mm C. K. OODEN THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES 1 £2-7 I GESENIUS'S HEBREW GRAMMAR READING BOOK. GESENIUS'S HEBREW GRAMMAR, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED BY E. ROD I GEE, Ph. D., D.D., PROFESSOR OF ORIENTAL LITERATURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF HALLE. TRANSLATED BY BENJAMIN DAVIES, DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEITSIC. RE-EDITED, AFTER THE SEVENTEENTH ORIGINAL EDITION, BY B. DAVIDSON, AUTHOR OF THE ANALYTICAL HEBREW AND CHALDEE LEXICON, ETC., ETC. WITH A HEBREW READING BOOK, PREPARED BY THE TRANSLATOR. LONDON: SAMUEL BAGSTER AND SONS; WAREHOUSE FOR BIBLES, ni:\v TESTAMENTS, CHURCH BERVICE8, PBAYBB BOOKS, LBUCORB, GKABMABB, CO.NCORDANCES, AND PSAI/Tl'.US, IN \Nili:NT AND MODERN I.AM. I LGB8 j 15, PATERNOSTER ROW. CONTENTS. Section INTRODUCTION 1. The Shemitic Languages in General . 2. Sketch of the History of the Hebrew Language Page 1 1 6 Section Pag* 3. Grammatical Treatises on the Hebrew Lan- 10 guage 4. Division and Arrangement of Grammar 12 PART I.-THE ELEMENTS. Chapter I. — Reading and Orthography. 5. The Consonants, their Forms and Names . 13 G. Pronunciation and Division of Consonants . 15 7. On the Vowels in General, Vowel Letters, and Vowd Signs . . . .18 8. The Vowel Signs .... 20 9. Character and Value of the several Vowels . 23 10. The Half Vowels and the Syllable Divider (Slvva) 28 11. Signs which affect the Reading of Consonants 30 12. Daghesh in General, and Daghesh Forte in Particular 30 13. Daghesh Lcne . 31 14. Mappiq and Raphe 32 15. The Accents ...... 32 Hi. Maqqeph and Methegh 34 1 7. Q e ri and K<*thibh . ... 35 CiiArTER II. — Peculiarities and Changes of Letters ; of Syllables and the Tunc. 18. In General . .... 19. Changes of Consonants .... 20. Doubling of Consonants .... 21. Aspiration, and the Removal of it by Daghesh Lcne ....••• 22. Peculiarities of the Gutturals 23. The Feebleness of the Breathings X and H . 24. Changes of the Feeble Letters 1 and » . 25. Unchangeable Vowels .... 26. Syllables, and their Influence on the Quantity of Vowels ....... 48 27. Changes of Vowels, especially in Respect t«» their Quantity 51 28. Rise of New Vowels and Syllables . . 54 29. The Tone; Changes of the Tone ; the Pause 55 36 3G 38 40 41 ■l:i 46 47 1015509 \ 1 o .\ T i: N is. PART [I— FORMS AND [NFLEXIONS, OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 80. The Stem-Words and Roots (Biliterals, Tri- literals, Quadriliterals) .... 58 81. Qrammatica] Btrnoture . . . . C2 Ciim'tiu I. — The Prqnoun. 89. The Peraona] or Separate Pronoun . . 63 83. Suffix Pronoun 65 34. The Demonstrative Pronoun ... 67 85. The Article .... . . 67 86. The Relative Pronoun .... 69 37. The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns . 69 Chapter II. — The Verb. 38 — 11. General View 70 I. The Regular Verb. 42. In General 74 A. The Simple Form, or Kal. 4'\. Its Form and Signification 44. Preterite of Ival, and its Inflexion . 45. The Infinitive 4t'>. The Imperative ...... 47. The Future, and its Inflexion 48. Shortening and Lengthening of the Future and Imperative (Jussive and Cohortative Forms) ....... 48. Preterite and Future with Vav Conversive 50. The Participle ...... B. Derived Conjugations. 51. Niphal 52. Kel and Pun] .j;}. Hiphil and Hophul .... 54. Ilithpael 55. Qnnsaa] Conjugations .... 56. Quadriliterals ...... < '. Regular Verh with Pronominal Suffixes ."7. In < reneral ..... 58. [he Suffix of the Verb 75 75 77 78 79 81 83 84 85 87 89 91 92 94 94 95 Section J'm;."! 59. The Preterite with Pronominal Suflixes . 97 GO. Future with Pronominal Suffixes . . 99 61. Infinitive, Imperative, and Participle with Suffixes 100 II. The Irregular Verb. A. Verbs with Gutturals. 62. In General loo 63. Verbs Pe Guttural. E.g. ipy, to stand . 102 64. Verbs Ayin Guttural. E.g. Dnt?, to slaughter 104 65. Verbs Lamedh Guttural. E.g. rbti, to send 105 B. Contracted Verbs. 66. Verbs |S. E. g. til I , to approach . . 106 67. Verbs VV. E.g. 33D 109 C. Feeble Verbs (Verba Quiescentia). 68. Feeble Verbs KB. E. g. ^?X, to eat . 113 69. Feeble Verbs *B. First Class, or Verbs ori- ginally IE). E.g. 3B*, to da-ell . . .114 § 70. Feeble Verbs 'B, Second Class, or Verbs r properly 'B. E. g. 2^, to be good . 117 71 . Verbs *E> . Third Class, or Contracted Verbs »S 118 72. Feeble Verbs iy. E.g. Dip, to rise up . . 119 73. Verbs "y. E. g. P? , to discern . . . 123 74. Verbs N 1 ?. E.g. KSD to find . . .124 75. Verbs TO . ~E. g. TVS, to reveal . . 125 O T T ' 76. Verbs doubly anomalous . . . .132 77. Relation of the Irregular Verbs to one another 132 78. Defective Verbs 133 Chapter III. — The Noun. 79. General View 134 80. Forms which mark the Gender of Nouns . 135 81. Derivation of Nouns 136 82. Primitive Nouns 137 83. Verbal Nouns in General . . . .137 84. Nouns derived from the Regular Verb . 138 CONTEXTS, Vll Section 85. Nouns derived from the Irregular Verb 86. Denominative Nouns 87. The Plural 88. The Dual 89. The Genitive and the Construct State . 90. Traces of Ancient Case-Endings [Paragogic Letters] ...... 91. The Noun with Pronominal Suffixes 92. Vowel Changes in the Noun 93. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns 94. Vowel Changes in the Formation of Feminine Nouns ....... 95. Paradigms of Feminine Nouns Pago 8eetion Pape 141 96. List of the Irregular Nouns 1G4 142 97. Numerals. I. Cardinal Numbers . 1G5 143 98. Numerals. II. Ordinal Numbers 1G8 145 14G Chapter IV. — The Particles. 99. General View 168 148 100. Adverbs ....... 170 150 101. Prepositions ....... 171 153 102. Prefix Prepositions 17a 154 103. Prepositions with Suffixes and with the Plural Form 173 1G0 104. Conjunctions . . ... 175 1G1 105. Interjections ....... 176 PART III.— SYNTAX. Chapter I. — Syntax of the Noun. 106. Relation of the Substantive to the Adjective, — of the Abstract to the Concrete . 107. Use of the Genders . . . . . 108. The Plural, and Collective Nouns 109. Use of the Article 110. Ditto 111. Ditto .... . . . 112. Connexion of the Substantive with the Adjec- tive . 113. Apposition 114. The Genitive ...... 1 15. Expression of the Genitive by Circumlocution 116. Further use of the Construct State 117. Indication of the other Cases 118. Use of the Accusative .... 119. Modes of Expressing the Comparative and Superlative ...... 120. Syntax of the Numerals . . . . Chapter II. — Syntax of the Pronoun. 121. Use of the Personal Pronoun 122. The Demonstrative and Interrogative Pro- 178 179 181 125 184 126 185 127 186 12s 187 129 188 130 188 131 190 132 190 133 191 192 134 1 85 194 136 195 137 L38 L39 1 in 197 141 1 12 199 143 123. Relative Pronoun and Relative Clauses . 200 124. Mode of Expressing those Pronouns for which the Hebrew has no Proper Forms . . -^-1 Chatter III. — Syntax of the Verb. Use of the Tenses in General Use of the Preterite 204 Use of the Future Use of the Lengthened ami Shortened Future (Cohortative and Jussive) . Use of the Future with Yav Conversive . 210 The Imperative 21] Use of the Infinitive Absolute . . . 213 Infinitive Construct . . • • .21.1 Connexion of the Infinitive Construct with Subject aid Object .... 216 Use of the Participle 218 Construction of the Participle . • • 219 Expression of the Optative .... 219 Persons of the Verb 220 Verbs with the Accusative .... 221 Verbs with two Accusatives Verbs vi ith l'n positions . . . . • Cotutructio Pragtuau .... 224 Construction of two \ pn n one I I struction of Passive Verbs VIII con T I •: N T 8 , ( ' II vi Tl B IV. — ('mini. rii>>) of the Siihjril iritli llir Predicate. BmUod r in. Manner of expressing the Copula . • 228 i i .'.. Arrangement of Words In a Sentence; Case Absolute 229 i 16. Relation of the Subject and Predicate in r pool i" I lender and Number . . 230 1 17. Ditto 232 148. Construction of Compound Subjects . . 233 Chai'ii.r V.— Use of the Particles. Bai i Ion I 19. In General 1.50. The Adverbs .... 1 ."> I . ( 'instruction of Adverbs 152. Words which express Negation 153. [nterrogative Words and Sentences IS I. The Prepositions 155. The Conjunctions 156. The Interjections Page 284 234 236 236 238 240 243 247 Index of Subjects Index to Texts 249 251 A HEBREW READING BOOK. I. — Scripture Phrases and Sentences II. — Extracts in Prose III. — Extracts in Poetry Notes ... 263 264 235 269 A COMPARATIVE TABLE OF ANCIENT ALPHABETS. HEBREW. NAME AND POWER OP THE RAB- BINIC ARABIC. SAM A- KIT AN. SYRIAC. PHOENICIAN. AN'CIENT HEBREW. ANCIENT GREEK. HEBREW LETTERS. HEBREW K Alcph a 1 P \ I /f J \- ¥ -V f A 1 Beth b 2 3 <__J l_^ A J 3 O O. ^. O ? 9 i< ^ t & J Girael g 3 3 H £ ** 7 ^^^^ 7 1 1 1 (TT\ 1 Daleth d 4 7 J Jk °s » «- ^ °* <\ 4 A V f> n lie h 5 r> * * 4 A 5( cn en. 5\ 3 ^^ 1 Vav v 6 i J J ? a 7 "7 ^ Pt* i Zain z 7 t J j ^ ) V z . . . I n Cheth eh 8 p C £ **" ^ w Ua aa a/ % 3 B B H CO Teth t 9 D l kkL V S ^ r> x> © . . . G i Yod y 10 i l5 l,s — • or W U. A. J "Y m i ? 2 3 i Capri k 20 2 1 cJ cx£* a ^ t a a 7 7 1 H >1 K b Lamed Z 30 b J J 11 2 \> ^ ^ ^ /. z. *, L H1 I- & D Mem m 40 P re*- ^ p JO. 2C 20 7^7 3 M A* 3 I Nun n 50 3 1 u e; A J 1 v r - 1 - J V 7 ^ N D Samech 5 60 P c~ t/**" ■*** **■' * c£0 tCQ CO. CO "*\ **c . . . t I V Ain e 70 V tt* £ V >i> ^ ^k ^> u 2 1 Pc /> 80 9 <| 1 j t_ji A i 3 c£5 i£l £1 £5 1 1 1 ¥ r Tzade fe 90 s r l/U*^-* •m 3 J J 3 f .V /WU 7. P Koph k 100 P J J i:i p ifl iAA fl V V •p p V * "1 Kcsh r 200 i J J- °v 5 ;. 1 A S i ^ \ P Shin sA 300 D A AAA UJ. t-« UL -A. A w ^i y w ^^ AA A\ n Tau * 400 P LU iS-* 1 j A L JBs. h f xt ^A T ARABIC VOWELS. II E B HEW VOWELS. BTBl 10 1 ~ Fatta o in art. Kesre e in bed, i in it Damma o in hot. T" Ki ,~S~ Ts T- CI Sor_L Ch } Sh - — Pa -7- Be mets a in psaln ere a i:i mate irck lon(f ee in olem in bone ureq oo in fool. tli;uh a in Sam. tfhol e in met. 1. feet. T" (liircq short i in fit. t Kamets-Chatuph o in OOt. ~\~ Kibbuts _ « in full. — | — Sh'va " & "^ . r -TT •» RcroU( ~ 1 Clicvot; •' i> Zcknph a in p«alm. ) <-n in ) (i rr iii ' o in bone. 00 in 1 = an "j _ ( at the end of = on J words - -r- Chnteph Pathn — nr Chateph s. gh< -77- Cliatci h-K.ui.' ch il 1. 1 # [ short. ts * J CONSTRUCTED FOIl IlAGSTKIl's CESENIUs's I11.1UUW LBXICOM 4XO (iUAMMA*. TA li L E OF A LPH ABETS. ARABIC. BTHIOPIC. ARMENIAN. COPTIC. GREEK. GERMAN. "...ImI. Imtml. Ul a \ I (I *a. u. i. a. b. 8,y. 0. P P A a A a a % a C_> t_^ Jk J b II u- y v y 'J IT h t "k B l.,v B £ b S3 b IZJ c^> A J . t A A- A, A A, A A> 1 t r A (; ft h d e r 7 g G c Mj Li* -V. J 1 1 1 in rh r!> fh. rh> rh rb hh *L S3 J s d 2) b 9* Sf 1 aj 03 > Cp m £ e «. z E e £■ e c r C Ok> a* h kh uu iLh ui m ut i **■ u ^ u c r ^ sh G th j a •• a ft ft. A, ft ft, ?i ft s b i 1 i H 77 e © 9 J a r + * *fc £ ^ ^ ^ kh <> h zz fi X A \ 1 2 1 u° W tO\ H0 sc * ^ ^ ? * ^ ? n i Z_ gk O p,b r M 11 m ?D* m ye ye ^i -5 (Id U A,AHA a 2T dsh n P c N v n 91 n I L L u t ni> n,n n ^i^ k iT J m h s H ? X £) Id li li b tz ©ax T T T (FP w % n T t,d V V t t X £ O <\ Q, °b 6 <° £_ sch T u n 7T S. q i t k * gh Hff H,H H, HH z n ph P 9* r i_J t_ a A i f P P R. .P £ £ ^ y tsch b X ch i 5 p r © 6 J , 15, etc.), though their language is decidedly Shemitic. The Assyrian language has been proved, after long uncertainty, to be Shemitic, aa might indeed be presumed, since Asslnir also stands among the Shemites in Gen. x. - _»'J ; where too the Elamiti I stand, whoM lan- guage is not yet ascertained. t See Rodiger's Excura xu WeUsted's Beisen in Ardbien (Halle, 1843), Bd IF., S. 361. \ See Tuch in <1. Zeitschr. d. deutschen Morgenl, GeteUschaft, Bd. III., 8. 128 S I 2 [NTEODUCTIOM.— § L. THE BHEMITIC LANGUAGES DJ GENEBAL. Dan, ii. I \ii. 28.* As the Chaldee frequently presents a Hebrew colouring, so the Samaritan exhibits a strong admixture of Hebrew forms, although, according to its fundamental character, it belongs to the Aramaean. The Aramaean of the \ , , . ■ (John's disciples, Sabiansf) is a very low and corrupt dialect, and jusl so the vernacular Syriac of the present day. 111.) The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and Phoenician (Punic) stand in close connexion, occupies in a measure, according to its character and geographical situation, a middle place between the Arabic and the Aramaean. All these Languages stand to each other in much the same relation, as those of the Germanic family (Gothic, ancient Northern, Danish, SAvedish; High and Low German in more ancient and more modern dialects), or as those of the Slavic (Lithuanian, Lettish; ancient Slavic, Servian, Russian ; Polish, Bohemian). They are n<>w either wholly extinct, as the Phoenician, or they exist only in a degenerate form, as the modern Syriac among the Jews and Syrian Christians in Mesopotamia and Kurdistan,J the .Lthiopic in the newer Abyssinian dialects (Tigre, Amharic), and also the Hebrew among a portion of the modern Jews (although these in their writing aim especially at a reproduction of the Old Testament language). The Arabic is the only one that has not only kept to this day its original abode, Arabia proper, but has also spread abroad on all sides into the regions of other tongues. The Shcmitic family of languages was bordered on the east and north by another still more widely extended, which became diffused under most diverse forms, from India to the west of Europe, and is called the Indo- Germanic, as embracing the Indian (Sanskrit), ancient and modern Persian, Greek, Latin, Slavic, and Gothic, together with the other German languages. "With the ancient Egyptian, from which the Coptic is derived, the Shemitic came many ways into contact in very early times. Both have accordingly much in common, but their mutual relation is as yet not accurately defined. § The Chinese, the Japanese, the Tartar, and other languages have a funda- mentally different character. 3. The grammatical structure of the Shemitic languages has many peculiarities, which, as a whole, constitute its distinctive character, although many of them are found singly also in other tongues. These peculiarities are: a) Among the consonants, which always form the main body of these languages, are many gutturals varying in grade; the vowels, originating in the three primary sounds * The most ancient passage where Aramcean words, as such, occur, is Gen. xxxi. 47. Comp. also the Aramaean rene in .Tit. x. 11. f So called from >3>' as being Pmrrio-Tai : see Neander's Kirchengeschiehte, B. I., S. 646. — Tb. | Bee Rodiger in der Zeitachriftfur die Kunde des Morgenkmdes, B. II., S. 77 ff. § See Gesenius in />n = Lat. coml, with the corresponding sibilant Sansk. stnn, Greek cn'r, $vv, £i>ros = kou-os, Goth, eatna, Germ. sammt, sammeln. Notwithstanding, much in this list is of doubtful affinity. * For the use of the terms, stems and roots, see § 30, Remarks 1 and 2. — Tr. f Gesenius has attempted, in the later editions of his Lexicon, and in his Thesaurus Lingua Uehnrtr, to exhibit the points of contnet between the Shemitic and the [ndo-Germanic languages, and others have carried this com- parison farther, or taken it up in their own fashion. But it Deeds great caution and a comprehensive lenov of the relations of sounds in botli families, in order t<> :i\<>i'l error and deception, which present ti. investigations of this kind more readily :hi<1 frequently than in any ether. In this process, it i- U I cpedient b> keep that distinct which does not bear all the marks of affinity, BS it is to discover :it B glance what is likely to contain all points of agreement. This, however, may be confidently relied upon, thai these two parent-languages do not stand in a sisterly or any close relationship to each oilier, and that the characteristic strui tare of both nui>t l)e dissected before we can discover the constituent elements which they possess in common. This comparative analysis, however, belongs to the province of the Lexicon rather than that of the Grammar. I That the Celtic dialects (not unlike the Shemitic in their relation to each other, namely, Welsh, Cornish, A [HTBODUCnOH. § L. Tin: BHEltTTIC LANGUAGES in GENERAL. Essentially differed from this more internal relationship between the languages, fa the mutual adoption of words one from another ( borrowed words). Tims, — a) When [ndian, Egyptian, and Persian object* are called in Hebrew by their native names; "*" 1 . fyptian yor, .>/<■>■•>, yaro | river, the Nile ; Vl% Egypt, aki, achi) Nile-reed ; D^-iS =Trapd- 8,„. irden, park; ]^Tl daric, Persian gold coin; D^SR, from Ind. (Tamul) iogdi, peacocks. Several such words are Pound also in the Greek, as crip (Sunsk. kapi) ape, xrjiros, Kijlios ;; C^" 1 ? Sansk. karpditt) cotton, Kapiracros, carbasus. b When Shemitic words, names of Asiatic products and articles of commerce, have passed over to the Greeks along with the things; e.g. pa, /?vWos, byssus ; W3/, Ai/Wwto's, incense; njij, KdVn, MiVrn, annul, reed; p®?, kv/iivov, cuminum, cumin; -|fo y-vpjja, myrr/ia, myrrh; ni^Vi? KacrcrCa, cassia; ?7? ku/x>/\os, eameitu, camel; P3T0 uppufiwv, arrhabon, arrha, earnest-money, pledge. The [ike transitions may have been brought about by Phoenician commerce. , r ). As no alphabet is so perfect as to express all the modifications of sounds in a language, so the Shemitic had from the beginning this striking imperfection, thai the consonants only (which indeed form the essential part of the language) were arranged in the line as real letters. Of the vowels only the longer ones, and even these not always, were represented by certain consonants (§7). It was not till a Liter period that all the vowels were indicated by means of small signs (points or strokes above and below the line, § 8) subordinate to the letters, but which were wholly omitted for more practised readers. These languages are written always from right to left.* However dissimilar the Shemitic written characters may appear now, they have undoubtedly all come, by various modifications, from one and the same original alphabet, of which the truest copy now extant is the Phoenician, from which also the ancient Greek, and through it all other European, characters were derived. For a view of the Phoenician alphabet and of the oriental and occidental characters immediately derived therefrom, see Gesenii Monumenta Phoenicia, (Leipzig, 1837, Tom. I. — III. 4to.) Tab. 1 — 5, comp. p. 15, etc., and his article Paliiographie, in Ersch und Gruber's Encyclopadie, Sec. III., Bd. 9, with its proper illustration in Taf. 1. G. In regard to the relative age of these languages, the oldest written works are found in Hebrew (see § 2); the Aramaean begin about the time of Cyrus (in the book of Ezra); the Arabic not till the earliest centuries after Christ (Himyaritic inscriptions, the ^Ethiopic version of the Bible in the fourth century; and the American or dialect of Brittany ; Gaelic, Erse; Manks) belong to the Indo-Germanic family, admits of abundant proof; Bee Pritchard'a Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, and Pictet de I 'Affinite des Langues Celtiques avec le Sanscrit. — Tr. The JEthiopic is the only exception ; but its deviation from the Shemitic usage is probably an innovation by the first missionaries who introduced Christianity into that country, for its earlier mode of writing, as an ancient inscription shows, was like the kindred southern Arabic (Himyaritic), also from right to left. See Kodiger in d. Zetockrjftf. d. Knnde des Morgenlandcs, Bd. II., S. 332, etc., and his Notes to Welhtcds Reisen in Arabien, II., 876, etc § 1. THE SHEMIT1C LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 5 northern Arabic literature since the sixth century). But distinct from this is the question, as to which of these languages has adhered longest and most true to the original Shemitic character, or which of these has come to us in a more antique appearance of its development. For the slower or quicker progress of a lano-ua^e spoken by a people depends on causes quite distinct from the development of a literature; and often the structure of a language is materially altered, before it attains to a literature, especially by early contact with foreign tongues. So in the Shemitic department, the Aramaean dialects exhibit the earliest and greatest decay,* and next to them the Hebrew-Canaanitish ; the Arabic was the longest to maintain the natural fulness of its forms, being preserved undisturbed amon^ the secluded tribes of the desert, until the Mahomedan revolution, when it Buffered considerable decay. It was not till so late a period as this that the Arabic reached nearly the same point at which we find the Hebrew, even as early as the times of the Old Testament.f This accounts for the facts (erroneously considered so very surprising) that the ancient Hebrew, in its grammatical structure, agrees more with the modern than with the ancient Arabic, and that the latter, although it appears as a written language at a later period, retains yet, in many respects, a fuller structure and fresher vowel system than the other Shemitic languages, and therefore takes a place among them similar to that which the Sanskrit occupies among the Indo-Germanic, or tho Gothic in the narrow circle of the Germanic. The Lithuanian, as compared with the other tongues properly called Slavic, shows how a language may preserve its fuller structure even in the midst of decaying sister tongues. So the Doric preserved with great tenacity older sounds and forms ; and so the Friesic and Icelandic among the German and Northern languages. But even the most steadfast and enduring structure in a language often deteriorates in single forms and inflexions ; while, on the other hand, we find here and there, in the midst of universal decay, traces of the original and the ancient. Such is the case with the Shemitic languages. Even the Arabic has its (basins and its later growth ; yet in general it is entitled to the precedence, particularly in its vowel system. To establish and work out these principles would be the province of a grammar for comparing the Shemitic languages with one another. From what has been advanced, however, it follows — 1) that the Hebrew language, as it appears in the ancient sacred literature of the Jews, lias suffered more considerably in its structure than the Arabic, which appears later in our historical horizon; 2) that we are still not to concede to the Arabic the priority in all respects; 3) that, finally, it is a mistake to consider, with some, that the Aramaean, on account of its simplicity (occasioned, in fact, by derangement of structure and curtailing of forms), is the more original model of the speech of the Shemites. * A new point of importance for observation would accrue, if it should ho proved that the language of the cuneiform inscriptions found in Aramaean districts he Shemitic. But this BUbject rots u yet apoo too uncertain a basis to engage our attention here. f The language of the Beduins in the Arabian desert has still preserved some of the antiquated forms. Burckhard's Travels in Arabia, Append. YIlI., p. 466, his Notes on the BethtilU and Wahabi/s, y. 244 ; Wallin in d. Zeitschr. d. Morgcnl. Ges., Bd. V. (1851), S. 1, etc.; VI., S. 190, etc., 369, etc. (i INTRODUCTION. §2. SKETCH 01 THE BISTOBT 01 THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. On i li<- character, literature, grammars, and lexicons of these la ng uages, see Gesentus's Preface I., lii^ ll,l>. HandwOrtorbuch, from 2nd to 4th edition. [Translated in the American Biblical I: titory, vol. iii- J Sect. 2. sketch of the history of the hebrew language. (See Gesenius's Oeechichte der hebr&ischen Sprache und Schrift. Leipzig, 1815. §^ "> — 18.) I. This language was the mother tongue of the Hebrew or Israelitish people, during the period of their independence. The name, Hebrew language {\\th JV"pV, ryXwo-aa Tuv'Efipaicov, efipalcTTi,) does not occur in the Old Testament, and appears rather to have been the name in use among those who were not Israelites, h i- called, Is. xix. 18, language of Canaan (from the country in whieh it was spoken). In 2 Kings xviii. 26 (eomp. Is. xxxvi. 11, 13), and Neh. xiii. 24, per- sons arc said to speak JVrliT Jadaice, in the Jews' language, in accordance with the later usage whieh arose after the removal of the ten tribes, when the name Jew was extended to the whole nation (Hag., Neh., Esth.). Of the names Hebrews (D**13y, 'Eftpcuoi, Hebreei) and Israelites, (^Tt • *3?), the latter was more a national name of honour, and was applied by the people to themselves with a patriotic reference to their descent from illustrious ancestors; the former was probably the older and less significant name by which they were known among foreigners, on which account it is seldom used in the Old Testament, except when they are distinguished from another people (Gen. xl. 15; xliii. 32), or when persons who are not Israelites are introduced as speaking (Gen. xxxix. 14, 17 ; xli. 12 ; comp. the Lex. under *"!?y). The Greeks and Romans, as Pausanias and Tacitus, and so also Josephus, use only the name Hebrews. It may be regarded as an appellative, meaning what is beyond, people from the country on the other side, with reference to the country beyond the Euphrates, from 13y a land on the other .side, with the addition of the derivative syllable *t (§ 86, No. 5). This appel- lation might then have been given to the colony which, under Abraham, migrated from the regions east of the Euphrates into the land of Canaan (see Gen. xiv. 13). The Hebrew genealogists, however, explain it, as a patronymic, by sons of Ebcr (Gen. x. 21. Num. xxiv. 24). In the times of the New Testament, the term Hebrew (ifipdio-Ti, John v. 2; xix. 13, 17, 20; e/3/)cus 8iaAe/cTos, Acts xxi. 40 ; xxii. 2 ; xxvi. 14 ;) was also applied to what was then the vernacular language of Palestine (see No. 5 of this section), in distinction from the Greek. Josephus, who died about a. i). 95, understands by it the ancient Hebrew as well as the vernacular of his time. The name lingua sancta was first given to the ancient Hebrew in the Chaldee versions of the Old Testament, because it was the language of the sacred books, in distinction from the Chaldee, the .popular Language; which was called lingua prof ana. -■ tn the oldest written monuments of this language, contained in the Penta- teuch, we find it in nearly the same form in which it appears down to the Baby- lonish exile, and even later; and we have no historical documents of an earlier date, by which we ean investigate its progressive development. So far as we can trace its history. Canaan was its proper home: it was essentially the language of § 2. SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 7 the Canaanitish or Phoenician* race, by which Palestine was inhabited before the immigration of Abraham's descendants, with whom it was transferred to Egypt and brought back again to Canaan. That the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine spoke the language now called Hebrew, is proved by the Canaanitish proper names; e. g. P"J»"3?0 king of righteousness ; "i£p JV"}i? book-town. No less do the remaining fragments of the Phoenician and Punic language agree with the Hebrew. These are found, partly, in their own peculiar character (§1,5) in inscriptions about 130 in number) and on coins (see copies in Gesenii Monumenta Phoenicia, T. III. Tab. 6 — 18, and the explanations on pp. 90 — 328 ; Judas, Etude de la Langue Phinicienne, Paris. 1* ... 1847 J Bourgade, Tuison d'br de la Lang. Phen., Paris, fol. 1852; De Luynes, Memoire sitr le sareophage d'Esmu- naznr, Paris, 4to. 1856), and partly in ancient Greek and Latin authors, as, for instance, in Plauti Pamulus, 5, 1,2, where an entire piece is preserved. From the former source we ascertain the native orthography, and from the latter the pronunciation and vowel sounds, so that from both together we get a distinct notion of this language, and of its relation to the Hebrew. Deviations in the orthography and inflexion of words are, e. g. the almost constant omission of the vowel-letters (§ 7, 2), as T\1 for fV3 house, h\> for 7\p voice, \TX for pi'*, D3H3 for D^nb pr and the feminine ending in n (ath) even in the absolute state (§ 80, 2), co-existing with that of N (6), and many others. More striking are the deviations in pronunciation, especially in Punic, where the "l is generally sounded as u, e. g. BS^ sxifet (judge), vhv) salus (three), EH rus = B>*n (head) ; and where we find the obscure obtuse y often in the place of short i and e, e. g. *33H gnnynnti (ecce eum), riSy/A; and o fori?, e. g. "lpl?0 Mocar (comp. 'I^yp LXX. Mwvu). See a collection of the grammatical peculiarities in Mon. Phoenicia, p. 430, etc., and Movers' article Phbnizien, in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclop., Sect. III. Bd. 24, S. 434, etc. 3. The remains of this language, which are extant in the Old Testament, enable us to distinguish but two periods in its history. The first, which may be called its golden age, extends to the close of the Babylonish exile, at which epoch the second or silver age commences. The former embraces the larger portion of the books of the Old Testament; viz., of prose writings, the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, and Kings ; of poetical writings, the Psalms (with the exception of many later ones), Proverbs, Canticles, Job; of the earlier proph in the following chronological order: — Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Nahum, Obadiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. The writings of the last two, who lived and taught just before the commencement and during the first years of the captivity, as well as the latter part of the book of Isaiah (chapters 40 — 6G, together with some of the earlier chapters j\ stand on the borders of the two ages. * $33 , *3y33 is the native name both of the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine, and of those who dwelt at the fopt >>( Lebanon and on the Syrian coast, whom we call Phoenicians, while they are called jl'33 on tlieir <>\wi coins. Also the people of Carthage went hy the same name. f For an able defence of the genuineness of the latter part of Isaiah, see Hengstenberg's Christoiogy <n the subject in the American Bib i iot hec a fibers, voL ii., No. 6.— Tr. g njTBODUOTIOir. 5 -• BKBTOB OT Till-: BISTORT 0¥ THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. Thl . ill( ,,| ,•„,„. & t which m are to data the commencement of this period, and of Hebrew literature in general, ii <• rtainly aa early aa thai of Moses, even if the Pentatench, in its present •hape and compai . be considered a work remodelled at a later period. For the history of the language, and for our presenl object, it is snfficienl to remark, that the Pentateuch certainly contains Mme pecuiiaritiea of language which have the appearance of archaisms. When these books were composed, the words Wn he § 82, Hem. 6), and TW young man, were still of the common gender, and used also for ahe, and young woman dike & ttuI? and i) TraTs). Some harsh forms of words, e. g. Pi'V. pny, which are common in these books, arc exchanged in others for the softer ones, PPT, pne\ On the Other hand, in Jeremiah and Ezekiel are found decided approximations to that Aramaean colouring which distinguishes the language of the second or silver age. See No. 5. I. In ihc books of tin' first period, which cover about 1000 years, we find con- siderable differences in language and style, owing partly to the difference of date and place, and partly to the individual gifts of the writers: e. g. Isaiah writes quite differently from the later Jeremiah, as also from his own contemporary Micah; and the historical books not only differ according to their dates, like Judges and Kings, but also contain older documents strikingly different in language and style from those of the later writer himself. Yet the structure of the language, and, with trifling exceptions, its store of words and its usage, are on the whole the same, especially in the prose works. But the language of poetry is everywhere distin- guished from prose, not only by a rhythm consisting in measured parallel members, but also by peculiar words, forms, and significations of words, and constructions in Byntax; although this distinction is not so strongly marked as it is, for example, in Greek. Of these poetical idioms, however, the greater part occur in the kindred languages, especially the Aramaean, as the ordinary modes of expression, and pro- bably are to be regarded partly as archaisms, which were retained in poetry, and partly as enrichments, which the poets who knew Aramaaan transferred into the Bebrew.* The prophets, moreover, in respect to language and rhythm, are to be regarded almost entirely as poets, except that in their poetical discourses the sen- tences run on to greater length, and the parallelism is less measured and regular, than in the writings of those who are properly styled poets. The language of the later prophets, on the contrary, approximates more to that of prose. On the rhythm of Hebrew poetry, see De Wette's Commentar iiber die Psahnen, Einleitung, § 7-f [The subject is briefly treated in the Reading Book at the end of this Grammar.] Of podical words, lor which others are used in prose, the following are examples, viz., t*13X = D"jx man ; rnfc = TOjMtft ; nnx = Kfa to come; nta = "a** word; nrn — n*n to see. * In Isaiah's time (2nd half of the Sth century before Christ) the more educated Hebrews, at least the officers of state, understood Aramaean, as is expressly mentioned in 2 Kings xviii. 26 ; comp. Is. xxxvi. 11. f Translated in the Biblical Repository, No. IX. — Tr. § 2. SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 9 Under poetical significations of words may be ranked the use of certain poetical epithets for substantives, e. g. "V3N strong one, for God; "> S 2K, do. for bullock, horse; nj3^ alba, for luna ; iTVn* unica, that tohich is dearest, for life. Examples of poetical forms are, the longer forms of prepositions of place (§ 103, 3), e. g. \?V = by, \"?X=Vx, H^=*iy ; the endings *r, \ appended to the noun (§ 90); the suffixes to, 10- b- for D, D— D- (§ 58) ; the plural ending Tt for D*r (§ 87, 1). Among the peculiarities of Syntax, are, the far less frequent use of the article, of the relative, and of the accusative particle J"IN ; the use of the construct state even before prepositions, and of the apocopated future in the signification of the common future (§ 128, Rem. 2) ; and in general an energetic brevity of expression. 5. The second or silver age of the Hebrew language and literature, extending from the return of the Jews from the exile to the time of the Maccabees, about 160 years before Christ, is chiefly distinguished by an approximation to the Aramaean or Chaldee dialect. To the use of this dialect, so nearly related to the Bebrew, the Jews easily accustomed themselves while in Babylonia, and after their return it became the popular language, exerting a constantly-increasing influence on the ancient Hebrew as the language of books, in prose as well as poetry, and at last banishing it from common use. Yet the Hebrew continued to be known and written by learned Jews. The relation of the two languages, as they existed together during this period, may be well illustrated by that of the High and Low German in Lower Saxony, or by that of the High German and the popular dialects in Southern Germany and Switzerland; for in these cases the popular dialect exerts more or less influence on the High German, both oral and written, of cultivated society. It is a false impression, derived from a misinterpretation of Neh. viii. 8, that the Jews, during their exile, had wholly forgotten their ancient language, and were obliged to learn its meaning from the priests and scribes. The Old Testament Scriptures belonging to this second period, in all of which that Chaldee colouring appears, though in different degrees, are the following, viz. — Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther; the prophetical books of Jonah.* Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Daniel; of the poetical writings, Ecclesiastes, and the later Psalms. These books are also, as literary works, decidedly inferior to those of earlier date; though this period is not wanting in compositions, which, in purity of language and poetic merit, scarcely yield to the productions of the golden age; e. g. several of the later Psalms (cxx. etc, cxxxvii., cxxxix.). To this later form of the language, as affected by the influence of the Chaldee, belong, — Words, for which others are used by the earlier writers ; e. g. pf| time = Hi' ; .2? (ot n$; *\\0 end=Y\?.; ^ to rulc=^. Significations of words ; c. g. *M?K [to sag) to command ; H3V [(,, answer) to commence tpeoJting, Peculiarities of grammar ; e. g. the frequent script io plena of 1 and *T, aa "H"] [elaewhere "J)^)i * See a defence of the earlier date and the genuineness of Jonah, in Hiivernkk's EtnleitUHg nil .1. Tut , §§ 242— 247.