life in the Middle Colonies, i :576-5go. Lamb, M. J. History of the City of New York, i :72, 123, 124, 158, 181, 231. O'Callaghan, E. B. History of New Netherlands. Stone, F. D. Founding of Pennsylvania. In Winsor's Nar. and Crit. Hist, 3 :469. Extract from Collections of Massachusetts Historical Society (2d series), 8:66. " Concerning the civilizing and instructing of the Indians in the knowledge of God and human learning, there is a small college of fab- rick of brick erected at Cambridge, peculiarly appropriate to the In- dians, which was built on the account, and by the order of the corpora- tion. There are eight Indian youths (one whereof is in the college and ready to commence bachellor of arts), besides another in like capacity, a few months since, with several English, murdered by the Indians at Nantucket, and at other schools, some ready to come into the college, all which are maintained on the stock's account and charge." "Touching other schools, there is by law enjoined a school to be kept and maintained in every town, and for such towns as are of 100 fami- lies they are required to have a grammar school. The country is gener- ally well provided of schools." "There are six towns of Indians within this jurisdiction, who profess Christian religion, who have lands and townships set forth and appro- priated to them by this court. There are also persons appointed to govern and instruct them in civility and religion, and to decide contro- versies amongst them. The Sabbath is constantly kept by them, and they all attend to the publick worship of God. They have schools to teach their children to read and write in several of their towns, and many of their youth, and some older persons, can read and write. If you please to be an eye or ear witness of the truth of these things, we have appointed the persons that attend to this work to wait upon you and show you their towns and manners." " May II, 1665. Edward Rawson, Sec'y" 363] APPENDIX 363 Southern Colonies. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 58. Campbell, D. The Puritan in Holland, England and America, 1 :32. Cooke, J. E. Virginia : History of the People. Doyle, G. A. English Colonies in America, i :26g, 391. Drake, S. A. The Making of Virginia and Middle Colonies, i fF. Fiske, J. Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, i : ch. 7; 2: chs. 14 and 15. Maryland and the Far South. Harper, 66:414. Gambrall, T. C. History of Early Maryland, p. 128, 138. Gayarre, C. History of Louisiana. Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contemporaries : Southern Colonial Life, i :285. Hawks, F. L. History of North Carolina. Ingle, E. Local Institutions of Virginia. Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Pol. Sci., 3:114, 116 flf. Latana, J. H. Puritan Supremacy in Virginia and Maryland. Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Pol. Sci., 13:171 (Art. No. III). Mcllwaine, H. R. Religious Controversy in Virginia. Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Pol. Sci., 12:175 (Art. No. IV). Mayer, F. B. Old Maryland Manners. Scribners, 17:315. New England's First Fruits. Harvard College. Old South Leaflets, No. 51, vol. 3. Phelan, James. History of Tennessee. Ramage, B. J. Local Government and Free Schools in South Carolina. Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Pol. Sci., Vol. i. No. XII. Ramsey, D. History of South Carolina. Scharf, J. T. The Chronicles of Baltimore. Shaler, N. S. Kentucky, a Pioneer Commonwealth. Virginia and New England. Atlan. Mo., 6:700. Thwaites, R. G. The Colonies, pp. 64 ff., 258 ff., 280 ff. Winsor, J. Maryland and Virginia. In Nar. and Crit. Hist., 5 :259. The Carolinas, p. 285 (W. J. Rivers). COLONIAL COLLEGES AND ACADEMIES. .Adams, H. B. Jefferson and the University of Virginia. U. S. Bureau of Education Circular of Information, 1888, Circular I. Education in North Carolina; same, Circ. 2. Higher Education in South Carolina ; same, Circ. 3. Education in Georgia ; same, Circ. 4. Academies. Dictionary of U. S. Hist, (edited by J. F. Jameson), p. 6. Academies and Other Schools in New England and New York. Quarterly Register and Journal of the Amer- ican Education Society, 2:231-237. 364 APPENDIX [364 Acadamies, High Schools and Gymnasia. Quarterly Register of the American Education Society, 3:288- 292. Academy, The Old Village. Atlan. Mo., 72:853-855. Incorporate Academies and Seminaries. Am. Jour. Educa., 30:760-808. The Old Academies (N. Atlan.). New Englander, 44: 104. Phillips' Academy. Am. Jour. Educa., 6:56, 75. The American Educational Society. Am. Jour. Educa., 14:367. Adams, Chas. Kendall. Ought the State to Provide for Higher Edu- cation ? New Englander, 27 :362-384. Review of Ten Brook's American State Uni- versities, Their Origin and Progress. North Am. Rev., 121 :36s-4o8. Beardsley, W. A. First Attempt to Found an American College. Mag. Am. Hist., 29:367. Campbell, C. Virginia, p. 158. Colleges. Dictionary of U. S. Hist, (edited by J. F. Jameson), p. 146. History of Various Colleges. Am. Jour. Educa., 5 : 521, 541, 715; 7:467; 9:129; 24:146, 152; 27:56, 58, 129; 30:737, 753- Harper, 69:715, 813. New Eng- lander, 36 :445. Common Schools and Public Instruction. Am. Jour. Educa., 24 :225. Coniey, A. M. Growth of New England Colleges. Educa. Rev., i :209. Cooper, J. C. Student in College. New Englander, 37 :6io. Davis, A. M. Search for a Lost Building. Atlan. Mo., 66: 211. Gray, J. C. Wayland on Colleges in the United States. North Am. Rev., 72:60. Hammond, Rev. Chas. Common Schools and Higher Seminaries. New Englander, 6:313. History of Philadelphia Academy. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:473. New England Academies and Classical Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 16 :403 ; also Rept. U. S. Comr. Educa., 1867-1868, pp. 403-429. Ten Brook, Andrew. American State Universities : Their Origin and Progress. Chapters i, 2, 3. Thwing, C. F. Increasing Cost of College Education. Forum, 18:630. Ticknor, G. Free Schools of New England. North Am. Rev., 19:448. See also Am. Jour. Educa., i :297. 365 J APPENDIX 365 See Encyclopedia and Index to Am. Jour. Educa., for additional ref- erences. Colleges Founded Prior to 1800. I. Harvard, Massachusetts, 1637. Cong. 2. William and Mary, Virginia, 1693, Episc. 3. Yale, Connecticut, 1701, Cong. 4- Princeton, New Jersey, 1746, Presby. 5. University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, 1749, Non-sec. 6. Columbia, New York, 1754, Episc. 7- Brown, Rhode Island, 1764, Bap. 8. Dartmouth New Hampshire, 1769, Cong. 9- Queen's, New Jersey, 1770, Ref. 10. Hampden-Sydney, Virginia, 1776, Presby. II. Washington and Lee, Virginia, 1782, Non-sec. 12. Washington University, Maryland, 1782, Non-sec. 13. Dickinson, Pennsylvania, 1783, Meth-Episc, 14. St. John's, Maryland, 1784, Non-sec. 15. Nashville, Tennessee, 1785, Non-sec. 16. University of North Carolina, , North Carolina, 1789, Non-sec. 17. Georgetown, Dis. of Columbia , 1799, R. Cath. 18. University of Vermont, Vermont, 1791, Non-sec. 19. University of Tennessee, Tennessee, 1792, Non-sec. 20. Williams, Massachusetts, ^79Z, Cong. 21. Bowdoin, Maine, 1794, Non-sec. 22. Union, New York, I79S> Non-sec. 22. Middlebury, Vermont, 1795. Cong. 24. Frederick College, Maryland, 1796, Non-sec. 1. What were some of the more important early academies? 2. Do any of these continue to prosper? 3. Why have academies failed to prosper in the West? 4. What were the principal influences that led to the establishment of the above colleges? 5. Through what means were they established? 6. How were they supported? 7. The class of students ; the kind of work offered ; the nature of the discipline? 8. What is the present condition of the above colleges? " After God had carried us safe to New England, and wee had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our livelihood, reared convenient places for God's worship, and settled the Civill Government: One of the next things we longed for, and looked after, was to advance Learning, and perpetuate it to our Posterity, dreading to leave an illiterate Min- 366 APPENDIX [366 istry to the Churches when our present Ministers shall lie in Dust. And as wee were thinking and consulting how to effect this great Work, it pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr. Harvard (a godly Gentle- man and a lover of Learning, there living amongst us) to give the one- half of his estate (it being in all about 1700 lbs.) toward the erecting of a College and all his Library. After him another gave 300 lbs. ; others after them cast in more, and the publique hand of the state added the rest." From New England's First Fruits: Old South Leaflets, No. 51. 367] APPENDIX 367 PERIOD OF REORGANIZATION AND EDUCATIONAL FORMATION, 1790-1840. SUGGESTION OF TOPICS. Rapid growth in population ; in industries ; in education ; in period- icals. Change in ideals. The influence of religion on education becoming a less prominent factor, while utility and education for its own sake increase in im- portance. Growth of the idea that education is the birth-right of every indi- vidual. Sources of school funds and how controlled. Beginning of a permanent school fund ; how obtained and how dis- tributed. Beginning of State supervision ; of county and city supervision. Nature and conditions of the schools. Ideas of education as expressed by some of the leading men of the time. Barnard, H. American Pedagogy, pp. 305-335. Benton, T. H. (editor). Abridgement of the Debates of Congress (1789-1856), 10:238, 581. Boston Latin School (E. Everett). Am. Jour. Educa., 7:344; 12:356; (W. B. Fowle) 13:745; 12:529; s. a., 27:65. The Girls' High School, 12 :435 ; 13 :243. Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools, chaps. 10 and 11. Burstall, S. A. Education of Girls in America. Introd. and chap. i. The English and the Latin in High Schools. Boston Am. Jour. Educa., 19:484, 487. Constitutional and Statutory Provisions for Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 24:264 (see also 225 fif.), 697; 17:81. Clews, Elsie W. Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Government. Earle, Alice M. Child Life in Colonial Days. Home and School Life as They Were in 1779-1802. Am. Jour. Educa., 26:225. Fowle, W. B. History of the Boston Public Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 5:325; 10:716. Johnson, C. The Country Schools in New England, chap. I. Kiddle & Schem. See Early Education under the heads of the differ- ent States. 368 APPENDIX [368 McMaster, J. B. The Common Schools in the First Century. In His- tory of the People of the United States, 5 :Z4?>- Mann. Horace. Life and Works, 4:1-16, 105-141, 341-389. Martin, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, chaps. 3 and 4. Origin of the Boston Primary Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 28 '.796. Mayo, Rev. A. D. Public Schools During the Colonial and Revolu- tionary Periods in the United States. Report U. S. Comr. Educa., 1893-1894, i :639-738. The American Common School in New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania During the First Half Century of the Republic. Report U. S. Comr. Educa., 1895-1896, 1 :2i9-266. The American Common School in the Southern States During the First Half Century of the Re- public, 1790-1840. Report U. S. Comr. Educa., 1895-1896, I :267-338. Horace Mann and the Great Revival of the Amer- ican Common School, 1830-1850. Report U. S. Comr. Educa., 1896-1897, i :7i5-767. The Organization and Reconstruction of State Sys- tems of Common School Education in the North Atlantic States, 1830-1865. Report U. S. Comr. Educa., 1897-1898, 1 :355-486. Peabody, Elizabeth P. A Record of Mr. Alcott's School : Exemplify- ing the Principles and Methods of Moral Culture. Philbrick, John D. City School Systems in the United States. Circ Inform. U. S. Bureau of Education, No. i, 1885. Porter, Noah. American Colleges and the American Public, chap. 12. Reminiscences of the Schools in the Different States at the Close of the i8th Century, by different writers. Am. Jour. Educa., 1:307; 13:123, y^J ; 16:109, 126, 738; 17:185, 555; 26:195, 209; 27:282; 28:145, 157, 205, 257; 30:581. Ross, G. W. The School Systems of Ontario, chap. i. Roxbury Free School. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:121-126. Shoup. W. J. History and Science of Education, p. 274. The Development of State Education. In the U. S. Cir- cular of Information. U. S. Bureau of Education, No. I, 1890, chap. I. Williams, S. G. History of Modern Education, p. 347 ff. 369] APPENDIX 369 Franklin. Abbott, J. Early and Private Life of Franklin. Harper, 4:145, 289. Advice to His Daughter. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:733. Advice to Young Tradesmen. Am. Jour. Educa., 28:811. Correspondence with Dr. S. Johnson. Am. Jour. Educa., 27 :^66. Education and Educational Work. Am. Jour. Educa., 27 : 401 ; 28 1809. Passages from His Autobiography. Lib. of Am. Lit., 3 :3. Poor Richard's Maxims. Am. Jour. Educa., 23:249; 28:810. Morse, J. T. Benjamin Franklin. Thorpe, F. N. Benjamin Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa., No. 2, 1892. Washington. Adams, H. B. College of William and Mary. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa., No. i, 1887, p. 34. Educational Views and Works of Washington. Am. Jour. Educa., 17:42; 28:306, 801. Ford, P. The True George Washington, p. 60. Washington, George. Letters of. In Lib. of Am. Lit., 3:146. Wa<;hington's Plan for a National University. Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Pol. Sci., 3:55. 79. 93. Jefferson. Adams, H. B. History of the United States. 1:185, 191; 3:346; 4:365- College of William and Mary. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa., No. i, 1887, p. 36. Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa., No. i, 1S88. Memoir and Educational Views of Thomas Jefferson. Am. Jour. Educa., 27:513, 533. Hale. E. E. Jefferson and the Young Nation. Outlook, 70:320. Hildreth. R. History of the United States, 5:419; 6:138 ff. Jefferson, Thos. Passages from his Autobiography. Lib. of Am. Lit., 3 :265. The Patriot, i :7i, 88. 92. Mor.sc, J. T. Thomas Jefferson, 338 ff. Proposed National University. Am. Jour. Educa., 17: 43 : 28 :307. Nason. C. D. Jefferson and Washington on National Education. Educa., 19:157- Parton. J. College Days of Jefferson. Atlan. Mo., 29:16. 3/0 APPENDIX [370 Powell, E. P. A Study of JelTerson. Arena, 3:712. Schouler, J. History of United States of America (revised edition), 2: 222-229, 285-286 : 3 :233 ; 6 :336. Noah Webster. Harris, W. T. Education in the United States. In Shaler's Hist, of the U. S., 2:316. MciVlasters, J. B. History of the United States, x -.76, 428, 430. Schools As They Were Sixty Years Ago. Am. Jour. Educa., 13:123; 24:159; 26:195, 200. (N. B. There are two pages numbered 195 in vol. 26 ; also two numbered 200; take second in each case.) Webster, Noah. Letter to John Pickering on Vocabulary. North Am. Rev., 5 :82. Woman's Education in the Last Century. Lib. of Am. Lit., 4:146. Text-Books by. Am. Jour. Educa.. 15:569. 1. Why are the above names especially significant to students of the history of education? 2. What other persons of this period might well be added to the list? 3. What new educational ideas were presented by Webster? Extracts Slwu-ing the Opinions of Washington and Others Concerning Education. "Promote, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. ... In proportion as the structure of government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion be enlightened." George Washington, Farewell Address. " I look to the diffusion of light and education as the resources most to be relied upon for ameliorating the condition, promoting the virtue, and advancing the happiness of man. ... A system of general instruc- tion, which shall reach every description of our citizens, from the rich- est to the poorest, as it was the earliest, so shall it be the latest, of all concerns in which I shall permit myself to take an interest." Thomas Jefferson. " Learned institutions ought to be the favorite objects with every free people: they throw that light over the public mind which is the best security against crafty and dangerous encroachments on the public lib- erty. They multiply the educated individuals, from among whom the people may elect a due portion of their public agents of every descrip- tion; more especially those who are to frame the laws by the perspicu- ity, the constancy, and the stability, as well as the justice and equal 371 ] APPENDIX 371 spirit of which the great social purposes are to be answered." James Madison. " Moral, intellectual and political improvements are duties assigned by the Author of our existence to social, no less than individual, man. For the fulfilment of these duties governments are invested with power, and to the attainment of these ends the exercise of this power is a duty sacred and indispensable," J. Q. Adams. " The wisdom and generosity of the Legislature in making liberal appropriations in money for the benefit of schools, academies and col- leges, is an equal honor to them and their constituents, a proof of their veneration for letters and science, and a portent of great and lasting good to North and South America, and to the world." John Q. Adams, Inaugural. " The theory of our government is, not that all men, however unfit, shall be voters, but that every man, by the power of reason and the sense of duty, shall become fit to be a voter. Education must bring the practice as near as possible to the theory. As the children now are, so will the sovereigns soon be." Horace Mann. 3/2 APPENDIX [372 SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS. Balliet, T. M. City School Supervision. Educa. Rev., 2 :482. Barnard, H. Life and Works of Horace Mann, 2:390 ff., 401 ff. Report of Public Schools of Rhode Island for 1845. pp. 24, 113- Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, chap. 6, 7. Block, L. J. School Supervision. Educa., 12 :558. Buehrle, R. K. School Supervision in Pennsylvania. Educa. Rev., 8; 461. Edson, A. W. School Supervision. Educa., 13:391. Gove, A. City School Supervision. Educa. Rev., 2 :256, 362, 482. Greenwood, J. M. City School Supervision. Educa. Rev., 2 :362. Efficient School Supervision. Proc. N. E. A., 1888, P- 519- Hancock, John. School Supervision in the United States, etc. Proc. N. E. A., 1887, p. 512. Harris, W. T. Discussion on Supervision. Educa. Rev., 3:167-172. Hinsdale, B. A. American School Superintendent. Educa. Rev., 7: 42, 186. Kennedy, J. Function of Supervision. Educa. Rev., i :465. Kiddle & Schem. " Supervision." Cyclopedia of Education, p. 800. Martin, G. H. Evolution of Massachusetts Public School System, pp. 64, 149, 220. Mowry, W. A. Permanent Tenure of Office for School Superintendent. Educa., 15:274. Payne, W. H. School Supervision, p. 13. Philbrick, J. D. City School Systems. Circ. of Inform. L^. S. Bureau of Educa., No. i, 1885. Inspection of Country Schools. Jour, of Social Sci., 1 :ii. Pickard, J. L. School Supervision, chap. 2. Sabin. H. (and others). The Rural School Problem. Educa. Rev., 10:172. Also Proc. N. E. A., 1899. pp. 459, loio. Stevenson, R. W. City and Town Supervision. Proc. N. E. A., 1884, p. 283. Supervision. Am. Jour. Educa.. 2:475. 497. 5I3. 525 ; 5 :653 ff. School Supervision.. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa.. No. i. 1885, pp. 5, 52; Circ. of Inform. No. 4, 1884, p. 13; Circ. of Inform. No. 2, 1889, p. 182. Tarbell, H. S. City School Supervision. Educa. Rev., 3:65-69. Webster, D. Benefits of Our Common Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., I :59i. 373] APPENDIX 373 Recent Discissions on Superintendence. Arnold, S. L. School Supervision. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45:240. Carroll (and others). Supervision as Viewed by the Supervised. Jour. of Educa. (Boston), 45:140. Confessions of Three Superintendents. Atlan. Mo., 82:544. Department of Superintendence at Indianapolis, 1897. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45:139, 159, 165 ; Educa. Rev., 13 :405. Cubberley, E. P. The School Situation in San Francisco. Educa. Rev., 21 :364. Draper, A. S. (and others). City School Systems. Educa., 9:304; 6:1. Inception of an American State School System. Educa. Rev., 8:105; see also p. 389. Gay, G. E. School Organization in Small Cities. Educa., 21 :45i. Gilbert & Greenwood. Large School Boards or Small? Educa. Rev., 4:179, 386. Jones, L. H. Province of the Supervisor. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45: 139. Lukens, H. T. Child Study for Superintendents. Educa. Rev., 13:105. Marble, A. P. City School Administration. Educa. Rev., 8:154. Mackenzie, J. C. Supervision of Private Schools by State or Municipal Authority. School Rev., i :39i, 557. Moore, C. S. Modern City School Superintendent. Educa., 21 :598. New England's Superintendents' Meeting. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 47:147, 323. Philips, W. L. Pupil Cooperation in School Government. Educa., 22 : 538. Prince, J. T. Evolution of School. Educa. Rev., 22:148. Reinhart, J. A. Experiments in Supervision. Jour of Educa. (Bos- ton), 46:212. Regents' System in New York. Jour, of Educa. (Bos- ton), 45:224. Rockwood, G. H. Problems from the Standpoint of Administration. School Rev., 10:32. Sabin, H. City School System Improvement. Pub. Opin., 25:438; Educa., 19:1. Shearer, W. J. Lock-Step in Public Schools. Atlan. Mo., 79:749. Thurber, C. H. Philosophy of School Management. School Rev., 4: 112. (Review.) Town Systems vs. District Systems. Wis. Jour, of Educa., I :ioi, 169, 454. 374 APPENDIX [374 QUESTIONS ON SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 1. Discuss the origin and development of school supervision in America. 2. What are the different plans for effective supervision? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? 4. What States seem to have the best sj^stem of supervision? 5. What would be the best plan for supervision in Nebraska? 6. Would this plan be equally good for Massachusetts? Why? 7. What are the requisites of an efficient superintendent? 375] • APPENDIX 375 PROVISIONS FOR THE PREPARATION AND IMPROVE- MENT OF TEACHERS. 1. The establishment of educational societies and the formation of teachers' clubs for mutual improvement. 2. Institutes and educational associations, County, State and National. (o) Order of development. (b) Nature and purpose of each. ((■) Influence upon education 3. Educational literature, including books on pedagogy, periodicals, educational reports, etc. 4. Normal schools ; their origin, development, present conditions and influence upon education. 5. The advantages and disadvantages of Normal training. 6. Chairs of pedagogy. Conditions leading to their establishment. Advantages and disadvantages as compared with Normal schools. 7. Teachers' training colleges and schools of education. How differ- ent from Normal schools and chairs of pedagogy? 8. Summer schools, etc. Institutes, Educational Associations, etc. American Institute of Instruction. Am. Jour. Educa., 2:19. Barnard, H. Teachers' Institute in Wisconsin. Am. Jour. Educa., 8: 673; 15:276, 326. Benefits of Teachers' Institutes. Am. Jour. Educa., 14: 253; 22:357. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 117. Educational Associations. Report U. S. Comr. Educa., 1878. 1:297. Am. Jour. Educa., 16:352-390, 745-790; 22:513-558. Historical Development of Institutes in the United States. Am. Jour. Educa., 15 :387. History of National Educational Association. Proc. N. E. A., 1891, p. 118. Martin, G. H. Massachusetts Public School System, pp. 172, 262. National Educational Association : Proceedings and Addresses. 1889: pp. 394, 559, 597; 1890: pp. 321, 672, 673; 1891: 193, 505, 701, 713, 727, 733. National Council of Education. On the Professional Training of Teach- ers in Normal Schools and Colleges. Proc. N. E. A., 1893, p. 383-454- National Council of Education. Report on Normal School Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1895, 501. 3/6 APPENDIX [375 National Eklucational Association Proceedings of Department Super- intendents. U. S. Bureau of Educa. Circulars of Information, 1889, No. 2, p. 26; 1888, No. 6, pp. 44-80. See Index to the Proceedings of the N. E. A. and to Am. Jour. Educa. (Barnard). Training of Teachers — Nonnul Schools, Colleges, etc. Adams, C. K. Pedagogy in Colleges and Universities. Academy (Syra- cuse), 3 1469. Aspenwall, W. B. Necessity of Professional Training for Teachers. Educa., 23:27-31. Attenborough, J. M. Training of Secondary Teachers. Westm., 157: 682. Barnes, Earl. Study of Education in Stanford University. Educa. Rev., 6:300. Boone, R. G. History of Education in the United States, pp. 125, 142. Boone (and others). Training Teachers. Proc. N. E. A., 1894, P- II4- Bramwelle, Amy. Training of Teachers in the United States. Brown, E. E. Education at University of California. Educa. Rev., 8: 169. Butler, N. M. Training the Teacher. Cent.. 16:915. Cook, J. W. Professional Training of Teachers in Normal Schools. Proc. N. E. A., 1894, p. 86. De Garmo, Chas. School Reform. Educa. Rev., 21:118. Desmond, W. J. Evolution of the Educator. Cent., 17:318; see also p. 797 (L. P. Nash). Edson, A. W. Legitimate Work of the State Normal School. Educa., 16:274. Everett, E. Object of Normal Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 13:758. Edwards, R. Normal Schools in the United States. Am. Jour. Educa., 16:271. Findlay, J. J. Recent Summer School at Jena. Educa. Rev., 6:364. Foster, F. C. Normal School and School of Pedagogy. Educa. Rev., 7 :383. Gay, G. E. Massachusetts Normal Schools. Educa., 17:513; 18:55. Gordy, J. P. Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa., No. 8, 1891. Hadley, A. T. Academic Training in Theory and in Practice. Atlan. Mo., 91 :i52. Hall, G. S. Chairs of Pedagogy in Our Higher Institutions of Learn- ing. Circ. of Inform. U. S. Bureau of Educa., No. 2, 1882, p. 35. American Universities and the Training of Teachers. Forum, 17:148. Ilanus, P. H. Pedagogy at Harvard. Educa. Rev., 2:252. ^77] APPENDIX 377 Study of Education at Harvard University. Educa. Rev., 7 .-247. Hill, Thomas. Didactics in College. Am. Jour. Educa., 15:177. Hinsdale, B. A. Study of Education in the University of Michigan. Educa. Rev., 6:443. Harris, W. T. Chairs of Pedagogy in Colleges and Universities. Educa., 3:153- Future of the Normal School. Educa. Rev., 17:1. History of Normal Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 1:587; 4:289, 713; 6:93; 10:15: 12:653. Hunter, Thos. Normal Schools : Their Necessity and Growth. Educa., 5 :235. Jacobs, W. B. Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. Educa. Rev.. II :245. Kiehle, D. L. True Place of Normal Schools in the Educational Sys- tem. Proc. N. E. A., 1882, pp. 175-180. Laurie, S. S. Study of Education at the University of Edinburgh. Educa. Rev., 7:55. McDonald, J. A. Professional Training of Teachers t)y Educational Publications. Proc. N. E. A., 1894, P- 106. Marion, Henry. Study of Education at Sorbonne. Educa. Rev., 7:122. Martin, G. H. Massachusetts Public School System, pp. 169-173. O'Shea, M. V. Professional Training of Teachers. Pop. Sci. Mo., 45 : 796. Ramsey, C. C. Normal Schools in the United States. Educa., 17:232. A. F. S. Professional Training of Secondary Teachers. Educa., 22:652: 23:57. Shaw, A. W. Friedrich Paulsen. Educa. Rev., 8 :363. Scope of Normal Schools. Atlan. Mo., 73:811. Sewall, J. B. Duty of Colleges to Provide for Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. Acad. (Syr.), 4:449. Speed, J. G. Higher Pay and Better Training for Teachers. Forum, 20 :247. Statistics of Normal Schools. Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1894-1895, I :i07. Training of Teachers. Report of the Committee of Fif- teen. Also in Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1893- 1894, 1 :469. Educa. Rev., 9 :209. Report of Special Committee on Normal Schools ; Proc. N. E. A., 1899, pp. 836-903. White, E. E. Professional Training of Teachers in Summer Schools. Proc. N. E. A., 1894, p. 100. Williams, S. C. Professional Training of Teachers in Colleges. Proc. N. E. A., 1894, p. 93. Weldon, J. E. C. Teacher's Training of Himself. Contemp., 63:369. See articles in Proc. N. E. A., 1893, PP- 810-851. 378 APPENDIX [378 GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 1. What is included under tlie term gradation? 2. What were some of the earliest attempts at gradation in this country ? 3. What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of gradation? 4. Can the same system of gradation be used in the district as in the city? Give reasons for answer. 5. What correlation of studies in elementary and secondary educa- tion would you advise? 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of uniform curricula in elementary, secondary and higher education ? 7. What plan of promotion is most efficient and best adapted to meet the individuality of the pupils? Adams, F. Free School System of the United States, pp. 199-207. Barnard, H. Views and Suggestions on the Gradation of Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 2:455; 11:563; 15:316. Barney, H. Views and Suggestions on Gradation of Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 2:538. Blewett. B. The System of Grading Schools in St. Louis. Educa. Rev., 8:387. Boone, R. G. Education in the United States, p. 331 ff. Corbett, Henry R. Free High Schools for Rural Pupils. Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1899-1900, 1:643-662; also School Rev., April and May, 1900. Dickinson, J. W., and others. Courses of Study for Country Schools. Educa., 3:179. Gradation of Schools in Cities of the United States. Am. Jour. Educa., 19:429, 442. Gilbert, C. B. Reconstruction of Gramm.ar School Curriculum. Proc. N. E. A., 1894, p. 323. Gordon, C. H. Reorganization of the Grammar School and a Rational System of Grading. Educa., 21 :i6. Martin, G. H. The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System, p. 186 fT. Meleney, C. E. Basis of a Graded School System. Science, 8 :S9l (Old Series). Memminger, C. G. Views and Suggestions on Gradation of Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 2 :555. Pearse, C. G. Essentials in a Course of Study. Educa., 17:425. Page, M. H. Graded Schools of the United States, p. i ff. Philbrick, J. D. Views and Suggestions on Gradation of Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., 2:263. 379] APPENDIX 379 Prince. J. T. Courses and Methods for Primary, Grammar and Ud* graded Schools. Report on Preparation for Colleges, Part i Proc. N. E. A.. 1884. Ross, G. W. The School System of Ontario. Crusade against the Common Schools : School or Scholar? Andover Rev., 3:362; 6:523. Ungraded Schools. Proc. N. E. A., 1895, p. 464. Shearer, W. J. Faulty Grading in Our Schools. Forum, 33:469. Al«o Greater Flexibility in High School Work. School Rev., 9:1^*^, 232. Wells. D. C. Proposed Reform of Grammar School Curriculum. Ar- dover Rev., 17:47, 197. 38o .1PPENDIX [380 CHANGES IN COLLEGE CURRICULA, UNIVERSITY EXTEN- SION, AND GROWTH IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 1. What are some of the changes that have taken place in college curricula in late years? 2. What effect have these changes had on the teaching in elementary schools ? 3. What is the elective system? Why was it introduced? 4. What is meant by the group system of studies? 5. What is meant by the system of specialization? 6. Advantages and disadvantages of the different systems? 7. Where are educational reforms most likely to originate, t. t., within or without the schools ; 8. What are the chief difficulties with university extension work? COLLEGE CURRICULA. Butler, N. M. Two Years' College Course. Rev. of Revs., 26:589. Conklin, Edw. G. Recent Changes in College Courses. Independent, 53:198. Dewey, John. Situation as Regards the Course of Study. Educa. Rev., 22 :26. Oilman, D. C. Present Aspects of College Training. North Am. Rev., 136:526 (2 vol.). Growth and Change in College Education. Cent., 22 : 317- Modern Collegiate Education. Cent., 14 '.ySg. Ladd, G. T. Disintegration and Reconstruction of the Curriculum. Forum, 33 :i65. MacDonald, W. Three Years' Course in New England. Nation, 75: 322. McCosh, Jas. What an American University Should Be. Educa., 6 :35. Should Special Academic Courses Be Offered in Prep- aration for Profession Schools. Regent's Report, Univ. of State of N. Y., 1893, p. 464. Willard, H. M. Relation of Secondary Schools to the College. Educa., 6 :469. West, A. F. The Relation of Secondary Education to the American University Problem. Proc. N. E. A., 1885, p. 195. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. Brown, Helen D. University Extension. Educa., 11:15. Brumbaugh, M. G. University Extension. Educa., 13:421, 482. 552, 618. 38l] APPENDIX 381 Davidson, Jno. University Extension Congress, London. Educa. Rev., 1894, 8:350. Earle, A. M. University Extension in America. 19th Cent., 38:308. Henderson, C. H. Nationalization of the University Extension. Pop. Sci. Mo., 40:500 (see also p. i). More, C. M. Handbook of University Extension. Cath. World, 57 •.27. Palmer, G. H. Doubts About University Extension. Atlan. Mo., 69: 367. Powell, L. P. Tea Years of University Extension. Atlan. Mo., 88: 393- Problems of University Extension. Dial, 13 :297. Sciidder, V. D. College Settlements. Nation, 56:140. Simpson, M. H. University Extension and Science of Teaching. Cent., 18:479. Snider, M. B. New Phase of University Extension. Science, 19:1 (Old Series). Sadler, M. E. Facts About University Extension. 