— Ta. 10 [NTBODUCT105. GRAMMATICAL TBEATISE8 ON THE BEBREW LANGUAGE. an.l . m a &$P fox '^T, ^h fo* 3bj the interchange of R7 and N7 final ; the more frequent use of pabatantirefl in p, I -, ni, etc. \\ , .,,,. qoI to regard aa Chaldaianu all the peculiarities of these later writers. Some of them are imt found in Chaldee, and mual hare belonged in early times to the Hebrew popular dialect, , |„ i i.illv in northern Palestine, where, perhaps, Judges and Canticles [and Jonah] were composed; ;in ,| bence we maj account for the use in these more ancient books of ^ for Iffy (§ 30), which obtained also in Phoenician. l;. mark 1. Of peculiarities of dialect in the ancient Hebrew, only a few slight traces are found. Thus BroBQ Judges xii. 6 it appears thai the Ephraimites always pronounced w like b or d; and in Neh. *iii. 28, 24, the dialect of Ashdod (of the Philistines) is mentioned. 2. It is not to be supposed that the remains of old Hebrew literature in our possession contain all the treasures of the ancient language. These must have been more copious and richer than they now appear in the canonical books of the Old Testament, which are only a part of the national literature of the ancient Hebrews. Sect. 3. GRAMMATICAL TREATISES ON THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. (Gesenius's Gesch. dcr hebr. Sprache, §§ 19 — 39.) 1. After the gradual extinction of the Hebrew as a spoken language, and the collection of the books of the Old Testament into the canon, the Jews applied themselves to interpretation and criticism of the text, and to the preparation of translations of this their sacred codex. The oldest version is that into Greek by the so-called Seventy interpreters (LXX). It was executed by several translators, and at different periods of time. The work was begun with the translation of the Pentateuch, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Alexandria. Its design was to meet the wants of Jews residing in Alexandria and other Grecian cities, and was made, in part, from a knowledge of the Hebrew, whilst yet a living language. At a Bomewhat later period, the Chaldee translations or Targums (ppOPJEl, i. e. trans* lations) wore made in Palestine and Babylonia. The interpretations, drawn in part from alleged traditions, relate almost exclusively to civil and ritual laws, and to doctrinal theology. These, as well as the equally unscientific observa- tions on various readings, are preserved in the Talmud, of which the first part ( Mishna) was composed in the third century of the Christian era, the second part {Gemara) not till the sixth. The Mishna forms the commencement of the modern Hebrew literature, while the language of the Gemara closely approximates t<» the Chaldee dialect. •-'. To the interval between the conclusion of the Talmud, and the age of the first writers on the grammar of the language, is especially to be assigned the applica- tion of vowel-signs to the hitherto unpointed text (§ 7, 3). Of the same period § 3. GRAMMATICAL TREATISES ON THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 11 is the collection of critical observations called the Masora («"l"p£ traditio), by which our received text of the Old Testament was settled, continued down in MSS., and from which it bears the name of the Masoretic text. The various readings of the Q°ri arc the most important and ancient portion of the Masora (§ 17). The composition of the Masora is not to be confounded with the task of supplying the text with the points. The latter is a work of earlier date and much more ability than the former. 3. The first attempts to illustrate the grammar of the language were made by the Jews, after the example of Arabian scholars, at the beginning of the tenth century. What was attempted by Saadia (ob. 942), and others in this department, is wholly lost. But there are still extant, in manuscript, the works of R. Jehuda Chayug (called also Abu Zakaria Yahya, about the year 1030), and R. Jona (Abulwalid Merwan ben Gannach, about 1050), composed in the Arable language. Aided by these labours, Abraham ben Ezra (about 1150), and R. David Kinichi (1190 — 1200), acquired a classical reputation as grammarians of the language. From these, as the earliest writers on the subject, arc derived many of the methods of cl fication and of the technical terms which are still in part employed ; e. g. the use of the forms and letters of the verb ?^ (formerly employed as a paradigm) in designating the conjugations, and the different classes of irregular verbs ; the voces memoriales, as J"I22"133 , etc.* 4. The father of Hebrew philology, among Christians, was the celebrated Joh. Reuchlin (ob. 1522), to whom Greek literature also is so much indebted. He, however, as well as the grammarians down to Joh. Buxtorf (ob. 1G29), adhered almost entirely to Jewish tradition. After the middle of the seventeenth century the field of view gradually widened; and the study of the kindred languages, through the labours, especially, of Alb. Schultens (ob. 1750), and X. W. Schr (ob. 1798), led to important results in the science of Hebrew grammar. To estimate correctly those works which have since appeared, and which are of permanent, scientific value, it is necessary to understand what is required of one who attempts to exhibit the grammar of an ancient language. 1 his is, in general, 1) a correct observation and a systematic arrangement of all the phenomena of the language; 2) the explanation of these phenomena, partly by comparing them with one another, and with analogous appearances in the kindred languages, * On the origin and earliest history of Hebrew lexicography, Bee the prefiv oiua to the -ith edition of Ins Ihb. Handtodrterbuch. On the first grammarians, see also Sam. David Luxzatto'a Prolegomena ml nagramm. ragionata della lingua ebraica (Padova, I83f>), p. 26 foil.; II. Ewald and L. Dukes'a BeitrOgt zur Ghtckichtt ottbodtjctioh. diyisioh and abbakgement of grammar. partly from the general analogy and philosophy of Language. The first may be called the historical, and the Becond the philosophical element in grammar. [The most valuable grammatical works ;tre, — Q l*hrgeb&ude der hebr. Sprache. Leipzig. 1817. i I hum on Hebrew Grammar. London. 1827. Latest edition, 1844. Bwald'a Auafuhrliehee Lehrbuch der heb. Sproche. Leipzig. 1844. "s rdheimer'a Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 2 vols. New York. 1841. The best extant. Hupfeld's Jusfuhrliilir hebr. GrammatUt. Cassel. 1841. 1 Thl. 1 Abschnitt.] Sect. 4. DIVISION AND ARRANGEMENT OF GRAMMAR. The division and arrangement of Hebrew grammar are suggested by the three elementary parts of every language; viz., 1) articulate sounds expressed by letters, and their union into syllables ; 2) words ; and 3) sentences. The first part (which treats of the elements) contains, accordingly, instruction respecting .the sounds, and the representation of them by letters. It describes, therefore, the nature and relations of the sounds of the language, teaches how to express the written signs by sounds (orthoepy), and shows how to write agreeably to established usage (orthography). It treats, moreover, of sounds as connected into syllables and words, and exhibits the laws and conditions under which this connexion takes place. In the second part (which treats of grammatical forms and inflexions) words are considered in their quality as parts of speech. It treats, 1) of the formation of words, or the rise of the several parts of speech from the roots, or from one another ; 2 ) of inflexions, i. e. of the various forms which words assume, according to their relation to other words, and to the sentence. The third part (syntax) shows, 1) how the various inflexions of the language Berve to modify the original meaning- of words, and how other modifications, for which the language furnishes no forms, are expressed by periphrasis; 2) assigns the laws by which the parts of speech are united into sentences (syntax in the stricter sense). PART FIRST. THE ELEMENTS. CHAPTER L— READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. SECT. 5. — THE CONSONANTS, THEIR FORMS AND NAMES. 1. The Hebrew Alphabet consists of twenty-two consonants, some of which have also the power of vowels (§ 7, 2). Final. 1 D 1 r Form. Represented by Hebrew name. N «-'" «fc« 3 b, bh rva J & S' h S&'S "7 d, dh V T n h KD l V T ? z rf n ch rvn a t ™ i y nr 3 k, kh "p h i V T n m DO j n pa D s •SJttD y y or " ri a P , ph w? X ts n? P It tt "i r trn p sh, s p# n t, th in T HEBREW ALrilABET.* Sounded as Signification of the names. A-leph Beth Gi'-mel Da -let h He Vdv ZcH-yin Cheih T, 1 1, Yodh Kapk La'-medh Mem Nun Sd'-mekh A'-yui Pe Tsd-dhe' Qoph Eesh Shin Tdv Ox House Camel Door Win dow Hook Weapon Fence Snake Hand The hand bent Ox-goad Water Fish Prop Eye Mouth Fish-hook Back of the head Head Tooth Cross * For the sounds of the consonants and vowels in this table, see § 6 ami note on § i f The Latin q serves well for the Shemitish p (Greek kottku), as it occupies its wry place Numerical value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 I.— Tr. in the alphabet. 11 PABT I. ELEMENTS. -CHAP. I. BEADING AND OETHOQRAPHT. 2. The letters new in use, with which the manuscripts of the Old Testament are written (called the Assyrian or square character), are not of the original form. On the coins of the Maccabaean princes, and upon some signel stones, is found another character, doubtless in general nse at an earlier period, which bears a Btrong resemblance to the Samaritan and PhosniciaD letters (§ 1, 5). Tlie square Letter may also be traced back to the Phoenician; but it agrees best with certain Aramaean inscriptions found in Egypt, and with the Palmyrene.* .".. The five characters which have a different form at the end of a word (final letters),^ *], D, |, *), ]*, terminate (with the exception of D,) in a perpendicular Btroke directed downwards, whilst the common form has a horizontal connecting line, directed towards the following letter. 4. Hebrew is read from right to left. The division of a word at the end of a line is not allowed. To complete a line, certain letters {diJatabiles) are at times dilated. These are in our printed books the five following : — ■ cd, n, S, n, ^, (cn^n«). Remark 1. The figures of the letters were originally slight and ahritlged representations of visible objects, the names of which began with the sounds of the several characters; e. g. "7 » ^> the rude figure of a camel's neck, denotes properly a camel (/£jl =70|), but as a letter only the initial 3 ; O prop, eije, 1$, stands only for ]}, the initial letter of this word. In the Phoenician alphabet espe- cially, the similarity of the figures to the object signified by the names is for the most part still apparent, and even in the square character it is still preserved in some letters ; e. g. ^, T, 13, *, ?, y, &. The most probable signification of each name is given in the alphabet. [For further information, see the initial articles under the several letters in Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon."] However certain it is, on the one hand, that the Shemites were the first to adopt this alphabet, it is yet highly probable, on the other, that the Egyptian writing (the so-called phonetic hieroglyphics) BUggested the principle though not the figures; for these hieroglyphic characters indicate, likewise, chiefly the initial sound in the name of the object sketched; e. g. the hand, tot, indicates the letter / ; the lion, laboi, the letter Z.J 2. The order of the letters (the antiquity of which is clearly proved by the alphabetical poems in Ps. xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., cxix., Lam. i.-iv., Pr. xxxi. 10-31) certainly depended originally on a grammatical consideration of the sounds, as we may see from the occurrence in succession of the three softest labial, palatal, and dental sounds, viz., 3,3,1, also of the three liquids, *>, D, 3, and other similar arrangements (see Lepsius, sprachverglekhende Abhandlungen, Berlin, 1836. No. 1): * On the ancient Hebrew signet stones, see Rodiger in d. Zeitsch. der deutschen Morgcnl. Gesellschaft, Bd. III. (1849), S. 249 nd .547. t 1 '' H :uv supplied with vowels and pronounced together, thus V*? 7 ??- Such voces mcmoriales were invented by the early Hebrew grammarians to assist in remembering certain classes of letters. * See the works of Yonng, Champollion, and others, on the Hieroglyphics. Lepsius exhibits the chief results in his Lettn a M. Rouetim tur Talphabet htiroglypkique. Horn. 1S37, 8vo. Comp. Gesenius in der AUgem. Lift. ZeUung % 1839. No. 77— SI. Ilitzig, die Erfiudung des Alphabets. Zurich, 1S40, fol. J. Olshausen iber den Urspnag des Alphabett, Kiel, 1S41, Svo. § 6. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 15 but other considerations and influences have doubtless also had some effect upon it, for it is certainly not a mere accident, that two letters representing a hand [Yodh and Kaph), also two exhibiting the head (Qoph and Iiesh), are put together, as is done moreover with several characters denoting objects which are connected (Mem and Nun, At/in and Pe). Both the names and the order of the letters (with a slight alteration) passed over from the Phoenician into the Greek, in which the letters, from Alpha to Tau, correspond to the ancient alphabet. Just so are the old Italic and Roman alphabets, and all directly or indirectly proceeding from them, dependent upon the Phoenician. 3. The letters are used also for signs of number, as the Hebrews had no special arithmetical characters or ciphers. But this usage [exhibited in the table of the alphabet] does not occur in the Old Testament text ; it is found first on coins of the Maccabees (middle of the 2nd cent. B. c). It is now employed in the editions of the Bible for counting the chapters and verses. As in the numeral system of the Greeks, the units are denoted by the letters from tf to D, the tens by » — ¥, 100 — 400 by p — ft. The hundreds from 500 — 900, are sometimes denoted by the five final Let! . thus, T 500, d 000, | 700, C| 800, )' 900, and sometimes by n = 400, with the addition of the remaining hundreds, as pn 500. In combining different numbers the greater is put first, as x* 11, top 121. Fifteen is marked by ^ = 9 + G, and not by n% because with these the name of God nirp commences; from a similar consideration also TO is written for 1G instead of y. The thou- sands are denoted by the units with two dots above, as X 1000. 4. Abbreviations of words are not found in the text of the Old Testament. On coins, however, they occur, and they are in common use by the later Jews. The sign of abbreviation is an oblique stroke, as VI for ta$?, '6 for *£? alirjuis, TA for TO) et completion ct catcra [&c], \\ or » for nirr. ' Sect. 6. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 1. It is of the greatest importance to understand the original sound of ever}' consonant, since very many grammatical peculiarities and changes (§ 18, etc.) are regulated and explained by the pronunciation. Our knowledge of this is derived partly from the pronunciation of the kindred languages, particularly of the yel living Arabic, partly from observing the resemblance and interchange of letters in the Hebrew itself (§ 19), partly from the tradition of the Jews.* The pronunciation of the Jews of the present day is not uniform. The Polish and German Jews imitate the Syriac, while the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, whom most Christian scholars (after the example of Ilcuchlin) follow, prefer the purer Arabic pronunciation. The manner in which the Seventy have written Hebrew proper names in Greek letters, furnishes an older tradition of greater weight. Several, however, of the Hebrew sounds they were unable to represent for want of corresponding characters in the Greek language, e. g. J?, :.*', so that, to relieve * Important aid may also be derived from an accurate physiological observation of the whole system oi sounds, and of their formation by the organs of speech. See on this subject Liskovius's Theoric der Stimmr, Leiprig, MJ; J. Mailer's llandbuch der Phydokgie, lid. II. S. 179, etc. ; also Btro Itmann'a Anatomitckt VarkaU* :ur Pkymthgu der Stimmc mid der Sprachlaute, Altona, 1837. In its reference to grammar, Bee II. Hupfeld, MM drr Natvr und denArten der Sprachlaute, in Jahn's JahrbOcher f. Philologie, [829, II. 4; and II. E. BindseU'i Abhandhagen zur allgem. vetgleickenden Sprachlehre, I Iamb., 1838. / Phytiologie der Stimm-nwl Sprachlaute, S. I. jfl PART I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. I. BEADING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. the difficulty, iluy bad to resort to various expedients. This is likewise the case in the transcribing of Hebrew wordi with Latin characters, as Jerome sometimes gives them according to the pronun- ciation of the Jews of his time. On the pronunciation of the present Jews in the north of Africa, sec Bargea in the Joum. Asiat. 1H18, Nov. 2. The following list embraces those consonants the pronunciation of which re- quirea Bpecial attention, exhibiting in connexion those which bear any resemblance in sound to cadi other. 1. Among the gutturals n is the lightest, a scarcely audible breathing from the lungs, the spiritus Unu of the Greeks; similar to n but softer. Even be/ore a vowel it is almost lost upon the ear PD$ ajxap), like the h in the French habit, homme [or Eng. hour']. After a vowel it is often not heard at all, except in connexion with the preceding vowel sound, with which it combines its own (NyD mdtsd, § 23, 1). n before a vowel is exactly our h (spiritus asper) ; it is also a guttural after a vowel at the end of a syllable (1£0| neh-pakh) ; but at the end of a word it often stands in the place of a vowel, so that its consonant breathing is not heard {Twi gala), on which see § 7, 2, and § 14. y is related to tf ; and is a sound peculiar to the organs of the Shemitic race. Its hardest sound is that of a g slightly rattled in the throat, as f^PS, LXX. Topoppa; rW£, rd£a ; it is else- where, like X, a gentle breathing, as in yV , 'il\i; P/^V., 'ApaXtK. In the pronunciation of the Arabian, the first often strikes the ear like a soft guttural r, the second as a sort of vowel sound like a. It is properly as incorrect entirely to pass over y, as some do, in reading and transcribing words with our own letters, e. g. vV. Eli, P.?pi? Amalek, as it is to read it simply like g. The best representation we could give of it in our letters would be gh or r g, though its sound is sometimes softer, as V?"!^ , something like arba9 h , ^"fi^ r g a mora. The Jewish pronunciation of it by the nasal gn or ng is decidedly false. n is the firmest of the guttural sounds. It is a guttural ch, as uttered by the Swiss [and Welsh], resembling the Spanish x and j. While the Hebrew was a living language, this letter had two grades of sound, being uttered feebly in some words and more strongly in others.* 1 also the Hebrews frequently pronounced with a hoarse guttural sound, not as a lingual made by the vibration of the tongue. Hence it is not merely to be reckoned among the liquids (I, m, n, r), but, in several of its relations, it belongs also to the class of gutturals (§ 22, 5). 2. In sibilant sounds the Hebrew language is rich, more so than the kindred dialects, especially the Aramaean, which adopts instead of them the flat, lingual sounds. M' and b* were originally one letter V (pronounced without doubt like sh), and in unpointed 1 Ubrew this is still the case. But as this sound was in many words softer, approaching to a simple s, the grammarians distinguished this double pronunciation by the diacritic point into V sh (which occurs most frequently), and b s. L" resembled D in pronunciation : it differed from this letter, however, and was probably uttered more strongly, being nearly related to fc>. Hence ">?? to close up, and "OS? to reward, have different meanings, being independent roots, as also ??? to be foolish, and ??^ to be ivise. At a later period this distinction was lost, and hence the Syrians employed only D for both, and the Arabians only * In the Arabic language, the peculiarities of which have been carefully noted by the grammarians, the hard and soft sounds of V and n (as well as the different pronunciations of "I, B, X), are indicated by diacritic points. Two letters are thus made from each ; from V the softer ^_Ayin, and the harder £_ Ghain ; from fl the softer £ Hha, and the harder ^ Kha. § 6. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 17 their ijm • They also began to be interchanged even in the later Hebrew ; 13D = 12b ( / n > e . j Esr. iv. 5; n^?fe> for TvblQ folly, Eccles. i. 17. T was like ds (hence in the Septuagint £), as V was Is. It is well represented by the French and English z. 3. p and o differ essentially from 3 and TV The former (as also v) are uttered with strong articulation, and with a compression of the organs of speech in the back part of the mouth. 3. The six consonants, n, &, 3, i, a, a (iwm) have a twofold pronunciation:* 1) a harder, more slender sound (tenuis), as b, g, d, k, p, t, and 2) a soft sound uttered with a gentle aspiration (aspirata). The harder sound is the original. It is found at the beginning of words and syllables, when no vowel immediately precedes it, and is indicated by a point in the letter (Dagheshlene, § 13), as 3 ft, 3^, 1 d, 3 £, 3;), D t. The aspirated sound occurs after a vowel immediately preceding, and is denoted in manuscripts by Raphe (§ 14, 2), but in the printed text it is known by the absence of the Daghesh. In some of these letters (especially 3) the difference is less perceptible to our ear. The modern Greeks aspirate distinctly fi, 7, 8, and the Danes d at the end of a word. The Greeks have two characters for the two sounds of the other letters of this class, as 3 «, 3 %, £ it, 5 $, M t, n 0. For the particulars as to when the one or the other pronunciation is applicable, see §21. The modern Jews sound the aspirated 2 as r, and the n nearly as s, e. g. JVP'fcO rcs/u's, 3"] rav. 4. After what has been said, the usual division of the consonants, according to the organs of speech employed in uttering them, will be more intelligible and useful. The common division is as follows : — a) Gutturals, H, H, V, X (Vnnx) b) Palatals, p, 3, \ s (p3\3) c) Linguals, ID, H, T, with 3, b (^-W^) d) Dentals or sibilants, ¥, B>, D, T (t^P)) e) Labials, *|,3,&,1 (Cp13) The letter *1 partakes of the character of both the first and third classes. The liquids also 1, 3, 23, /, which have many peculiarities in common, are to be regarded as a separate class. * Sound R as t, Tl as th in ttl'cA ; 1 as r/, T rM as //i in //<«/,• D as p, % as ph or f; 3 as />, 3 M as v ,• 3 antl» asg' in^o; 3 and 3 both as h. If one wishes to give the aspirated Bonnd <>t'3 and -, lei bin pronounce £ an. I A, rolling the palate with the same breath, the former as the German g in sagen, and the latter as ch in ich. — Tit. 3 18 PART I. II. I. Ml. MS. — CHAP. I. BEADttTG AND ORTHOGRAPHY. In the Hebrew, as well as in all the Shemitic dialects, the firmer and stronger pronunciation, whioh eharacteriaed the earlier periods of the Language, gradually gave way to softer and feebler sounds. In this wray man) nice distinctions of the earlier pronunciation were neglected and lost. This appears, 1) in the preference of the softer letters ; e. g. PV>\ PV\ (see §2, Hem. 3) Syr. PV}; 2) in the pronunciation of the same letter; thus in SyriaC y has always a feeble sound, while the Galileans uttered it, as well as n, like n; in JEthiopic v has the sound of*, n that of A. Sect. 7. ON THE VOWELS IN GENERAL, VOWEL LETTERS, AND VOWEL SIGNS. 1. That the scale of five vowels, a, e, ?, 0, u, proceeds from the three primary vowel sounds, A, J, £7, is even more distinctly seen in the Hebrew and the rest of the Shemitic tongues than in other languages. E and are derived from a blending together of the purer vowels, viz., / and U with a preceding short A, and are properly diphthongs contracted, $ arising from ai 6 from au, according to the following scheme* : — «?, «, e The more ancient Arabic has not the vowels e and 6, and always uses for them the diphthongs ai and ati ; e. g. p?, Arabic bain, D^, Arab. yaum. It is only in the modern popular language that these diphthongs are contracted into one sound. The close relation of those sounds is also suffi- ciently familiar from Greek and Latin, (e. g. Kcuo-ap, Caesar ; 6avfj.a, Ion. dw/xa), from the French pronunciation of ai and au, from the Germanic languages (Goth, auso, auris, Old High-Ger. 6ra, ear. ; Goth, snaivs, Old High-Ger. sneo, Schnee [snow]), and even from the modern German vulgar dialect {Oge for Auge, Goth. aug6 [eye]; Stem for Stein, Goth. Stains [stone; comp. in Eng. ai in said, and au in naaght~\). In the present Arabic of the Beduins, the use of the vowels does not extend itself in the pro- nunciation so much beyond the three primary sounds, a, i, and u, as in the Arabic spoken in Syria and Egypt (see Wallin alluded to ante, p. o, note), and the same is reported of the African Jews by Barges in the Journ. Asiat., 1840, Nov. 2. With this is connected the manner of indicating the vowel sounds in writing. As only three principal vowel sounds were distinguished, no others were designated in writing; and even these were represented not by appropriate signs, but by certain consonants employed for this purpose, whose feeble consonant powers, For the sound of these vowels, see note on § 8. — Tk. § 7. THE VOWELS IN GENERAL. 19 according to their nature, approximate so very much to the vowel sounds to be expressed. Thus 1 (like the Lat. V) represented £7 and also ; * (like the Lat. J) represented /and E. The designation of A, the purest of all the vowels, and of most frequent occurrence, was regularly omitted,* except at the end of a word, where long a was represented by PI, and sometimes by X.f These two letters stood also for long e and o final. [The four letters mentioned (forming the mnemonic *V1X eh'vi) are commonly called quiescent or feeble letters. ~\ Even those two vowel letters () and *) were used but sparingly, being employed only when the sounds which they represent were long, and not always then (§ 8, 4). J Everything else relating to the tone and quantity of the vowel sounds, whether a consonant should be pronounced with or without a vowel, and even whether 1 and * were to be regarded as vowels or consonants, the reader was to decide for himself. Thus, for example, ?L3p might be read qutal, quiet, qutol, q e tol, qdtel, qittel, qattel, quttal ; ~m , dubhur (a word), dabher (pestilence), dibber (he has spoken), dabber (to speak), dobher (speaking), dubbar (it has been spoken); niO might be muveth (death), or muth, m6th (to die); p2 might be read bin, ben, buyui. How imperfect and indefinite such a mode of writing was, is easily seen ; yet during the whole period in which the Hebrew was a spoken language, no other signs for vowels were employed. Reading was therefore a harder task than it is with our more adequate modes of writing, and much had to be supplied by the reader's knowledge of the living mother tongue. o o o 3. But when the Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language, and the danger of losing the correct pronunciation, as well as the perplexity arising from this in- definite mode of writing, continually increased, the vowel signs or points were invented, which minutely determined what had previously been left uncertain. Of the date of this invention we have no historical account; but a comparison of * So in Sanscrit, the ancient Persian cuneiform writing, and Ethiopic, short a alone of all the vowels is not indicated by any sign, but the simple consonant is pronounced with this vowel. f The close connexion between the aspirates H, N, and the A sound, 1 and the IT sound, ' and the I sound, admits of easy physiological explanation, if we attend to the formation of these sounds by the organs of speech. The vowel A is formed by opening the mouth without changing the position of the organs ; so also n and N. I II sounded in the fore part of the mouth, with the lips a little projecting and round., 1 ; n also 1 [our w]. And I is formed at the fore part of the palate ; so also * [our y~\. E sounds at the back of the palate, 1" twi I D I and u ; ( ) in the under part of the mouth, between u and a. X The Phoenicians did not indicate even the long vowels, except in very rare OMOB , and their oldest monuments have scarcely any vowel signs. (See Mon. Phoenicia, pp. 67, 58 ; and ante, § 2, -1.) 20 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. historical facts warrants the conclusion, that the present vowel system was not completed till the seventh century of the Christian era. Jt was the work of Jewish scholars, well skilled in the language, who, it is highly probable, copied the example of the Syrian and perhaps also of the Arabian grammarians. Sec Gcsch. d. hebr. Spr. S. 182 ff. and Hupfeld in den theolog. Studien und Kritiken, 1830, No. 3, where it is .shown that the Talmud and Jerome make no mention of vowel points. 4. This vowel system has, probably, for its basis the pronunciation of the Jews of Palestine; and its consistency, as well as the analogy of the kindred languages, furnishes strong proof of its correctness, at least as a whole. We may, however, assume, that it exhibits not so much the pronunciation of common life as the graver style in reading the sacred books, which was sanctioned by tradition. Its authors have laboured to represent by signs the minute gradations of the vowel sounds, carefully marking even half vowels and helping sounds (§ 10), spontaneously adopted in all languages, yet seldom expressed in writing. To the same labours we owe the different marks by which the sound of the consonants themselves is modified (§§ 11 — 14), and the accents (§§ 15, 16). The Arabs have a much more simple vowel system. They have only three vowel signs, according to the three primary vowel sounds. The Syriac punctuation is likewise based upon a less com- plicated system. If is possible that the Hebrew also had at an earlier period a more simple vowel system, bat no actual traces of it are found. Sect. 8. THE VOWEL SIGNS* 1. Of full vowels, besides which there are also certain half vowels (§ 10, 1, 2), grammarians have generally reckoned ten, and divided them into Jive long and Jive short. As this division is simple and convenient for the learner, it is here pre- sented f : — • Long Vowels. — Qamets, a, D^ yam. — Tse're, e, DK> shem. ,_ 7 Chireq long, i, j*? bin. 1 or — Cholem, o, v\p qol, ID sobh. } Shureq, w, HID muth. Short Voicels. — Pathdch, a, H3 bath. — Seghol, e, "}3 ben. T Chireq short, i, ]P nun. — Qdmets-chatu'ph, 6, "pH choq. — Qibbu'ts, u, 1^7^ shulchdn. * The vowels, as represented in this translation, are supposed to be sounded as follows : — a or a like a in father ; a like a mfat; a like a in fate; e or e like e in there; e like e in err ; i like i in pique; i like i in pick; o or 6 like o in no ; o like o in not; u like u in rule ; u like u in full. — Tb. \ It is not given in the six latest editions of the original. — Tb. E § 8. TIIE VOWEL SIGNS. 21 A more philosophic and useful exhibition of the vowels, according to the three primary vowel sounds (§ 7, 1, 2), is the following: — First Class. For the A sound. 1) — Qameis, a, d, T yadh (hand), Dp qdm (he arose*). 2) — Pathach, a, H3 bath (daughter). 3) — Seghol, a\ as in the first syllable of |?ft malekh (king), where — has sprung from — f ["=}?£], and also in union with > as ^T yadliiiLha, T\Yf\ ?!f ) bursting (of the mouth), FW1 gntukmg t cb\n fulness, from its full tone (also D-1Q IOO juU mouth), p~)}V properly cruptofufc, i''-"" etotw the mouth). This last meaning hclongs also to fD^J and the reason, why long " and short (f]1Dn ^Dj5 Qamets correptum) have the same sign and name, seems to be that the inventors oi vowel signs pronounced the long a rather obscurely, and BOmewhat like 9, as it then passed to a perfect o with the present German and Polish Jews. (Comp. the ByriaC i with tin V = 6, the Swedish a, and the already early change of d into (J even in the Hebrew, § 9, I The distinction between them is shown in § 9. But Seghol ^'.3? clutter of grapes) appeal named after Its form; so too some call Qihbuts n'n^ tfa# (hrcr points. * The equivalents for the Hebrew vowels are marked here variously, vi/.., a, .'•, A for the essentially for the merely tone-long, 5, e, o for the short vowels. For the rest, the distinction of i and i, and D ll Mini, lent (See § 9.) f The Jewish grammarians call Seghol also " small Pathach." % It has been conjectured that the signs for these vowela were originally different identical only through carelessness in writing; but such a difference cannot be prored, fee these two nai quite identical, the former (t) being only the original, and the second (.) the modified farm. u 22 TAUT I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. READING AND OBTHOGBAPHT. The names wore, moreover, so formed that the sound of each vowel was heard in the first Billable; and in conformity to this, some write Km/lull, Qometa-chatuphf (lubbuts. 2. As appears from the examples given above, the vowel sign is regularly put under the consonant after which it is to be pronounced, *1 rd t *] ra, "\ re, *1 ru, etc. There is an exception to this rule in Pathach, when it stands under a guttural at the end of a word (Pathach furtive, see § 22, 2, b), for it is then spoken before the consonant, as HV1 ru a ch (wind, spirit). We must also except Cholem (without Vav), which is put to the left over the letter, 1 ro. * When Cholem (without Vav) and the diacritic point over {y ({?, £>) come together, one dot serves for both, as #>)P so-ne for N?.^, HK'O not HK'Q mo-she. b> (with two points), when no vowel stands under it, is sho, as "Wf sho-77i£r ; when no vowel goes before it, 6s, as B'ST y1r-]ws. The figure i is sometimes sounded ov, the 1 being a consonant with Cholem before it, as Hp lo-vk (lending); and sometimes to, the Cholem being read after the Vav, as |iy d-von (sin) for ]W . In very exact impressions a distinction is made thus : V ov, i vo, and 1 6. 3. The vowels of the first class [for the A sound] are, with the exception of l -7 in the middle, and of T\~ , K— at the end of a word, indicated only by vowel signs (§ 7, 2); but in the two other classes [for the /and E sound and for the U and sound] the long vowels are mostly expressed by vowel letters, the sound of which is determined by the signs standing before or within them. Thus, — 1 may be determined by Chireq Ot)j Tsere (*t)» Seghol (*~). 1 by Shureq (}) and Cholem (i).f In Arabic the long a is regularly indicated by the vowel letter Aleph (S7) written in the text, so that in it three vowel letters answer to the three vowel classes. In Hebrew the relation is somewhat different (§9, 1, and § 23, 4, Rem. 1). 4. When, in the second and third classes, the long vowel is expressed without a * Only very recently we have been made acquainted with a vowel system in many respects different from the common one. It is found at Odessa, in some MSS. coming from Persian Jews. All the vowels besides -1 are placed above the consonants, and deviate almost throughout in figure, and partly also in respect to the sound. Thus, for instance, Pathach and Seghol, when they have the tone, are expressed by the same sign ; but the short vowels without the tone are marked variously, according as they stand in a sharpened syllable, by Daghesh forte (§ 12) or not. The accents deviate less, and stand partly under the line of the consonants. Comp. Pinner's Pro- spectus of the Ancient Heb. and Iiabbin. MSS., belonging to the Odessa Society for History and Antiquities, Od. 1845, 4to. ; and a sketch of this Persian Jewish vowel system, by Rodiger, in the Halle Allgem. Lit. Zeit. 1848, Aug., No. 169. f The vowel sign, which serves to determine the sound of the vowel letter, is said to be homogeneous with that letter. Many, after the example of the Jewish grammarians, use here the expression, <; The vowel letter rests (quiesces) in the vowel sign." Hence the letters > and 1 (with x and n, see § 23) are called literce quiescibiles ; when they serve as vowels, quiescentes, when they are consonants, mobiles. But the expression is not suitable ; we should rather say, " The vowel letter is sounded as this or that vowel, or stands in place of the vowel." The vowel letters are also called by grammarians, matres lectionis [since they partly serve as guides in reading the unpointed text]. § 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 23 vowel letter, it is called scriptio defectively when with a vowel letter, scriptio p'- Thus Tip and D*lp are written fully, rf?b and Cp <1, f, <■//'/; ///. The choice of the full or the defective mode of writing is not always arbitrary, as there are certain cases in which only the one or the other Is admissible. Thus, the full form is necessary at the end of a word, e. g. i?