19th Cent., 36:371. West, A. F. University Extension. Atlan. Mo., 69:713. American Pioneers of University Extension. Educa. Rev., 2:220. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. Auchmuty, R. T. The Need of Trade Schools. Cent., 11:83. Barnard, Charles. New Roads to a Trade. Cent., i :285. Carter, C. M. The Industrial Idea in Education. Cent., 14:679. Dewey, Jno. Psychological Aspect of Curriculum. Educa. Rev., 13 : 356. Gilman, D. C. Hand-Craft and Rede-Craft. Cent., 10:837. Leland, C. G. Handwork in Public Schools. Cent., 2 :890. Manual Training in Common Schools. Cent., 13:482. MacAlister, J., and others. Manual Training in Public Schools. Cent., 13 :485- Thorpe. F. N. Manual Training as a Factor in Modem Education. Cent.. 16 :920. Harris. W. T. Classification and Instruction in Rural Schools. Educa., Rev., 14 :209. Henderson, C. H. Philosophy of Manual Training. Pop. Sci. Mo., 53:145- Jackman, W. S. Rural School Course of Study. Jour, of Educa. (Bos- ton), 45:303- Jones. L. H. Course of Study in Elementary Schools. Educa. Rev., 16:300. Lukens. H. T. Vital Questions in the Curriculum : Logical and Psy- chological Sequence. Educa., 18:19. 382 APPENDIX [382 EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVE AND CRIMINAL CLASSES. Allen, E. E. Education of Defectives ; in Education in the United States, 2 771 ; N. M. Butler, editor. Anagnos, M. Helen Keller. Pamphlet. Beggs, T. Inquiry into the Extent of Causes of Juvenile Depravity. Bell, A. M. English Visible Speech. Ellis, Havelock. The Criminal. Gordon, J. C. Notes and Observations on Education of Deaf. Henderson, C. R. Dependent. Defective and Delinquent Classes. Keller, Helen. The Story of My Life. Lamson, Mary S. Life and Education of Laura Bridgman. Lewis, F. P. The Blind as Seen Through Blind Eyes. MacDonald, A. Criminology. Morrison, W. D. Crime and Its Causes. Periodicals. Adams, Mabel E. Education of the Deaf and Dumb. Pop. Sci. Mcij 50:109. Aikins, H. A. Education of Deaf and Dumb. Educa. Rev., 12 :236. Barnard, H. Reformatory Schools. Am. Jour. Educa., i 1609 ; 3 :567 ; 4 :359- Bates, R. C. Character-Building at Elmira. Public Opinion, 24 :556. Bell and others. Education of Deaf. Science, 16:85, n?, 163, 218, 248, 317, :i2,7, 358. Bohannon, E. W. A Study of Peculiar and Exceptional Children. Ped. Sem., 4:3. Call, A. D. Education versus Crime. Educa., 22 :587. Croter, A. L. E. Higher Education of the Deaf. Science, 19:199. Deltour, F. Paris National Institution for Deaf Mutes. Chaut., 15: 592. Clippinger. " Deaf and Dumb." Encyc. Brit., VII, p. 3. Draper, A. G. The Silent College at Washington. Scribner, 3 :727. Dumb Men's Speech. Cornh., 16:693. Out of the Silence. Cornh., 17 :573. Gallaudet, E. M. American and European Systems of Education of the Deaf and Dumb. New Englander, 27:1. Education of the Deaf and Dumb. Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa. : 1870, p. 371 ; 1871, p. 449. On Education of Deaf and Dumb (Life and Labors of T. H. Gallaudet). North Am. Rev., 87:517; Science, 19:231. Values in Education of the Deaf. Educa. ReA^, 4:16. Greely, A. W. Higher Education of Deaf Mutes in America. Rev. of Revg., 16:57. 383] APPENDIX 383 Howe, S. G. Education of Blind. Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1871, p. 445- Kirkpatrick, E. A. Education and the Nervous System in Ciiildhood. Educa., 23 -.20. MacDonald, A. Criminological Studies. Report of U. S. Comr. of Educa., 1893-1894, 2 : 1663-1699. Miller, S. M. Treatment of Deaf, Dumb and Blind : Ascent of Man. Arena, 12:130. Morrison, Mary G. Horace Mann School for the Deaf. Pop. Sci. Mo., 19:84. Morton, A. Deaf Mutes and Their Instruction. Educa., 18:417. Norton, Lord. Schools as Prisons and Prisons as Schools. 19th Cent., 21 :iio. Peet, W. B. Education of the Deaf and Dumb. Scribner, 12:463. Perry, E. B. The Blind as Students. Cent., 13:163, 806. Education of the Blind (as children). Cent., 12:633. Pontiac Reformatory and Parole Law. Public Opinion, 24:143. Sabin, H. Education and Crime as Treated by Cyrus Pierce. Educa., 23:41. Samuels, Emma. Adoption of Street Arabs by the State. Fortn. Rev., 69:111. Sanbum, F. R. Schools for the Deaf and Dumb. Nation, 4:249. 339- Deaf Mute Education. North Am. Rev., 104:512; 38:307 (Barnard). Training of Deaf. Public Opinion, 24 :463. Wells, K. G. Education of Feeble Minded. New Eng. Mag., 22:6. 384 APPENDIX [384 EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO AND CONDITION OF EDUCA- TION IN THE SOUTH. Andrews, C. G. Education of the Colored Race. Educa., 6:221. Alderman, E. A. Education in the South. Outlook, 68:775. Barringer, P. B. Negro Education in the South. Educa. Rev., 21 :233. Bumstead, H. The Freedmen'.'; Children at School. Andover Rev., 4:550. Chamberlain, A. F. African and American. The Contact of Negro and Indian. The Negro and the Indian Ethnologically Consid- ered. Science, 17:85. Conway. M. D. Benj. Banneker, the Negro Astronomer. Atlan. Mo., 11:79. Colored Scliools. Nation. 53 :38. Crogman. Negro Education: Its Helps and Hindrances. Proc. N. E. A., 1884, pp. 106-116. Education of the Negro. Educa., 17:366-369. Du Bois, W. E. B. Burden of Negro Schooling. Independent, 53: 1667. Training of Black Men. Atlan. Mo., 901289. Greenwood, J. M. Colored Race in Missouri. Educa.. 8:366-374. Gunby, A. A. General Statement of the Race Problem. Proc. N. E. A., 1890, p. 254. Harris, W. T. Education of the Negro. Atlan. Mo., 69:721. Ingle, E. The Negro in the District of Columbia. Johns Hopkins Studies in Hist, and Polit. Sci., 11 :99 flf (Nos. 3 and 4). Kirke. E. How Shall the Negro Be Educated? North Am. Rev., 143:421. Johnson, W. P. Industrial Education of the Colored People. Educa., 5:636. ~ Jefferson, Thos. Intellectual Capabilities of the Negro. Am. Jour. Educa., 19:297. Keating, J. M. Twenty Years of Negro Education. Pop. Sci. Mo., 28 :24. Mathews, Wm. The Negro Intellect. North Am. Rev.. 149:91. Mayo. A. D. How Shall the Colored Youth of the South Be Edu- cated? New Eng. Mag. (n. s.), 17:213. Our Negro Schools. Harper, 49 :457. Miller. K. Negro and Education. Forum, 30:693. Owen, A. Higher Education of the Colored Race. Proc. N. E. A., 1889, pp. 546-553- Powell, S. W. Should Higher Education Be Provided for the Negro? Cent., 27 :956. Reports of the U. S. Comr. of Educa. : Complete List of References, 1894-1895, vol. 2, p. 1331. 