&j3, *1?/WJ, *T> l 3W 5 b,lt the defective is most usual when the vowel is preceded by the analogous vowel letter as consonant, e. g. D^ for D^iH. But in other cases, much depended on the option of the transcribers, so that the same word is written in various ways, e. g. TJID^pn Ezek. xvi. 60, T/lopn. Jer. xxiii. -1, where othex editions have ^niDipn. (comp. § 25, 1). It may be observed, however, a) That the defective writing is used chiefly, though not constantly, when the word has increased at the end, and the vowel of the penultima has lost somewhat of i in consequence of the accent or tone of the word being moved forward [see § 29, 2], as P*T$ , &fflt ; ^P, ~ "" b) That in the later books of the Old Testament the full form, in the earlier the defective, is more usual.* 5. In the kindred dialects, when a vowel letter has before it a vowel Bign that is not kindred or homogeneous, a diphthong is formed, e. g. )— au, )— eu, > ~, > ~ ai. But in Hebrew, according to the pronunciation handed down by the Jews, 1 and ' retain here their consonant sound, so that we get av, eu, ay,\ e.g. 1) vdv (nail), If) gev (back), *H cliay (living), *i3 goy (nation). In sound V— is the same with \— , namely, av, as V"^n d'bhdrdv (his words). The LXX. give generally, in these cases, an actual diphthong, as in the Arabic, and this nr. considered as an earlier mode of pronunciation ; the modern Jewish pronunciation is, on the other hand, similar to the modern Greek, in which av, d sound like oo, ir. In the manuscript* ) odh and Vav arc, in this case, even marked witli M(i/>/>i!?)• Sect. 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. Numerous as these signs appear, they are yet insufficient for completely Repre- senting the various modifications of the vowel 'sou in Is in respect t - » Length and shortness, sharpness and extension. It may be observed further, that the indication of the sound by these signs cannot be called always perfectly appropriate. We therefore give here, for the better understanding of this matter, a >li<>rt commentary * The same historical relation may lie shown in the Phoenician, and in the Arabic wl r X '- D I 1 M I letter, — in the latter especially, by means of the older Koran MSS. ami the writin_r on coins. f The y in this case should be sounded as much as possible like y in y< /, not as in nay.— Tk. 24 TART I. ELEMENTS. CHAT. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. on the character and value of the several vowels, especially in respect to length and shortness; but at the same time their changcablcness (§§ 25, 27) will be noticed in passing. I. First Class. A sound. 1. Qamets, though everywhere long a, is yet in its nature of two kinds: 1) The essentially long and unchangeable a (§ 25), for which the Arabic has K— , as 2H3 k'thabh (writing), ^33 gann&bh (thief), Dj5 q&m (he arose), written at times EXj3. 2) The prolonged a of prosody (see § 26, 3), both in the tone-syllable and close before or after it. This sound invariably proceeds from the original short a* and is found in an open syllable (i. e. one ending with a vowel, see § 26, 3), e. g. ^7, /££, ^TJj ENpJ) and also in a closed syllable (i. e. one ending with a consonant,) as T, D7ty. In the closed syllable, however, it can stand only when this has the tone,f *lfn, D/ty, but in the open, it is especially frequent before the tone-syllable, as ta l5' r T, [fit, 7H5, vfep, D3/. When the tone is either moved forward or lessened, this vowel becomes, in the former case, short a (Pathach), and in the latter, vocal Sh'va (§ 27, 3), TfT, TH (d'bhdr) ; EOTI, DDH (cJfkhdm) ; 7bj5, dS&j3, Under the final letter of a word, Qamets may stand alone (fipDp, ^7), but in this position it is also indicated by PI (PIPHtpp, PJPlX, Pt^X). 2. Patfiach, or the shorter a, stands properly only in a closed syllable with and without the tone (7t5p, Djfptop). Most of the cases where it now stands in an open syllable pyj, PPi), had the syllable originally closed ("iyj, JV3, see § 28, 4). Otherwise such an a in an open syllable is changed into a (— ), comp. above, Nos. 1, 2. On the rare union of Pathach with N (**t), see § 23, 2 : on a as a helping sound (Pat/tach furtive), see § 22, 2, 5. and § 28, 4. 3. Seglwl (a, m }21 from TH, 7bp* out of /bp\. Sometimes also it is a mere helping vowel, as in JV3 for m (§ 28, 4). The Jewish and the older grammarians denominate every fully written Chireq, Chireq magnum, and every defectively written one, Chireq parvum. In respect to the sound, this is a wrong distinction. 6. The longest $, Tsere, with Yodh ( % t)j is a contracted sound of the diphthong ai *— (§ 7, 1), which, in the Arabic and Syriac, is employed instead of the former, as TOTl (palace), in Arab, and Syr. haikal. It is therefore a very long and an unchangeable vowel, longer even than '-7, since it approaches the quantity of a diphthong. This *— is but seldom written defectively (^V for W Is. iii. 8). and then it retains the same value. At the end of a word *T and *r must be written fully: most rare is the form W>^P, (§ 44, Rem. 4). 7. The Tsere without Yodh is the long e of a secondary order, and stand- only in and close by the tone-syllable, like the Qamets above in No. 1, 2. Like that, it stands in either an open or a closed syllable; the former in the tone-syllable or before it ("ISO book, i"IJ^ sleep), the latter only in the tone-syllable (j3 son, E S N dumb). 8. The Seghol, so far as it belongs to the second class, is most generally a short obtuse e sound obtained by shortening the ( — ), as "\T\ from )T\ (give). It ai also out of the shortest e (vocal Sh e va, § 10, 1), when this La made prominent by the tone (in pause, § 29, 4, b), as W for W, V^ for s ^ • and it appears besides as a helping sound, *"l5p for *13D, 7j for jX (§ 28, 4). The Seghol with Yodh ( *— ) is a long but yet obtuse a (e of the French ) formed out of ai, n}y| g'lena, and hence belongs rather to the first class (§ 8, 1, c). See more on the rise of Seghol out of other vowels in § 27, Rem. 1, 2, 1. * For this sharp j the LXX. mostly use t, ^ > -'."-' 2G PAST I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. I. BEADING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. III. Third Class. V and sound. 9. In the third class we find quite the same relation as in the second. In the u sound we have: 1) the long u, whether a) rally written 1 Shureq (answering to the *t of the second class), e. g. 7tt| (dwelling), or b) defectively written without Vav — (analogous to the long — of the second class), (Qibbuts; viz., that which stands for Shureq, and might more properly be called defective Shureq (y^J, pH/tD^ ) , being in fact a long vowel like Shureq, and only an orthographic shortening for the same. 2) The short u, the proper Qibbuts (analogous to the short Chireq\ in an unaccented closed syllable, and especially in a sharpened one, as J^W (table), nilp (bedchamber). For the latter the LXX. put o, e. g. v?~)V : , 'OSoXAa/x ; but it by no means follows that this is the true pronunciation, though they also express Chireq by e. Equally incorrect was the former custom of giving to both sorts of Qibbuts the sound it. Sometimes also the short u in a sharpened syllable is. expressed by -1, e. g. "P-V ==*!/* (see § 27, Rem. 1). 10. The sound stands in the same relation to U, as E to / in the second class. It has four gradations: 1) the longest 6, obtained from the diphthong au (§ 7, 1), and mostly written in full ) {Cholem plenum), as t3i$ (whip), Arabic said, H?iy (evil) from nT^ • sometimes it is written defectively, as ^~p? (thy bullock), from 2) The long d, which has sprung from an original d [comp. Germ. alt= Eng. old], usually written fully in a tone-syllable and defectively in a toneless one, as htip Arab, and Chald. qdtel i-liStf Arab, and Chald. eldh, plur. D^K, D^ty Arab, and Chald. 61am. 3) The tone-long o, which is lengthened from an original short o or u by the tone, and which becomes short again on its removal, as /3 (all), - 73 (kol), Dp3 (killklm), 7bj^, ^/pp*, i?tpp? (in this last instance it is shortened to vocal Sh°va, yiqflu). In this case the Cholem is fully written only by way of exception. 4) The Qamets-chatuph (— ), always short and in the same relation to Cholem as the Seghol of the second class to the Tsere, "73 kul, DjT} vdy-yd-qom. On the dis- tinction between this and Qamets, see post, in this section. 11. The Seghol belongs here also, so far as it arises out of u or o (Xo. 3), e. g. in DfiX, DriStpj?. (See § 27, Rem. 4, b.) On the half vowels, see the next section. 12. In the following table we give a scale of the vowel sounds in each of the three classes, with respect to their quantity, from the greatest length to the utmost § 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 27 shortness. The table does not indeed suffice to exhibit all vowel transitions which occur in the language, but yet it furnishes a view of those in more frequent use : — First Class. A. ~ longest d (Arabic K— ). ~ tone -lengthened a (from short a or ~) in and by the tone- syllable. T short a. — obtuse a. Greatest shortening to ~ a or ~7 e in an open, and to t I in a closed syllable. Second Class. I and B. ,_ T e diphthongal (from at). *"7 e (from at). *T or T long I. — tone-lengthened e (from t 1 or ~ obtuse e) in and imme- diately before the tone-syllable. T short ?. ~ obtuse e. Greatest shortening to ~* or ~ e in an open syllable, besides the t 2 or — in the closed. Third Class. U and 0. \ 6 diphthongal (from au). 1 or J_ 6 changed from d. I 01 ~ long u. — tone -lengthened 6* (from — 6 or — ) in the tone-syllable. 7" short ii, specially in a sharpened syllable. ~ short 6. — obtuse e. Greatest shortening fo — ° or T* in an opi D syllabi) . the short — oi 7 6 in the closed. ON THE DISTINCTION OF QAMETS AND QAMETS-CIIATDTII.* As an instance of incongruity in the vowel system, we may not ice the fact, that the long a (Qamets) and the short o (Qamets-chatujyh) are both represented by the sign (t), e.g. Ej2 qam, "73 hol.jf The beginner who has as yet no knowledge of that surest of guides, viz., the grammatical derivation of the words he lias to read, may, in order to distinguish between these two vowels, attend to the following two rules : — 1. The sign (t) is o in a closed syllable which has not the tone [or accent] ; for such a syllable cannot have a long vowel (§ 26, 5). The examples are various: a) When a simple Sh e va follows, dividing syllables, as in HDpn ehdkk-md (wisdom), TTDJ zdkh-ra ; with a Methcyh, on the contrary, the (») is u, and doses the Billable, and then the following Sh e va is a half vowel {vocal Sh e va) as ""H3T zti-kh f ra, according to § 16, 2. b) When Dayhesh forte follows, as D H FI3 hot tun (houses), 'JJH ch&n-ni-ni pity me) ; also "-'" uuitrkltcm (notwithstanding the Mcthcyli, which stands by the Vowel in the ante-penultm c) When Maqqeph follows (§ 1G, 1), as DlKn"?| Mtt-haadhdm (all men). d) When the unaccented closed syllable is final, as D£|} vatff/dqdm (and he stood up\ — There are some cases where d in the final syllable loses its tone by Maqqeph § 16, 1 and yet ren unchanged, c. g. rnrrnna Esth. iv. 8; Y*fl^ Gen. iv. 2.3. Mtthegh usually staiuls in thi but not always. In cases like ^?? n , n ^? lumma, where the ( T ) of the closed syllable has the tone, it i- A, accord- ing to § 26, G. * This portion must, in order to he fully understood, be studied in connexion with what is -aid on the lyllabl s in § 2G, and on Methegh in § 16, 2. [In the original it is all printed in small type, but its EmportaZKe justi change we have made], f For the cause of this, sec p. 21. 28 TART I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 2. The sign ( T ) as short 6 in an open syllable is far less frequent, and belongs to the exceptions in § 26, 3. It occurs: a) when Chateph-Qamets follows, as iSj3* po°-lo (his deed) ; b) when another Qamets-chatuph follows, as ^\>V& po-ol'khaf (thy deed); c) in two anomalous words, where it stands merely for («), which are found so even in manuscripts, viz., E*2Hj2 qo-dhashim (sanctuaries) and D*Bht? sho-rashim (roots), see § 93, 6, Rem. 3. In these cases ( T ) is followed by Methegh, although it is <5, since Methegh always stands in an open second syllable before the tone. The exceptions that occur can be determined only by the grammatical derivation, as *3N3 in the ship (read: ba°ni) 1 Kings ix. 27, with the article included; on the contrary *)*? *"}Qi? lvch°ri aph (in anger's glow) Ex. xi. 8, without the article. Sect. 10. THE HALF VOWELS AND THE SYLLABLE-DIVIDER (SH»VA). 1. Besides the full vowels, chiefly treated in § 9, the Hebrew has also a series of very slight vowel sounds, which may be called half vowels. % They are to be regarded in general as extreme shortenings, perhaps mere traces, of fuller and more distinct vowel sounds in an earlier period of the language. To them belongs, first, the sign — , which indicates the shortest, slightest, and most indistinct half vowel, something like an obscure half e. It is called Sh'vafi and also simple Sh e va, to distinguish it from the composite (see post, No. 2), and vocal Sh'va (Sh'va mobile), to distinguish it from the silent (Sh'va quiescens), which is merely a divider of syllables (see post, No. 3). This last can occur only under a consonant closing the syllable, and is thus distinguished from the vocal Sh e va, whose place is under a consonant beginning the syllable, whether a) at the begin- ning of the word, as sbp q e tol, «?£?£ nfmalle, or b) in the middle of the word, as rtSpip qo-fla, ^tpjT yiq-flu, Mpj5 qit-flu. So also in cases like W?H ha-Nu (which stands for VTpPl hal-l e lu), H2M2?7 la-m e nats-tse a ch (for '£>?), further /Eton ha-m'shul Judges ix. 2 (where the interrogative H makes a syllable by itself), *j?£ ma-l'khe. In the last examples the Sh e va sound is specially slight, in consequence of the very short syllable preceding. * That B ought here to be considered and divided as an open syllable r?V I 3 appears from § 26, Remark. t This case is connected with the foregoing, so far as the second Qamets-chatuph is sprung from Chateph- Qamets. I In the table § 9, 12, the half vowels have already been exhibited for the sake of a more complete view. We express them by letters of a small type. § The name XJt? is written also K^, and its derivation and proper meaning are obscure. § 10. HALF VOWELS AND THE SYLLABLE-DIVIDER (sII f Va). 29 The sound £ may be regarded as representing vocal Sh e va, although it is certain that it often accorded in sound with other vowels. The LXX. express it by e, even 77, D'3V13 XtpovBiu, PP ■'ppn dX\rj\ovia, oftener by a, ^•IDtp 'Sapovr'jX, but very often they give it a sound to accord with the following vowel, as D"Ip 2dSo/A, \ib?y 2,o\o/xwv (besides also 2uAo/a0, ^UfU NaOavrjk* A similar account of the pronunciation of Sh e va is given also by the Jewish gram- marians of the middle ages.f How the Sh e va sound springs from the slight or hasty utterance of a stronger vowel, we may see in i"9"0 (for which also i"9"£ occurs, see No. 2, Rem.) from barakha, as this word also sounds in Arabic. This language has still regularly for vocal Sh'va an ordinary short vowel. The vocal Sh e va is too weak to stand in a closed syllable; but yet it can with the consonant before it form a hasty open syllable, as appears from the use of Metheyh (see § 16, 2), and also from the fact that it can become an accented ~, as ^rp from w (§ 26, 4). 2. With the simple vocal Sh'va is connected the so-called composite Sk'va or Chateph (rapid), i. e. a Sh'va attended by a short vowel to indicate that we Bhoold sound it as a half a, e, or 6. We have, answering to the three principal vowel sounds (§7, 1), the following three: (-■) Chateph-Pathach, as in "li/bH clfmor (ass). (••") Chateph- Seghol, as in *lfiX 'mor (to say). (t : ) Chateph- Qamets, as in wft ch°ll (sickness). The Chatephs, at least the two former, stand chiefly under the four gutturals (§ 22, 3), the utterance of which naturally causes the annexed half vowel to be more distinctly sounded. Rem. Only (-:) and (t : ) occur under letters which are not gutturals. The Chateph-Pathach is thus found instead of si?nple vocal S/i e va, but without any fixed law, especially a) under a doubled letter, since the doubling causes a more distinct utterance of the vocal Sh e va,Jsometimes also where the sign of doubling has fallen away, '335 fbl '--^ Gen. ix. I 1. '•TfoMM Judges xvi. 16; b) after a long vowel, c. g. 2\}\ (gold of), but 3HT1 Gen. ii. I2j V&f beat . but yp^-l Deut. v. 24, comp. Gen. xxvii. 26, 38. The Chateph- Qamets is less connected with the gutturals than the first two, and standi frequently for simple vocal Sh e va when an sound was originally in the syllable, and require! to be partly preserved, e. g. '»n for ^"} tision (§ 93, VI. Rem. 6), HffTf. for the usual ^T ]•;„.. \xw. f,. from ^y.; ^i£1i? his pate, from >y\%> It is used, also, like (-:) when Dagketh forte has fallen away, nPljW for nnW Gen. ii. 23. In n"iyD-l \ Kings xiii. 7, and 'plM Jcr. xxii. 20, the choice of this composite Sh e va is dependent on the following guttural and the preceding U sound. 3. The sign of the simple Sh'va (~~) serves also as a mere syllable-divider, with- out expressing any sound, and therefore called in this case silent Sh'va (Sh'va * This is not unusual in the Phoenician language, e.g. fO/O Malacca, Dv-133 giibulim (eat Gem. Man. Phamicia, p. 436, Mover's article, Phtinizien, in the Pnci/clop., etc., p. 4.'!<;). Cooip> the Latin augment, in momordi, pupngi, with the Greek in rirvrfxi, reTV/x/Myof, and the old form memordi. f See especially Juda Chayug, p. 4 and p. '200 of the edition l>y Dukes, alao in Dm. Ein'l Tsachnlh, p, :i, Gesenius's Lchrgebuude dcr hcb. Sjirac/u; S. 68. t As in "hlV (branches), Zeeh. iv. 12. 30 TART I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. quiescens)^ answering to the Amine Sukdn. It stands in the midst of a word under every consonant that closes a syllable; at the end of words, on the other hand, it is omitted, except in final *], e. g. ifetf (king), and in the less frequent case where a word ends with two consonants, as in T13 (nard), £!N! (thou, fern.), rh>0$ (thou hast killed), gjft, 3^1, flftrW, etc. Yet in the last examples Sh'va under the last letter might rather pass for vocal, since it is pretty clear that a final vowel lias heen shortened, c. g. IjHg atf from *5¥ «//?, J^Pi? from 73/9£, ?^" ywAA* from rtj?^,* etc. The Arahic actually has a short vowel in the analogous forms. In ^3, borrowed from the Indian, this is less clear. P^'P (truth) Prov. xxii. 21, seems to require the pronunciation qosht. For ^pin"?X (»e addas) Prov. xxx. 6, others read ^Dirrbx . Sect. 11. SIGNS WHICH AFFECT THE READING OF CONSONANTS. In intimate connexion with the vowel points stand the reading-signs, which were probably adopted at the same time. Besides the diacritic point of b and V) (p. 16), a point is used in a letter, in order to show that it has a stronger sound, or is even doubled ; and, on the contrary, a small horizontal stroke over a letter, as a sign that it has not the strong sound. The use of the point in the letter is threefold: a) as Daghesh forte or sign of doubling; b) as Daghesh lene or sign of the hard (not aspirated) sound; c) as Mappiq, a sign that the vowel letter (§ 7, 2), especially the H at the end of a word, has the sound of a consonant. The stroke over a letter, Raphe, has a contrary effect, and is scarcely ever used in the printed Hebrew copies. Sect. 12. of daghesh in general, and daghesh forte in particular. 1. Daghesh is a point written in the bosom f of a consonant, and is employed for two purposes; a) to indicate the doubling of the letter (Daghesh forte), e. g. 7t2p qlt-tcl ; b) the hardening of the aspirates, i. e. the removal of the aspiration (Daghesh lene.) The root C*3T, from which t'3*1 is derived, in Syriac signifies to thrust through, to lore through (with a sharp iron). Hence the word Daghesh is commonly supposed to mean, with reference to its figure merely, a prick, a. point. But the names of all similar signs are expressive of their gram- * So thought Jmla Chayug among the Jewish grammarians. t Daghesh in 1 is easily distinguished from Shurcq, which never admits a vowel or Sh e va under or before the 1 . The Vav with Daghesh (-1) ought to have the point not so high up as the Vav with Shureq (1). But this differ- ence is often neglected in typography. § 13. DAGHESn LENE. 31 matical power, and in this case, the name of the sign refers both to its figure and its use. In grammatical language vy-\ means, 1) acuere literam, to sharpen the letter hy doubling it ; 2 harden the letter by taking away its aspiration. Accordingly VN means sharp and hard, i. e. Bigtl of sharpening or hardening (like Mappiq, p^D proferens, i. e. siynum prolationis), and it was ex- pressed in writing by a mere prick of the stilus (punctum). (In a manner somewhat analogous, letters and words are represented, in the criticism of a text, as expunged [ex-puncta] by a. point or pointed instrument (obeliscus) affixed to them). The opposite of Daghesh is HD"! soft (§ 14, 2). That E'Hi in grammatical language, is applied to a hard pronunciation of various kinds appears from § 22, 4, Rem. 1. 2. Its use as Daghesh forte, i. e. for doubling a letter, is of chief importance (compare the Sicilicus of the ancient Latins, e. g. Luculus for Lucullus, and in German the stroke over m and ?l). It is wanting in the unpointed text, like the vowel and other signs. For further particulars respecting its uses and varieties, see § 20. Sect. 13. DAGHESH LENE. 1. Daghesh lene, the sign of hardening, belongs only to the aspirates {lit aspiratce) D32H313 (§ 6, 3). It takes away their aspiration, and restores their original slender or pure sounds (literce tenues), e. g. ^]/£ mitlekh, but ij?£ malio; *SST\ tdphar, but ibrV yith-por ; T\TV shdthd, but T\Tp\ yish-te, 2. Daghesh lene, as is shown in § 21, stands only at the beginning of words and syllables. It is thus easily distinguished from Daghesh forte, since in these i the doubling of a letter is impossible. Thus the Daghesh mfort in "iTX "/■/■ . -'-'" rabbim, but lene in /^, yighdal. 3. Daghesh forte in an aspirate not only doubles it, but takes away its aspira- tion, thus serving at once for both forte and lene, as % £N aj>}>i ; rTl3*l rak-koth. (Compare in German stechen and stecken, wachen and wecken,) This is accounted for by the difficulty of doubling an aspirated letter in pronunciation. In con- firmation of this rule we may refer to certain Oriental words, which, in the earliest tim< 1, over into the Greek language, as N2? Ka7T7ra (not Kda), yet "^SD yu7r$£ipos. The doubling of a letter does not occur in Syriac. at least in the Western dialects. Wl would be required, however, according to etymology and analogy, the aspiration at hast is removed: thus P.?N in Syriac is read apry, for qppeq. 32 l'art i. elements. chap. i. reading and orthography. Sect. 14. MAPPIQ AND RAPHE. 1. Mappiq, like Daghesh, to which it is analogous, is a point in a letter. It belongs only to the vowel-letters 1, \ and X, H (literal quiescibiles), and shows that they are to be sounded with their full consonant power, instead of serving as vowels. It is at present used only in final H, for in the body of a word this letter always has a consonant force, e. g. H53 ga-hhah (the h having its full consonant sound), n¥"]tf ar-tsah (her land), in distinction from H^pX dr-tsd (to the earth), which ends with a vowel. Without doubt such a n was uttered with stronger aspiration, like the Arabic He at the end of the syllable, or like h in the German Sckuh, which in common life is pronounced Schnch. The use of it in and under K, 1, i, to mark them as consonants, is confined to manuscripts, e. g. ^ (<7oy), •1|? (qdv). The name p''?'? signifies producens, and indicates that the sound of the letter should be clearly expressed. The same sign was selected for this and for Daghesh, because the design was analo- gous, viz., to indicate the strong sound of the letter. Hence also Raphe is the opposite of both. 2. Raphe (n^*1 i. e. soft) written over the letter, is the opposite of both Daghesh and Mappiq, especially of Daghesh lene. In exact manuscripts an aspirate has generally either Daghesh lene or Raphe, e. g. T?£ mtilekh, ISri, HH^ ; but in printed editions of the Bible it is used only when the absence of Daghesh or Mappiq is to be expressly noted, e. g. }n¥7XJjn for ^nsptfjjrt, Judges xvi. 16, and v. 28, (where Daghesh lene is absent), Mappiq in Job xxxi. 22. Sect. 15. THE ACCENTS. 1. The design of the accents in general is, to show the rhythmical members of the verses in the Old Testament text. But as such the use is two-fold, according to which they are chiefly to be noticed in the grammar, viz., a) to show the logical relation of each word to the whole sentence ; b) to mark the tone-syllable to each word. In respect to the former, they serve as signs of interpunction ; in respect to the latter, as signs of the tone or accent. By the Jews, moreover, they are regarded as signs of cantillation, intimating the elevation and depression of the tone, and are used as such in the recitation of the Scriptures in the synagogues. The use made of them in this way is also connected with the general rhythmical design. § 15. THE ACCENTS. 33 2. As a sign for marking the tone of a single word, the accent, whatever its rhythmical value may be besides, stands regularly (comp. Rem. 2) with the syllable which has the chief tone in the word. In most words the tone is on the last syllable, less frequently on the penultima. In the first case, the word is called by the grammarians mil-rd ($1?$ Chald., from below), e. g. ?t?P gatdl; in the second, mil-cl (/•>/?£ Chald., from above), e. g. yti malekh. On the third syllable from the end (antepenultima) the chief tone never stands; but we often find there a secondary one or by-tone, which is indicated by the Methegh (§ 1G, 2). 3. The use of the accents as signs of interpunction is somewhat complicated, since they serve not merely to separate the members of a sentence, like our period, colon, and comma, but also as marks of connexion. Hence they form two class* 3, Distinctives {Domini) and Conjunctives (Servi). Some are, moreover, peculiar to the poetical books* (Job, Psalms, and Proverbs), which have a stricter rhythm. The following is a list of them according to their value as signs of interpunction : A. Distinctives (Domini). I. Greatest Distinctives (Imperatores), which may be compared with our period and colon. 1. (— ) Silluq (end), only at the end of the verse, and always united with (♦) Soph-pasuq, which separates each verse, e. g. tj'l^n. 2. (—) Athndch (respiratio), generally in the middle of the verse, dividing it in two halves; but in the three books, Job, Psalms, and Proverbs, it is lighter than Merhd-Mahpakh (No. 3), and then divides the second half of the verse. 3. ( r ■) Merkd with Mdhpdkh,* in Job, Psalms, and Proverbs, mostly principal dividers in the middle of a verse. II. Great Distinctives (Reges) : 4. (— ) Seghoitd ff : 5. (—) Zdqeph-qdton : 6. (— ) Zaqeph-gadhol : 7. (— ) Tiphchd. III. Smaller (Duces) : 8. (_L) Bebhla: 9. (JL) Zarqa\\\ 10. (-1) Pdshtaft: 11. (-) Yethibhf: 12. (7) Tebhtr: 13. (J_) Shakhfleth* : 14. (-7) Tiphchd initiate^. IV. Smallest (Comites): 15. (JL) Pacer: 16. (!') QdrnS-phdrd: 17. (1) Great Telishd]: 18. (-) Garish: 19. (-) Double GWresh: 20. (1) P«t$ the words. B. Conjunctives (Servi). 21. (7-) Merkd: 22. (— ) Miuulch: 23. (-) Double Merkd: 24. (-) Mahp&h: * These accents are marked in the following list with an asterisk. On the mart t ami 1 f see boh u, Rem 2. 1 34 PART I. ELEMENTS. — CHAT. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 25. (2.) Qdd/tmd: 20. ( T ) Darga: 27. (-) Yardch: 28. (A) Little Tcllsha ff: 29. (-) Ttphcha final*: 30. (f ) M8rk& with Zdrqd*: 31. (,-) Mdhptikh with REMARKS ON THE ACCENTS. I. y/s Signs of the Tune. 1. As in Greek (comp. ei/xi and ti/xi), so also in Hebrew, words winch arc written with the same consonants and vowel signs arc often distinguished by the accent, c. g. -133 ha-nu (liny hnilt), 13^ hnnu (in us) ; nE(3 mfmd (s/ic stood up), f"?i? yr/>»« (standing tip, fern.). (Compare in English compact and compact. — Tr.) 2. As a rule, the accents stand on the tone-syllable, and properly on its initial consonant. Some, however, stand only on the first letter of a word (j>rcj)ositive), others only on the last letter (postpositive). The former are designated in the table by f, the latter by f f . These do not, therefore, clearly indicate the tone-syllable, which must be known in some other way. Those marked with an asterisk are used only in the poetical books. 3. The place of the accent, when it is not on the final syllable, is indicated in this book by the sign (1), e. g. $Bj3 ga-tdl-ta* II. As Signs of Intcrpnnction. 4. In respect to this use of the accents, every verse is regarded as a period, which closes with Silluq,f or, in the figurative language of the grammarians, as a realm (ditto), which is governed by the great Distinctive at the end (Imperator). According as the verse is long or short, i. e. as the empire is large or small, so varies the number of Domini of different grades, which form the larger and smaller divisions. 5. Conjunctives (Servi) unite only such words as are closely connected in sense, as a noun with an adjective, or with another noun in the genitive, etc. For the closest connexion of two or several words J\faqqeph is used (§ 16, 1). 6. In very short verses few conjunctives are used, and sometimes none; a small distinctive, in the vicinity of a greater, having a connective power (servit domino majori). In very long verses, on the contrary, conjunctives are used for the smaller distinctives (funt legati dominorum). 7. The choice of this or that conjunctive depends on very subtile laws of consecution, with which the learner need not trouble himself at present. It is sufficient for him to know the greater distinctives, which answer to our period, colon, and comma, though they often stand where a half comma is scarcely admissible. They are most important in the poetical books for dividing a verse into its members. (See in the Reading Book at the end of this Grammar, and more fully in Nordheimer's Heb. Grammar, §§1151—1157.) Sect. 16. MAQQEPH AND METHEGH. These are both closely connected with the accents. 1. Maqqcph (^p^? binder) is a small horizontal stroke between two words, which * [In the present edition, although we have used this mark (>) in the body of the work, we have adopted this (7) instead, in the tables of the pronouns and conjugations, as the more convenient.] t This has the same form with Methegh (§ 16, '2) ; but they are readily distinguished, as Silluq always stands on the last tone-syllable of a verse, while Methegh never stands on the tone-syllable. § 17. Q E RI AND K E TIIIBII. 35 thus become so united that, in respect to tone and interpunction, they are regarded as one, and have but one accent. Two, three, and four words may be united in this way, e.g. ^1^72 every man ; $&frhTT)% every herb, Gen. i. 29; tfHBfcf^anflK all which to him (was), Gen. xxv. 5. Certain monosyllabic words, like "?N to, VIK sign of the Ace, "73 all, are almost always thus connected. But a longer word may also be joined to a monosyllable, e. g. nj~q?nrin Gen. vi. 9, ?3"*0?3 Gen. i. 7, 9 ; or two polysyllables, e. g. "fy/mfft Gen. vii. 11. 2. Methegh (3rti? a bridle), a small perpendicular line on the left of a vowel, forms a kind of check upon the influence of the accents as marking the tone- syllable, and shows that the vowel, though not accented, should not be hastily passed over in pronunciation. It stands, therefore, regularly by the voir J of the antepenultima when the last syllable has the tone, whether that vowel be long, as D"7X!"I, nx*in, or short, as D^BHp qodhashim, DDTO bottekhfon. But this rule is to T T IT ' V Tl" ' ' ' T||T J. > ■■ " IT be understood according to the view which regards the half vowels (simple Sh'va vocal and composite Sh e va) as forming a syllable (§ 10, 1, and § 26, 4); accordingly Methegh stands a) by the vowel which precedes a vocal Sh'va (simple or composite), n^jj qd-f-la, myi yi-r'-u, Htfg>, nStfh, VlStt, iStf3 po-°-lo, and b) by even the vocal Sh'va itself ^"K^p J° D v - X* When it stands by Sh e va, many Jewish Grammarians call it GcCya N S V4, while others use this name in general for every Methegh. N.B. It is of special service to the beginner, as indicating (according to letter a above) the quantity of Qamcts and Chircq before a Sh'va. Thus in PTC3T zd-khTa the Methegh shows, that the (») stands in the antepenultima, and that the Sh e va is here vocal and forms a syllable; but the (t) in an open syllable before ( :) must be long (§ 2G, 3), consequently Qamcts, not (jamets- chatuph. On the contrary, rTOT z6kh-ra without Methegh is a dissyllable, and (*) stands in a closed syllable, and is consequently short (Qamcts-chatuph). Thus also 18"Y| (they fear) with Methegh is a trisyllable with a long t, yi-r e -u, but INT (they see) without Methegh is a dissyllable with short •', yir-u. (See above, the rule about Qamcts and Qamcts-chatuph, in § 9 at the end.) Sect. 17. QERI AND K E THIBII. The margin of the Hebrew Bible exhibits a number of various readings of an early date (§ 3, 2), called **VJ (to be read), because in the view of the Jewish critics they are to be preferred to the reading of the text, called TH? (written). Those critics have therefore attached the vowel signs, appropriate to the marginal reading, to the consonants of the corresponding word in the text; e.g. In gg PART I- ELEMENTS. — CHAP. B. CHANGES OP LETTERS. j er< xiii. c, the text exhibits j3*}, the margin Hp urm. Here the vowels in the texl belong to the word in the margin, which is to be pronounced ^n>t ; but in reading the text UK, the proper vowels musl be Bupplied, making ti|f. A small cirri. • or asterisk over the word in the texl always directs to the marginal reading. \ to tli" value of the marginal readings in point of criticism, sec Gesenius's Gesch. der Heir. 8jtraoh$, S. BO, 7."). CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES AND CHANGES OF LETTERS; OF SYLLABLES AND THE TONE. Sect. 18. In order fully and rightly to comprehend the changes which the forms of the various parts of Bpeech undergo, it is necessary first to get acquainted with certain genera] laws on which those changes depend. These general laws are founded partly on the peculiarities of certain classes of letters, considered individually or as combined in syllables, and partly on certain usages of the language in reference to syllables and the tone. Sect. 19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. The changes occasioned among consonants by the formation of words, inflexion, euphony, or certain influences connected with the progress of the language, are commutation, assimilation, rejection and addition, transposition. 1. Commutation takes place most naturally among letters which are pronounced similarly, and by the aid of the same organs, e. s. vSy, Dptf, ?Sj? to exult; iW?, » * p 0/OI-T/-T'-. T ' T T ' nrp, Aram. NST? to tire; DV and |*t (as plural ending); jTH, ]'HJ topi "UD, *0? to close; D;?2?, &?3 to escape. In process of time, and as the language approximated to the Aramaean, hard and rough sounds were exchanged for softer ones, e. g. 7K| for 7£| to reject; pnj? for pf« to laugh ; for the sibilants were sub- stituted the corresponding flat sounds, as 1 for T, D for ¥, H for S5\ This interchange of consonants affects the original forms of words more than it does their grammatical inflexion; the consideration of it, therefore, belongs rather § 19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 37 to the lexicon.* Examples occur, however, in the grammatical inflexion of words ; viz., the interchange a) of H and D in Hithpael (§ 5 4), b) of 1 and ' in verbs Pe Yodh (§ G9), as lh\ for^l (he begat). 2. Assimilation usually takes place when one consonant at the close of a syllable passes over into another beginning the next syllable, so as to form with it a double sound, as illustris for inlustris ; diffusus for disfusus. In Hebrew this occurs — a) most frequently with the feeble nasal 2, especially before the harder consonants, e.g. D1|>P for Eilplfo from the east; T\)J2 for PIT3D from this; |JV for |WJ! he will give ; riH3 for ft)ty thou hast given. Before gutturals 3 is commonly retained, as 7H^ he will possess ; seldom before other letters, as rp?