385] APPENDIX 385 American Common School in the South, 1790-1840; 1895- 1896, vol. I, p. 267 ff. Education of the Colored Race, 1894-1895, vol. 2, p. 1331. Education in the South, 1894-1895, vol. 2, p. 1326. Education of the Negro, 1892-1893, vol. 2, p. 1551 ff. Salisbury, A. Some Conclusions Concerning the Education of the Negro. Andover Rev., 6:256. Schools in the South. Pop. Sci. Mo., 50:406; Educa., 16 :628. Shaw, Albert. Negro Progress on the Tuskegee Plan. Rev. of Revs., 9 :436. Slattery, J. R. How Shall the Negro Be Educated? Cath. World, 56:28. Stratton, J. R. Will Education Solve the Race Problem? North Am. Rev., 170:785. The Future of the Negro. In Hart's American His- tory Told by Contemporaries, 4 :663. Washington, Booker T. Education Will Solve the Race Problem. North Am. Rev., 171 :22i. Educate the Cuban Negroes. Outlook, 60: 147. Future of American Negro. Life Work at Tuskegee Normal Industrial Institute. Chaut., 18:197; Rev. of Revs., 16 :474- Booker Washington and Tuskegee Institute. New Eng. Mag. (n. s.), 17:131 (Calloway). Up from Slavery: An Autobiography. Education of the Negro. In Education in the United States, 2:893-936; edited by N. M. Butler. Thrasher, M. B. Tuskegee: Its Story and Its Work. Scarborough, W. S. Booker T. Washington and His Work. Educa., 20 1270. Race Problem. Arena, 2:560. Wickersham, J. P. Education of Freedmen. Am. Jour. Educa., 16: 292 (see also 19:301). 386 APPENDIX [-386 EDUCATION OF WOMEN AND WOMEN EDUCATORS. Blood, M. E. New England Girl Graduates. Arena, 24:214. Brackett, A. C. Woman and the Higher Education. Burstall, S. A. The Education of Girls in the United States. Clarke, E. H. The Building of a Brain. Sex in Education ; or, A Fair Chance for Girls. Duffey, E. B. No Sex in Education. Howe, J. W. Sex in Education. Lange, H. Higher Education of Women in Europe. Maudsley, H. Sex in Mind and in Education. Thomas, M. C. Education of Women. In Education in the United States, 1 :32i ; edited by N. M. Butler. Periodicals. Aberdeen, I. M. M. Women of 1800 and 1900. Outlook, 67:46. Allen, A. T. Economic Relation of the College Woman to Society. Educa., 22:351. Anthony, Susan B. Her Half Century of Evolution. North Am. Rev., 175 :8oo. The Status of Women; Past, Present, and Future. Arena, 17:901. Barney, Elizabeth C. Women at the University of London. Nation, 58 :286. Blauvelt, M. T. Women at English Universities. Rev. of Revs., 16: 450. Brackett, Anna C. The Private School for Girls. Harper, 84:943. Browning, O. Universities and the Higher Education of Women. Forum, 24 :225. Canfield, J. H. Co-Education. Educa. Rev., 15 :3io. Claghorn, Kate H. Occupation for College Women. Educa. Rev., 15 : 217. Davidson, Thos. Ideal Training of the American Girl. Forum, 25 :47i. Ideal Training of the American Boy. Forum, 17:571. Education of the American Girl. Public Opinion, 30 :46. Finke, H. T. Why Co-education is Losing Ground. Independent, 55 : 301-305 (F, s). Frank, Louis. University Opportunities for Women. Educa. Rev., 8: 471. Franklin. Fabian. Intellectual Powers of Woman. North Am. Rev., 166 :40. Gardiner, F. H. Woman's Education in Spain. Educa., 18 '.2i7' Gardner, C. E. College Women and Matrimony. Educa., 20:285. Genthe, Martha K. Women at German Universities. Forum, 33:243. 387] APPENDIX 387 Gilman, A. The Proper Education of Girls. Nation, 64:47. Goucher, Jno. F. The Advisable Differences between the Education of Young Women and that of Young Men. School Rev., 7 :577. Hadley, A. T. Admission of Women as Graduate Students at Yale. Educa. Rev., 3 :486. Harris, W. T. Relation of Woman to the Trades and Professions. Educa. Rev., 20:217. Higginson, T. W. Ought Women to Learn the Alphabet? Atlan. Mo., 3:137- Higher Education for Women. Independent, 53 : 687. Hopkins, L. P. Co-Education in Boston Public Schools. Educa. Rev., 1 :46. Ruling, R. G. College Women and Physical Training. Educa. Rev., 7:78. Jordan, D. S. Higher Education of Women. Pop. Sci. Mo., 62 -.gj. Kropotkin, Sophie. Higher Education of Women in Russia. 19th Cent., 43:117- Mearkle, A. L. Education and Marriages of Women. Arena, 23:661. Sex in Education. Arena, 24 :2o6. Moque, Alice Lee. An Educated Maternity. Westm., 153 :53. Mowry, D. Women as School Officers. Arena, 24:198. Perry, Jennette B. Shortcomings in the Education of Women. Critic, 28:137. Pickard, J. L. Co-Education in Colleges. Educa., 13 :259. Ridding, Lady Laura. Women on Education Authorities. Contemp., 79:109-116. Rogers, Anne. Women Students at Oxford. Educa. Rev., 3 :497. Salter, W. M. What is the Real Emancipation of Woman. Atlan. Mo., 89 :28. Schurman, J. G. Higher Education. Harper's Weekly, 45 :684. Seton, W. Higher Education of Woman and Posterity. Cath. World, 73:147- Several, May N. W. Co-Education in Secondary Schools and Colleges. Arena, 17:767. Slater, Edith. Education of the English Parent. Westm., 153 :324. Smith, Mary R. Recent Tendencies in Education of Women. Pop. Sci. Mo., 48:27. Education for Domestic Life. Pop. Sci. Mo., 53:521. Smith, C. F. Higher Education of Women in the South. Educa. Rev., 8 :287. Smith, A. T. Higher Education of Women in France. Forum, 30 :503. Stewart, J. A. Women Deans of Women's Colleges. Chaut., 33 :486. Talbot, Marion. Present Day Problems in the Education of Women. Educa. Rev., 14:248. 388 APPENDIX [388 Tetlow, J. Education of Women for the Learned Professions. Educa. Rev., II :ios. Thomas, M. C. Should Woman's Education Differ from Man's? Educa. Rev., 21 :i. Thurber, C. H. Cant Concerning Co-Education. School Rev., 5 :4s. Thwing, C. F. Should Woman's Education Differ from Man's ? Forum, 30 :728. Tilley, L. L. Woman's Work at a German University. Outlook, 69: 368. Walker, F. A. Normal Training in Woman's Colleges. Educa, Rev., 4 =328. Willard, Francis E. Shortcomings in the Education of Women. Critic, 28 -.97. White, Marian A. Higher Education of Women — Women in Journal- ism. Arena, 23 •.66g. Witte, A. The vVoman's Educational Movement in Germany. Higher Education of Women in Germany. Educa., 13 '.ZJ- Whittelsay, S. S. Women and the Study of the Social Science. Educa., 23 :98. Women at Foreign Universities. Spectator, 68:232; Forum, 19:187; Nation, 58:116, 137, 151, 154, 193, 212, 271; Nation, 59:232, 247, 268. 