^ thou hast dwelt. b) less frequently, and only in certain cases, with 7, \ H, e. g. njD? for PlpT he takes; ptan for pi3I£l to k established; •& for "lBfc wAo (§ 3G). In all these cases, the assimilation is expressed by a Daghesh forte in the fol- lowing letter. In a final consonant, however, as it cannot be doubled (§ 20, 3, ha3resis), when such a feeble consonant has not. a full vowel, and its sound is easily lost upon the ear, as tifti and IjHj^ (we); •# for IBte (comp. No. 2, b); 3? (sit) for X*; \ft (give) for |W. £•) in the midst of a word (contraction), when such a feeble consonant is preceded by a Slrva, e. g. ^W?, the prevailing form for ^EH 1 ? (§ 23, 5, and § 35, Rem. 2); hvp forTE)^ (§ 53, 1). c) at the end of words (apocope), e.g. fopft! for jTODj^S D*j3 sou, before the genitive \5£. Bolder changes were made in the infancy of the language, particularly in casting away con- sonants at the end of a word; thus, from |J?K was formed "^ only; from n'3. 2; from ?Q, E| (sec § 99, and § 100, 4). Here belongs also the change of the feminine ending n_- uth to n , d [see § 1 1, 1, and § 80, 2). * Spp the first article on each letter in Gescnius's Hebrew Lexicon, translated and edited by Dr. Tr Small Quarto. Bagster ami Sons. 88 l'AKT I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. U. CHANGES of LETTERS. I. Id other case* b harshness in pronunciation is prevented by the addition of M ( AUph proetheticum ) with its rowel at tin- beginning of a word, e. g. yn? and yn*x arm (comp. xPh -V'- Lat. spmtus = French esprit). , r >. Transposition, in grammar, seldom occurs. An example of it is ^n^'H for tSJ^riri (§ 54, B), because «A^ is easier to Bound than thsh. Cases are more frequent which fall within the province of the lexieon, as W23 and 3^3 lamb; !"nW and n^u' garment; they hit, however, chiefly confined to the Bibilants and liquids. Consonant*, especially tin' weaker, may also at the end of a syllable be softened to vowels, like €is- from cr?, rhdiuis from eheval (comp. § 30, 2, e), e. g. 3313 star from 3333, 3213 ; tTK m «7» from l ,: ;x or B^J (wlicrc the Segkol is merely a helping vowel, see above, No. 2).* Sect. 20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS 1. The doubling of a letter by Daghesh forte takes place, and is essential, i. e. necessary to the form of the word {Daghesh essential) — ■ a) when the same letter is to be written twice in succession, without an inter- mediate vowel; thus for ^£0 we have ^OfO we have given; for TlJ^, Tlt^ / have set. b) in cases of assimilation (§ 19, 2,) as ]J]V for )H?\ In both these instances it is called Daghesh compensative. c) when the doubling of a letter originally single is characteristic of a grammatical form, e. g. *1o? he has learned, but TEH he has taught (Daghesh characteristic). The double consonant is actually and necessarily written twice, whenever a vowel sound, even the shortest (a vocal Sh p va), comes between. Hence this is done a) when a long vowel precedes, as in D7?in (insolent), which is read h6-l e lim (§ 26, Rem.), frequently also after a mere tone-lengthened vowel, as in •lEpi" i which is, however, usually contracted into -1BE> ; b) when a Daghesh has already been omitted, as V}ft} hd-l'lu for -i??!! hal-l e lu ; c) when the two consonants have come to stand ther by composition, but properly belong to two words, as ^P'lnj [he blesses thee), ^J.Mt?^"?* {they cull me), where ^ and '3 are suffixes ; d) when the form has come from another which has a long vowel, as nppf? construct of n??p. Sometimes the same word is found in both the full form and the contracted, e. g., DTtt. ,; | J er . v. 6, and tMfr Prov. xi. 3, Q e ri ; '33311 p s . ix. 14, and *3JTJ p s . iv. 2. 2. A consonant is sometimes doubled merely for the sake of euphony. The use of Daghesh in such cases (Daghesh euphonic) is only occasional, as being less itial to the forms of words. It is employed — a) when two words, of which the first ends in a vowel, are more closely united in * In the Punic, T?0 malkh (king) is in this way contracted to muhh (see Mm. Phoenicia, p. 431). § 20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 39 pronunciation by doubling the initial consonant of the second (Daghesh forte conjunctive), as njrrti? what is this? for PIT HOj 'IXV 1/-1D qu-muts-ts' 'it, arist ! depart! Gen. xix. 14; DB> tf?3$] Deut. xxvii. 7.* In some instances words thus united are contracted into one, as JIT/!? for i*fi"iTO, mV$ for D37TID, Dj? Pitt what to you? Is. iii. 15. Analogous to the usage above mentioned is the Neapolitan le llagrime for le lagrime, and (in- cluding the union of the two words in one) the Italian alia for a la, ddla for de la. b) when the final consonant of a closed syllable, preceded by a short vowel, is doubled in order to sharpen the syllable still more, e. g. *3?V for S 2N ;/''"/" *i Deut. xxxii. 32. (Compare Gen. xlix. 10; Ex. ii. 3; Is. lvii. G— lviii. 3; Job xvii. 2; 1 Sam. xxviii. 10; Ps. xlv. 10.) Examples of this, however, are com- paratively rare, and without any regard to uniformity. Compare the following forms as found in very ancient Greek inscriptions, viz., upuroros, TC/Worai, *Acr(TK\r]Tno<; (Bockh. Corpus Inter. Gr. I. p. 42), and in German anmlcrc, winserc (for aiulcrc, unsi n . as written in the time of Luther. c) when the final tone-syllable of a sentence (§ 29, 4) is to receive more firmness and stress by the doubling, e. g. ton J for toflj they give, Eze. xxvii. 19; i??V for tTP they waited, Job xxix. 21, Is. xxxiii. 12. 3. The Hebrews omitted, however, the doubling of a letter by Daghesh forte, in many cases where the analogy of the forms required it; viz. — a) always at the end of a word, because there the syllable did not admit of sharpening. Thus the syllable all would be pronounced, not as in German with a sharpened tone,f but like the English all, call, small. Instead, therefore, of doubling J the consonant, they often lengthened the preceding vowel (§ 27, 2 >. as Dy (people), with a distinctive accent (§ 15, 3) for Dp from E£tf. The exceptions are very rare, as JTO thou f., IjlHJ thou hast given, Eze. xvi. 33, (sec § 10, 3, Rem.). b) often at the end of a syllable, in the body of a word (where the doubling of a letter is less audible, as in Greek o\to Homeric for JWcto) ; e. g. &*Bto223i1 for * Here belong cases like HX3 Plk|, Ex. xv. 1, 21 ; so that the assertion is not correct, that the first of the two words must be a monosyllable, or accented on the prnultima. | This distinction may be illustrated by the English word alley compared with alloy.— Tu. % The doubling of a final letter is also omitted in Latin, vsfel (for/c//) gen./efltf, mrl gen. nullis, St iren. Ottit, In the ancient German, the doubling of consonants never took place :it the. rod of a word, but always in the middle, as vol (Fall) gen. vallcs, scam (Scliwannn), etc ; Grimm's Deutsche Ci'ramiii., 2nd ed. 1. 383, 40 PART l. ri.r.Mi.M's. — CHAP. n. CHANGES OF LETTEB8. In i' , it may be ai omed m a rule, thai the Dagheah remains in the letter with Sh'va (which is then voeal, S l<», I , and is never left on( of the aspirates, because it materially affects thi ir sound, e. g. ""5^31} •kh&pp'ra (nol n~l$-$ a kkaphrd) Oen. «xii. 21, MT$p Is. ii. 4, T^JM, *!??!. On the contrary, it is usually omitted in the prefbrmatives ] and o in Piel, as "I3T.1, DFJ^ipn, nv:':^ for WO^i | so also in HJJli and in cases like 1^0 for I7f3, *?J>0 for *}in. In some cases a vowel Ot half vowel was inserted to render the doubling of the letter more audible, e. g. crry „■///, you for D^; rriap for n?p (§ 67, 4), M^| Is. lxii. 2. c) In the gutturals (see § 22, 1). Rem. In the later books we sometimes find Daghcsh omitted, and then compensation made by lengthening the preceding rowel (comp. mile for tniUe), as in'rv he terrifies them for jnrv (Hab. ii. 17 , D*J*1to threshing-sledges for D'l^D, 1 Chron. xxi. 23. Sect. 21. ASPIRATION AND THE REMOVAL OF IT BY DAGHESH LENE. The pure hard sound of the six aspirates (T\, fi, 3, "I, 3, 1,) with Daghesh lene inserted, is to be regarded, agreeably to the analogy which languages generally exhibit in this respect, as their original pronunciation, from which gradually arose the softer and weaker aspirated sound (§ 6, 3, and § 13). The original hard pro- DunciatioD maintained itself in greatest purity when it was the initial sound, and after a consonant; but when it followed a vowel sound immediately, it was softened and aspirated by the influence of the vowel, so p2 parats becomes p2? yiphrots. Hence the aspirates take Daghesh lene: 1. At the beginning of words, when the preceding word ends with a vowelless consonant, as fSTTp dl-ken (therefore), ,fc l3 fV ets p e n (fruit-tree)-, or at the begin- ning of a chapter or verse, or even of a minor division of a verse (consequently after a distinctive accent, § 15, 3), e. g. IWJO.3 in the beginning, Gen. i. 1 ; *ttft}3 *ft)1 it happened^ when, Judges xi. 5; on the contrary, p~*«11! «* was s °, Gen. i. 7 ; 1*J| X?&\ (with dist. accent) iv. 5, but in ver. 6 f JS ^ (with conj. accent). Also a diphthong (§ 8, 5), so called, is here treated as ending in a consonant, e. g. ? ^ Judges v, 15. (Daghesh lene is therefore regularly found after m"I.T, because *p$ : was read instead of it.) 2. In the middle and at the end of words after silent Sh'va, i. e. at the begin- ning of a syllable, being immediately preceded by a vowelless consonant, e. g. HSTft he heals, Er^pp ye have killed, ljtfj£ let him drink. On the contrary, after vocal Sh'va they take the soft pronunciation, e. g. N|T1 heal thou, ITOg she is heavy. N.B. The aspirates have the soft sound also especially in — a) Forms which are made, by the addition or omission of letters, immediately from other forms in which they had their soft sound ; e.g. *B"P (not iSV)) from tfr\; \?bo (not '3^0) formed imme- § 22. PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. 41 diately from 0*371? (on the contrary, »3?0 mal-la, because it is formed directly from ^O mulk) ; 3rOS (not 3$??) f ro m 3n|. In these cases, that pronunciation of the word, to which the car had become accustomed, was retained ; thus, rid e phu, mat kin', btkh'thdbh.* Rem. 1. The form Ijin^, where we might expect the feeble pronunciation of T) on account of the preceding vowel, was originally rin?£> ; a nd the relation of n , notwithstanding the slight vowel sound thrown in before it, was regarded as unchanged. Comp. § 28, 4. b) The 3 in the srtffixes It, 03— , |3— has always its soft sound, because vocal Sh e va is before it, § 58, 3, b. 2. Also the tone appears at times to affect the division of a word into syllables, and consequently the sound of the aspirates; thus, nsp? Num. xxxii. 14, but nnbpb Ps. xl. 1.5; J3"^ (qdrbdn), but fj?T?0 (in pause) Eze. xl. 43. c) Finally in certain classes of forms, e. g. ni3?p (matkhuth), n-1"lp2. 3. That the hard or soft pronunciation of these letters did not affect the signification of words, affords no reason to doubt that such a distinction was made. Comp. in Greek 6pi$, rptyo?. Sect. 22. PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. The four gutturals, H, n, y, X, have certain properties in common, which result from the pronunciation peculiar to them; yet tf and y, having a softer sound than PI and PI, differ from these in several respects. 1. The gutturals cannot be doubled in pronunciation, and therefore exclude Daghesh forte. To our organs also there is a difficulty in doubling an aspiration. But the syllable preceding the letter which omits Daghesh appears longer in eon- sequence of the omission ;f hence its vowel is commonly lengthened, especially before the feebler letters K and V, e. g. J^yn the eye for ptfH; *tpN1 it is said for ")D"N?, etc. The harder gutturals, n and H, allowed a sharpening of the syllable, though orthography excluded Dagh. f. (as in German the ch in sicker^ machen, has the sharp pronunciation without being written double), and hence the Bhorl vowel almost universally maintains its plaee before these letters, e. g. BNiij the month, KlPin that. As these last forms are treated as though the guttural were doubled, the grammarians not inap- propriately speak of them as having a Daghesh forte implicitum, occttltutn, ox deliieaoeru; c. g. c~x for D'RX brothers; D'HSI snares; D^nn thorns. See more in § J7, lUm. 2. 2. They are inclined to take a short A sound before them, because this vowel stands organically in close affinity to the gutturals. Hence — * A particularly instructive case occurs in $ 45, 3, in the Inf. with prefixes. f Comp. terra and the French tetre; the Germ. Rolle and the French r6U ; Germ. droUig. and Fr. drdle. In this omission, we see the diminished vigour of the language. The fresher and more original Bounds <•!' the ! (§ 1, G) still admit the douhling of the gutturals. 49 PAST i. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. II. CHANGES 01 LETTERS. „) Before a guttural, Pathach la used instead of any other short vowel, as i, e ( Chireq parvum, Seghol), and even for the rhythmically long e and b {Tee/re and ChoUm)\ e. g. rai sacrifice for rgr, $# ny»>// for Jfi&fi?. This is still more decisively preferred when the form with Pathach is the original one, or is used in common with another. Thus in the Imp. and Fut. Kal of verbs; Th& send, rftf) he will send (not H^); Pret. Piel rtW (not fW)j lpj a yow*/*, where Pathach in the first Byllable is the original vowel; lhr\\ for 1DIT he will desire. / i Mm a strong and unchangeable vowel, as 1, *!, V, (§ 25, 1), and in many cases Tsere, is retained. Between it and the guttural, however, there is involuntarily uttered a hasty d (Pathach furtive), which is written under the guttural. This is found only in final syllables, and never under X; e. g. HD riTch (spirit), HV?0 shd-lu a ch (sent), IT") re a ch (odour), 5H re* (companion), JlilJ gd-bho"h (high), Pl^Bfrl hlsh-ll"ch, etc. For the same reason the Swiss pronounces ich as t a cA, and the Arabian ITK'O mesi e ch, though neither writes the supplied vowel. [Analogous to this is our use of & furtive e before r after long f. /. u, and the diphthong ou ; e. g. here (sounded he e r), fire (fl e r), pure (pu e r), and our (ou e r).] The Pathach furtive falls away when the word receives an accession at the end, e. g. nil spirit, *n-1~l ,),,/ spirit, where the n is made the beginning of the new syllable. The LXX. write e instead of Pathach furtive, as nj Nuie. Item. 1. The guttural sometimes exerts an influence on the folloioing vowel. But the examples of this usage are few, and are rather to be regarded as exceptions than as establishing a general rule, e. g. "IJ73 « youth for "$3 ; ?y*S deed for ?J?3 • The A sound is preferred only where it would be admissible without the influence of the guttural, as in the Imp. and Fut. of verbs, e. g. ^nt?, Bny\\ If, however, another vowel serves at all to characterise the form, it is retained, as En?) he fyhts; ?n»l and he waited, not ?n»1. 2. Seghol is used instead of Pathach both before and under the guttural, but only in an initial syllable, as ifenj he binds, \??n. Without the guttural these forms would have Chireq, in place of Seghol. V\ hen, however, the syllable is sharpened by Daghesh, the more slender and sharp Chireq is retained even under gutturals, as ^pn, n?n, Httn ; but when the character of the syllable is changed by the falling away of Daghesh, the Seghol, which is required by the guttural, returns, e. g. }V|n const, state |V?n thought; fV-jn , |Wn vision. 3. Instead of simple Sh'ca vocal, the gutturals take a composite Sh'va (§ 10, 2), e. g. bej3K, nby to stand, )l2r\V they have slain, %*$&) they will slay. This is the most common use of the composite Sh e vas. 4. When a guttural stands at the end of a (closed) syllable, in the midst of a wnl, and has under it the syllable-divider (silent Sh'va, § 10, 3), then the division of syllables often takes place as usual, especially when that syllable has the tone, e. g. $$&, t j l0u / ia « t scnL # ut Ayhen tne gy^fe stan a s oe f ore the tone, there is § 23. THE FEEBLENESS OF THE BREATHINGS X AND ft. 43 usually a softening of the sound by giving to the guttural a slight vowel (one of the composite Sh e vas), which has the same sound as the full vowel preceding, as W (also afety), ftfj (also f^-)> fift (also pTTtJ) 5 this composite Sh e va is changed into the short vowel with which it is compounded, whenever the follow- ing consonant loses its full vowel in consequence of an increase at the end of the word, e. g. JpflTJ, H3J£ yo-obh'dhu (from TO)), DfiPIJ yahaph'khu (from ^SiT). Rem. 1. Simple Sh e va under the gutturals, the grammarians call /wrf (By*?), and the composite Sh e vas in the same situation so/2 ('I?"})- See more in the observations on verbs with gutturals (§§ 62-65). 2. Respecting the choice between the three composite Sh e vas it may be remarked, that — a) n, n, V, at the beginning of words prefer ~, but N~, e. g. "lion «ss, JTH fo ////, "ADM fo uw, But when a word receives an accession at the end, or loses the tone, K also takes t, as \?X to ; EQy£ to you; P3X A> ea^; but "?3X Gen. iii. 11. Comp. § 27, Rem. 5. A) In the middle of a word, the choice of a composite Sh e va is regulated by the vowel (and its which another word of the same form, but without a guttural, would take before the Bh e va ; as Pret. lliph. TOJjn (according to the form ^P??), Inf. TDJ?n (conformed to ^Pi?n), Pnt. Hoph. 10}?n (conformed to ^pn). For some further vowel changes in connexion with gutturals, see § 27, Rem. 2. 5. The *l, which the Hebrew uttered also as a guttural (§ 6, 2, 1), shares with the other gutturals only the characteristics mentioned above in Xo. 1, and a part of those given in No. 2 ; viz. — a) The exclusion of Daghesh forte; in which case the vowel before it is always lengthened, as *5p3 he has blessed for "Sp3 ; ^p3 to bless for ^p3 . b) The use of Pathach* before it in preference to the other short vowels, though this is not so general as in the case of the other guttural sounds, e. g. NTT and he saw, while for the full form Pltf"V is in use; 1D V ) for 1D*1 and he turned back. 7 v • ■ 7- T - TT - J and for HD*1 and he caused to turn bach. V T- Unfrequent exceptions to the principle given under letter a are !"no mor-rd, Prow xiv. 10 ; T>" shtir-riikh, Ezc. xvi. 4, where "1 is notwithstanding doubled (also in Arabic it admits of doubling, and the LXX. write HX' 2a/)pa). There are some other cases in which neither the doubling of the "1 nor the lengthening of the vowel has taken place, as H'TM? (for ^T^.P) 2 Sam. x\iii. 16. Sect. 23. THE FEEBLENESS OF THE BREATHINGS X AND ft. 1. The X, a light and scarcely audible breathing in the throat, regularly loses its feeble power as a consonant (it quiesces), whenever it stands without a vowel at * The preference of r for the vowel a is seen also in Greek, e. g. in the feminine of ali.rtivc- Hiding in pns, as (\0pd for (\6ph from (\8p6s. — Tic. || r.\i;r I. ELEMENTS.— CHAP. H. CHANGES OF LETTEBS. the end of b syllable. If then Berves merely to prolong the preceding vowel (like the German h in saA), as Wffi he has found, K?9 fa was filled, NV1 sfo, Ni'£p fo //////, snn //,-,• iTWRb, njKJppft. This takes place after all vowels; but in this situation short vowels, with few exceptions, become long, as N^ft for N>'?, WfOJ for Wtttf. 2, ( )n the contrary x generally retains its power as a consonant and guttural in ;,11 cases win ire il begins a word or syllable, as ItiX he has said, ^iDNfc they have re- I bb%h for to eat. V< i even in this position it sometimes loses its consonant sound, when it follows a short vowel or a half vowel (vocal SIfva) in the middle of :, word; tor then the vowel under tf is either shifted back so as to be united with the vowel before it into a long sound, as 0%b for lb«S, h$W for 7$£, also hsft ( with d rhanged to 6, § 9, 10, 2) for TOW, or it wholly displaces it, as in DN"tt for CvSH"} Neh, vi. 8, D\Slph (chbtlm) for D\Stph (sinning) 1 Sam. xiv. 33, DW (tiro hundred) for DTlXft, WtftiT] (heads) for D*#K*1. Sometimes there is a still greater change in the word, as btXSBBh for 7XS^\ rDX7ft (business) for iT»6b. Some- q •• t ; • •*:-:•' tt.\ / t t times also the vowel before tf remains short when it is a, e. g. *yitfj for *3*TNJ, tflK 1 ? for ^S, nK'ljp 1 ? for H^OpS. Instead of X in such a case, there is often written one of the vowel letters 1 and \ according to the nature of the sound, the former with 6 and the latter with c and z; e. g. "112 for "IN2 {cistern , Dn (hufialo) for EX"), \VC"-\ (the first) for f>t> : N"! Job viii. 8, comp. 6 for *6 ( HO f) 1 Sam. ii. 16, K'ihibh ; at the end of a word H also is written for X, as i\?®\ {he fills) for X70* Job viii. 21. 3 When x is thus quiescent, it is sometimes entirely dropped, e. g. s T?i\ (1 went forth) for TW, *rfeb (lam full) Job xxxii. 18, for W??, ^ (/say) constantly for 1&KK, TO Eze. xxviii. 16, for ^fi, ni^nS (to lay waste) 2 Kings xix. 25, for niN^n^ Is. xxxvii. 26. Kern. 1. In Aramican the x becomes a vowel much more readily than in Hebrew; but in Arabic, on the contrary, its power as a consonant is much firmer. According to Arabic orthography x serves also to indicate the lengthened a ; but in Hebrew the examples are very rare, in which it is strictly a vowel letter for the long A sound, as 0N[? Hos. x. 14 for the usual D|5 he stood up, EW poor Prov. x. 4, xiii. 23 for EH. Hebrew orthography generally omits, in this case, the vowel letter (§8, 3). 2. In Syriac X even at the beginning of words cannot be spoken with a half vowel {vocal Sh'va), but then always receives a full vowel, usually E, as ^ in Syr. eihal. Accordingly in Hebrew, also, instead of a composite Sh'va it receives, in many words, the corresponding long vowel, as "VlTS girdle for 11TK, D?nfc tents for B^mg, nV^ stalls for ninx. 3. We may call it an Arabism, or a mode of writing common in Arabic, when at the end of a word an N (without any sound) is added to a -1 (not being part of the root), as KW?n for G?p (they Josh. x. 24, vSnS (they are trilling) Is. xxviii. 12. Similar arc N»p3 for *?3 pure, K& for & ;>', Xi-:x for iB« then. The case is different in *Wn and X s n ; scc § 39, Rem. 6. § 24. CHANGES OF THE FEEBLE LETTERS 1 AND \ 45 4. The n is stronger and firmer than the K, and scarcely ever loses its aspiration (or quiesces) in the middle of a word;* also at the end it may remain a consonant, and then it takes Mappiq (§ 14, 1). Yet at times the consonant sound of the H at the end of a word is given up, and PI (without Mappiq, or with Raphe H) then remains only as a representative of the final vowel, e. g. fh (to her) Num. xxxii. 42, for PD Job xxxi. 22; Ex. ix. 18. The PI at the beginning of a syllable preceded by vocal Sh e va often disappears and is omitted in writing, as yxb (in the morning) for 'TjjW?, H*J? (* n ^ ie fond) for H^C?> 103^! contracted |nji\ In these cases of contraction, the half vowel e (— ) before PI is displaced by the full vowel under it. In other cases, however, the vowel under Pi is displaced by the one before it, as D3 (in them), from DP13; or both are blended into a diphthongal vowel, as 1D1D (also PID1D) from WlD, TODJ3 from ! ff^ttp. According to this, the so-called quiescent PI at the end of a word stands, some- times, in the place of the consonant Pi. But usually it serves quite another purpose, viz., to represent final a, as also J, e and a (Seghol), e. g. Hu'N, TO}, nSj, rf?|, nSy. See § 7, 2, and § 8, 3. Rem. In connexion with and e it is occasionally changed for 1 and * (TXT— n'si, *2n = n2n Hos. vi. 9), and in all cases for K according to later and Aramaean orthography, particularly in connexion with a, e.g. NJ£> [sleep) Ps. exxvii. 2, for iHg*, Nb'3 (to forget) Jtr. xxiii. 89, for n^'3, etc. Sect. 24. changes of the feeble letters 1 and v The 1 [the sound of which is probably between our iv and r] and the * [our y] are as consonants so feeble and soft, approaching so near to the corresponding vowel sounds u and ?', that they easily flow into these vowels in certain conditions. On this depend, according to the relations of sounds and the character of the grammatical forms, still further changes which require a general notice in tins place, but which will also be explained in detail wherever they occur in the in- flexions of words. This is especially important for the form and inflexion of the feeble steins, in which a radical 1 or * occurs (§ 69, etc., and 85, 1 1 1. — VI. ). 1. The cases where 1 and * lose their power as consonants and flow into vowel sounds, are principally only in the middle and end of words, their consonant sound * A very few examples are found in proper mimes, as ?XnL"J/, "fitffnB, which are compounded of two words, arid in many MSS. arc also written in two separate words. One other case, ^'"ns 1 Jer. xlvi. 20, is also m the printed text divided by Maqqeph, in order to briny the gmucent n at the end of a word. IT, p,\i;r I. i i j:\ii.\k — CHAT. II. CHANGES OF LETTEKS. being nearly always beard a1 the beginning. 41 These eases are chiefly the fol- lowing : — ,,) When 1 or ' stands at the end of a syllable, immediately after a vowel. The feeble Letter baa nol strength enough, in this position, to maintain its consonant sound. Thus HB*V1 it is inhabited for 3#}H or S£Tt; J>j3^ he awakes for J*j5^j mW3 for rrpTIJ^j SO also at the end of the word, e. g. YNHfc^ yisrdeli (properly, -////, hence /era. -liyya), W (made) Job xli. 25, for WV (comp. TWy 1 Sam. xxv. 18, K'tliil'h). After homogeneous vowels, particularly pure m and i, 1 and * constantly quiesce in these cases. But after a heterogeneous vowel they sound M consonants (according to § 8, 5), as rti& quiet, IT May month, ^13 nation, ^73 disclosed. But with a preceding short a 1 and * mostly form a diphthongal 6 and ,' ,- sec below, No. 2, 6. b) When 1 or * is preceded by vocal Sh e va, and such syllables are formed as q'vom, b'vo. Hence N13 to come for N13, U)p to arise for Dip. So also especially when 1 and * preceded by Sh e va come to stand at the end of a word; as *JT for *Tl* (from PPJT), ^ fruit for HS. c) Very seldom when the feeble letter has a full vowel both before and after it; as Cip surgendo for Eilp, Dip for D^P. Comp. \_parvum contr. j^anm], mihi contr. m/, quum contr. cum. In Syriac, where these letters flow still more readily into vowel sounds, * is sounded, even at the beginning of words, merely as t, not as ) or ) (like e for ^) ; and so in the LXX. ITTnT. is written 'lovSa, P^V! 'Io-aa*. Hence may be explained the Syriac usage, examples of which occur also in Hebrew, which transfers the vowel i, belonging to the feeble letter, to the preceding consonant, which should properly have simple Sh e va, e. g. P" ) ri , 3 as the superiority for P"1JV3 Eccles. ii. 13, •1?n v ) (in some editions) for ■1?D^ ; Job xxix. 21 and they ivaited. 2. When such a contraction has taken place, the vowel letter quiesces (see p. -2-2, note f ) regularly in a long vowel. Respecting the choice of this vowel, the following rules may be laid down: — (/ ) \\ hen the vowel, which an analogous form without the feeble letter would take, is homogeneous with the vowel letter, it is retained and lengthened, as 3tp^ he is good for 3bJ] (analogous form 7D|T); $%frir\ {habitare f actus est) for 3Bhn. b) When a short a stands before * and ), there arise diphthongal e and 6 (according t.» § 7, 1) ; thus y$Vb becomes y&ti doing well; 1W1, nW ; nW, nSiy.f * An exception is ^ for 1 and, see §26, 1, and § 104, 2, b. + Instances in which no contraction takes place after a short a are, D*3*9JD, using the right hand, 1 Chron. xii. 2 ; DTPJS I chastise them, Hos. vii. 12 ; ♦$]JB> I am at ease, Job iii. 26. At times both forms are found, as P^Jg and HJTB evil; 'H living, construct state »n. Analogous is the contraction of HID death, constr. HID, [*| eye, cooatr. ry. § 25. UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. 47 c) But when the vowel sign is heterogeneous, and at the same time is an essential characteristic of the form, it controls the feeble letter, and changes it into one which is homogeneous with itself. Thus tSHV becomes &y\; Dip becomes Dp qam; *?3 and 17B? become H7J and PI7#.* An original >- r at the end of words becomes — a) n— (for ,- r is never written at the end of a word), when the impure sound a must be used ; e. g. n)?! for $|* (§ 75, 1) ; ngnD/orm for 'KTD; Afield (poet.), common form HT^.J i) H— , when the ^4 sound predominates, and is characteristic of the form; as iy|, rijj, TOl for ^>3. ^3. ^3. - f > - . > Sect. 25. UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. What vowels in Hebrew are firm and irremovable, can be known, with certainty and completeness, only from the nature of the grammatical forms, and from a comparison with the Arabic, in which the vowel system appears purer and more original than in Hebrew. This holds, especially, of the essentially long vowels in distinction from those which are long only rhythmically, i. e. through the influence of the tone and of syllabication, and which, having arisen out of short vowels, readily become short again by a change in the position of the tone and in the division of the syllables. The beginner may be guided by the following speci- fications : — 1. The essentially long and therefore unchangeable vowels of the second and third class, viz., i, u, -o v § 2;!, 1) do no! belong here. :;. Unchangeable is also a short vowel in a sharpened syllable, followed by Dagheah forte, e. g. SJ| thief; likewise in every closed syllable which is followed by another closed syllable, e. g. Wtihti garment, ftlX poor, TSHJ? wilderness. 4. Such are also the vowels after which a Daghesh forte has been omitted on account of a guttural, according to § 22, 1 (forma dagessanda), e. g. hxr^T} for ^X-nrt mountains of God; ^ for 1p_3 he has been blessed. Sect. 26. SYLLABLES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE QUANTITY OF VOWELS. To obtain an adequate view of the laws, according to which the long and short vowels are chosen or exchanged one for another, a previous acquaintance is required with the theory of syllabication, on which that choice and exchange depend. The syllable may then be viewed with reference, partly to its commencement (its initial sound) as in No. 1, and partly to its close (its final sound) as in Nos. 2 — 7. The latter view is of chief importance. 1. With regard to the commencement of the syllable, it is to be observed, that every syllable must begin with a consonant; and there are no syllables in the Language which begin with a vowel. The single exception is ) (and), in certain cases for \, e. g. in yft\ (§ 104, 2, b).* The word "T^iJ is no exception, because the X has here the force of a light breathing. 2. With regard to the close of a syllable, it may end — a) With a vowel, and is then called an open or simple syllable, e. g. in ft/^j? the first and last are open. See No. 3. />) With a half vowel or vocal Sh e va, as p e in ^3 p'ri (fruit), ch" in *XH clftsl (half), f in V?t?j2 qa-f-lu. Such we call half syllables ; see No. 4. c) With one consonant: a closed or mixed syllable, as the second in 7t?j5, 22?. See No. 5. Here belongs also the sharpened syllable, as the first in ;W qdt-tcl. See No. 6. * Tt may he questioned whether -1 in the abore position be a real exception ; for ^7^-1 ought prohahly to he pro- nounced wumSWth (not unuticJih), the 1 retaining its feeble consonant sound before the Shureq. — Tr. § 26. SYLLABLES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE QUANTITY OF VOWELS. 49 d) With two consonants, as to&p qosht, IjyfcpjJ; comp. § 10, 3. We shall now (in Nos. 3 — 7) treat in particular of the vowels that are used in these various kinds of syllables. 3. The open or simple syllables have, as a rule, a long vowel,* whether they have the tone, as ^3 in thee, ^SD book, Vhp sanctuary, or not, as vpp, 3T? heart, !HNPV they will fear. Usually there is a long vowel (Qamets, less frequently Tsm ) in an open syllable before the tone (pretonic vowel), e. g. Ero, K-T, 7Dj5, 3j?./f" Short vowels in open syllables occur only in tlie following cases : — a) In dissyllabic words formed by means of a helping vowel (§ 28, 4) from monosyllables {Segholates), as ^O, ~m youth, rv| house, 3"}!, from $B, "$3, ?*?, ??.. The reason is, that the final helping vowel is very short, and the word sounds almost as one syllable. Yet the first vowel is also lengthened, as in 3T, another form for sf. (§ 75, Rem. 3, 4), Bto» {in pause, § 29, 4). b) In certain forms of the suffixes, as *??!?i?, Til?" 1 ! (from T);^-)- c) Before the so-called 7/e focc//, which has not the tone (§ 90, 2), e. g. "V:?"}? toicards Carm>l, i"n?"]Q towards the wilderness. In all these cases the short vowel is supported by the chief tone of the word. Elsewhere it has at least the support of Methegh, viz. — d) In these connexions, T~7, ~~, ~~ ', as foj?p Am taste, "IDS* / .„,,„, lm:; ' t,, ti„- pronunciation banded down to as, this syllable with Sh-va is obviously of a differenl .,„ the open syllable with a full vowel (No. 3). But yet that half rowel is in genera] bui a shortening of an original long vowel, which is commonly still to be found in Arabic; and even the Jewish grammarians, from whom the vowels and accents came, have assigned to the anion of s consonant with a half vowel the value of a syllable, as appears from the use of Methegk (see § 16, 2, b). 5. The closi I Byllables, ending with one consonant, have necessarily, when without the tone, short vowels, both at the beginning and at the end of words,* us Pl^te queen, ji3£ ; n understanding, !"!??? wisdom; ICW and he turned back, Dj£l and he set up, Cj5*l and he stood up. When with the tone, they may have a long vowel as well as a short, e. g. D3H wise, D3H he ivas wise; yet of the short vowels only Pathach and Seghol have Btrength enough to stand in such a syllable having the tone.f Examples of long vowels in the final syllable, are W, Tfcj?, SbjT.; in the last but one, njfej5, Pl^bf?. Examples of short vowels, b&jj; DAN, DX>; in the penultima, PrpbjJ, ^t?j?\ G. A peculiar sort of closed syllables are the sharpened, i. e. those which end with the same consonant with which the following syllable begins, as V3X im-mi, *?3 kul-li. Like the other closed syllables, these have, when without the tone, short vowels, as in the examples just given; when with the tone, either short, as ttlD, tiK or long, as T\1*&, HDH. V • " O" T T / T " Sharpened syllables are wholly avoided at the end of words ; see § 20, 3, letter a. 7. Closed syllables, ending with two consonants, occur only at the end of words, mid have most naturally short vowels, as r>?^j?» ???!» y e t sometimes also Tsere, as T"0, "ij^l, and Cholem, as t3^p. But compare § 10, 3. Most commonly this harshness is avoided by the use of a helping vowel (§ 28, 4). Hem. In the division into syllables, accordingly, a simple S/t e va after a short vowel belongs to the foregoing syllable, and is quiescent, as !"l6"T? mir-mu ; but after a long vowel to the following, and is vocal (§ 10, 1), as n?t?'lp q6-t e lu, Dv?in hd-Mim. The composite Sh'va belongs always to the following syllable, as fr]?9 po- a lo, even after a short vowel, as ipi't? ta- a mo, PHS 6-h°l6. • There are some exceptions, when a word loses the tone through Maqqeph, as rVjiTlpa (k'lhubh), Esth. iv. 8. t See ^ 9, 2. Short Chireq (?) occurs only in the particles DX and Dl?, which, however, are mostly toneless, because followed by Maqqeph. § 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN EESEECT TO THEIR QUANTITY. 51 Sect. 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN RESPECT TO THEIR QUANTITY. As to the changes, which the vowels undergo by the inflexion of words, we ma}' first lay down these fundamental principles, — a) That they generally occur only in the last syllable and the last but one, very seldom in the antepenultima, e. g. ^21 r word, constr. st. "O^j p")3T remembrance, ffDT; JVTH vision, ]V]Fl. b) That they are usually made within the limits of one and the same vowel class [§ 8]. Thus a may be shortened into a and a\ c into i and e, 6 into o and ft; and with the same limitation the short vowels may become long. But such a change as turning a into u can never take place. The most material exception consists in the approximation of the first vowel class to the second, by attenuating Pathach into Chircq and Seghol; see below, Rem. 2 and 3. So also in the deriva- tion of obtuse Seghol from vowels belonging to all three classes ; see Rem. 4. The vowels, with the changes of which we are chiefly concerned here, are all the short ones, and as many of the long as owe their length simply to the tone and rhythm, viz. — Long vowels (by the influence of the tone), Corresponding short vowels, t ft "=" a a\ e i _ $ fT o (Qamets-chatuph) It it To these add the half vowels or Sh°vas t, ~, ~, tt, as the utmost shortenings. Let the student compare here again what was said in § 9, on the character and value of tin- several vowels ; and in § 25, on the unchangeable vowels. Agreeably to the scale of § 26, the following changes occur: — 1. A tone-long vowel is changed into a kindred short one, when a closed syllable loses the tone (§ 2G, 5). Tims, when the tone is moved forwards, T lmn-1 becomes T, as !"li!T~T hand~of-Jehova1i ; |? son, Dixn"|!l son-of-man ; ^2 whole, ^V'?" t, T ) PART i. ELEMENTS. - CHAP. H. CHANGES 0? LETTERS. -the-peoph ; also when the tone is moved backwards, e.g. Dp), DjJJ); T^, ^/J). So also, when an open Byllable with :i long vowel becomes by inflexion a close I one, e. g. 1(0 book : *T?P '"H book; t^"lp sanctuary, *BHjJ my sanctuary. In these case /' e (e) passes over into Seghol (c) or Chireq (£), ChoUm (<>) into Qamets-chatuph (<>). But when a closed Byllable with a long vowel becomes a sharpened one, i. e. ending with a doubled consonant, Tsere is attenuated into Chir,, /, and Cholem into Qibbuts, as OK mother, 73X wy mother; pTl statute, plur. -•p-i. The slmrl vowels X and ti arc more pure, and hence pass for shorter than e and d\ 2. On the contrary, a short vowel is changed into a corresponding long one, — a ) When a closed syllable, in which it stands, becomes an open one, i. e. when the word receives an accession, beginning with a vowel, to which the final consonant of the closed syllable is attached, as 7DD, i/iftp he has killed him ; WtfiD from npiD. b ) When a syllable, which should be sharpened by Daghesh forte, has a guttural for its final consonant (see § 22, 1), or stands at the end of a word (see s< 20, 3, a). c) When it meets with a feeble letter (according to § 23, 1, 2; § 24, 2), as K¥ft for N^E he has found. d) "When the syllable is in pause, i. e. is the tone-syllable of the last word in the clause (§ 29, 4). 3. When a word increases at the end, and the tone is at the same time shifted forward, all vowels (long and short) may, according to the division of syllables, either pass over into a half vowel (vocal Sh e va), or may even be entirely dropped, so that only the syllable-divider (silent Sh e va) supplies their place ; e.g. for the first ease is DC* (name) pi. niJ&B* become \b# (my name) and Dfiift^ {their names); for the second is rtyjjl (blessing) constr. T\T&. "Whether the full vowel remains, or is changed into a half vowel, or is altogether dropped (EH, W; Dtf, W), and whuh of the two vowels disappears in two successive syllables, must be determined by the nature of the word; but in general it may be said, that in the inflexion of nouns the first vowel is mostly shortened in this manner, while the second, when it stands immediately before the tone-syllable (as a pretonic vowel), remains, as T?' (dear), fern. ITTj^ ifqdrd; in the inflexion of verbs, the second, as 1j?J (he is drar), fern. Pnj5J ydtfrd. Tims we have a half vowel in place of— a) Qamets and Tsere in the first syllable (principally in the inflexion of nouns), § 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN RESPECT TO THEIR QUANTITY. 53 as "ll 1 ! word, plur. D'HS'l; 7H3 great, f em. fl/HS ; 3T? foartf, "ill? ???y heart; y\$Pi she will return, tl¥$&tfl* they (fern.) will return, b) The short or merely tone-long vowels a, e, o, in the last syllable, especially in the inflexion of verbs, e. g. 7t?p, fern. nStDj*D qafla; ^L?ip, plur. D'ptpp qdfkm; 7b|T, 'PtpjT yiqfhl. The Seghol as a helping vowel is entirely rejected (becomes silent Sh e va), e. g. ^jSfc (for "^D), ^Hft. If there be no shifting of the tone, the vowel will remain notwithstanding the lengthening of the word, as y&\ tt^*: te"l3, rnZTD. t ' v : - 7 T v : - Where the tone is advanced two places, both the vowels of a dissyllabic word may be shortened, so that the first becomes i and the second becomes Sh'va. From 1^1 we have in the plur. E^I^R, and with a grave suffix [i. e. one that always has the tone] this becomes DIVTn their words (comp. § 28, 1). On the shortening of a into f, see especially in Rem. 3, below. Some other vowel changes, chiefly also with respect to quantity, are exhibited in the following remarks : — Rem. 1. The diphthongal ') 6 (from au), as also the 6 derived from the firm d (§ 9, 10, 2), is longer than ) u; and therefore, when the tone is moved forward, the former is often shortened into the latter: e. g. Dip3, rilD-ip?, (see Paradigm M. Niph.); DUD flight, fern. HW30, with suf. *DUD; pinJO stoeet, fern. np T -iriD. The -1 stands sometimes even in a sharpened syllable, "21.1 l's. , ^pin Eze. xx. 18. Nearly the same relation exists between *— e and *7* i ; see examples in § 7.*>. 2. N.B. On the contrary, -1 u is shortened into 6, which in the tone-syllable appears as a tone- long o (Cholem), but on the removal of the tone it becomes again 6 (Qanuts-chatuph), as Dip' fe will rise), Dp^ (jussive : let him rise), Qp r *l (and he rose up), see Farad. J/. Kal. So also "t becomes a tone-long Tsere (e), and in the absence of the tone, Seghol (c), as D'pJ (he will set up), Dp) Jit him set up), Dp'! (and he set up) ; see Purad. M. Iliphil. 2. From a Pathach (a) in a closed syllable, there arises a Seghol (v), through a further shortening or rather weakening of the sound. This happens — a) Sometimes when the tone hastens on to the following syllable, as D3~P your hand for D3T, ^JV^X (prop, n.) for "'JV3K ; especially when a Daghesh forte is omitted in a letter which would regularly close a sharpened syllable, as v?^. Ex. xxxiii. 3, for v?*? / destroy thee, 'Np.I'T. Ezekiel for 7Sp-Trv xohom God strengthens, h) This is more regularly the case, when Daghesh forte is omitted in a guttural that has a Qnmets under it. Thus always £— for n- (R-) e. g. Vnx his brothers for VPIX, from D'ns ; prnn /i ir vision; fns false for ^!??, and so always with n. With n and y the Seghol is used only where B greater shortening is required on account of the distance of the tone ; hence, D^VI^ for D^nn the mountains, but "l^n the mountain ; PV? ^ lc misdeed, but Dl'n the people. Before X and "i. where a shcit sharp- ened vowel cannot so easily stand (§ 22, 1), Qumcts is almost constantly used, as r.izxn tin- fathers, y , l?"3'? the firmament. Comp. also the interrogative D. (0, \}) § 100, 4. * The vowel, which here disappears on the shifting of the tone forward, is the so-called pret on i c vowel in nn open syllable, concerning which see in § 9, 1, 2, and § 2G, 3. ;, 1 PARI I. i:u:mi:\i's. CHAP. II. CHANGES 01" LBTTEE8. , |„ , | ■ ip erly ending with two coMonants, e. g. $1 (also in Arabic pronounced kalb), for which we <.•• t, Bi t, ?fa, and then with a helping Seghol (§ 28,4) a?J; ??! (jussive in #»>A# from rh: , thi n -\ and finally ^-* '.'; In , ,i,,,,i .,„,i sharpened) syllable, which loses the tone^ a is at times attenuated into?, ,.. r:— your blood for D?? 1 !, ' n 9 hie measure for toDj »fl"pj I have begotten, V?"PJ / Aom , „ m,,.| Comp. above, cnnai.. 1. The Seghol arises, besides the cases given above, in Rem. 1 and 2, also — , From the weakening of <~, (Qamets) at the end of a word (comp. Roma, French .Rome; Arab. "' s n read khalife), as no and no what f (§ 37, 1). See similar examples in Ps. xx. 4 ; Is. lix. 5 ; Zech. ix. ■'-. Even from the weakening of U, as DHS (yo«) from the original alfum (Arab, ati(um), see § 32, Rem. •") and 7 ; D^ (a> them) from the original /"/mm. Comp. § 8, Third Class of Vowels, p. 21. bnong the half vowels, (-.) is shorter and lighter than (■■•:), and the group (— ) than (— ), e. g. C"in* Edom, »9^ Edamite; n»« truth, iflDg his truth; D?$£ hidden, plur. Q'pfe; 'tfSJ&; *rn?y ni . Sect. 28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 1. When ;i word begins with a half syllable (§ 26, 4-), i. e. with a consonant which has a half vowel (vocal Sh e va), and there comes another half syllable before it, thru this latter receives, instead of the Sh e va, an ordinary short vowel, which is regularly i (Chireq), but with gutturals a (Pathach; e. g. ?£)} (to fall) n'phM^ with the preposition 5, not 75}!l Ififplidl, but 7SJ13 bin'phdl; so also ?£32 km'phol for ^DJD; ^h for fruit for nffr; JlT-fiTO (whence iTTin*3 according to § 24, 1) for iTttiT3; tDypH (num parum est?) ha m e at for tDypn h a m e at. At times another division of syllables takes place, so that the second consonant gives up its half vowel and forms a closed syllable with the first, as /2f? Un-pol Num. xiv. 3, 13T3 Jer. xvii. 2. A similar process occurs in the body of a word, as ^^'"1 r1sh e phe and ^'H rishpe, V?^ from E S V"^ : yet here the initial vowel comes immediately from a full vowel, and is more like i in crn:n (§ 27, 3). In Syriac, the usual vowel here is a (c), even in the absence of gutturals; in Chaldee it is the Bame as in Hebrew ; the Arabic has always a firm short vowel for the vocal Sh e va. 2. When the second of the two consonants is a guttural with composite Sh'ra, then the first takes, instead of simple Sh e va, the short vowel with which the other is compounded, so that we obtain the groups — — , -^7, -7-7, e. g. X*X3 how, ' So the 1-XX. also express pl!T*3?0 by McA^io-suV*. t Analogous to this attenuating of a into 1, is the Latin tango, attingo ; facta, prolixin; and to that of a into e, (in Rom. 2) the Latin carpo, decerpo; tpargo, campergo. § 29 TONE AND PAUSE. 55 lyjb to serve, SbxS to eat, >( ?PQ in sickness, for X>K?, lh$7, hbtib, ^tj?. The new vowel in such cases has Methegh, according to § 16, 2, a. 3. When the first Stiva is composite, and comes to stand after an open Byllable with a short vowel, then it is changed into the short vowel with which it is coin- pounded, e. g. T\12®1 yaam e dhu for 111??- they will stand, ^"0 neheph'khu for tt&n] tfoy /tat'd turned themselves, '*(?$& pool'khd {tlnj work). Comp. § 26, 3, e. 4. At the end of words, syllables occur which close with two consonants (§ 10, 3, § 26, 7); yet this takes place only when the last of these is a consonant of strong sound, 13, p, or an aspirate with its hard sound (tenuis), viz., 2, \ ^ fi,* e. g. lp^ let him turn aside, p$*1 and he caused to drink, JjvtPj? ^ I0U if' 1 "-) ^" st ^'^"^ ^P'.l " u 'l he wept, "TV let him rule, 5^*1 cmd he took captive. This harsh combination of letters is, however, avoided in general by supplying between the two consonants a helping vowel, which is mostly Seghol, but Pathach under gutturals, j and Chireq after \ e. g. 7}*1 a?z d he revealed for 7??1; BHp sanctuary for P^jJ; IW a youth for ")V3; RD/^t wr ^H/^ • t: 7 -A c) This tendency to place the tone on the penultima in pause shows itself, moreover, in several words which then regularly retract the tone, as \?3N 7, ^3N; PIPlN thou. PlfiN: Pitts? ?20H?, PTO; and in single cases, like V?3 Ps. xxxvii. 20, for V?3, » T AT ' • T ■ 'TAT'* O ? IT IT/ and also W7 Job vi. 3, for w?. from Piy 1 ?. IT 7 I T 7 T T The rule given under letter a relates mainly to Pathach and Seghol. Seghol is, however, strong enough to be retained in pause, as "=!?£, and specially when the syllable closes with Day/ies/t forte, as, «&P!. Pathach is sometimes adopted in place of Seghol, as 1J3, in pause ""1/.?.!; l.??'^ &xfy« «o/, in pause fcl?'^ Judg. xix. 20. Pathach even takes the place of Tscre in pause; e. g. 2£_'n briny bach, for 3!^, Is. xlii. 22, although more usually Tsere remains; and, on the other hand, Pathach occurs also even when the word is not in pause ; e. g. *T]FI for *T?n Ecc. iii. 48. Several other changes occasioned by the pause will be noticed farther on, when treating upon the Forms and Inflexions. Such a pausal syllable is sometimes strengthened further l>y doubling the following consonant, § 20, 2, c PART SECOND. FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Sect. 30. THE STEM-WORDS AND HOOTS (BILITERALS, TRI LITERALS, QUADRILITERALS). 1. The stem-words of the Hebrew and of the other Shemitic languages have this peculiarity, that by far the most of them consist of three consonants, on which the meaning essentially depends, while its various modifications are expressed by changes in the vowels, e. g. D*7N he was red, D1X red, W1H man (prop, red one). Such a stem-word may be indifferently either a verb or a noun, and usually the l;in miage exhibits both together, as ^]7£ he has reigned, ^J/.p king. Yet it is customary and of practical utility for the beginner to consider the third person lingular of the Preterite, i. e. one of the most simple forms of the verb, as the stem- word, and the other forms of both the verb and the noun, together with most of the particles, as derived from it, e. g. p*l¥ lie icas righteous, pT£ righteousness, p'^V righteous, etc. Sometimes the language, as handed down to us, exhibits only the verbal stem without a corresponding form for the noun, as 7pD to stone, pnj to brag ; and occasionally the noun is found without the corresponding verb, e. g. 3Jtt south, JOT) nine. Yet it must be supposed that the language, as spoken, often had the forms now wanting; most of them being actually found in the cog- nate dialects. Rem. 1. The Jewish grammarians call the stem-word, i. e. the third person singular of the Preterite, the root, fc"}V\ for which the Latin term radix is often used; and hence the three consonants of the stem arc called radical letters, in contradistinction from the servile letters (viz. X, 3, H, 1, », 3, b, D, 3, l", n, forming the mnemonic expression 3J?3] TWO |r»*N Ethan, Moses, and ( 'aleb), which are added in the derivation and inflexion of words. We, however, employ the term root in a different sense, as explained here, in No. 2. •J. Many etymologists give the name root to the three stem-consonants, viewed as vowelless and unpronounceable, from which the stems for both the verbs and the nouns are developed, as, in the § 30. STEM-WORDS AND ROOTS. 59 vegetable kingdom (from which the figurative expression is taken), the stems grow out of the concealed root. Thus for example — Root : "PO to reign. Verb-stem : "HpO he has reigned. Noun-stem : "y® king. This supposition of an unpronounceable root is, however, an abstraction too remote from the actual state of the language ; and it is better, at least for the historical mode of treatment, to consider the concrete verb [3rd pcrs. sing. Pret.] as the stem-word. 3. These trilitcral stems are generally of two syllables. But among them are reckoned also such as have for their middle letter a \, which is uttered as a vowel (§ 24, 2, c), and thus reduces the form to one syllable, e. g. Ep T for DJiJ. 2. The use of tliree consonants in the stems of the verbs and nouns is so preva- lent a law in the Shemitic languages, that it is to be regarded as a characteristic peculiarity of this family. Even such monosyllabic nouns as might be deemed originally monosyllables {biliteral roots), since they express the first, simplest, and commonest ideas, as SK father, DX mother, HX brother, come under this law; thus, we have *fttf my mother, as if derived from Dfttf . Yet, on the other hand, stems with three consonants {triliteral roots) may be reduced to two consonants, which, with a vowel uttered between, form a sort of roctf-syllable, from which again several triliteral stems with the same meaning have sprung up. Sueh root- syllables are called primary or biliteral roots. They are very easily distinguished when the stem has a feeble consonant or the same consonant in the second and third place. Thus, the steins ^, ^1, iO^, iTjft have all the meaning of to beat and to beat in piece*, and the two stronger letters "p dakh [comp. Eng. thwack] constitute the monosyllabic root. The third stem-consonant may also be strong. To such a monosyllabic root there often belongs a whole series of triliteral stems. which have two radical letters and the fundamental idea in common. Only a few examples of this sort here : — From the root )'P, which imitates the sound of hewing, are derived immediately )"*? r , rtSj3 to cut off; then 3XJ3, J?Vi?, y$\>, with the kindred significations to shear, to mow, and metaph. to decide, to judge (hence PVI? Arab. Kadi, a judge). Related to this is the syllable VP, Dp, from which is derived DD|5 ( cut into; 3L ,; p T to sharpen; Wj3 to pare. With a lingual instead of the sibilant tip, 1p; hence 3£P T to cut down, to destroy; ^'4P r to cut down, to kill; !^P T to cut off, to shorten; ^iPi? to tear off, to pluck of; T$> to cut asunder, to split. A Boftei form of this radical syllable is DD ; hence DD3 to cut off, to shear off; D23'Syr. to sacrifice, to slay for sacrifice. Still softer are TJ and 13 ; hence t]J to mote, to shear; nj| to hew stones; Dl|, M|, ?I|, ">•} to hew off, to cut off, to cat off, to graze; and so Tl| to cut, P"1|, to cut off; compare also n"13, ep_3. Willi the change of the palatal for the guttural sound 3>*n, 3t?n to hew stones and wood, }"*?, n >' 1 ? '" s l lJ '<* divide, |*n arrow (trx^o), TTH to sharpen, T-TH arrow, lightning, also '">jn ( see (Lat. ccrturc, Germ. waterscheideri), and many others. GO PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. I ,,,,. cn , ■ ie humming Bound made with the mouth closed (/rife); hence nen, ,, D non, to hum, to bun. To theee add enn to be dumb; cm to become mute, ' >***hed. . . The root-eyllable P, of which both letter! have a tremulous sound, means to tremble, in the n DJl, t. ,; y"j: then it ia expressive of what causes tremulous motion or the acl of shattering, of JraaAtn? w pwwa (HP, PP). ,,.„,. with these the root-ayllable 33 with the idea of elevation, curving upward [gibbous), -- v s . fb, to lick, to tup, under the articlea 33J, "Hf , 2*7, in Geaenius's Hcirwc /.<.- i ;illl , , further considt ration of this Buhject, we may draw the following observations :— These roots are mere attractions from Btems in actual use, and are themselves not in use. They mi rely represent the hidden germs {semina) of the stems which appear in the language. Yet the latter have, now and then, bo Bhort a form, that they exhibit only the elements of the root itself, as DR perfeetus Juit, ■?. light. I, B£osl of these monosyllabic roots are imitations of natural sounds, and sometimes coincide with the of the [ndo-Germanic stock (§ 1, 4); c. g. *|BH [comp. Eng. tap], rmrm (tvttw), «?"J /kIt™ Uftta), *£? [comp. Kng. club], Ko\a7rrw. r) The stiins with hard, strong consonants are to be regarded, according to the general progress of language v ^ 6, 1 . aa tin' oldest, while the feebler and softer consonants distinguish forms of a later period, which consequently are more frequently used for the derivative and metaphorical significations ; e. g. ITJi? and npa to be smooth, to be shorn, to be bald; and even TOi to be bare. Sometimes, however, the harder or softer sound is essential to the imitative character of the word, *n to cut stones or icood, requires a stronger sound than T*3 to cut grass, to mow. il It appears also that those consonants, which resemble each other in strength or feebleness, are commonly associated in the formation of root-syllables, as YP, D3, T3, 13 (never P, P, D3, Tp) ; )*B, T3 (seldom TB) ; tDp, 13 (not 133). Scarcely ever are the first two radicals the same (^~IT) or v. iv similar (^L 1 ?). On the contrary, the last two are very often the same (§ 67).* The tendency sceptre; v\V\ to glow, ney^T hot wind (the first form with "1 frequent in Syr.). This mode of formation is analogous with Pitl, and in Aramaean the two forms exist together, as 73.y, ?Jpy . In Latin there is a corresponding enlarge- ment of the stem ; asflndo, scindo, tundo,jungo (in Sanskr., Class VII.), from Jid, scid (o-KcSaw,) tud, jug. Additions are also made at the end, principally of I and n ; as |H| an axe, from H3 to cut (comp. graze) ; ?OT3 an orchard, from D"13 ; W?J flower- cap, from JP?1 e«p ; from STTJ /o tremble, />5"in fo /io/j (the termination eZ has perhaps a diminutive force, as it has in many languages). Rem. on b). In the combination of triliterals, it generally happens that letters common to them both are written but once in the compound form, as yT??V a frog, perhaps prop, marsh-hopper, from "I3¥ to hop, and Arab. yNT) a marsh. i T ^?^ tranquil, from HX> to be quiet, and |2XC ; to beat rest; or a feeble letter is cast away, as ^91? a bat, from ^y dark and *$ flying. Still bolder changes are sometimes made in the amalgamation of words, as V"?? (6 Scii/a) Dan. viii. 13, from ^OpX WB. It should be remarked that quadriliterals may be shortened again into triliterals ; e. g. from ?jnn (Aojo, see above), ?Jn with the same signification ; hence H7?n a partridge (from its hopping, limping gait) ; T\VHt) a chain for n"Tgh.B>, from TIP, "tfj?. 4. To an earlier stage of the language, on the contrary, belong the pronouns (§ 32, foil.), and some particles, especially interjections (§ 105, 1), which, as an ancient and crude formation, have not attained to the model of the triliteral stems, and follow peculiar and freer laws of inflexion. f Most of the particles, however, are either derived from nouns or resemble them in inflexion, although their form is often very much shortened on account of their enclitic nature, and their origin can no longer be known. (See § 99, etc.) * Especially in JEthiopic, where these forms are very frequent; see Hnpfeld'a Excrcitatt. JEthiop. pp. 24 foil. f Comp. Hupfeld'a System der semituchen Demoiutrativbtidung 'iiid der demit zusammenActngenden Pronominal' und Partikelnbildung, in der Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlaiules, Bd. II. S. li>4 ffi 427 BE C2 TART II. PARTS <>F SPEECH. Sect. 31. grammatical structurk. 1. Thr formation of the parts of Bpeech from the roots, and their inflexion, are effected in ways: a) by changes in the stem itself, particularly in its vowels; !>) by the addition of formative syllables. A third method, viz., the use of several Beparate words in place of inflexion (as in expressing the comparative degree and several relations of case), belongs rather to the syntax than to that part of grammar which treats of forms. The second mode of forming words, viz., by agglutination, which is exemplified in the Egyptian, appears on the whole to be the more ancient of the two. Yet other languages, as well as the Shcmitic, had early recourse also to the first mode, viz., internal modification of the stem, and in the period of their youthful vigour developed a strong tendency to follow this process ; but in their later periods this tendency continually diminished in force, so that it became necessary to use syntactical circumlocution. This is exemplified in the Greek (including the modern) and in the Latin with its corrupt branches (called the Romance language). The formation of words by agglu- tination is prevalent in ancient and modern Egyptian; that by internal modification, in Sanskrit and Greek. The Chinese is almost entirely destitute of any grammatical structure, and supplies its place by syntactical methods. 2. Both methods of formation and inflexion are found in Hebrew. That which is effected by vowel changes exhibits considerable variety ( /t?p, /£?£, 7bj3, 7tSp, TtejJ). AVe have an example of the other method in 7^pn!l, and of both in the same word in TEprn . Inflexion by the addition of formative syllables occurs, as in almost all languages, in the formation of the persons of the verb, where also the import of these annexed syllables is still, for the most part, perfectly clear (see §§ 44, 47); moreover, it occurs in the distinction of gender and number in the verb and the noun. Of case-endings, on the contrary, there appear in Hebrew only slight traces [§ 90]. § 32. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN IN GENERAL. 63 CHAPTER I. THE PRONOUN". Sect. 32. THE PERSONAL OR SEPARATE PRONOUN. 1. The personal pronoun (as well as the pronouns generally) is among the oldest and simplest elements of the language (§ 30, 4). On this account, and because it lies at the foundation of the flexion of the verb (§§ 44, 47), it properly claims our first attention. 2. The separate and primary forms of this pronoun, and as such expressing the nominative, are the following : — Plural. i. comm. am*}, (urn), (m) we. in. ens* 9 | they Singular. 1. comm. ^?^, in pause *?^;"1 *JK, in pause *JK J Cm. nnx (JJK), in pause ^\ l ' l /. m ( =Kala, Gr. ris=Mo\. kiV, Lat jaw, and in the Hebrew itself nrc ; = n|X" t<> drink. There i- thus a strong presumption that the pronoun of the Becond person in the Shemitic languages must have bad two forms, one with h and the other with /, as H3X and nnS, D3X and DFIX.— Tit. Ci; r.\i;r II. PABT8 01 8PBBCH.- I EIAPTEB I. PB0N01 BT. genitive), are mostly the same id form, bul Bometimes they are different, e. g. *J /in ', *7 '".'/• The following Paradigm gives a view of all the forms of the pronoun, both separate and suffix; more explanation aboul the suffix of the verb and the mode of attaching it to the verb will be found in S§ 68, etc., about the suffix of the noun in § 91, about prepositions with suffixes in § 103. A. THE PEKSONAL PRONOUN.' nomi \ \ 1 I \ i OF THE PBOKOON, OR si iwkvi i. ntiixoux. Singular. I. cOM.'pjtt, in pause"! 'rbXj^X.in pause L/. W J ',,i. nnx (FIK), in-* pause nnK (m. x-in ' /• N*n Plural. i. com. unjK (una),! (UK) " j UY ' - (m.'cnx i 3. \ ■ " [ ye. r m. on, nsn -, . /Aon Ae. ACCUSATIVE OF THE PKONOUN, OR VERBAL SUFFIX. A. Simple Form. ♦3; »3 T ; »3- "Jl, jj— , in pause-i 1- (tr) \ thce - •in, 1 ; -in- (ri),-) > Aim. i; -in- J n- Pl—j n- A your. cn ; d- te-o IV IT ' IT their. D , n '-> *1D'-*l i" 3 L n > C& It ' l n% - . • Tlic forms with an asterisk arc exclusively poetical, and those in parentheses are of rare occurrence. § 34. the demonstrative pronoun. 67 Sect. 34. THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. Sing. m. PIT* ~) jt » . „ ' .. , u _ lN > this. Plur. comm.T\?8 ( rarely vis) these. f. DXT (IT, PIT) J ^ The feminine form HNT is for HXT (from KT = PIT and the feminine ending H, see § 80), and the forms IT, PIT, which are both of rare occurrence, come from HttT by dropping fi. 7X and PPX (akin to the Arabic article ?X, see § 35, Rem. 1) are plural according to use, and not according to grammatical inflexion. The form ?X occurs only in the Pentateuch and 1 Chron. xx. 8, and there always with the article 7NPI (Rem. 1). The ending PI— in Pl?X (same as PI—) is a demonstrative appendage, as in PI3H (§ 32, Rem. 7). Another secondary form of the demonstrative is ft, used only in poetry. It stands mostly for the relative (like that for who), and it is used alike for all num- bers and genders, like IBW (§ 36). Rem. 1. This pronoun receives the article (fJO, "iV^n, ?*?n) according to the same rules as the adjectives, § 111, 2, and § 122, 1. There are, besides, some peculiar forms in which ^ is inserted after the article, nj?n Gen. xxiv. 65; xxxvii. 19; -ITpn fern. Eze. xxxvi. 35, and shortened T?n usually masc. Judges vi. 20 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 1 ; xvii. 26 ; but fern, in 2 Kings iv. 25. In Arabic there is a corresponding form alladhl as relative pronoun. 2. Some other pronominal stems occur among the particles, § 99, etc. Sect. 35. THE ARTICLE. Originally the article was a demonstrative pronoun, akin to the pronoun of the 3rd person. It nowhere occurs in Hebrew as an independent word, but always in close connexion with the word before which it stands. Its usual form is "H, with a short sharp-spoken a and a doubling of the following consonant (by Daght sh forte), e. g. 0DB7I the sun, Tfc;n the river for Tfc£l (according to § 20, 3, b). When, however, the article "PI stands before a word beginning with a guttural, * In most languages the demonstratives begin with >l, hence called the demonstrative sound, which is however, interchanged with a .sibilant [as in Heb. Ht] or a rough breathing. Tims in Aram. XT, P., ^ this, Arab, ur the, this, that; Welsh dyna ; hyu, hymi\, etc. 68 i- \ i; i ii. PARTS OF SPEECH.— -CHAP. [. PRONOUN. which (acoordii 12, I ) does no! admil of Vaghesh forte, then the short and sharp d | Pathacfa I La l< ngthened into " (Qamets) or a (Seghol). But to be more minute : — 1 > Before the weakest guttural N* and before 1 (§ 22, 5) the vowel of the article is alwava lengthened, as 2XH the father. "^\^\ the other. DXH the mother. ^\\*n the r- T T t/% 7 " - T / " T / • T wan, ifctn the light, D\SSfn 0«fc, 7JTI the foot, #NT| ^e Am^/, JJB^JJ gfa evil-doer. ■1 ) For the other gutturals it is in general the rule, that the stronger the guttural the firmer is the syllable of the article, both as to its sharpness and its short a. But there are then two cases to be distinguished: — A ) When the guttural is followed by any other vowel than a, — or 6, — , then a) before PI and H (as being stronger), the article regularly remains H, as X^inn that, V^n the month, Tnn the strength; with rare exceptions, as *nn Gen. vi. 19, and always Dlin those ; b) before y the Pathach is generally lengthened, as j?l?ri the eye, Tyn $g c/ty, *D5?n Me servant, pi. DHp§n. (Exceptions in Jer. 12. 9; IVov. ii. 17.) 1'.) But when the guttural is followed by a, — , then a) before H and y the article is always PI, provided it stands immediately before the tone-syllable, else it is J1, e. g. DyPl Me people, ^PlPl Me mountain, }$Pt (in pause), PnPlPl towards the mountain, on the contrary D^PIPI Me mountains, pyPl Me guilt ; b) before H tlie article is always PI, without regard to the place of the tone, as E3HP1 Me wise, 3 Pin the feast ; so also c) before PI, as vPlPI ^ sickness, D^DHPIPI Mie months. (On the contrary Pl9?C^ according to A, ?^>X ice, hail, e. g. B5»»3J Eze. xiii. 11, 13; xxxviii. 122: and according to others also in P*P?K the people, Pr. xxx. 31. N.B. -. When the prepositions 2, 7, and the ? of comparison (§ 102) come before the article, the n is dropped by contraction, and the preposition takes its points (§ 19, 3, b, and § 23, 5), as -;•;•/•? in the heaven for B!P^n3; CiyS to the people for Dyn^; Dnn| on the mountains. With ?, however (which is less closely connected with the word), the n very often remains, as Bi'ns Gen. xxxix. 11, but also D\»3 Gen. xxv. 31, 33; else it seldom remains except in the later books, as Wullin in the Zeitschr. der U. Morjrenl. Ges. Bd. vi. s. 195. 217. § 37. THE INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 69 Dl?n? 2 Chron. x. 7. (Yet see 1 Sam. xiii. 21 ; Ps. xxxvi. 6.) With }, which is in its conception still less closely connected with the word, the n always remains, as D^ni and the people. Sect. 36. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. It is the same for both genders and numbers, IWX who, which. In the later books, and also in some of the earlier, viz., in Canticles constantly and in Judges occasionally, instead of this full form we have •& (with the X elided and the *) assi- milated, § 19, 2, 3), more rarely •$ Judges v. 7; Cant. i. 7, once & before X Judges vi. 17 (else & before gutturals), and even ty* Eccl. ii. 22; iii. 18. On the mode of expressing the cases of the relative, see § 123, 1. ~\V$ is used also as a conjunction, like quod, on, that. Closely connected with it in meaning is *3, which also belongs to the pronominal stems, § 104. Sect. 37. THE INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1. The interrogative pronoun is s fo who? (of persons), and Pl.!p what? (of things). The pointing of HO with Qamets is seldom found except in pause and before N and "|, as DriS no u-hcit are ye? Dn*X"] no what do ye see? rarely before n as in Josh. iv. 6, 21. It is commonly written in close connexion with the following word : a) 'HO with Maqqepk and Daghcsh forte conjunctive (§ 20, 2), as ^"flO ic/uit to thee? and even in one word, as D39Q what to you? Is. iii. 15, H|0 what is this? Ex. iv. 2; b) before the harder gutturals n, n, y, it likewise receives Pathaeh with the Daghesh implied in the guttural (§ 22, 1), RirrflD Num. xiii. 18; c) when the guttural has Qamets, it receives Seghol (according to § 27, Rem. 2), as Jri.";"-': what hast thou done? This Seghol stands also occasionally before letters that are not guttural, as "131 ?lp HO what voice, etc.? 1 Sam. iv. 6 ; 2 Kings i. 7. but only when the tone of the clause is far removed from the word ; moreover, in the form no? , ni33 (sec more in the Lexicon, under >~I0 in the note). 2. Both *ti and flfi occur also as an Indefinite pronoun, in the .sense of whoever^ whatever. * In Phoenician the full form 1"'S does not occur, hut £' is pronounced so, «, si, and L"S yt, tt j ! Gi - D, Mon. Phoenicia, p. 4:38. Mover's Phonic. Text I. p. 81, etc., II. p. 44. Comp. above, jj 2, ■;. Also in modern Hebrew '& lias become quite predominant. 70 i'.ki ii. PABT8 OJ BFBBCn. -CHAP. n. vi:i;i:. CHAPTER II. T HE V E R B. Sect. 38. GENERAL VIEW. 1 . The verb is, in the Hebrew, the most elaborated part of speech as to inflexion, and also the most important, inasmuch as it mostly contains the stem of the others ( § 30), and its various modifications are, to a great extent, the basis of the other forma in the language. 2. Yet all verbs are not stem-words. Like nouns they may be divided, in respect to their* origin, into three classes, — » a) Primitives, e. g. ^|?9 to reign; S#J to sit. /<) Verbal derivatives, derived from other verbs, e. g. p*TO to justify, p^tpyn to justify one's self, from p*TC to be just ; commonly called conjugations (§ 39). c) Denominatives, or those derived from nouns in the form both of the primitives and the derivatives; e. g. /HX and ?riJ< to pitch a tent, from /HX a tent; $"$ to root out and #H$n to take root, from CShb> a root. The noun, from which the denominative verb comes, is in most cases itself derivative ; e. g. j?/ to be white, hence fOjp a brick (from the colour), and hence again }?? to make bricks ; from HH to increase greatly, n a Jish, and hence again Ml to Jish. A peculiar kind of secondary verbs, and at least of rather late formation in the language (hence frequent in the later dialects), are those denominatives, one of whose consonants, originally a mere > servile, has become a radical ; e. g. D-13 to rest, to set one's self down ; hence the noun l"iru a setting down ; hence again nn3 to descend: in like manner T&& grave, destruction (from OH?), hence nriw* to destroy. Sect. 39. 1. The 3rd person Preterite of the simple form of the primitive verbs (i. e. Kal, sic Xo. 4) is generally regarded as the stem-form or ground-form of the verb, as ?pp he has killed, "H"? he teas heavy.* From this are derived the other persons of the Preterite and the Participle. Another, more simple still, is the Infinitive, as Tbjp, also TJp, with which the Imperative generally agrees in form, and from which is derived the Future. 1 he Infinitive is here used for the sake of brevity in most grammars p.nd lexicons, thus "tD? to learn, prop. lie has lea § 39. CONJUGATIONS. 71 The first ground-form, of two syllables (Arab, qatala, qatila, qatula), may be called the concrete, and the second, which is generally monosyllabic (Arab, qatl, qitl, qutl), the abstract. The same analogy prevails in the division of nouns into abstract and concrete. In verbs whose second radical is 1, the full stem appears only in the second form; e. g. 2VJ', of which the 3rd person Pret. is 3B\ 2. From the simple form of the primitives, viz., Kal, are formed, according to an unvarying analogy in all verbs, the verba derivativa, each distinguished by a specific change in the form of the stem, with a corresponding definite change in its signifi- cation (intensive, frequentative, causative, passive, reflexive, reciprocal) ; e. g. T2?7 to learn, lu? to cause to learn, to teach ; iyj to lie, T3^n to cause to lie, to lay ; &££? to judge, tDSpb to contend before a judge, to litigate. In other languages such words are regarded as new derivative verbs ; e.g. to fall, to fell ; lactere, to suck, lactare, to give such; jacere, to throw, jacere, to lie ; ylvo/xai to be born, yevvdw to bear. But in Hebrew, where these formations are beyond comparison more regular than e. g. in the German, Latin, and Greek, they are called, since the time of Reuchliu, conju- gations (Heb. E^pS, more correctly species, modifications) of the primitive form, and both in the grammar and lexicon are always treated of in connexion as parts of the same verb.* 3. The changes of the primitive form consist partly in varying its vowels, or doubling one or more of its letters (7l3p, Sftj?; 7t?1p, 7D1D; /?9p, 7U?£p; comp. to lie, to lay ; to fall, to fell); partly in the addition of formative letters or syllables (7Dpp, Tlpjpri; comp. to speak, to bespeak; to count, to recount; to bid, to forbid) \ sometimes in both united, as 7t3prfl. (Comp. § 31, 2.) In the Aramaean this is effected less by the change of vowels than by the addition of formative syllables; so that, for instance, all the passives are formed as reflexives by the prefix syllable HX, HX. The Arabic is rich in both methods, while the Hebrew holds also here the middle place (§1,6). 