389] APPENDIX 389 THE NEW EDUCATION. Aber, Mary A. An Experiment in Education (Elementary). Pol. Sci. Mo., 40:377, 517- Anderson, J. M. Tlie Old and the New in Education. Educa., 12 :i64. Baker, J. H. Educational Values. Educa. Rev., 10 :209. Briggs, L. B. R. Some Old-Fashioned Doubts about New-Fashioned Education. Atlan. Mo., 86 :463. Buchanan, J. B. New Education and Its Practical Application. Arena, 6:653; 10:590. Buck, Gertrude. Another Phase of the New Education. Forum, 22: 376. Burk, F. Old Education and the New. Forum, 33 :474. Butler, N. M. Five Evidences of an Education. Educa. Rev., 22 :325. Is There a New Education? Educa. Rev., 11:58. The Meaning of Education, p. 69. Status of Education at Close of Century. Educa. Rev., 19:313- Critic at Sea. Review of the Public School System of the United States (by author of Preston Papers). Educa., 14:530, 593; 15:37, 93, I49, 206, 288, 340. Crane, W. I. Educational Diagnosis. School Rev., 10 :433. Draper, A. S. Function of the State Touching Education. Educa, Rev., 15:105. Dwight, T. True Purposes of the Higher Education. Forum, 13:311. Education in a Democracy. New Eng. Mag. (n. s.), 21: 378. Eliot, C. W. Why the Republic May Endure. In Hart's American History Told by Contemporaries, 4 :654. Tendencies of Secondary Education. Educa. Rev., 14: 417. Unity of Educational Reform. Educa. Rev., 8:209. Eliot and others. What Is It to Be Educated? Chaut., 30:19. Recent Changes in Social Education. Atlan. Mo., 84 :433. Finlay, J. J. Scope of the Science of Education Educa. Rev., 14:236. Flower, B. O. Twentieth Century Education. Arena, 29:84. ■< Gilbert, C. B. The New Education. Educa., 16:37, 95, 151. Gooding, W. L. Psychology and Pedagogy. School Rev., 3 :5S6. Hailman, W. N. The New Education. Educa., 5 :i74. Hadley, A. T. End in Education. Outlook, 68:761. Also, Meaning and Purpose of Secondary Education. School Rev., 10:729. Hall, G. Stanley. The New Psychology as a Basis of Education. Forum, 17:710. 390 APPENDIX [390 Hanus, P. H. Educational Aims and Educational Values. Educa. Rev., 9:323- Two Contemporary Problems in Education. Pop. Sci. Mo., 58:585. Hallowell, J. H. Modern Tendencies in Education. Educa., 20:143. Harris, W. T. Educational Function of the School. Independent, 53 : 1782. Educational Reform. Tendencies of Will Training and Power of Independent Thought Should Be United. Jour, of Educa. (Boston), 45:407. The Educational Situation, 45 :4io. The New Education. Arena, 17 : 353- Henderson, C. H. A New Program in Education. Atlan. Mo., 8l :76o. Kershner, J. E. Is There a New Revival? Educa. Rev., 18:501. Kiehle, D. L. The New Education. Educa., 4:612. Ladd, Geo. T. Essentials of a Modern Liberal Education. Educa. Rev., 10:218. LeConte, Joseph. Effect of the Theory of Evolution on Education. Educa. Rev., 10:121. Kirkpatrick, E. Historical Development of Superior Education. Am. Jour. Educa., 24:453. Lowrey, C. E. Strictures on Current Educational Tendencies. Educa., 14:361. Louch, Miss M. Educational Progress in America. Educa. Rev., 7 :7i. Mahaffy, J. P. Future of Education. 19th Cent., 34:212. Modern Education. 19th Cent., 42 :703. Mason, E. O. Modern Education from the Standpoint of the Student. Educa., 20:231. Mayo, A. D. The New Education — the Christian Education. Educa., 19 :546. Mead, E. D. Adjustment of Education to Contemporary Needs. Educa. Rev., 19:472. Munroe, J. P. Dangerous Tendencies in Education. Educa. Rev., 3 : 145- Mtinsterberg, H. Productive Scholarship in America. Atlan. Mo., 87:615. Paulsen, F. Evolution of the Educational Ideal. Forum, 23 :598, 672. Pedagogy and Education. Educa., 18:496-501. Powell, Charlotte A. Exogenous and Endogenous Education. Educa., 13 :44- Rein, Wilhelm. The Old and the New Pedagogy in Germany. Educa. Rev., 1 1 :209. Rice, J. M. How Shall the Child Be Taught? Obstacles to Rational Educational Reform. Forum, 22:385. 391 ] APPENDIX 391 Public Schools in Various Cities of the United States. Forum, 14:14s, 293, 429, 616, 753; 15:31, 200, 362, 504; 16:500. Runyon, Laura L. Day with the New Education. Chaut., 30 tsSg. School Reform. Pop. Sci. Mo., 57 :2io. Scripture, E. W. Education as a Science. Ped. Sem., 2:111. Search, P. W. Pueblo Plan for Individual Teaching. Educa. Rev., 7 : 154; 8:84. Smith, Sydney. Professional Education. Edinb. Rev., 15 :40. (Re- view of Edgeworth's Essay.) Spalding, J. L. Progress in Education. Proc. N. E. A., 1901, pp. 66-85. Stanley, H. M. Evolutionary Psychology and Education. Educa. Rev., 12 :50. Thurber, C. H. Advance in Education in Last Decade. School Rev., 8:257. Thwing, C. F. Educational Problems of the 20th Century. Forum, 25:315- Walker, F. A. Relation of Technical to General or Liberal Education. Educa. Rev., 9:417. Walker, J. B., and others. Modern Education. Cosmop., 22 :68i ; 23 : Z2,, 185, 263, 271, 437, 568, 611; 24:142, 453, 567, 664; 28:104, 249. 358, 471 ; 29 :266. White, R. G. Public School Failure. North Am. Rev., 131 :537 (2d vol.). Whitton, F. Higher Ideals in Social Education. School Rev., 8:261. Winship, A. E. Higher Education in Practice. Jour, of Educa. (Bos- ton), 46:184. QUESTIONS. 1. What is meant by the term "New Education?" 2. Are we justified in using the term " New Education?" If so, what are the reasons which justify its use? 3. Who are some of the educational leaders of to-day in America? Why leaders? 4. What are some of the leading educational problems at present under discussion? OF * ■Piii^o RNIIL VITA The author of this publication, son of George W. and Druzilla Arnold Luckey, was born near Decatur, Indiana, February 1 1, 1855. He obtained his early education in the district schools, and graduated from the Decatur High School in 1873. For the next five years the winter months were spent in teaching and the rest of the time in farm labor and in study at the Northern Indiana Normal School, Valparaiso, Indiana. In 1878, he was elected County Superintendent of schools of Adams County, Indiana. He served in this capacity for four years, refusing a unanimous re-appointment in order to accept the city superintendency of schools of Decatur, Indi- ana. After four years service as City Superintendent he declined re-election, to go to California. From 1887 to 1892, he was superintendent of schools, Ontario, California. In 1892 he entered Leland Stanford University, graduating in 1894 with the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The summers of 1893 and 1894 he spent at the Hopkins' Seaside Laboratory, Pacific Grove, California, in the study of histology and embryology. In 1894-95 he was a fellow in psychology at Clark University, Worcester, Mass. In 1895 he became associate professor of pedagogy, Univer- sity of Nebraska, organizing the department which had just been established. The following year he was promoted to the professorship of education, a position he still holds. The year 1 899-1 900 was spent on a leave of absence at Teachers' College, Columbia University, where he was made a fellow in education. He received the degree of Doctor of Piiilosophy from Columbia University in 1900. 393 ^ ^^st date stamped below. ^^lHov4SE ,no,.' i^USc'yi^f-^ LD2i-aoo^.9/47(A5702sli) 476 VD 00752 1 88861