4. Grammarians differ as to the number and arrangement of these conjugations. The common practice, however, of giving to them still the old technical designa- tions, prevents any error. The simple form is called Kal ( -P light, because it has no formative additions); the others (D*H53 heavy, because burdened with forma- tive additions) derive their names from the Paradigm used by the old Jewish grammarians, 7^3 he has done.\ Several of them have passives which distinguish * The term Conjugations, therefore, is evidently to he taken lure in a different sense than in Gn ek and Latin grammar. f This verb, on account of the guttural which it contains, is unsuitable for a Paradigm, and has been exchangi A for ~i£3 , which possesses this advantage, that all its conjugations arc actually in use in tin' ( >M !'• Btament There is, however, some indistinctness in the pronunciation of some of its forms, as '^" 1 "?7, B$"1M- The Paradigm ^l-?, 7-_> PART n. PARTS OB SPEECH. CHAP. II. VERB. ( 1 1( ., ,. prom their actives by the obscure vowels. The most common conjuga- tions (including Kal) are the five following; but few verbs, however, exhibit lh. in all :— Active. Passive. 1, Kal. htoft to kill. (wanting.) 2, Niphal. TOM to kill one's self. (very rare.) 3, Piel. v®p to kill many, to massacre. Pual. ?ftj? •1. Hiphil, T Ppn to cause to hill. Hophal. StpjTl 5. Hithpael. hte\X$r\ to kill one's self. Hothpaal. ^j3TTl There are several other less frequent conjugations, of which some, however, are more common than these in the kindred languages; and in the irregular verb in Hebrew they sometimes take the place of the usual conjugations (§ 55). In Arabic (here is a greater variety of forms, and their arrangement more appropriate. Arranged after the Arabic manner, the Hebrew conjugations would stand thus : — 1. Kal. 2. Piel and Pual. 8. PoSl and Pool (§ 55, 1). 4. Hiphil and Hophal. 5. Hithpael and Hothpaal. 6. Hithpoel (§ 55). 7. Niphal. 8. Wanting in Hebrew. 9. /%?£. The more appropriate division is into three classes; ["he intensive Piel, with the analogous forms derived from it; b) The causative Hiphil, and its analogous forms (Shaphel, Tiphcl) ; c) The reflexive and passive Niphal, Sect. 40. 1. The Hebrew verb is indebted, for whatever copiousness it exhibits, chiefly to these conjugations or derivative verbs. In moods and tenses it is poor, having only two tenses {Preterite and Future*), an Imperative, an Infinitive (with two forms), and a Participle. All other relations of time, absolute and relative, must be expressed by these, either alone (hence the diversity in the senses of the same form, § 125, etc.) or in syntactical connexion with other words. The jussive and optative are sometimes indicated by peculiar forms of the Future (see § 48). In the Germanic languages, also, there are distinct forms for only two tenses (the Present and Imperfect). In the formation of all the others auxiliary verbs are employed. Comp. Grimm's d. Gramm. 2. A. 1, 135. 2. In the inflexion of the Pret. and Fut. by persons, the Hebrew differs from the ^ estern languages, having in most cases distinct forms for both genders, as in the personal pronoun, which is incorporated in the forms of these tenses. in common use since the time of Dana, obviates tins inconvenience, and is especially adapted to the comparative treatment of the Shemitic languages, inasmuch as it is found with a slight change (Arab, and JEthiop. bnp) in all <>t them. Tn Hebrew, it is true, it has only the forms of Kal, which are not frequent, and occur only in poetry; vet it may be retained as a type or model sanctioned by usage. * See note on M the Future and its inflection," § 47, p. 79.- -Tk. (6 § 41. CONJUGATIONS. As a preliminary view for the beginner, we exhibit here in a Table the formative syllables (afformatives and preformatives) of both tenses. Fuller instruction con- cerning them will be found in §§ 44 — 47 in connexion with the Paradigms. Preterite. 3 m. 3/- 2 m. 2/ 1 c. Sing. h pi Sing. Pha- Sc. Future. 3 TO. H »/ . . . *j 2 m. . . . J? 2/. *r . . . pi 1 c. . . . K 2 TO. DPI . . . 2/ » • . . 1 c. Pfeir. 3 m. 1 . . i 3/- nj . . pi 2 W2. i . • 9 2/- nj . . . pi 1 c. , • • 3 Sect. 41. The general analogy in the inflexion of verbs, which is normally exhibited in the stems with strong and firm consonants, holds good for all verbs; and the deviations which occur from this model of the strong and regular verb, are only modifications owing to the peculiar nature and the feebleness of many consonants, viz. — a) To the presence of a guttural as one of the stem-letters or radicals, which occasions various vowel changes according to § 22 (guttural r< ,■/>. §§ 62 — 65). b) To the falling away of a strong stem-letter by assimilation or contraction (contracted* verb, §§ 66, 67), as 033, nnp. c) To the presence of a feeble letter as one of the radicals (§§ 23, 24), so that many changes occur through its commutation, omission, or quiescence (quit l or feeble verb, § 68, etc.), as 30J, ttp. The letters of the old Paradigms ?J?3 arc used in naming the letters of the Btem, B d< Bignating the first, y the second, and h the third. Hence tin- expressions, verb N2 for a verb whose first radical is X (prima radicalism); verb n? for one whose third radical is n [tertim radical** n) ; verb VV (y doubled) for one whose second and third radicals arc the same [media radiailis gemina/ec). _^____ * The term defective, by which some designate this class, we apply to those whose forms are not ali in use (§78). 7| part IX. PARTS OF SPEECH. chap. ir. REGULAR VERBS. I. THE BEGULAB VERB. Sect. 42. \ the rulea for the inflexion of the regular verb apply, with only occasional modifications, to all the irregular verbs, it "ill be most convenient, and it will also exhibit the subject in the clearest Ugh1 to the learner, if we present, while treating of the former, whatever belongs to the general analogy of the verb. TABLE B. REGULAR VERB. KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. HIPIIIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. Put. 3. m. ho? r * 123* 'PP? * Spp* ^PP* ^PPH* ^ppn * fy&CW* 3./. hSdp* rms* h^pp?* n^pp* nbpp* n^ppn* nbttpn » r6ppnn« 8. m. r6on» rms* j??pp?* n^PP* ^PP* Rj'Bpn * r6ppn* r6ppnn» 2./. n^pp rnns n^ppp fibs? n?pp fi'ppp? ^ppn fl?ppr»? 1. c. ^PP ♦mas *^Bp3 'fi?pp ^pp H n?ppn V&ppjn >r6ppnn Plur. 3. r. •i'pop •H33 If'Pi?? •I'ppp •ifPP •i^ppn ■I'pPpn •l^pprin ■2. m. DnSpi? * omn: E£?PP? Dp?PP E£>?PP onSppn DprPP'7 dn?ppnn «./ 1^9? 1^133 ip?pp? t£rPP i£>rPP l£i?PP? tp?pp? |n>ppnn 1. c. wtag •in a a •I^pp? •I^PP •i^pp ■i^ppn •la^ppn •i^ppnn Iwf. absol. ^ipp* febjM, febgn * ^'pp* Vpp* ^PPO * conslr. b'pp* btagn * 'PP* ^pp* ^ppn* tapn * ^ppnri * J\ip. m. ^'pp* n33* ^?i?0 * ^PP* tai?n* ^ppnn* /• ^Dp* H33* ^Pijjn * *,?PP* ^opn* ^t2pnn* Plur. m. I'pPP •V733 'tajpn •ifPP wanting •lb'-ppn wanting •i^ppnn /• ruVpp * w*]3? * n^pgn* n^pp* nj?ppn* njSppnn * Fut. 3. m. ^'PP!* 133** ^ppl* ^PP!* ^PP!* ^'PP!* ^PP T '* ^ppni* 3./. Vppn *i33n ta^n ^pp? ^pp^ ^PP9 ^Ppfi -pp'i^ 2. m. ^>ppn n33n 3?ffl ^Bi?FI ^>PPfi ^"ppn ^PP? ^nn 2./- ^ppn * H32R* £ppn* "^ppn* ^ppn* ^> s ppn * £$?*)* ^pp,nri* 1. r. tapa 133X ^pp*>* ^->N* ^ppa ^ s pp« 'PPK ^ppr 1 ?? Plur. 3. m. •i'TPi?'. • , n33 , •I'rpi^ •If'PP! •I'ppp;. •i^pp: •l"?PP* bti&W 3./. n^'ppn* nnaan* nabpfjn* ™?ppfi* n^ppri* n T ^PP^ nj^ppri* nj'pppnri * 2. m. ^PP? naaFi •ibpipn •I'pppn •t^ppri •l^ppJD •I'pppri •i^ppnri • 2.f. njb'opn nn33n njbppn nj^ppn na^>Q{7rf] ^ppn n^ppn n^ppnri 1. c. yrjpj " 1 l 3 -? *?pfpp *?pp? ^PP? ^ppa boj?a ^ppr-a Put. apoc. ^pPI* Tart. art. ^PP* ^PP?* ^PPP* bjB^p* ^PPP* ^ppp* i>DpniD* j pass. ^Dp» 1 t [Ory^mirr, according to Rodiger, and so throughout all the following Tables.— Edit.] § 44. PRETERITE OF KAL AND ITS INFLEXION. 75 This Paradigm (together with the Table of the formative syllables in § 40, 2) exhibits a complete view of the usual and normal forms. Full explanations are given in the following sections (43 — 55), where every subject is elucidated on its first occurrence ; thus, under Kal the inflexions of the Preterite, and of the Future and its modificatiens, are minutely explained with reference also to the other conjugations; and under the regular verb are given the forms and significations of conjugations which apply also to the irregular, etc. A. THE SIMPLE FORM, OR KAL. Sect. 43. ITS FORM AND SIGNIFICATION. 1. The common form of the 3rd person Pret. in Kal is a?P, with a short A (Pathach), in the second syllable, especially in transitive verbs. There is also a form with E (Tsere), and another with (Cholem), in the second syllable; the two latter are usually found with intransitive meaning, and serve for expressing states and qualities, e. g. *Q? to be heavy, jbj!> to be small. Sometimes both forms, the transitive and the intransitive, exist together, as N?D to fill (Esther vii. 5), «?£ to be full (comp. § 47, Rein. 2), yet also with the same signification for both forms, as -TO and T]^ to approach. A verb middle E will be found in the Paradigm by the side of a verb middle A.* The example selected shows, at the same time, the effect of inflexion on Daghcsh lene in the middle stem-letter. Hem. 1. The vowel of the second syllable is the principal vowel, and hence it distinguishes between the transitive and intransitive. The pretonic Qamets in the first syllable has little strength, and becomes vocal Sh e va on the shifting of the tone, as Dfpup. In Aramaean it wholly falls away in the root itself, as ?£i?, ?t?i?. 2. Examples of denominatives in Kal ; "^?n to cover with pitch, from TOO fitch ; IV? to salt, from r&O salt. Sect. 44. PRETERITE OF KAL AND ITS INFLEXION. 1. The inflexion of the Preterite, in respect to person, number, and gender, ia effected by the addition of fragments of the personal pronouns (ajformatives) to the end of the ground-form. In explaining this connexion, we may treat the ground-form as a participle, or a verbal adjective^ thus Pr?bj5 thou hast hilled, * A verb middle A is one that has Pathach or Qamets under the middle radical ox in the second syllable ; a verb middle E, one that has Tscre; and a verb middle O, one that has Cholem. Tit. t On the intimate connexion between the Preterite and the verbal adjective, see what has been already said, § 39, 1. In intransitive verba they have the same form, as X s, r full, or he is full; |ttij small, or he U tmaU. In transitive verbs the participle presents, indeed, a different form ('ppj?), still with ?$3 may be compared the adjective form ?Dp, though generally it is expressive of quality, as C^n wise, I'^w" adversary (j 48, 1). 7(J PART II. PARTS "!•' SPEECH. -CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. ( properly killing-thou, or hiller-thou, a kUler wasl //""/, HfW Tfip), K*V fo was/earing, Drnn' fearing ye (for DJJ« KT). In the m^//,/ person this is readily seen as well aa'in i'yto we have killed for ttK ^p. In the firsl person sing. TptbjJ we have *— tlit* sim|>l«' '."i-ni of the pronoun, united with the demonstrative sound n, by which the afformative is al once distinguished from the suffix forma *} and > - (as if one would form TOX, TIN / after the analogy of nnN).* In the third person, n— (originally H_-, coin]). Rem. 4) is a designation of the feminine (as in the noun S mi, 2 |, and 1 (orig. p) Ls a sign of the plural. In the Indo-Germanic tongues, the inflexion by persons originated in the same manner, by appending pronominal forms, as is shown in Sanskrit and Greek; e. g. from the stem as (to be) Sanskr. asmi, dpi, Doric ippi for iapi I am, where the ending pi belongs to poi and pi; Sanskr. n«, Dor. ienri thou art, where ^ffi ? j &) by Vav conversive of the Preterite, where it is moved forwards one syllable (§ 49, 3). Sect. 45. THE INFINITIVE. 1. The Infinitive, originally a verbal substantive, lias two forms — a shorter and a longer form. The shorter {Infinitive construct), in Kal .bp, is the most usual; it can take the pronominal suffixes, can be folloAved both by the nominative of the subject and the accusative of the object (§ 133), and may be preceded by preposi- tions, as 7bp7 to hill (§ 132, 2). The longer form (Infinitive absolute or i mphatic\ in Kal 71bj5, is used when the action of the verb is presented by itself, withoul direct connexion with other words; and most frequently, when the Infinitive is added to the finite verb, as an adverbial accusative, for the sake of emphasis. The first is the original form, and has retained more of the character and flexibility of a verbal noun; the second is somewhat more inflexible, and expresses rather the abstract idea of the verb. See full explanations in the Syntax (§§ L31 — L33).f 2. Between TlDp and step, there is this difference in the form, that the latter has Cholem unchangeable, but the former has Cholem changeable (hence with suff. vfcpjj). In the derived conjugations (except Hiphil and Hophal\ the Tnjin. absol. has also generally such a firm #, although the Tnjin. constr. has other vowels, e. •;. in Piel we have ?it2p besides ?tTp. * Almost all these forma, which in Hebrew are unfrequi nt, are the usual ones in tho kindred dialects, and may, in a proper sense, be called Chaldaisms, Syriasms, and Arabisms. t In Rodiger'a Paradigms, the Inf. constr., as the \ redominant form, is put before the other, under the name of Infinitive, k»t i^o^v ; but we d< viate in this respect in our Tables of the present edition. — Edit. PAKT ii. PABT8 OS HEBBCH. — CHAT. [I. BEGULAB VBBBS. i; ;,i, . ^bp, the Intin. K..1 baa also the following unui aa] forms : — „ Si:->, ,-. ;r . 3:l ,; tu //,■, (i. ii. wxiv. 7. /, rfopp and IWB, nj^ (feminine forme from 7PP and ^i?); as nK?b> to hate, nznf? / approach I '.\. wwi. 2 A/PP /,, pity K/.c. xvi. 5. (As a verbal noun, also, the Infin. may take the feminine ending.) , ^pjpp aa in Chaldeej; e. g. tf#9 to oaU, Num. x. 2. These unfrequenl forms are in more common use as verbal nouns (§ 84, Nos. 10, 11, 14). :;. A sort of Gerund is formed in Hebrew l>y the Inf. constr. with the preposi- tion K aa Tbljb interjiciendo, ad interjiciendum, bhf? ad cadendum, (for to fall.) The < is here so closely connected, that it constitutes part of the grammatical form, as appears from the syllahle-division and the use of Dayhesh lene, viz., ikfi lin-pol (§ 28, 1), so also lio-lol, just as in the Fut. 1??', &P.*. On the contrary, >5j>3 Job iv. 13, 7Q33 2 Sam. iii. 34, where the prepositions 3 and 3 are conceived to be less closely connected with the Infinitive, and by way of t nception also with ?, as Y^i?) B^Hi? Jer. i. 10. Sect. 46. THE IMPERATIVE. 1. The leading form of the Imperative bbp (7t?p) is the same which lies also at the basis of the Future (§ 47), and which, when viewed as an Infinitive (§ 45), is likewise allied to the noun.f It expresses only the second person, but has inflexions for the feminine and the plural. For the third person it has no form (see § 130, Rem. 2), but this is expressed by the Future in the jussive (§ 127, 3, c), and even the second must be expressed by the jussive form, when a negative pre- cedes, as /bpjyi ?X ne occidas (not /bp ?N). The proper passive conjugations have no Imperative, J but the reflexive Niphal and Hithpael have. 2. The inflexion is quite similar to that of the Future, and it will be compre- hended from the explanations given below, in § 47, 2. Like the Future, the Imperative also has a lengthened and a shortened form, the first in the manner of the cohortative, the second after the analogy of the jussive (see § 48, 5). Rem. 1. Besides the form Vl3|5, there is also one with Pathach, as 3?^' (as in the Inf. and Fut.) 2 Sam. xiii. 5 ; but Pathach in "133 is the regular vowel for the Imp., from "1??. See the Paradigm. f Tlio Tnf. dbsol also is occasionally used, like the Greek Infinitive, for the Imperative (§ 131, 4, b). But this ia do ground for taking the Imperative to be properly an Infinitive ; for the Inf. absol. stands also for a Present, Perfect, and Future, It might rather be supposed, that the Imper. is a shortening of the 2nd person of the Future i ?Dp, :r. m ?Opl|l) ; but in reality these three forms are each independent, and have not sprung one from another, but Btand all alike on the basis of the abstract verb (§39, 1). The inflexion of the Imper. may certainly have 1 >i't'n borrowed from the Future. X An Imper. is found twice (Eae. xxxii. 19; Jer. xlix. 8) in Hophal, but with a reflexive meaning. § 47. THE FUTURE AND ITS INFLEXION. 79 2. Less frequently there is found in the first syllable of the feminine and plural form an 6 (Qamets-chatuph), instead of the 1, as Wf5>ip draw ye Eze. xxxii. 20, v?>? reign thou (Jem.) Judges ix. 10. 3. In the form H3?bp, the H— is at times dropped, and then a helping vowel is introduced, as in X8W hear ye {fern.) for fU!?D^ Gen. iv. 23 ; comp. |K"Tj? call ye {fern.) for H3Snp Ex. ii. 20. The shortening is probably owing to the guttural. Sect. 47. THE FUTURE AND ITS INFLEXION* 1. Fragments of the personal pronoun are employed in the inflexion of the Future as well as of the Preterite; but in the Future these fragments are prefixed (preformatives)^ to the stem in the abstract form (7bp). These formative par- ticles, inasmuch as they stand before the verbal form, the tendency of which is to have the tone at the end, are much more abbreviated than the afformatives of the Preterite, so that in every case only one consonant remains (*, ft, N, 3) mostly with a very short vowel, viz., vocal Sh e va. But as these are not always sufficient to mark, at the same time, the distinction of gender and of number, the defect is supplied by additions at the end. Comp. the Table, § 40, 2. 2. The derivation and signification both of the preformatives and afformatives, are still in most cases clear. In the lstjiers. ?bj3K, plur, TbjpJ, K is an abbreviation of *JK, 3 of ttK. This person required no addition at the end. In the 2nd pers. sing, the T\ in 7bj?fi is from HJJ1X, the V in yppfi is the sign of the feminine, as in *£IX thou (feminine, see § 32, Rem, 4). In the 2nd vers. plur. the ^ (more fully |1, see Rem. 4) in V?tppft is the sign of the plural as in the 3rd person and already in the Preterite (§44, 1), and is here appropriated to t li« ■ * In this translation the grammatical terms, used by Gescnius himself, and by most oth< r Hebraist*, are rally retained, in preference to those adopted by Rodiger after the example of Ewald. A general change of the terminology would occasion inconvenience and Bome perplexity, particularly in using the best Hebrew lexicons nxm extant, while it would scarcely secure advantages to counterbalance. Accordingly the tenses are here designated by the usual names. By Rodiger, however, the Future is called Imperfect, as expressing what i- unfinished, in progress, and future; in contradistinction from the Perfect, which expresses what is actually finished and past, OT conceived to be so (see in the Syntax, § 125). It may be added, that Prof. Lee calls the Future the Present tense. In this, however, he seems to stand alone. — Tit. f There is this striking difference in the formation of the two tenses, that the more obj ctive Preterite begins with the verbal stem, ami ends with the pronominal sign as something subordinate; while the Future, on the contrary, begins with the pronoun denoting the subject from which the action of the verb proceeds. S. B more in the Syntax, § 123, etc. SD PABT II. PART8 OF SPEECH.- -CHAP. H. RKGULAB VERBS. masculine;* fi) in nirbpri Is the Bign of the plural feminine (in Chaldee J7), or borrowed from H3fl 1 a . In the 8rd person ^|T, the * cannol be bo easily explained, as no corresponding pronoun can be foundfor it in the Hebrew; the ' may, however, stand as a stronger consonanl for 1 (from WH), properly Sbp") , because 1 at the beginning of a word was mostly avoided in Hebrew (comp. i#J for X>1, § 69); and hence the plural feiT by adding the plural-ending 1. The fi in the feminine.* TbfM?, njDbjpfi, which are precisely the same as the 2nd person, is probably allied to the feminine-ending, j"l— [or it may come, as Gesenius thought, from fcOH she, by changing n into H, which is often done]. 3. In the course of inflexion the final vowel is dropped in some forms, while in others it is retained. In this respect the analogy 7bjT is followed by all the other forms which receive no addition at the end, and that of ytppfi by the forms ^tpjT, i?ppfl ; analogous to nj?bpfi is to be small, Fat. |Pi??. Sometimes both forms exist together; the Fat. with 6 is then transitive, and that with a intransitive; e. g. "MfpJ he will cut off, will reap ; 1¥p) he will be cut off, i. e. will be short. So also t."pn, Fut. o, to subdue; Fut. a, to be subdued; Ex. xvii. 13; Job xiv. 10. More Beldom both occur without any difference in signification ; e. g. 1$&) and ^'1 he will bite. In the irregular verbs, the feeble e {2 sere) is also found in the final syllable, as ]d s . for W. he will give. These three forms of the Future are called Future 0, Future A, Future E. 3. For the ord plur. Jem. ropbpPl is substituted in three instances, to distinguish it from the '2nd jxrs., the form f3?^p?, as in Chaldee and Arabic; e. g. njrtbgj they shall arise, Dan. viii. 22 ; comp. Gen. xxx. 38; 1 Sam. vi. 12. In several instances flipbpPI seems to have been used impro- perly for the 3rd pers. singular, Ex. i. 10; Judg. v. 26 (and, according to some, Job xvii. 16: Is. xxviii. 3). (In the vulgar Arabic, necul, properly we eat, is the common form for I eat ; and in the French patois, favons for j'ai). — In the Pentateuch T | (nd) occurs in place of H3, especially after Vwa convorsiw % 19, 2) ; e. g. Ex. i. 18, 19 ; xv. 20, as in Arabic nd. A still more abbreviated form of this termination is found in the Imp. (§ 46, Rem. 3). — Once occurs (Eze. xvi. 50) the anomalous form nrn^ri with \ inserted, after the manner of verbs VV and W (§ 67, 4, § 72, 5). N.B. 4. The plural forms ending in -1 appear also not unfrequently with the fuller ending P, * This is also the proper gender of the plural syllable Fin. ft. It is true that in the Tret, the Hebrew employs it for botb genders; but in the kindred tongues, it stands even in the Pret. for the masculine alone; as in Syriac, mat qctalvn^fem. qeaHen, so in Arabic, mas. qdtalu,fem. qatdlna. § 48. SHORTENING AND LENGTHENING OF THE FUTURE AND IMPERATIVE. 81 most commonly with obvious stress on the word at the end of a period, where the vowel of the second syllable is then retained, as !'^|T. they tremble Ex. xv. 14, ffiHM?ljl ye shall hear Deut. i. 17. But it is not confined to this position ; see e. g. Ps. xi. 2, Hy'p. J-12TV ; comp. iv. 3 ; Gen. xviii. 28, 29, 30 — 32; Is. viii. 12; 1 Sam. ix. 13. But the preference for this form at tbe close of a period is clearly seen in Is. xxvi. 11, 't?i3*j MPJJ JVTrr ?2 they see not; may they see and be ashamed* This original ending P is common in Aramaean and Arabic ; yet in the vulgar Arabic it is shortened. Of the Fut. with N appended, K-IE'3? Jer. x. 5, is the only example. 5. In like manner vPpfl has a longer form with final I, viz., P/PP?, which is also common in Aramaean and Arabic. The IV here is scarcely original ; probably it arose from imitation of the plural-ending ft, See examples in 1 Sam. i. 14 ; Ruth ii. 8, 21 ; iii. 4, 18. 6. In Pause, the vowel of the second syllable, if it had become Sh e va, is restored and takes the tone, as to, 6bp*. Comp. § 29, 4. Sect. 48. SHORTENING AND LENGTHENING OF THE FUTURE AND IMPERATIVE. {Jussive and Cohortative Forms?) 1. For the insufficiency of specific forms to express the relative Tenses and the J\[oods in the Hebrew and its kindred dialects, a small compensation is made by changes in the form of the Future, to which a certain signification is either exclu- sively or principally appropriated. 2. We must distinguish, accordingly, between the common form of the Future and two others, viz., a lengthened form (with a cohortative force) and a shortened form (with a jussive force). The lengthened Future, however, occurs only in the 1st person (with unimportant exceptions), while its shortened form is confined to the 2nd and 3rd persons. In Hebrew, however, the short-spoken Jussive is not always orthographically distinguished from the common Indicative form of the Future. In Arabic the distinction is always clear. Besides the common indicative Future ydqtulu, it has, a) a Subjunctive, ydqtula ; b) a Jussive, ydqtul ; and c) a so-called Future cncryic, ydijtulan, which is nearly related to the Heb. Cohortative. 3. The characteristic of the Cohortative is a long a, T\— (If. paragogic), attached to the 1st person; e. g. rptppX for ^bpX. It is found in all the conjugations and in all classes of regular and irregular verbs (except in the passives), and has the tone wherever it is taken by the aflbrmativcs 1 and *— , hence it affects the final * It is worthy of remark, that the Chronicles often omit the Xiui where it Btandfl in the bookfl of KingI 1 Kings viii. 38, 43; comp. 2 Chron. vi. 29, 33. — 1 Kings xii. 24; 2 Kin,u r > xi. ; comp. 2 Chroo. xi. 4; xxiii. 1. 7 PAST n. PABTS OJ SPEECH, — CHAP. n. BEGULAB VEBB8. vowel in precisely the same manner as these do; e. ,'_ r . in A'"/, ""09^* F will observe ; in /'/./, niJIJI)) /«■/ tM A/v,/' asunder, Ps. Ii. .'5; but in Hiphil, n*V3Ttt /tw3 ?Wc'. g, 1 Sam. xwiii. 1") ; Pe. xx. 4. As rarely is it attached to the 3rd person (Is. v. 19 ; I wiii. 20; Pa. xx. 4). The '2nd person, however, receives it in the Imperative. See No. 5. It— as an accusative-ending to a noun, denotes motion or tendency towards a place (§ 00, 2), and after the same analogy the Cohortative with this ending expresses effort and the direction of the will to an action. Accordingly it is used especially to express excitement of one's self determination, wish (as Optative), etc. (see § L28). 4. The Jussive occurs only in the 2nd and 3rd persons. Its form is orthogra- phically often the same as that of the Indicative, e. g. 7bjT as Ind. he will kill, as Juss. let him kill. But at times the shortening is clearly indicated, as will be shown in every case under the conjugations. In the regular verb it is confined, as a distinct form, to Hiphil, as Juss. Ttpp* for Ind. TtOiT. It is found in Kal and Hiphil of verbs iy, as H£J and ftb\ for iW r and JVJb*j and in all the conjugations of verbs TV, where it consists in the removal (apocope) of the ending H— ; e. g. .¥ for mW*. (Hence the term, Future apocopated, is frequently applied to this form.) But in all cases the plural forms of the Jussive coincide with the common, only that the ending \) cannot occur. Also the 2nd pers. sing. fern, sounds like v*tpjjlj1, W5j^, vlTl, etc., and besides also all the singular and plural forms, when they have pronominal suffixes, e. g. ^rVttft, as Indicative in Jer. xxxviii. 15, as Jussive in xli. 8. In signification this form is similar to the other, with some modification occa- sioned by difference of person. In general it expresses command and wish, and stands also in conditional sentences (§ 128). 5. The persons of the Imperative, as it is allied in form and meaning to the Future, arc also lengthened (by fl— ) and shortened, in a manner perfectly analo- gous. So also the Arabic has an Imperativus energicus. In most conjugations only one of these forms is found, in others both together. The lengthened Imp* occurs, e. g. in Kal of the regular verb, as *W, mX\ 3X>, mx>; the shortened t J i c >} i : 7 t:t' - : 7 . t : • ' ■ Imp. in verbs TV, as 73 for ITO; both together in Hiphil, as 7Bpn and HTiDpri for VpjTl . The signification of these forms is not always so strongly marked as in the Future. The longer form, however, is often emphatic, as Etip stand up, H/pIp up ! ]T\ give, PlJPl give ! § 49. treterite and future with vav conversive. 83 Sect. 49. PRETERITE AND FUTURE WITH VAV CONVERSIVE. 1. The use of the two tenses, as will be shown more fully in the Syntax (§§ 126, 127), is by no means confined to the expression of the past and the future. One of the most striking peculiarities in their use, and, indeed, in the Hebrew diction generally, is this: that in continued narrations of the past, only the first verb stands in the Preterite, the others being in the future form; and, on the contrary, in continued descriptions of the future, the first verb is in the Future, while the rest are in the Preterite form. Gen. i. 1: In the beginning created (Pret.) God the heavens and the earth. 3 v. And said (Fut.) God, Let there be light, and there was (Fut.) light. 4 v. And God saw (Fut.), etc. Just the reverse in Is. vii. IT : Jehovah will bring (Fut.) upon thee, and upon thy people, and upon thy father's house, days, such as have not come since, etc. 18 v. And it mil happi n (Pret. >1?Tl s ) on that day 19 v. And they tcill come (Pret.). This progress of time, this succession of thought, is usually indicated by the Vav copulative, which, however, in this case, partly, receives itself a somewhat different form, and partly affects tin- form of the Preterite and Future to which it is prefixed.* 2. The Vav conversive of the Future is the most important. This a) is regularly prefixed with Pathach and a Daghesh forte in the next letter, as vbj£! and he killed, but to the 1st person sing, with Qamets (according to § 22, 1), as .EpNI and I killed [see another exception with Daghesh forte omitted, as 13T} and V"H, in § 20, 3, b] ; b) it takes a shortened form of the Future, when that exists (camp. § 48, 4), e. g. in Hiphil 7Dj>^ (§ 53, Rem. 4), and often at the same time draws the tone back to the penultima, as TVlfiJ, shortened nfoj, with Vav conversive l"l£$ {and he died), § 67, Hem. 2 and 7; § 68, 1 ; § 69, Rem. 3; § 71; § 72, Rem. 1 and 7; § 73, Rem. 2.f Yet it is often, particularly in the later books, prefixed to the 1st person sing, with the lengthened form in H— , e. g. ntp"]£N] and I plucked, Ezra ix. 3. See more in § 129. * Since it chnn^os in a degree the meaning of the tenses, it is called by the Hebrew grammarians [including Geaenius] Vav conversive (i. e. conTerting the Fut. into tne /V. /. and the I'nt. Into the I'ut). B< tt r [in the opinion of Rodiger, who follows KwaldJ is the term Vav consvcutin-. sinoe it es s e n t ially denotes seqnence or progress. t The forms, also, in |1 and }*—, occur vi ry Beldom after Vac eoneertive, p3*TP Judges riii. 1 ; Ete. xliv. 8. S| i-akt ii. PABTS OF BPBEOH. — CHAP. tt. REGULAB VERBS. This '] is, m to form, a stren ;thened Vav copulative (comp. n?33, nip?, Ttift, where the prepo- sitions I, -. \ are strengthened in a .similar way;, in the sense of and then, and .so. The retracting of the tone is found also in similar connexions, like nBJ, and the shortening of the verh a< the end apocope") is only accidentally similar to the form of the Jussive, yet this seems to bave occasioned the growing use of the Cohortative form b the 1st person.* :\. The counterpart of Vav conversive of the Future is Vav conversive of the Pre- terite, which joins Preterites to a foregoing Future. Inform it is the usual Vav Copulative (1), c. g. !TH] (after a Tut.) and it will be; yet it has generally the effect of shifting the tone to the last syllable in those verbal forms which would other- wise have it on the penultima,f e. g. *J!y?n I went, *A??ni (with a Fut. preceding) (iii.l I will go, Judges i. 3; HT^n Pret., nWirtt and it shall divide, Ex. xxvi. 33. See more on the use of the Preterite in § 126. This shifting forward of the tone docs not always take place, and the exceptions are sometimes Btrange. It docs not take place a) in the 1st pers. pi. MfS^I Gen. xxxiv. 16; b) in verhs N? and n?, c. g. r/l'-yi Ex. xxvi. 4, 6, 7, 10, etc., (on the contrary, £11™ ibid. vs. 9 and others). Sect. 50. THE PARTICIPLE. 1. Kal has two forms of the Participle, viz., an active, called also Poel (/9S), and a passive, or Paul (7^3). J The latter is probably a remnant of a lost passive form of 7tpp. In the Aramaean the passives of Piel and Hiphil are in like manner lost, except in the Parti- ciples. -. The form of the Participle active of Kal in the intransitive verbs mid. E, and mid. 0, coincides with the form of the 3rd person sing, of the Preterite, as \W\ * The opinion of earlier grammarians, according to which i?bp>l is an abbreviation and contraction from \X\*\ >Dp] it was (that) he killed, is in every respect erroneous, and now nearly obsolete. The -1 is everywhere an emphati. and. When entire sections and books of the Old Testament begin with it, it is a proof that they were either originally connected with what precedes them, or have been afterwards thus combined together (Lev., Num., Josh., 1 Sam., 2 Sam., Ruth, Est.); so indeed do some books begin with the simple copulative 1 (Ex., 1 Ki.. K/.r.). Equally unfounded is the opinion that it is a contraction of ?Bj?) Pljm. t As to whether the hastening of the tone forward expresses in itself the reference to the future, and, on the contrary, the shifting of it backward, as in Dj£l, a closer connexion with what h past, may be left undecided. J The Jewish Grammarians call the Participle also *JU»a (middle u-ord) ; yet not in the sense of the Latin name, but as used for a present tense (§ 134, 2), and accordingly holding the middle place between the Preterite and the Future. § 51. NIPHAL. 85 sleeping, from \p\; ^fearing, from ifr. Comp. the formation of the Part, in Niphal, § 51, 1. But the Participle in verbs mid. A, takes the form of /Dp, the 6 of which has sprung from a, qotel from qdtel (§ 9, No. 10, 2). The form bi2D is in common use only as a verbal noun (§ 84, 1). The inflexion of the Participle in Piel, Hiphil, Ilithpael follows a different method. 3. Participles form their feminine and plural like other nouns (§§ 87, 94). Rem. 1. An unfrequcnt form is SpDlfl supporting, Ps. xvi. 5 (for T?ifi, from "HOB); comp. 3*3D 2 Kings viii. 21, and the prop. n. ^SIN 1 Chron. xxvii. .30. Many reckon here also ^pi' Is. xxix. 14; xxxviii. 5 ; but this is much rather 3 sing. Jut. Hiphil of ^P*. Compare a quite similar construction Is. xxviii. 1G. The form D^in Is. xli. 7, for fi!?in, is explained by § 29, 3, b. 2. The Participle in the passive form has not unfrcquently an active signification, especially when it belongs to an intransitive verb, which cannot take a passive meaning. Compare in English, aged, fled. Thus, Mnx means holding (not held), Cant. iii. 8 ; D1D2 confisus for confldens, Ps. cxii. 7. Comp. the deponent verbs in Latin. B. DERIVED CONJUGATIONS. Sect. 51. NIPHAL. 1. The full characteristic of this conjugation is the syllable 3H (in the cor- responding seventh conjugation in Arab. }X) prefixed to the ground-form. This characteristic appears only in the Inf. constr. 7L?pn, which is contracted from 7fc?p3n. With this are connected the Imp., which has the same form, and the Fut. 7tDjp*, contracted from 7t?j5IV. In the Pret. the (less essential) He is dropped, and only Nun remains as the characteristic, hence vt?p3. The same applies to the Participle, which is distinguished from the Preterite only by the long (t) as bfaplfem. ri7bp3 or rnt?p3. The inflexion of Niphal is perfectly analogous to that of Kal. Niphal may be distinguished in the Pret. and Part, by the Nun prefixed ; in the Imp. Inf., and Fut., by the Daghesh in the first stem-letter. The same marks are found in the irregular vei except that, where the first stem-letter is a guttural, Daghesh forte must be omitted ^§ G3, -1). To compensate for this omission, the preceding vowel is made long (§ 22, 1). 2. The significations of Niphal. It is similar to the Greek middle voice, and hence, a) It is primarily reflexive of Kal, c. g. T&P'J to look to em's self, to beware, $v\aa and the Greek middle, the signification of the active, with the addition of w(^, Lat. wftt, /w£ bip3 connects itself, in form, with the Preterite, to which it bears the same relation, as s)&\) to ?t?|5. Examples of this form, >NP'3 rogando 1 Sam. xx. 6, ^b^ desiderando Gen. xxxi. 30. An example of the other is, iri3n Jer. xxxii. 4 ; once CHS exaudiendo Eze. xiv. 3. The i in the final syllable (which is essentially long) is also exhibited in this Infinitive form in Piel and Pual, and it resembles, in this respect, several Arabic Infinitives, in which there is a corresponding d. Moreover, the form ?Pi^n is not less frequently used for the Inf. absol., e. g. Num. xv. 31 ; Deu. iv. 26 ; 1 Ki. xx. 19. 2. In Pause, Pathach often takes the place of Tsere in the final syllable ; e. g. '$\\\ and he was weaned Gen. xxi. 8, as also in other cases (§ 29, 4, Rem.). In the 2nd and 3rd persons plural feminine, the form with Pathach is more common than that given in the Paradigm, e. g. i"l3"i?^Fl thaj shall be remembered, Isa. lxv. 17 ; but only few examples occur of these forms. 3. When the Fut., Inf., or Imp. is immediately followed by a word of one syllable, the tone is commonly drawn back upon the penultima, and consequently the final syllable, losing * In other languages, too, the change of the reflexive into the passive is observed. It is still clear in Sanskrit and in Greek how the middle goes before the passive voice ; the r at the end of the Latin passive is the reflexive pronoun = se ; in the ancient Slavic and Bohemian, amat-se stands for amatur, in Dacoromanic io me laudu (I am praised). See Pott's Etgmologische Forschungen, Th. 1, S. 133 ff., Th. 2, S. 92; Bopp's Vergleichende Gram- mulik, S. 686 ff. § 52. TIEL AND PUAL. 87 the tone, takes Seghol instead of Tsere ; e. g. H3 7&2) he stumbles at it, Eze. xxxiii. 12; i? "!£$?.! and he heard him, Gen. xxv. 21 ; comp. Dw^l iri^'l «W GW heard, 2 Sam. xxi. 14 ; Ezr. viii. 23. In a few words, this form with the retracted tone has become the exclusive one, as ^^V take heed, Ex. xxiii. 21 ; Dp?.'! and he fought, Num. xxi. 1. 4. For the 1st pers. sing. /Qffi the form ?Pi?N is equally frequent, as BHftlji / icill be found, Eze. xiv. 3; y?^'^ I sweaty Gen. xxi. 24. Comp. § G9, Rem. 5. Sect. 52. PI EL AND PUAL. 1. The characteristic of this conjugation (Arab. Conj. II. qattala, Aram. -tSjp) is the doubling of the middle stem-letter. In the active, the Fut. a2JT and the Part. 7t3pp (preformatives of which retain their original Sh e va) are formed, according to the general analogy, from the Inf. and Imp. 7t3j5. The passive (Pual) has an obscure vowel of the third class after the first stem-letter, and a (Pathach) after the second. In other respects the analogy is the same. In the inflexion of the Preterite of Piel, Pathach takes the place of Tsere in the 1st and 2nd persons (?L2p, fl/tSp), which properly have for their basis the form 7ftp. See Rem. 1. The E, which occurs also in the succeeding conjugations, as the characteristic of the Part., is connected with ^ who ? in the sense of some one. Piel and Pual are throughout distinguished by the Daghcsh in the middle stem-letter. It is omitted only in the following cases : a) Always when this letter is a guttural (§ 64, 3). b) Some- times, though rarely, when this letter has Sh e va (§ 20, 3, b), as WSfi Job xxxvii. 8, tor »HT^J he directs it; nn^ she stretches forth, for nn?K> Eze. xvii. 7; xxxi. 4; then also the omission is at times indicated (§ 10, 2, Rem.) by a Chateph under the litera daaesaanda ; e. g. nnro f or tV^O s / ir is taken, Gen. ii. 23; comp. ix. 14; Judges xvi. 16. In the Fut. and Part, the Sh°va under the preformatives may always serve as a mark of these conjugations. 2. Significations of Piel. a) It denotes intensity and repetition (comp. the Nomina intensiva and iterativa, which are also formed by doubling the middle stem-letter, § 84, 6—9);* e. g. pHX to laitgli, Piel to sport, to jest (to laugh repeat- edly); 7NK> to ask, Piel to beg; hence it denotes that the action is performed upon many, as 1?j3 to burg {one) Gen. xxiii. 4, Piel to burg {many) 1 Kings xi. 15. * Analogous examples, in which the doubling of a letter lias an intensive force, are (bund in the German words, reichen, recken ; strcichen (stringo, Anglo-Saxon a/rerun), strechen ; comp. St rich, Strecke) WacktT, from wacken: others in which it has the causative signification, arc stechen, stechen ; wachen, KM eki n ; in Gre b reXAa /" /mug to an end, from the stem t/Xw to end, yewaco to beget and to bear, from y to come into In ing. The above exampk a from the German show also that ch, when doubled, takes the form of kk, ck, in accordance with the laws relating to the Dagheah in Hebrew (§ 13, 3). 88 PART II. PABTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. (So in Syriac frequently.) This signification of Piel is found with various shades of difference, as nfi| to open, Pie] to loose; *£&to count, Piel to relate. With the eager pursuit of an object Is connected the influence which the subject of it exerts upon others. Hence, b) If has a causative signification (like Hiphil), e. g. !Eb to I, ,irn, Piel t<> teach. It often takes the modifications expressed by, to permit, to declare or /" regard, to help, as Pljri to let live ; p"iy to declare innocent; T9J to assist in child-bearing, c) Denominatives are frequently found in this conjugation, which in general mean to make a tiling (sc. that which the noun expresses), or to be in any way occupied with it; as from }j5 nest, pp to make a nest; from 1SV dust, *l£y to throw dust, to dust. It also expresses the taking away or injuring the thing or part of which the noun is the name (as in English, to behead, to skin, to bone), e. g. Bht^ (from VH& a root) to root out, extirpate ; 33T (from S3J tail) properly to injure the tail, hence to rout the rear of an army; j^ 1 ! to remove the ashes. So also in verbs the origin of which cannot be traced to a noun; e. g. 7J3D to stone, and also to remove the stones, sc. from a field.* The significations of the passive will present themselves spontaneously, e. g. 333 to steal, I'iel to steal, Pual to be stolen. In Piel, the proper and literal signification of a word is often retained, when Kal has adopted a figurative one, the former being the stronger and more prominent idea ; e. g. NS"1 in Piel to stitch up, in Kal to heal ; ^"13, Piel to cut, to hew out, Kal to form, to make; >\>l , Piel to uncover, Kal to reveal. In intransitive verbs, also, Piel occurs as an intensive form, but only in poetry, as J"lFin f-angi, Jer. li. 56 ; nPlS to be open, Is. xlviii. 8 ; lx. 11 ; HV1 to be drunken, Is. xxxiv. 5, 7. N.B. Rem. 1. The Pret. Piel has frequently (-) in the final syllable, instead of (••), e. g. "I?N to destroy, "1?^ to break in pieces. This occurs especially before Maqqeph (Eccles. ix. 15; xii. 9), and in the middle of a period, when other words immediately follow ; but at the end of a period, Tsere is the more common vowel. Comp. ?1!| Is. xlix. 21 with ?1!! Jos. iv. 14; Esth. iii. 1. Some verbs have Seghol, as "SI. to speak, "IS? to atone, D3? to tcash clothes. A single instance of ( - ) in the frst syllable (after the manner of the Chaldee) is found in Gen. xli. 51, n^'3 to cause to forget, occasioned by the play upon the name H8M9. Compare the quadriliteral f£h§, which is analogous in form with Piel (§ 5G). 2. The Fut., Inf., and Imp., when followed by Maqqeph, generally take Seghol in the final syllabic, e. g. vT5>g3J he seeks for himself Is. xl. 20, y^p? sanctify to me Ex. xiii. 2. So in Hith- puel. In the 1st pers. sing. Fut., there occurs, besides ?t?gX, also in a few cases the form with (••••.) under s, as FVTJK Lev. xxvi. 33; and even with (-), as ">#?*? Zech. vii. 14 (according to § 23, 4, Hem. 2). With Vav. com. we have also ^§£S1 for httpX) Judges vi. 9. Instead of n^Ej^ are found such forms as HJ/Epn, but only in Is. iii. 16, and xiii. 18. In Arabic, denominatives of Con). II. oftrn express injury done to a member, the removal of vermin or of any injurious thing. This force is not wholly wanting, also, in the simplest Conj. I. Comp. Hebrew Kal "HI" (from I^V') to buy >nd *eU grain ; Lat. causari, pradari, etc. § 53. HIPIIIL AND IIOrilAL. 89 3. The Inf. absol. has the special form ?B|?, as lb* castiyajulo Ps. cxviii. 18, and in Pual, 233 Gen. xl. 15. But more frequently the form ?t?i? is used ; e. g. Jer. xii. 17 ; xxxii. 33. 4. In Pual, instead of Qibbuts, is found less frequently Qamets-chatuph, e. g. Q^P dyed red Nah. ii. 4; comp. iii. 7; Ps. lxxii. 20; lxxx. 1. It is merely an orthographic variation when Shureq takes the place of Qibbuts, as "IpV Judges xviii. 29. 5. For the Inf. abs. of Pu. there is found 333 Gen. xl. 15. The Inf. constr. does not occur in the regular verb. 6. The Part. Pual sometimes occurs without the prefix P ; it is then distinguished, like tbe Part. Niph., only by the Qamets in the final syllable, e. g. n|3? taken, 2 Kings ii. 10; comp. *1^V for "J?'D Judges xiii. 8; also Eccles. vs.. 12; Hos. i. 6, 8 ; Prov. xxv. 9. Sect. 53. IIIPHIL AND HOPHAL. 1. The characteristic of the active is H with (-7) or (— ) prefixed to the stem, and *t inserted after the second radical. From the Inf. Tttpri are formed the Fut and the Part. ^tpjT, ^&p£, for S*t?jXP : , ^tpjTfo. In the passive, the H is expr with an obscure vowel, and the second syllable has a instead of 1, as 7ppH or A?pH, Fut. 7^jT or A?p*, Inf. absol. A?pH; and in its other forms it follows the general analogy. The inflexion has nothing peculiar, except that in the 1st and 2nd pers. Pret. the *~ is dropped, and Pathach takes its place, as 7*tppTl, ft / t?pn ; which is explained by the analogy of the Aramaean (?t?pN) and of the Arabic pttpN), where the V is not found. It does not appear to be an essential characteristic of the form, but it has arisen out of a shorter vowel. See Rem. 1. The marks of this conjugation are therefore, in the Pret., Imp., and Inf., the prefix n ; in the Fut. and Part., the vowel under the prcformatives, which in Hiphil is Pathach, in Hophal, Qibbuts or Qamets-chatuph. 2. Significations of Hiphil. It is properly causative of Kal, and in this Bense is more frequently employed than Piel (§ 52, 2, b), e. g. XV* to go forth, Hiph. to bring out of to lead forth ; BHp to be hoIg, Ilipli. to sanctify. When K;il is transi- tive; Iliph. takes two accusatives (§ 139, 1). Frequently Piel and Hiphil are both in use in the same signification, as ""Qtf to perish^ Piel and Hiph. to destroy; but generally only one of them is found, or they have some difference of significa- tion, as "7!33 to be heavy, Piel to honour, Hiph. to make heavy, [ntransitive verbs merely become transitive, e. g. HtpJ to bow (in trans.), Hiph. t<> /«"'•. bend. The causative and transitive signification of Hiphil is sometimes employed after a mode of conception familiar to the Hebrew, for the expression of ideas, which other Ian. - by !>0 PAW ii. PABT8 OS sri:i:cii. — CHAP. n. REGULAB VKBBS. ^transitive v i: pecially, ma any change in one's habit of body conceived (and very rightly tlH , D , ,| lr Hebrew, as the result of personal agency, and was represented, in tlio mode of .,„, M prodneed by the individual bimtelf;* c. g. IP'f, Hiph. to become fat (properly to produssfat ; Pi? andff?$i Hiph. to become strong (properly to devetope strength) ; Pffl, Hiph. to bseomi feeble. The same analogy applies to "Hfty, Hiph. to become rich (properly to make, to acquire, riokes) ; also especially to words which express the taking of a new colour, as D**l|j5 to become red, paSn to become white, etc. Moreover, what is merely estate or condition, becomes, in the Hebrew mode of conception, aa art; e. g. S^TQ£I not to be silent, but properly to hep silence (silcntium facers, Plin.) ; ¥)"$ '<> had a quiet life, V!$Q to prolong (one's stay), to tarry. In such cases there is often an ellipsis, a8 ^P'H to deal well, r» s n^n to do wic/iedly, properly to make good, or bad (gc i-HI, l'?Tl» which arc often also expressed). These remarks apply also to Denominatives, i. e. the verb often expresses the idea of producing, or putting forth, that of which the original noun is the name, e. g. W^i) to put forth roots, Hi?'l to put forth horns. It also expresses the actual use of a member, as V\$y to listen (properly to make ears) ; pL'^n to chatter, to slander (after the same analogy, properly to make tongue, to use the tongue freely). The signification of Hophal, as of Niphal, may sometimes coincide with that of Kal, e. g. hypotuit, Fut. Hoph. potens jiet, i. e. poterit. Rem. 1. Only the Preterite of Hiphil retains always the *T of the final syllable (in 3rd pers. sing, and plur.) ; on the contrary, the Inf., Imp., and Fut. frequently take Tsere instead of it (in Chaldee the usual form), although usage generally makes a distinction between forms with i and c. Tsere is in this case only tone-long, and hence in the lengthening of the forms it becomes vocal Sh e va, and, with gutturals, it is changed into Pathach. 2. The Inf. absol. has generally Tsere, with and without Yodh ; as W}.p<] Judg. xvii. 3 ; 12?n Ex. viii. 1 1 ; "VP^'D Amos ix. 8. After the manner of the Chaldee, we have N instead of the n in Q'Sl."^ mane surgendo, Jer. xxv. 3. Unfrequent exceptions, in which the form with Tsere stands for the Inf. constr., are found in Deut. xxvi. 12; xxxii. 8. 3. The Imp. but seldom takes the form ^PPO (P s . xciv. 1 in pause, perhaps also Is. xliii. 8) ; instead of it are employed the shortened and the lengthened forms 'PPG and n?*ppn, as }pts>n to make fat, n2 s V'i>i2 attend/ The first takes Seghol before Maqqeph, as N3 _ |2pn Job xxii. 21. Y s Pi?0 and -I^PPl! are never shortened. N.B. 4. In the Fut. of Hiph. the form with Tsere for the Jussive is the usual one, as ?^PI"7X make not great Obad. 12, T)"}V let him cut off Ps. xii. 4, especially with 1 comers., as ?"!!?.?! and he divided Gen. i. 4. Before Maqqeph this Tsere becomes Seghol, as "l3"p.tD,il and he held him Judg. xix. 4. In the plural the forms •''''''Pi?!, -I^PpA stand also for the Jussive and with \ conv., e. g. ^P'?"}!! Judg. xviii. 22 : but the I (after the manner of the Aramaean) sometimes becomes Sh e va, as ^7!~ an d ^ey bent Jer. ix. 2, -IP?"}!! and they pursued 1 Sam. xiv. 22 ; xxxi. 2. The defective mode of writing Chireq, e. g. E?V", is not an essential variation. 5. The form of the Part, with (••) in the sing, is doubtful (Is. liii. 3); but perhaps the plurals D'ppnp dreamers Jer. xxix. 8, DHjyp. helpers 2 Chron. xxviii. 23, are derived from this form. The fern, is n?Op», e. g. naspO Lev. xiv. 21. Comp. Gen. xxxv. 8. * The verb TVl'V to make, is employed in the expression of the same ideas, e. g. to make fat (fatness), for, to produce' fat upon his body, Job xv. 27 ; to make fruits, to make branches, for, to produce, to put forth, Hos. viii. 7 ; Job xiv. 9. Compare in Latin, corpus facer e, Justin. 11, 8 ; robur facere, Hirtius, Bell. Afr. 85 ; sobolem, dicitias, fixers, Plin., and in Italian, far corpo, far forze, far frutto. § 54. HITIIPAEL. 91 6. In the Pret. are sometimes found the forms -l^pjon tee have approached 1 Sam. xxv. 7, and wfcONI I have soiled (with N for n, as in Aramaean) Is. lxiii. 3. Comp. Job xvi. 7. 7. In the Fut. and Part, the characteristic n regularly gives place to the preformatives, as /*9PI, ^ppO, but not to prepositions in the Inf., Tpprn, because their connexion with the ground- form is less intimate than that of the preformatives. To both rules there are some few exceptions, .. ... . a as JTB'irV he trill save, Ps. cxvi. 6, for yW*; fTJirP he trill praise, for iTtr (in verbs "IB only; on the contrary ' Wf^ for P?r*($ Ps. xxvi. 7; 3*1$ for ^HxnS to cause to faint, 1 Sam. ii. 33. Comp. Is. xxiii. 11 ; Ps. lxxviii. 17. N.B. 8. The tone, in Hiphil, does not fall on the afformatives *, n— , and *t". They take it, however, in the Pret. when Vav conversive is prefixed, as "V^ni. Ex. xxvi. 33. 9. In the passive {Hop ha I) Pret., Fut., and Part. U {■■.) is found in the first syllable as well as d (t), ?{?i?Q, but not so often in the regular verb, e. g. 23w'n Eze. xxxii. 32, and HZlZ-y'ri xxxii. 19j ^f'n, Part. ^>f» 2 Sam. xx. 21, and R^n Is. xiv. 19; but verbs |B have it constantly, as t|^ (according to § 9, 9, 2). 10. The Inf. absol. is distinguished by (••) in the final syllable ; e. g. sF)n fasciando Eze. xvi. J, "I5H nuntiando Jos. ix. 24. Of the Inf. constr., as given in the Paradigm, there happens to be no example in the regular verb. 11. For Imperative Hophal, see above, § 46, 1, note. Sect. 54. HITHPAEL. 1. This conjugation connects itself with Piel, inasmuch as it prefixes to the form htofi the syllable flfl (Chald. n«, Syr. J>\**), which, like 3H in Niphal (§ 51, 2, Rem.), has undoubtedly the force of a reflexive pronoun. 2. The H of the syllable l*n in this conj., as also in Ilithpoel and Ilithpalel (§ 55), suffers the following changes: — a) When the first radical of the verb is a sibilant (D, f*, £?), it changes places -with n (§ 19, 5), as *l»n^n to take heed, for IBB^TTlj hsNBQ to be burdened, for ?3pnn. A single exception is contained in Jer. xlix. 3. With ¥, moreover, the transposed H is changed into the more nearly- related D, as p^rtD3KH to justify one's self for P^fiVH . b) Before *T, t3, and H, it is assimilated (§ 10, 2), c. g. "^H to converse, TTIKI to cleanse one's self D^PTl to conduct one's self uprightly ; sometimes also before 3 and 3, as X33H to prophesy, elsewhere N?3fin ; pi3Pl for pi3T81 to make one's self ready. Once before T Is. i. 16, before V? Eccl. vii. 16, before 1 Is. xxxiii. 10. * See also in Hebrew 13nns 2 Chrun. x.\. 85. 92 PARI ii. PARTS OF SPEECH. uiai-. n. BEGULAB 7EBB8. ;;. The significations of Hiihpael. a) Most frequently it \&refUxive, but chiefly 0/ /V./, as Cipnn to sanctify one's self DjMllPI to avenge one's self ^TSTH to gird ones self Then further it means, to make one's self that which is expressed by the first conjugation; hence, to conduct one's self as such, to show one's self to imagine one's self to affect, to be such; properly to make one's self so and so, to act bo and boj e. g. ^"^nn to make one's self great, to act proudly, E3njVl to show one's self cunning, crafty; also, Eccles. vii. 16, to think one's self wise ; XWVI to make, i. e. to feign, one's self rich. Its signification sometimes coincides with that of Kal, and both forms are in use with the same meaning, e. g. 73K, Kal to mourn, is found only in poetry; Ilithp. in the same sense, is more common in prose, and even takes an accusative (§ 138, 2, Rem. 1). b) It expresses reciprocal action (like Niph. § 51, 2, b), as HNnJlPl to look upon one another, Gen. xlii. 1. More frequently c) It expresses what one does indirectly to or for himself (com-p. Niph. § 51, 2, c). It has then an active signification, and governs an accusative, e. g. Di!'2nn emit sibi (vestem), nri2nn solvit sibi (vincula). So without the accusative ^nOr 1 to walk about for one's self (ambulare). Only seldom d) It is passive, e. g. "fj^jpn to be numbered, mustered, Judges xx. 15, 17; xxi. 9. Comp. Xiphal, § 51, 2, d. So rDftBTl to be forgotten, Eccl. viii. 10. The passive Hothpaal is found only in the few following examples : -Hpsrin (so always for 'f?Snn) they were mustered, Numb. i. 47; ii. 33; N^tSH to be rendered unclean, Deu. xxiv. 4; D22n /o be washed, Lev. xiii. 55, 5(>; njL'"nn ^ is smeared with fat, Is. xxxiv. 6. Denominatives with the reflexive signification are : ID-DO to embrace Judaism (make one's self a Jew), from "Mil?, iTTin* Jew ; T.PV? /o su ppty one's self with food for a journey, from HTV . N.B. Rem. The Preterite, as in Piel, has frequently Pathach in the final syllable, as PICrin to be strengthened, 2 Chron. xiii. 7; xv. 8. Final Pathach occurs also in the Fut. and Imp., as E?0^? he deems himself wise, Eccles. vii. 16; ^'IprjH sanctify thyself, Jos. hi. 5. In pause these forms take Qamets, as ^2XJV Eze. vii. 27, *1|?tfJ Job xxxviii. 30. With the form in Piel rU^BjW (§ 52, Rem. 2) comp. Hithp. H^fenFl Zech. vi. 7 Sect. 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. Of the unusual conjugations (§ 40, 2) some are connected, in form, with Piel, and are made by the doubling or the repetition of one or more stem-letters, or by the lengthening of a vowel, i. e. by changes within the stem itself; others are analogous to Hiphil, and are formed by the addition of prefix letters or syllables. Co the former class, besides a passive distinguished by the vowels, belongs also a reflexive form with the prefix DPI, after the analogy of Ilithpael. § 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. 93 Those which are analogous to Piel, and which follow it in their inflexion, are — 1. Poel ; as ?PP, j)ass. Poal ?t?1p, reflex. Hithpoel ?pipnn (corresponding to Conj. III. and IV. in the Arabic qdtala, qutila, taqdtala), Fut. ?©ip), Pint. ^pipP, Fid. pass. ?pip\ etc. In the regular verb it but very seldom occurs. Unquestionable examples are : Part. I| P?*'P my opponent at law, Job ix. 15 ; Vljn'V I have appointed, 1 Sam. xxi. 3 (unless we should read WI 11 " 1 ) ; &$& to take root, "... a t ii. denom. from V~)P root. In verbs ffff (§ G7) it is more frequent, e. g. ?.?1~, 231D, i.?in. The signification of Poel is, like that of Piel, often causative of Kal. Sometimes both Poel and Piel are in use in the same signification, as r>'11 and }'•>'") to oppress ; sometimes each has its peculiar modification of meaning, as 33D to turn about, to change; 331D to go about, to surround ; /.?n to exult, •vin to make foolish (from ??H to be brilliant, but also to be vainglorious, foolish) ; J3H to make pleasant, pin to commiserate ; ^7!P* to root out, VH\& to take root. With ?t?ip is connected the formation of quadriliterals by the insertion of a consonant at the end of the first syllable, as $t?T? (§ 30, 3). 2. Pilel, Pulal, Hithpalel ; as fet3j? and &?j?, pass. ^PP, reflex. ^Ppnn, like the Arabic Conj. IX. iqtalla, and XI. iqtdlla, used especially of permanent states or conditions, e. g. of colours, as l^NL" to be at rest, I^Pl to be green ; pass. 7?PN to be withered; but of these verbs there is no example in Kal. It is more frequent in verbs Iff, where it takes the place of Piel and Hithpael (§ 72, 7). 3. Pealal ; as ?P?PP, with repetition of the last two stem-letters, used especially of slight motions repeated in quick succession, e.g. ">D1DP to go about with quick motion, hence (of the heart) to palpi- tate, Ps. xxxviii. 11, from "inD to go about ; pass. "^PC] to ferment with violence, to make a rumbling sound, Lam. i. 20. Nouns of this form are diminutives (§ 84, 23). Nearly related to this is — 4. Pilpel, formed from verbs VV and Iff, by doubling both of the essential stem-letters ; as 3p?p from 3D = 2?D ; ????, from ?3 (^13). This also is used of motion rapidly repeated, which all lan- guages are prone* to express by repetition of the same sound, ^'PV to chirp, ?*?)> to tinkle, "i|")3 to gurgle, *Jff?ff to flutter (from *py to fly). With Hiphil are connected — 5. Tiphcl ; as VppH, with n prefixed, as ?3"1J|1 to irach one to walk, to lead [denom. from ?£] afoot) ; in a stem of H?, iTTtPI, Fut. iTTniJJ to vie with, Jer. xii. 5 ; xxii. 15 (from i"nn to be anient, eager). The Aramaean has a similar form, E3"iri to interpret. 6. Shaphel; as ?PP : P\ frequent in Syriac, as 3^' to flame, from 27)b- In Hebrew it is found only in the noun T\2ff?& flame, § 84, No. 35. • • • * Forms of which single examples occur: — 7. ^/PP, pass. 12. P">; as D£Pnp scaled off, liming the form of scales Ex. xvi. 14, from ^pn, t)b'n to peel, to shell. — 8. ?BOJ2, as TH! a violent rain, from *]"]{. — 9. ?PPJ!P (frequent in the Rabbinic), a form compounded of Niphal and Hithpael, found in the examples -11p5? for *"1E>3£U they suffer themselves to be warned Eze. xxiii. 18, "1233 for T&31T} t expiated Deut. xxi. 8. We may mention also, as worthy of notice, — 10. the form ">?pvrj to sound the trumpet, commonly * Compare tinnio, tintinnus, an.l in German Tichtack, Wimoarr, Klingklang [our dtng dong]. Tlic repetition of the same letter in verba VV produces also the same effect ; as in P\h to lick, PjJH to beat, S|P? to trip along. ( >tber languages express the same thing l>y diminutive forms; comp. in Lat the termination -itto, a* in cantiUo, in Gi nn. -eln, em, in fUmmSrn, triUern, trdpfeln [comp. our drip, dribble']. Hence we may explain the relation, mi nti-nu >1 under No. 3, between these tonus and the diminutives. 01 taut ii. PABTfl OV BPEBOH. — chap. ii. regular verbs. (Inivcil fr. .111 tin- stem "ivn. Hut it is probably .1 tl/iiom. from rnyWH a trumpet, an onomatopoetic form like the old Latin taratontarasztuba. Ennioe apud Berrium ad JEn. 9, 503. Sect. 56. QUADRILITERALS. Of (ho formation of quadriliterals we have already spoken (§ 30, 3). The few verbs of this kind (of nouns there are more) are formed after the analogy of Picil, once after Hiphil. The following are all the examples that occur: — Fret, fljnfi he spread nut, Job xxvi. 9 (with Pathach in the first syllable, as in Chaltlce). Fut. PI9?T3J '"' "''^ devour it, Ps. Ixxx. 14. Pass. K'SLJ} fo become green again, Job xxxiii. 25. /W/. b|T30 ^trcferf, 1 Chr. xv. 27. After Hiphil bop/fa contracted $»K»i?>n to turn to the left (denomi- native from ?NbC'), Gen. xiii. 9, and other places. G REGULAR VERB WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES.* Sect. 57. The accusative of the personal Pronoun which follows a verb active may be expressed a) by a distinct word, HX (the sign of the accusative), with the suffix (§ 117, 2), as ink 7tp£ (he has killed him); or b) by a mere suffix, as VrStpj? or l.tpp (he has killed him). The second method is the usual one (§ 33), and it is only of it we now treat. f This matter embraces two points, viz., the form of the suffix, and the changes in the verbal form in consequence of appending it. The former is exhibited in § 58, and the latter in §§ 59—61. W e treat of this subject here in connexion vith the regular verb, in order to show in it the general analogy. As to the irregular verbs, the mode of shortening their forms before the suffixes will be noticed under each class, f On the cases where the former must be employed, see § 121, 4, Rem. § 58. THE SUFFIX OF THE VERB. 95 0. REGULAR VERB WITH SUFFIXES • §§57- -61. 1 Suffixes for 1 Sing. 2 Sing. to. 2 Sing'. /. 3 Sing. to. 3 Sin°-. /. 1 P/ur. 2 P/«r. to. 2 Plur.f. 3 /'/ur. m. 3 P/ur./. Pret. Kal. 3. to. N^9? $!# "^9? ,n ppj 1$9P Ipfc?? inbpp J »r6pp D?n^pp JD^PP D ^9P cri^pip jnSpp il^Pi? 2./. T^PP — — vn?ppj C'^o? •u^P? — — D*?te§ ri^p? I.e. I'lur.3. c. 2. m. I.e. Tp?PP ^PP •ln^pp •inirippp •irnjbpp Cp'ppp t it': n-ir^op t i : - ': C^pp •lM^pp •u-in^pp qrrippp D?»bpp I,?^PP J.i^pp c6pp PPrPP I^PP l-inT 2. These Buffixes clearly are, for the most part, shortened forms of the personal Pronoun, Slid only some of them require explanation. In the suffix of the 2nd person ("?[, M, |D) the basis appears to be a lost form of the pronoun T\T\& with 3f instead of fi (""^^, »"V?K; D3X), which was employed here in order to distinguish the suffixes from the afformatives of the Preterite (§44,1). In the 3rd person masc, out of VI— , by rejecting the feeble A, there arose d-u, and thence 6 (§ 23, 5), usually written 1, much more seldom ft. In the /m., the suffixes from NTI ought, according to analogy, to sound Pi, H— PI— ; but instead of ft—, we have, for the sake of euphony, simply ft—, where the ft is regularly a consonant, and therefore marked with Mappiq. Once (Eze. xli. 15) NH stands for T}, as in Chaldec and Arabic. 3. The variety in the forms of the suffixes was occasioned by the regard had to the form and tense of the verb which received them. Thus, three forms of almost every suffix may be distinguished: a) One beginning with the consonant itself, as *J, ttl, ^, (Dft), D, etc. This is appended to verbal forms which end with a vowel, as ^7tpp, P*rnt?p. b) A second and a third, with the so-called union-vowels\ (*2t, s Pt) for the verbal forms which end with a consonant (for the exception, see § 59, Rem. 3): with the union-vowel a for the forms of the Preterite, as v?tpp, ^??p, E^Pp; with the union-vowel e (rarely a) for the forms of the Future and Imperative, as TW. d?w. VlTCiV To the Preterite belongs also the suffix 1, as having originated * DH occurs very seldom as verbal suffix (Deut. xxxii. 26) ; }H not at all. Yet they are given in the list as b ing ground-forms, which frequently occur with nouns and prepositions. f Traces of this lost form appear still in the afformatives of the JEthiopic Preterite, as qatalha (thou hast hilled), ami also in the Samaritan (see Gesenii Anecdota Orientalia, p. 43). Comp. what was said in § 44, 1, on *Jjl?BjJ. The forma with / and h are not unfrequently interchanged in languages generally (see § 33, 3, note). t W e retain the common name ttnion-votoel [Bindevocal], although it rests on a rather superficial view, and is Bomewhat vague. These union-sounds seem, for the most part, to be residues of ancient terminations of the verb, like / in -"irrnpipp. Take, for example, the Hebrew form q'tal-ani, when compared with the Arabic qatula-ni ; and, on the other hand, the Heb. qtalatni and the Arab, qatukttni. § 59. THE TRETERITE WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 97 from VT7 . With "?[, D3, |3, the uniting sound is only a half vowel (vocal Sh'va), as ^J— D3— I5-7, e. g. ^75[? {(ftCd e khd) ; or when the final consonant of the verb is a guttural, *|— e.g. ^/^- In pause, this Sh e va becomes Seghol with the tone *Hf- Rem. 1. As rare forms, may be mentioned : sing. 2nd pers. m. na 1 Kings xviii. 4 1, in pause ^— Is. lv. 5, and TO— Prov. ii. 11 ; /em. '?, *?r Ps. cxxxvii. 6, and in the later Psalms frequently. (Tr, contrary to the rule, appended to the Pret. in Judges iv. 20.) — In the .'3rd pers. mast: T) Ex. xxxii. 25, Num. xxiii. 8; fern, T\— without Mappiq Num. xv. 28, Jer. xliv. 19. — The forms to, \d~, \Qr- t are strictly poetic (except Ex. xxiii. 31) ; instead of 10, we find IB once in Ex. xv. o. On the origin of these forms, see § 32, Rem. 7. 2. By comparing these suffixes of the verb with the suffixes of the noun (§ 91), we discover: a) There is here a greater variety of forms than there (because the forms and relations of the verb are themselves more various) ; b) the verbal suffix, where it differs from that of the noun, is longer, as *?, *>r, N'T, me, *r my. The reason is, that the object of the verb is Less closely con- nected with it than the possessive pronoun is with the noun ; on which account, also, the former may even be expressed by a separate word (§ 117, 2). 4. The suffix gains still more strength, when instead of the union- vowels there is inserted a union-syllable, >-, 3— (commonly called Nun epenthetic, but better Nun demonstrative), which, however, occurs only in the Future and in pause, e. "•. ^EHi; he will bless him (Ps. lxxii. 15), WED! he will honour me (Ps. 1. 23). This Nun is, however, for the most part incorporated with the suffixes, and hence we have a new series of forms, viz. — 1st pers. »if, **f, for »#r, ^7; 2nd pers. ;|-J-, once ;p4- (Jer. xxii. 24); 3rd pers. }3^- for Tl^-, also 13 (Num. xxiii. 13); fern. Til— for H}— ; 1st pers. plur. 134- for ft)~. In the other persons this Nun does not occur. Rem. The forms with Nun distinctly written are rare, only poetic (Jer. v. 22), ami do not orcnr at all in 3 fern. sing, and 1 plur. The contracted forms (with the Nun assimilated) are rather frequent, especially in pause. N.B. This Nun is of a demonstrative nature, and belongs to the appended accusative of the personal pronoun, to which it serves to direct attention as to the object of the verb. This Nun is frequent in Chaldee ; in Samaritan it is appended also to the Preterite, ami in similar n a n inserted. In the Syriac there is a Yodh with consonanl power used in the same way. Sect. 59. THE PRETERITE WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 1. The endings (afformatives) of the Preterite have in part a different form, when connected with the suffixes; viz. — a) In the 3 sing. fern, n— n— , the original feminine-ending, for n— ; PARI II. l'AKl'S OV si-KKCll. — CHAP. II. BEGULAB VKUBS. h) 2 sing. masc. besides fl also fl to which the union-vowel is attached, but the only clear instance of it is with *3 j ;* c) 2 sing. fern. *fl, likewise an older form for n (comp. *flK, wDp, § 32, Rem. I; §4 I, Rem. 1). This form is to he distinguished from the 1st pers. Bing. onlv by tin- context. ,1) 2 plur. masc. W for DPI, which is explained by the Arabic anturn, qataltum, Chald. priX, pn4?p for DPlit, CnStpp (§ 32, Rem. 5). Of the fern. |JFn&jJ with suffixes there is no instance, but probably it took the same form as the masc. We exhibit, first, the forms of the Preterite in Iliphil as they appear in con- nexion with suffixes, because here no further change takes place in the stem itself, except as to the tone (see No. 2): Simj. J 'I in-. 3 m. TbjTl 3 c. b"p\T\ 3/. n^L2|?n 2 m. rfctojjn, ffejTi 2 m. ^tppn 2/. 'ii^bjjn, iji^pi i c. 'rkbpn i c. ufptipri The beginner is recommended to practise first the manner of connecting the suffixes with this Iliphil-form, and then to apply himself to that with the Pret. of Kal. (See No. 2.) 2. The tone inclines towards the appended suffix, so that it never remains on the stem itself. And this occasions, particularly in the Preterite of Kal, certain vowel changes, in consequence of which the following forms present themselves : — Sing. Plur. 3 m. SpjD (^j?, Rem. 1) 3 c. Atp 3/. rtapj? 2 m. nStpj? (Jltabj?, Rein. 4) 2 m. to^Dp 2/. *fejj (JJip^jj, Rem. 4) 1 c. *fi?toj3 1 c . ttyfcj? These tonus are exhibited in connexion with all the suffixes in Paradigm C. It will be seen there, too, how the Tsere in Piel change! sometimes into Seghul, and sometimes into vocal Stiv?9i? is always used, and the suffixes have no union-vowel, except in W9i?, from Jj^Bj? and '?7, e. g. *?5npQ Mow searchest me Ps. exxxix. 1, but also k ^te\ thou hast forsaken me Ps. xxii. 2. In the 2 sing. fern. ^ is written also defectively U^hr* Jer. xv. 10; Cant, iv. 9; Ex. ii. 10 ; instead of it the masc. form is also used •13Fiy?p , n thou (fern.) adjurest us Cant. v. 9; Jos. ii. 17; and with Tsere toJ3*nin thou (fern) /*«*/ let us down Jos. ii. 18. 5. From a verb middle we have Wp??* I have subdued him Ps. xiii. 5, with a shortened o in a syllable that has lost the tone (§ 44, Rem. 3). Sect. 60. FUTURE WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In the forms of the Future, which end with the last stem-letter, the vowel o of the final syllable is shortened generally to simple Sh'va vocal (— ), at times to Chateph-qamets (— ) Jer. xxxi. 33; but to Qamets-chatuph (— ) before ^ D?, p. Instead of n^/bpFl the form V?£?ptt* is used as 2nd and as 3rd person, Cant. i. 6j Jer. ii. 19; Job xix. 15. The form with Nun demonstrative (§ 58, 4) is specially adopted at the end of the elause or period. N.B. Rem. 1. Verbs with Fuf. A (to which belong all that have a guttural for the 3rd radical, § 65) retain the full A in the Put. and Imp., and the Pathach, when it comes to stand in an open syllable, is lengthened into Qamets, e.g. , ?[??^' send me Is. vi. 8, Tl'^T it put me on Job xxix. 1 I, •HIDX?"; let them demand it back Job iii. 5. 2. Occasionally, as exceptions, suffixes occur also in the Future, with the union-vowel a. as DB>3?* Ex. xxix. 30; comp. ii. 17; (Jen. xix. 19; xxix. 32. 3. The suffixes are at times appended also to the plural forms in P, c. g. *33^K3*lfl ye crush me, Job xix. 2; elsewhere always without a union-vowel *3jWK^EP they will find me, ProV. i. 28; Is. lx. 7, 10; Jer. v. 22. 4. In Pill, the Tsere of the final syllable, like the Cholem in Kal, becomes Sh*va : but before the suffixes "H, D3, ]3 it is only shortened into Seffhol, e.g. 1V3|^ //; com]). Kx. xwi. 1">: Is. xxv. 1. 5. In Iliphil, the Chircr/ remains, as , ?L'" , 2?ri {£oti clothesi me, Job x. 11 ; and only rai be met with forms like HS'T^F) thou enrichest it, Ps. lxv. 10 ; 1 Sam. xvii. l'.">. Comp. § 53, K< m. I. * This form is also found as feminine without a Bumx, Jit. kHz. 11 ; Ese. xxxvii. 7. 100 part 11. parts of 8peech.— chap. ii. regular verbs Sect. 61. INFINITIVE, IMPERATIVE, AND PARTICIPLE WITH SUFFIXES. 1. The Infinitive of :i verb active can l>e construed with an accusative, and then it takes the verbal suffix (i. e. I lie ace. of the personal pronoun), as Y"?*?j? t0 teU rne ; luit as ;i noun it can take also the nominal suffix (the genitive), as vPp ril !J telling (see § L33, 1, 2). In either case it assumes the form /t?p, with the o drawn backward (comp. the segholate nouns of the form 7pp, with which ;bp is nearly related, § 84, No. 10, 11, and § 93, Parad. VI.). Rem. 1. The Inf. of the form 3?^ becomes with suffixes n32tJ> Gen. xix. 33, like nouns of the form rn^i . 2. Rcfore 1, C3, JD 5 forms are found which depart from the analogy of segholate nouns, e.g. E??^ your eating Gen. iii. .5, llfW My standing Obad. 11 ; but, as conformable to this analogy, are to be regarded D ?~!Vi? your Jiarvesting Lev. xix. 9, and B2DXO {rno-6s e -kh(:m) your contenming Is. xxx. 12. 2. What has been said of the Inf. is applicable also to the leading form 7!Dj5 of the Imp. The forms ''T'Pp, ^Dj?, which are not presented in the Paradigm, suffer no change. For the fern. nf?t5p is substituted the masculine form wQp, as in the Future. On whf, see § 60, Rem. 1. In the Imp. of HiphU, not the form ^t?pn, but S^ppH is used; e. g. FQ*pl o/er zf, Mai. i. 8. 3. In the Participles, the shortening of the vowels is the same as in nouns of the like form, e. g. 7t?p, A?pp, according to § 93, Parad. VII. On the difference between vPp and *?.?Pp, see § 135, 2. II. THE IRREGULAR VERB.* A. VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. Sect. 62. \ erbs which have a guttural for one of the three stem-letters are governed, in their deviations from the regular verb, by the general principles laid down in § 22. Of course X and PI come under consideration here only when they retain their power as consonants, and are not mere substitutes for vowels; "1 also partakes only m part of these anomalies (§ 22, 4). For convenient representation, we * Sec the general view of the classes, in § 41. § 62. VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. 101 distinguish the cases in which the guttural is the first, second, or third stem-letter. The following three Paradigms, D, E, and F, where those conjugations, which are wholly regular, are omitted, exhibit their inflexions, and the following sections explain them more fully : — TABLES OF THE VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. D. Verb PE Guttural §63. E. Verb AYIX Guttural. § 64. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. KAL. NIPHAL. PI EL. PUAL. IIITHPAEL. Fret. 3. m. "ipv " , py.?..* vpyn* Tis^n* BpB> LDHCb t»* ^3» T?2nn« 3. /. n^w JT^py.?..* rrrpyn rnpyn * none'* npnpa* H313 n:~i'3 nriznn 2. m. rnpy ^M}.. rnpyn rnpyn £i»nts> RBptw PDT3 D313 n^-iznn 2- /. rnpy. Finp^a. ni»^n Jpnoyrt ni?nti> npraw nr-a ri2-i3 rciznn 1. c. "•rnpy ^npin ^rnpyn ••ri-tpyn wpps? *nnnt ,: a VDT3 ♦riaia ^nr-iznn Plur. 3. c. ripjj vjDjg ■lTp^n npjfp *Bne> * *ttrtB>a * •12-13 •i3i3 w*]3J?n 2. m. Drnoy* Bj31»$>. Dp-irpyn DjFnPVJ? Dntsnt? tanBne>a Dn3~l3 DR3T3 cnDisnn 2. /. Iplby* T&IQ&l l™yji in"!»V:i? jnpnp* |npnB»a jnana jrinlin tJJpTann 1. c. •i:ipy "1P#.? V •lanpyn U*p£) MDpB> -i3pncg W?P9 ■133^3 MaianiTi Inf. constr. Inf. absol. nby * npyn * nipy ^0£3* Tpyn * Tpyn* noy.n* BhB> DpB'n ■spa* ■?]'n3 • ■ni3nn« wanting "'" Imp. m. h ippn * ore 1 * Dpspn ^p|* "q-isrin* -Tpy* ptn* npyn* f. Plur. m. npy -ii?m vp^n »T»yn • «■ ■■" wanting •iTpv.p H pn;^* *pntj ; n* \3*13 * »3T3nn wanting '' : ' • • •i:i2nn /■ nanby.* napm/nnpyn njipyn napn^ n:pny ; n nnia n;r-!2nn Fut. 3. m. *il?8£* FJjnj* "ipV,-* *vpy,i* "•py.T* L2np^» biib^ tro; • T^i** ^?.2r>'.* 3. /. •fpyn prnn npyn Tpyn npyn t:ni ,: n tantrn 1^3*1 T]n3n "q^nn 2. m. "itojwg pvn$ ipyn Tpyn ipyn tantrn t:n:? ; n "^n •q^n "n^nn 2. /• 7?KJ3* *i??np* *3$}J8 nnpyn ^P^n * n:nL ,: n* *t?njfn* *5"13fl »:-cn 'p^nn 1. c. nby.x* pma ipys* Tpyx ipyx crrj ; x Bp^ ^3« , ^-l2s• "v--x Plur. 3. m. H92£* ^K* H^« •lTpy;. ^*]p^j •l^nL*""' *Bra& •12•^3 , oih' oian^ 3. /. n 3"! ? ?^ n ^(?Tnn njnpyn njipyn njipyn n3or,L' : n naonirn 13313n njanhn npr^zrn 2. m. ViPBjD • 1 i?^P -Tipyri ■lvpyn -npyn •itanrn -lontrn •ID-inn •lrnbn -ipi^nn 2. /. nn'pyn njpmn nnpyn njipyn npnyn nann:: : n natantrn H3?)13H nDpnbn najpjiin 1. c. nby.a pma *ipy;j Toy a ipy.a Dptfj on^a ^7 3 ? •q^33 "i^n? Fut. apoc. "W Fut. u»M .•?(//• 'HOP ••» Part. act. ipy ^PV,?.' 1 Tpyp* spy dpi^j w? - ^3 np» pass. -npy r -"tpvo« oir v ,; ^30 • tog I'AKI II. I'AKTS ()K SI'KKCII. CHAP. II. [RttEGULAB VEKBS. 1'. Yi BB LAMEDH Guttural. §05. B \i, NIPHAL. PIEL, PUAL. IIII'IIIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. ;t i'i. nbL ,; rk'S'2 n^i" • rj^ rvbvn ■ H^V"? nfentfn • n-^:- ; nrhri: nnVt^ nrhri nrp£e>n nn"p^n rtnVnefri 2. in. nrf-j ; mk'O nn 1 ?'^ nn 1 ?^ fin^n nn'p-j'-n nn>>nc>n i. /. nn 1 ?:" • nr6" : 3 • nnW* nnW* nrte>n • nn'pc'n » nr6nE>n • 1 1. c. T\rb'j »nnSi ,; : »nnk? T\rbv *r\rbvn *nr6w : n v\rhnvn I'lur. 3. r. trbv IIT^J •in^ vf?v •in^L* ; n •in'pK'n irbnvn l'. m. nnnbv Dnr6i ,; 3 DnnW nnrhv nnrbwn Dnn'pB'n Dnr&msrn -' /■ |nnSL- ; lfji&$l Ijpn^ \nrbv jnrbyn jnnS^n Ignkntfrj 1. r. Mn^ MnJ?eto wn^ •i:n^ tir^BJn wr^n •unWn Ink. constr. r6e>* rbrin* nW>* n^>K>n * rbnvn * Ink. a6voJ. D^* dVj ; j * rbv* wanting D.^'lI * rfprir\* I Mr. hi. nSu ,; • r£$j * rhv* rbvn * rfep&j) • /. »r^e> vbrin irhw wbrin ^nVntrn Plur. m. •irtay Wflfo •inW wanting •irv^n wanting •"irtarj-n f- ^nVw ,; * rtjn^n mnfyff* n^n^n nar^n^n • Fut. 3. m. n^L"' * rtar* rhri" 1 * rh'S" rvi?E»* r6tr p^n^j * 3. /. rbvn ntan rhrin rbvn n£e>n rbrin rbnvn 2. m. rbvn nbtrn rbvn nW'n rrbts'n rbrin rhnrin 2. /. Thrift *r6trn •vbrin Thrin *n ,( ?^n Tbrin vhnvn 1. c. r6" ; x r6irs rhria rbvx n^M rbvtt rbn'S'x. Plw. 3. m. •irtar srfys" •inkr •in^L'^ wrjjtf! •ln^ V&PBfr 3. /. rurbvn * npn^w-l* rurhvn * run^n nankin * run^n mrbpg?F> m 1 2. m. •inSu ; n •irta'Fi trbvn •in^r» •irv^n •ir6^n •in^>n^n 2. /• n3n"?L ; n nar»!?tfjFi n:nk>n n:rhrin nankin Fur6»n ngbfltm 1. c. rkm iw? n^3 rhri: D^J nfaw n)?;"? Fut. apoc. n^ : * Fut. «n/A Suff. ^.D*?*. Part. art. nSb ; * n^? nWto* rvbtra * rbnzv* paw. n-i^ • rfatjp rfcfto Sect. 63. VERBS PE GUTTURAL. E. g. T?V to stand. Parad. D, § 62. The deviations from the regular verb may here be reduced to the following particulars: — § 62. VERBS PE GUTTURAL. 103 1. When the first stem-letter, at the beginning of the word, would regularly require a simple Sh e va (/tip, EJIPPp), it takes here one of the composite Slfvas (§ 10, 2; § 22, 3); e. g. Inf. ibjj, Sb>f to cat, Fret. DJV|bS|, DJTCSrj from J'SH fo be inclined. 2. When a preformative is prefixed to such forms, it takes the vowel which lies in the Chateph (§ 28, 2), as lb$T, tPrV he will dream, P|DX* he will gather; or the composite Sh e va conforms to the vowel of the preformative, viz., when the latter is an essential characteristic of the form; e. g. Pret Niph. *M3 (for T$W), Hiph. Yfttfn (for 1W), JW*. and 2?W. t!»n, W. ffoph. Pret 12#n, /'///. W. * v: iv \ • : • / 7 J •-;!-/ • -SI*' i - t: jt / - t:it (On the Meihegh in these forms, see § 16, 2, a.) In many verbs, however, the guttural, especially H, when it stands after a pre- formative at the end of a syllable, retains the simple Sh e va; but in this case the preformative always lias the vowel corresponding to the composite SlTva. which the guttural would take according to the above rule; e. g. Fuf. Kal "Ol* he will desire, #3rV he will bind, Nipli. ^]3ri3 to change one's self, *npO girded, Hiph. Tprn to cause to fail. The grammarians rail this the hard, the former with the camp. Sh e va the soft, comhination. Both forms often occur in the same verh. 3. When in forms like lbs?!, *T&yj, the vowel of the final syllable is changed into simple Sh e va vocal, on account of the accession of one of the afformatives (), *— <^t)i * nen * nG com P os ite Sh e va of the guttural gives place to the corre- sponding short vowel, as *!-£!, plur. H/p$T (read ydam'dhu); ri3TS?3 sh* iken. But here also there exists a harder form besides, as i?50- 1 ^' n J / ''^' " I'^'^'J'^ W?Ji as well as ^IpTIT they are strong. Compare in general § 22, l ; § 28, 3. 4. In the Inf., Imp., and Fut. of Nipli., where the first stem-letter would regu- larly be doubled (7tpDH, ?fc?j5?), the doubling is always omitted, and the vowel of the preformative is lengthened in Tsere, as TfiST for 1tSS\ REMARKS. I. On Kal 1. In verbs KB the Inf. con.itr. and Imp. take ( — ) under the first letter (according to § 22, 4, Rem. 2); as "ITK gird Joh xxxviii. 3, 3Hg love than Hos. iii. 1, *?bX to rat. with a prefix ■~> ; ~ »J<2 The (~) is found here only when the tone is forcibly thrown forward; e.g. VfttfQ --^r Num. xxvi. 10. For the same reason we have DJVVpS, not D?T?£?. In the other forms also of the Imp., the guttural often exerts its influence upon the vowel, which it changes to Spy hoi, as *Bl"n strip thyself Ib. xlvii. 2, n?T(J srt thyself Job xxxiii. 5, especially when the second radical is also a guttural, as WfJK; Ps. xxxi. 24. Pathach occurs in Wv3rj Prov. xx. 16. 2. The Fut. A, as the Parad. shows, has regularly under the first two letters — j and with the J () 1 PART I!. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. IF. [BBEOULAB VERBS. lianl combination . .:. aa VVft he ceases, DJflJ he ia wite. This is true likewise of those verbs Pe guttural, which are bi ■ fi'i aa njjy v fa mm, nyrj^ ta divides. The pointing — is found n in verba FW. 0, '"it tesa frequently, aa ^Sfi' I^RiV /,r ky« ''""'''• ' J ' Me forrn ^F^ 1 - r '""' *fo loves, Bze. ixiii. 5, is the only instance of the h.n < I combination ~t in a verb Fut. A. In these forma the pointing ,.. ,: ia frequently shortened to ~ (according to § 27, Rem. 6), us 1p*j* he hinds, plur. with aufflj wmpg, "lDrv, non\ II. On Hiphil and Hophal. .;. The rule given in Rem. 2 respecting — ~ and — is applicable here also in the Pret. after Vav wersive; i. e. the throwing Forward of the tone occasions a change of e e and a a , as $"]>?#£. thou didst set, ?7?V : ™ and thou wilt set, Num. iii. 6; viii. 13; xxvii. 19; ^.V,?, *&"13$tt. I. In the Pret, of Hiph., — is sometimes changed into ~, and — into ~ in Hoph. Pret., by prolonging the short vowel, which was sustained by Metheg, e. g. l?"!?^ thou leddest over, Jos. vii. 7; nS^Oi /"' ''"•''".'/* HP. IIab - i- 15 5 n ty n > Nah - "• 8 - III. In General. 5. In the verbs H*n fo K»e, and HJrl /o ^>, the guttural is treated as such only in very few forms; the Put. is rvrp, irrp. The rule given under No. 1 is indeed true of these verbs, hence rvPfl; but so soon as a letter is prefixed, the first radical drops the peculiar pointing of the guttural, as rV ), '!V, n'vrv?, Drrm. Eze. xxxvii. 5, 6. 6. For verbs XD in which X loses its consonant and is resolved into a vowel, see § 68. Sect. 64. VERBS AYIN GUTTURAL. E. g. VTW to slaughter. Parad. E, § 62. The deviations from the regular verb are not so great in this class, and are mainly as follows: — * 1. Where a simple Sh e va is required, the guttural takes, without exception, the composite Sh e va (— ) ; e. g. Pret. torTjS>, Fut. ttttj^, Imp. Niph. ttDWTT. In the /////>., the vowel supplied under the first radical conforms to the Chateph of the second; as W#, «Dntf. So in the Inf. Kal fern., as HZinX to love, ""^^n to languish. 2. As the preference of the gutturals for the A sound has generally less influence on the following than on the preceding vowel (§ 22, 2), so not only is the Cholem in Inf. Kal ^in£>, ttht? retained, but also, for the most part, the Tsere in Fut. Niph. and Piel Drf?? he fights, DH3) he comforts, and even the more feeble Seglwl (after Vav conversive) Dnpfl. But in the Fut. and Zmp. of AW, the last syllable generally takes (— ), through the influence of the guttural, even in transitive verbs, e. g. tDPltf, DHiT ; pyT, pS?}; ; TO, TD» (seldom like Dhr), and in the Pret. PHI also, Pathach occurs more frequently than in the regular verb, as DPO. * Hophal, which is not exhibited in the Paradigm, is varied like Kal. Hiphil is regular. § 64. VERBS LAMEDH GUTTURAL. 105 3. In Piel, Piicd, and Ilithp., the Daghesh forte is inadmissible in the middle stem-letter; but, in the greater number of examples, particularly before PI, PI, and $?, the preceding vowel remains short, the guttural having Daghesh forte implicitum (§ 22, 1); e. g. Piel pTlG5>, Inf. pD&P to jest; Pual }V1 to be washed; Ilithp. ^nnDn cleanse yourselves. Before N, the vowel is commonly prolonged, and always before 1, as Piel |KD to refuse, ^p5 to bless, Fat. I *p9?, Pass. ^p_3, seldom like *]&} to commit adultery. Rem. 1. The peculiar feebleness of the N causes, in the Fret. Kal of the much-used verb /NL" /o as/c, a weakening of the a (t) under it to (—), and in a closed syllable to (~) and to (t), when the syllable loses the tone, and the X is not preceded by a lull vowel (exactly as in some verbs QK; and the similar form '3ror s he conceived me Ps. li. 7, for *3fl»01 or '?£»[£. 4. A few examples where the X, as a middle guttural, loses entirely its consonant sound and is resolved into a vowel, will be found in § 73, Rem. 4. Sect. 65. VERBS LAMEDH GUTTURAL. E. g. rb'j to send. Farad. F, § G2. 1. According to § 22, 2, a and b, we here distinguish two cases, viz., either tin- regular vowel of the final syllable remains, and the guttural takes Pathach furtive^ or the full vowel Pathach takes the place of the regular vowel. The more par- ticular statement is as follows : — a) The strong unchangeable vowels *—, 1, 1 (§ 25, 1), arc always retained; hence Inf. absol. Kal nibtf, Part. pass. r?W, Eiph. Pl^tfPI, Fut. rTTB*, Part. r^Sto. 0, though less firm, is also retained in the Inf. constr. PP8?, in order to distinguish it from the Imp. (as in verbs J? guttural). b) The merely tone-long in the Fut. and Imp. of Kal becomes Pathach^ as n?^, thv. (With suff. *#rW*, see § GO, Rem. 1.) c) Where 2We is the regular vowel of the last syllable, the forma with Tsere (attended by Pathach furtive) and Pathach are both employed. Usage, however, makes a distinction in these forms. Thus — [06 PABT n. PABTS OP SPEECH. — CHAP. IX. [BBEGULAB VERBS. In the Part. Sol and PiSl, nj?y, nS" : o is the exclusive form, and llic full Pathach first appears in the corutr. ttat* HJ^, n u :-y. In the Fut. and /»/'. AW/., and in the /V,/. ////". and Fut. Piel, the form with (t) is employed at the beginning and in the middle of a period, the one with f T~.:, a1 the end, and in pause; e.g. JPJtf it is diminithed Num. xxvii. 4, and jnv xxxvi. 3; PR3* A« c&ae« Hab, iii. 0, and JJp»3* Eze. xiii. 1 1 ; ySa /,» wallow, Hab. i. 18; Num. iv. 20. It may further be observed, that the Inf. absol. retains / ,. which is lost in the Xnf. con»tr.\ e.g. rta* Deut. xxii. 7, else nk" /„ send. In Hiph. tli" short, ncd Forms of the Imp. and FW. admit only (t), e. g. npyn prosper, flB^I awrf As eauted to trust. The />;/". flfoo/. takes (— .) as •???? to make hiyh ; but as Inf. comtr. also n?1fl occurs. Job vi. 26. 2, The guttural here hag simple Sh*va whenever the third radical regularly takes it (because it is SA'ua quiescent, which is generally retained even under gutturals, § 22, 4), as fiH^, W 1 ?^. But in the 2 fern. Fret, a helping-Pa^ac/i takes its place, as FlrT?# (§ 28, 4), yet more rarely also nnj?? (without Dagh. in the H) Gen. xxx. 1"). and riiij?? 1 Kings xiv. 3. The softer combination with composite Stem occurs only a) In some examples of the 1 phtr. Pret. when the tone is thrown forward, as ^-13^1* we know thee, Hos. viii. 2 ; comp. Gen. xxvi. 29. h Before the suffixes 1, DJ, J3, as 1!$f$ / tf/7/ wnrf /Aee 1 Sam. xvi. 1, I^^S Gen. xxxi. 27, T>"»V">? Jer. xviii. 2. On the fcehle verbs iO, see especially in § 74. D. CONTRACTED VERBS. Sect. 66. VERBS. IS. E. g. tr.JJ to approach. Farad. G. The irregularities of these verbs, arising from the feebleness of the nasal letter Nun, are as follows : — 1. The Imp. and Inf. constr. often lose (by aphseresis, § 19, 3) their Nun, which would here take Sh e va, as #3 for #33. The Inf. then, however, has regularly the feminine-ending JV^, or, with a guttural, rV-^ (§ 80, 2), as fl#|, Hy3 to touch (from V33). The /wp. has usually Pathach; but also Tsere, as p grtw (from p3). Frequently it takes the lengthened form, as J~IiTn r\* r \ 3./. nwa IW»|IJ twin it : \ 2. m. fiL"33 F,'j'3n win l : i- ■■. 2./. ne>33 n^ ; 3n re:n 1. c. regular *rc : 33 Tic^n ujefin Plur. 3. c •1K>33 WS**| n •vj ; 3n i : \ 2. 771. Dn^33 Dn*J : 3n Dn" ; 3n 2./. Igreto ipv'i? Ig^jn 1. c. •1^3 •iJV : ,in win Inf. constr. nt^* Bjaan l ,:,, 3n» L' ; 3H» i- > Inf. nisoZ. sfaa 0a|n B*I0 * Imp. m. K>3* L' : 33H &}.n* f. ^| ^33 n ^3H wanting Plur. m •W3 •1^33 n •ic»3n f. ri3p*a n^l? naef|i3 Fut. 3. m. L"3* » C : 33' L .;» r • L .; r • 3./. c ; 3n BfyS L'\sn 2. m. Bjjl-l L ,:, 3n 2./. ^' ; 3n »gfcijg r : ■. 1. c. t ,: 3K regular L' : '3X P)M Pfar. 3. m. •1^3* Wty! ••:•:• 3./. nrS'm n;L ,: 3n T | I" \ 2. m. nwm rj"3n •'::- 2./. n3fc ; 3n n3L' : 3D naBfon 1. c. PJJ BKjg C33 i-\ Fut. ar>oc. B$P. * Part. act. B»a5 C : 33» IT • {"'JO* *?• pasn. L"-133 |()N PART n. PARTS ok SPEECH. — CHAP. n. IRREGULAR VERBS. The characteristic of the e verba in all forme which begin with a formative letter, is the Daghesh forte following it iii the BCCOnd radical. Some forms, however, of one class of verbs *E> (§ 71) and even of n rbe VV (§ 67, 5 , exhibil the snnc appearance. Verbs is likewise exhibit such forms of the /'"/'■ a L " : . al o "-" ; ( ; ' a. '■•'-•■ 9 . and \&> \[, .,,,. i. The instances are comparatively few in which the forms mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 retain their Nun, e.g. //»/>. t-"D: A'' »/<>/"\ Wf3 fall ye; Inf. VJ'i (as well as nyi) to touch; Fut. ib:' he keeps, Jer. iii. 5 (elsewhere "ify). In iVijpA. this never occurs, and in Hiph. and Iloph, very Beldom, as "n*ri|jn fo we// Eze. xxii. 20, -Ip^?? //"'// era cm< off Judges xx. 81. It regularly occurs, however, in all verbs which have a guttural for their second stem-letter, as Tflfi he will possess. In these verbs the Nun rarely falls away, as npj, he to ill descend, and J"irn s ; Niph. Eru for Cn33 he has comforted himself. N.B. 2. These anomalies are in part exhibited in the verb np/ to (nice, the ? of which is treated like the Nun of these verbs (§ 19, 2). Hence, Fut. ng*„ //np. np_ (seldom ITjW), /«/. co»s//\ F1DB, Hoph. Put. np*. Niphal, however, is always Hp?3. N.B. 3. In the verb |H3 to give, the final Nun is also assimilated, as VflOJ for *B3fl3, A™ for fl?nj ; Inf. const/: HFI for n.JFI (see § 19, 2), with s»^. *nn wy giving. § 67. VERBS }fy. 109 Sect. 67. VERBS AYIN DOUBLED (Wf). E. g. 33p Parad. H. H. Verb AYIN DOUBLED W'V). KAL. NIPHAL. 1IIPHIL. HOPHAL. POEL. POAL. Pret. 3. m. 3D* 3DJ* 3DD* 3 Din * 331D * 3310 ■ 3./. H3D* H3D:* H3DH * 11201,1 • H331D H331D 2. m. ni3D * D13D3 * D13Dn * ni3Din * T 1 " 1 n331D n?3te 2./. ni3D JYI3D3 nispn ni3Din i - i ri33 - 1D "-31D 1. c. ♦niaD *n'l3DJ »ni3Dn *ni3Din *rm'o »?33ta Plur. 3. c. •13D •13D3 •13DH •13D1H •1331D •1331D 2. m. oniao Dn"l3D3 Dni3DH Dn'i3Din DH331D Djg!33to 2./. Ipisp ipiztDJ iP^pn ipispin |ri33'ip IFIDDID 1. c. -131210 •i:i3p3 •ijizipn •i:i3Din U331D •1-331D Inf. conUr. 3D* 3DH* 3DH* Inf. afcsoZ. 31 3D 3ipn * a P7 3D-1H* 231D 3; ; - Imp. ot. 3D* 3DH* 3DH* 331D Plur. m. »ab* •13b »3en * •13DH •13DH wanting \?31D •1331D wanting f. p|3*3D * n3»3Dn * nrspn * n:33iD A 3D** 3D** ,3D*) 3D-1* • (3D*J 331D* 3^0] Fut. 3. m. 3D** 3D** 3./. 3bn 3bn 3 DO 3DFI 3pW 33icn 331DH 2. 7/1. 3DFI 3bn 3pn 3p9 3pin 33'lDD 33tafl 2./. ♦sbn * *3DF1 »3Dn* *3Dn* *3Din • *33ipn *2r,Dn 1. c. 3D« 3CK 3DX 3DX 3D1X 331DX 33teK Plur. 3. m. •13b* •13 D* •13 D* *3J8J 13J3V •1331D* 1331D* 3./. nrsan* n33bn nrssn* nrsDn * n:*3Din • raaateFI n:2-- ~ 2. wj. •nbn •13DH •13 dh tejpFl lapvi IIZTH "I2T- 2./. ru*3Dn n:3bn nr3Djn nrsDn nrsDin n:33iDn n: 2 21371 1. c. 3D3 3D3 3B? 3D3 3pi: 33»,D3 2_r: Fut. iri/A Far cont\ 3D*1 * 3 DM • Fut. m'i/A 5u/f. *33D* * *?j39* • (Djapp *?33to Part. act. 331D 3D3* 3pB« z -... : . 331DO 22 ; r: past. 313D 110 PABT II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP, H. [BBEGULAB VERBS - 1. The principal irregularity of these verbs consists in the contraction of the second and third radicals often into one double letter, as 13D lor ^330, even when :i lull vowel would regularly stand between them, as 3D for 33D, 3D for 33D. Those forms are not cent meted which contain unchangeable vowels, or a Daghesh fort,; as MD, 351D, 33D. 2. The monosyllabic stem thus obtained takes, throughout, the vowel which the full form would have had in its second syllable, and which in the regular verb characterises the form (§ 43, Item. 1), e. g. 3D for 33D; Inf. 3D for 33D; Hiph. 3DH for 33DH (cOmp. No. G). 3. The Daghesh forte, which, after this contraction, properly belongs to the final Btem-letter, is excluded from it (§ 20, 3 a), except when formative additions are made at the end, as top, tob, Fut. toDJ, but not 3D, 3D. 4. When the afformative begins with a consonant (J, H), a vowel is inserted before it, in order to render audible the Daghesh of the final stem-letter (§ 20, 3, c, Rem.). This vowel in the Pret. is 1, in the Imp. and Fut. V? e - o- 0^ D > ^13p, Fat. nriiDn. r t \ • The Arabian writes indeed regularly miE , but pronounces in the popular language rV"lD madd'it instead, also maddutu, which last is exactly analogous to the Hebrew inflexion.* 5. The preformatives of Fut. Kal, Pret. Niph., and of Hiph. and Hoph., which in consequence of the contraction stand in a simple syllable (3DI* instead of 331 D" 1 ), take, instead of the short vowel of the regular form, the corresponding long one (according to § 27, 2, a). Hence Fut. 3D; for 33p:=33p*;f Fut. A, "lb* for W; Hiph, 3pH for 33DH, Inf. 3p!l for 33DH; Hoph. 3Wn for 33pH. This long vowel (except the 1 in Hophal) may be shortened. There is still another mode of constructing these forms (the common one in C/ialdee), which supplies a Daghesh in the Jirst radical in place of doubling the third (comp. § 19, 2 Rem.); e. g. Fut. Kal 2b\ for 33D», Fut. Hiph. DJV for D??!, Hoph. H3' for n©3^. These forms do not usually take Daghesh in the final letter on receiving an accession, as ^i?\ they bow themselves (from "HP), •irt3M and they smote (from n D?), because the doubling is already supplied in the first letter, and the tone also rests on the afformative instead of the stem-letter ; but see -IS?!} Judges xviii. 23, W3 % * Job iv. 20. They therefore omit also the vowels i and '~, e. g. n^/V? they will tinkle (from ^V) Jer. xix. 3. The Paradigm exhibits this form by the side of the other in Fut, Kal. * Tlie explanation given here of this inserted vowel may certainly suffice, if an approximation he supposed between this clu>s jf verbs and that of i"6 ; compare ni3p and Arab, muddtta with TVpil or JVp3, and Hi'SpF! with rU*?Jfl,. f It might seem far more easy, in explaining the origin of the Fut. 3D) (as well as of the Fut. in vi rbs iy, Dtp') to regard it aa formed from the contracted stem-syllable 3D by prefixing*, so also Hiph. and Hoph. But the mechanically ensisr way is not always the natural one. § 67. verbs yy. in 6. Of many of these contractions, however, the originals are not found in the regular verb, but they may be considered as more ancient forms. Thus 2D* stands for 22D*, with a under the ^reformative, as in the regular Arabic form;* Iliph. 2pH for 23pn has in the contracted stem- syllable the shorter e (like the Aram. 7t?pX comp. § 53, 1 and Rem. 1); Prct. Niph. 2p: for 23D3; Fut. Niph. ID? for MD», comp. St?j3*, § 51, Rem. 2. 7. The tone has this peculiarity, that it is not thrown forward upon the forma- tive syllables beginning with a vowel (Pi— , 1, *— comp. § 44, Rem. 5), but remains before them on the stem-syllable, as ISD.f Before the other am >n natives it rests upon the inserted syllables ) and *— (with the exception of Efi and [JJ which always take the tone), and in consequence the vowels of the word are shortened, as toBn, n^ion: naon, butmaon. t ' tvs: 7 T " - ' t • -: 8. Instead of Pi'el, Pual, Uithp. and in the same signification, is found in numerous verbs of this kind, the unfrequent conjugation Poe'l (§55, 1), with its passive and reflexive, e. g. TTiy to treat one ill, pass, ^/ty, reflex. /?iyiVl (from 7?y);in some is found Pilpel (§ 55, 4), as SiP} to roll, Z^nn to roll ones self (from 775), pass. V&W to be caressed (from Jjytf). They are inflected regularly like Pi'el. it e M a R K s. 1. On Kal 1. In the Pret. are found some examples with Cholcm (comp. ?3», § 43, l),as MET), from DO"} they are high Joh xxiv. 24, *Zn from 33*3 Gen. xlix. 23. 2. The Cholem of the /»/., /»»p,, and Put. (3D, 3D*) as a changeable rowel, Lb wi defectively, with a few exceptions, which are found especially in the later orthography ; e. g. Th? for T3^ to plunder, Esth. iii. 13; viii. 11. It is consequently shortened into Qamett-chatuph or Qibbuts, whenever it loses the tone, us Inf. ~\~) to rejoice Job xxxviii. 7, witli tuff. ipQS when he founded Prov. viii. 27, //»/>. *?3n j«7y me, Fut. witli Fa». confers. 3D>1 Judges xi. IS, with tuff. EYr * Ae /"ys Mr/M irasfe Prov. xi. 8, Q e ri. 3. Of final Puthuch in the Inf., Fut., and Imp. (?BB, 7©?*.), the following are examples; //;/*. Tw ; to stoop Jer. v. 26, Imp. ^J /o// l's. cxix. 22, Fut. "IP* //< M Wtfer Is. xxiv. 9, ?E /«? is flighted Gen. xvi. 4, Tl* 7ie is so/? Is. vii. 1. Examples of the Chaldaising Fut. arc: 3D,*, though --,' i, also in use; bB'* Ae is astonished, 1 Kings ix. 8; -njp'1 and they limed thmselves, from TTJJ. In the Participle occurs the Aramaean form Dxb> for DD^» Jer. xxx. 10, K-'thibh. * Hebrew hb\>\ from :Oj?\ § 9, 5. The « appears also in rerba 2 guttural, esp cially in verba N2, § 68; and verbs W, § 72. t The terminations for gender and number in the Participles take the ton are not a part ofthe verbal inflexion, as H^3, '■ ^P*p. [J2 PABT II. PABT8 OF SPEECH. — CHAT. II. [BBEGULAB VERBS. II. On Niphal. r, I;, ;,i, , ii,,. m ,, i usual form with Pathaeh in the second syllable, as given in the Paradigm, there ia still another with Taere, and another with Cholem (analogous with ?9I?, **"v, »*, § 13, 1), extending through the whole conjugation; e. g. Tret. ?R3 'also 7J33) // wa light thing Is. xlix. 6, /■,;,-/. d v ;3 wotted away 1 Sam. xv. '.). With Cholem WJJ //*>•// o« /v,//™/ together Is. xxxiv. 1, /•>//. *Enn ///„// sAaft /"• /"/. forms with Pathaeh do not oven exist, bul those with Tsere and Cholem, as ////: D#n ( n melt Ps. lxviii. 3////. y/i.v. n3il /o fie plundered Is. xxiv. 3, //"/'• *©"in take yourselves up Num. xvii. 10. Chaldaising forms of Niphal are ^PJ Eze. xxv. 8 (from M?n), "in? (from "inn) Ps. lxix. 4; cii. 4 (also 1D| Jcr. vi. 29), nm //-acte* from npn , Mai. ii. 5. III. On Hiphil and Ilophal. 6. Besides 7We the final syllable has also Pathaeh, especially with gutturals, as TOO /,<> wjor/e bitter ; Inf. "I3H to cleanse, Jcr. iv. 11. But also without a guttural, as Pin he pounded -small, 2 Ki. xxiii. 15; plur. -13pn 1 Sam. v. 10, /W/. 7VO shadowing, Eze. xxxi. 3. 7. The Future with the tone retracted is formed like 1^ he protects Ps. xci. 4, ?£l and he rolled Gen. xxix. 10. 8. Chaldaising forms of Hiphil and Ilophal: 3D>1 Ex. xiii. 18, W§3 «w/ Mey 5»io/e Dent. i. 44, ^ns profanabo Eze. xxxix. 7, WSn //u-y perish Job xxiv. 24, n3* Is. xxiv. 12, -Ipn* in pause (Job xix. 23) for *pqj. IV. /« General. 9. Verbs M? are very nearly related to verbs W (§ 72), as is already apparent from the great similarity in their conjugations throughout. In form the verb VV is generally shorter than the other (comp. 3D) and WPJ, 3pn and D*?n). In some cases they have precisely the some form as in the Fut. convcrs. of Kal and Hiphil, in Hophal, and in the unfrequent conjugations. On account of this relation, they have sometimes borrowed forms from each other, e. g. P"IJ for PJ he rejoices, Prov. xxix. 6. N.B. 10. Along with the contracted forms there are found, especially in certain conjugations and tenses, others which are wholly regular; e.g. Pret. Kal. TT3 to plunder, plur. M|3, i,3 !l? (also *3W3 Deut. iii. 7); Inf. 33D and 3D. Fut. J3n.) he is gracious, Amos v. 15, elsewhere |n*. Hiph. P1H, Fut. H"!- he will rejoice (which is never contracted), Part. CP'f'P astonished, Eze. iii. 15. The full form appears to be more poetic and intended for emphasis (Ps. cxviii. 11). 11. We have seen above (Xo. 5), that in the Fut. of the Chaldee form, the Daghesh of the third radical, together with the preceding vowel, is omitted before afformatives, which however take the tone, as '"Ijp5. Of the same omission in other forms there are unquestionable examples, as n?33 Gen. xi. 7 for n?33 we will confound (Cohortative from ??3); 'BT* for *BfJ verse 6 they will devise ; Pret. Niph. n3M for n3p3 Eze. xli. 7; D^D3 for Dn$D3 Gen. xvii. 11 (from ^0=^D fo ciVcm/w- cue); comp. Is. xix. 3; Jer. viii. 14. Without Daghesh, but with the accented full vowel: njjn for rwgrj Prov. vii. 13, njaa l Sam. xiv. 36, tfpro Is. lvii. 5, for D S EQ3. 12. Although the afibrmatives here attract the tone less (see No. 7, p. Ill), yet it is occasionally thrown on them, as -131 Jer. v. 6 ; Ps. iii. 2 ; civ. 24 ; and also when suffixes are appended, as •13D, *J13D Ps. xviii. 11. The vowels suffer before Daghesh the changes pointed out in § 27, 1, viz., ii in the Fut. becomes Qibbuts, less frequently Qamets-chatuph, Tsere in Hiph. becomes Chireq (after the analogy of nj'apn, nni3pn) ; the preformatives then, in place of the full vowel, take Sh'va; e. g. S V^\ Ps. xlix. 6, *i*W3D» Job xl. 22, Mijn* Ps. lxvii. 2, Hiph. V.??' Eze. xlvii. 2. § 68. verbs N3. 113 C. FEEBLE VERBS (VERBA QUIESCENTLY). Sect. 68. FEEBLE VERBS NE>. E. g. bx to eat. Farad. I. So far as X is treated as a consonant and a guttural, these verbs have all the properties of verbs Pe Guttural exhibited in § 63. But here we regard them only in so far as the X quiesces, i. e. loses its consonant sound, and is blended with the foregoing vowel, which happens only in certain verbs and forms, as follows: — I. Verb PE ALEPH rx"D). § G8. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPI1IL. HOPHAL. Pret. 3. m. 3. /. >DX r t ^OX:» r v:i» b^xrr ioxrv 2. m. 2. /. 1. c. Plur. 3. c. Like the Verb Pe guttural, in Paradigm D. 2. m. 2. /• 1. c. Inf. const r. "?bx* tftP bvsxn baxn Inf. absol. tosK ^3KfJ Imp. m. Vdx* ^XH ^oxn f. Plur. m. tax ETC. ETC. wanting f. •"!&?&? Fct. 3. m. 3. /. ^ox'n ^>X>» ,.. r ,.. bx w r- t-.it 2. m. bx'n 2- /• tax'n EIC. RTC. rrr. 1. c. ipk< Plur. 3. m. tax* 3. /. ntaxn 2. m. tax'n 2. /• ntaxn 1. c. 5pK3 Fut. iciiA Vav conv. fe^i" i ~ Part, act- ^h few ^DXD ^rs": 1 pass. b-lDX Ill PART II. PARTS OF Sl'FFOH. — CHAP. II. IKREGULAIt VF.KI'.S. 1. Iii Mi.' Fni. Kal of five \ < - il »-, viz., "ttN to perish, H3X to be uniting, 73N to eat, TDM to say, !~lr\S % to bake, the X always quiesces in a long t) (Cholem), as "QK\ Jn some others, tin' form in which it. retains its power as a consonant is also in use, as TriN* and T'nx\ he takes hold. The 6 in this case is but a corruption of the vowel d (§ :>, 10, 2), which is itself derived by contraction from -^-^ or -^^. The feebleness of these verbs (§41, c) affects also their last syllable, so that it receives, instead of the Btronger vowel, g an e (Tsere), particularly with distinctive accents at tlic end of a period or clause; but with conjunctive accents, which mark the continuance of the discourse, it, takes a (Pathach), e.g. 15D "P^h Ps.ix. 19, on the contrary, ^Nft Ps, i. 6 (comp. a similar exchange of e and a, § G5, 1, c). When the tone moves back, the last stem-syllable has sometimes Pathach, as DV ~QN* perish the day Job iii. 3, 7?X*} and he ate, and sometimes Seghol, as *ti?N*1 ( MilM) with conjunctive accents, but *1?N*1 (Milra) with distinctives (only in Job a few times *1&N*1 in pause). It is but very seldom that Tsere stands before K in the Fut. Kal, as nnxn it shall come, Mic. iv. 8, contracted from "ID^A : always, however, in the form ~IEN? dicendo {Inf. with f), for ">' D s?.. 2. In the 1st pers. sing. Fut. the radical X (to avoid the repetition of this letter) is regularly dropped (§ 23, 4), as TtiX for IttXX I will say. Except in this case, the radical N is seldom dropped, as ^IPF) for ^PN'n thou takest away Ps. civ. 29, Tl~lD* for ^•lipX' they speak of thee Ps. exxxix. 20, y?FI thou gocst away (from sV$) Jer. ii. 36. The Parad. I shows the forms in which K is treated as a quiescent (viz., Fut. Kal), and merely indicates those in which it retains its character as a guttural. Rem. 1. In the derived conjugations, the X but very seldom quiesces, as in Niph. -ITrjNJ Jos. xxii. 9 ; Jliph. ?>'N|1 and he took away Num. xi. 25, 3^ (for ^D^il) and he lay in icait 1 Sam. xv. 5, H^ / hearken Job xxxii. 11, HT1X / will destroy Jer. xlvi. 8, HP attending Prov. xvii. 4, Imp. Vnn bring ye (from ^^?) Is. xxi. 14. 2. In Pi'el, x is sometimes dropped by contraction (like n in ? s Pi?iV : , /'Pi?!), e. g. ^PP (so pre- valent in Syr , Chald., and Samar.) for ^^P teaching, Job xxxv. 11. Sect. 69. FEEBLE VERES *Q. FIRST CLASS, OR VERBS ORIGINALLY ID. E. g. 3B* (o divcll. Parad. K. Verbs *3 are divided principally into two classes, which are different from each other in their origin and inflexion. The first embraces those verbs which have properly a 1 for their first stem-letter. In Arabic they are written with 1 (e. g. *T?J, Arab, wdlada), but in Hebrew, by a difference of dialect, they take * instead of it, wherever the first stem-letter begins the form. The second embraces those § 69. VERBS 'B-. 115 which are properly *fl, and which have Yodh also in Arabic (§70). A few of these verbs *3 form, in some respects, a third class inflected like verbs j3 (§ 71). In *1?J the forms arc distinguished according to the signification ; viz., a) "HJJ (1st class, fur ""*), jFW. 13C, ">£! to £e m a strait; b) "»JJ (2nd class), /<«/. "1$"., "TO fo/orm. 1 K. Verb PE YODH *»B (orig. va). § 69. L. Properly Pk Yodh (*'D). § 70. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. KAL. HIPHIL. Pret. 3. m. aeft 3P13* 3^in* 3L ,: -in * 3D* 1- T 3*p»fl • 3./. ri3K>i:> it : i m^in n3"j : in H3 , D , n 2. m. rnena mrin nsetoi natrn 2. /. F\2W)1 $3Btoi na^n nao»n : : i- ■* 1. c. regular ^m^ia ♦m^m Motrin regular Vision P/wr. 3. c. •13K>i3 i : I •n^in wtwn tt'D'n 2. m. DF>?^i3 ap3^in amir-in iv : * i Dmt^n 2. /. ■P?^ 1 ? Ip3cnn l^psy-in innpvi 1. c. «at:n J wa^n usjgftn ^3j3*0 Inf. constr. rot? *, ib> ■ i : 3^-1 n* 3^1.-1 » a^-i n* 3b* i : 3*Jp*fl • Inf. a6so/. 3 ¥t 3 nnn, 3p : in* aftpj ap*0* Imp. hi. 3t ,; -in* aann * 30* i- : 3trn # 3K>* BTJ»* f. Plur. m. •13^-m •13^ n wanting ■13 U* ia^n f. M3f^ f^Hj rtaa^n hMj^n n ? 3 P* RpfPQ Fot. 3. m. 3#*« Bh«* 3t»V • 3 W * 3L'T • apw« aw}H« r ■• 3. /. :w trpm 3E>-in 3^in 3L' : in 3trn 3v: , n 2. m. 3t?n trr-m 3L ,: in I" T ' 3^ ,: in 3L ,: in 3o N n r - 2. /. nt^n *gsh*jji >3^-in tyjpfa n^-in »ab*fl r : r 'a^^n 1. c. 3K>X Bh*K 3tt>-lX » 3^ ; is 3L' : 1N' 3D H N 3"u M N Pter. 3. m. •13K» •ich" •13K ; 1» •i3*irp •13L ,: V •"1 3D" iap»j 3. /. H33^n myh'n n33^-in m3i. ,; in n$a]&*w r^ajy? t : 2. TO. «e>n •l^TTl •i3L ,: m \yfm •nrin 13D»fl W'CM 2. /. runtrn nairTn n33L ,; in n:3L' ; in njaBtoi ruatrn njap*g 1. c. 1 np ; p. ^?.'? ivy 3 , L ,; i: 3L' : -13 ap»3 a«p»a ,. .. Fut. apoc. ajj^i • 3 P\".' Fut. M'iM Kaw conr. 3^?.l* 3^*1* ajyjl, ro Part. act. 3E» 3E5H3* IT ay.D« ajrto • 3,9* 3^D piiss. 31K» I T 3, 9 T Ill; PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — ■ CHAP. II. [BBEGULAB VERBS. The peculiarities in the inflexion of the first class, which is analogous with the Arabic >-. are the toll. .win--: — I. In the Fut, I in i'-, and Inf. constr. of Kal there is a twofold inflexion. About the half of these verbs have here the feeblest forms, viz. — Fut Du" with a tone-lengthened e in the second syllable, which may be short- ened I" Seghol and vocal Sh'va; and with a somewhat firmer e in the first Byllable, which in a degree still embodies the first radical * that has been dropped (but scarcely ever written i#") ; Tmp, y£' from IV" by omission of the feeble J; and — Inf. TW shortened in like manner, and with the feminine-ending 1"U-1, which again gives to the form more length and body. The other half of these verbs are inflected with stronger forms, have the Fut. A, :ind retain the Yodh at the beginning, viz., in— /,///>. tTY and Inf. 10] as a consonant, but in — Fut. Kh*J as a quiescent, or resolved into the vowel i (§ 24, 2). That the latter mode of inflexion belongs to verbs actually IS (which has often been overlooked and falsely denied), is shown, partly by the numerous verbs which take these forms in Kal, and at the same time have 1 in Niphal, Hiphil, and Ilophal, partly by the analogy of the Arabic, where the verbs 12 have precisely the same double inflexion. Even in the same verb are found both forms, one with the Yodh, the other without it, as PV 2 Kings iv. 41, and \>^\ pour Eze. xxiv. 3, ^T) 1 Kings xxi. 15, £H Deut. ii. 24, and BHJ possess, with lengthening nL"T Deut. xxxiii. 23, Fut. IB*' Deut. xxxii. 22, and 1\?. he will burn up, Is. x. 16. To the first mode of inflexion belong, e. g. *y} to bear, N¥J to go forth, 2'4'l to sit, *VV to descend, VV T to knoto {Fut. V1\ with Pathach in the last syllable on account of the guttural); to the second belong *U£ to weary, )'JJ) to counsel, t'T to be dry, though the latter is in Arabic *2. 2. The original Vav appears always in the Inf., Imp., and Fut. Niph., where it ought to be doubled, as a consonant, as X^H, IC^V (just like A?j3n, ^J!)j and also in the Hithp. of some verbs, e. g. jnifi^, from JTJ, and in two nominal forms, viz., "P] offspring, from T?J to bear [and *1T1 guilty]. The 1 at the end of the syllabic becomes a vowel, as u {}) in all Ilophal, e. g. 2ET1 for ^H; and in com- bination with a preceding a, as a diphthongal 6 (1) in Fret, and Fart, of Niphal, and in all Hiphil, e. g. IVfo for im, 3W for 1OT. 3. The other forms, with few exceptions (see Rem. 3, 4), are quite regular. In those forms in which Yodh does not appear, these verbs may be distinguished, in the Fut. of AW by the Tsere under the preformatives in Xiph., Hiph., and Hoph., by the "Vav (1, 1, -1) before the second radical. (The defective orthography, as in "Ivh, is not frequent.) Forms like 3E?, n2§ ; , they have in common with verbs |2. Hophal nas the same form as in verbs VV and W. Rem. 1. The Inf. of Kal without the radical Yodh (see No. 1), has very seldom the masculine § 70. VERBS *3. 117 form like 1H to know Job xxxii. G, 10, or the feminine ending H— , like njn Exod. ii. 4. "With a guttural, the latter takes the form H^— i- instead of n_-i- e. g. T\]H to know. T\~$ to bear, in 1 Sam. iv. 19 is contracted to TO (§19, 2). Examples of the regular strong form occur with suffixes, HDJ Job xxxviii. 4, IT?* Ezra iii. 12. The strong form has seldom the feminine-ending, as Tg'5\ to be able. 2. The Imp. Kal often has the lengthening H— , as nat? sit, flTl descend. From 3H' fo owe the T . T lengthened Imp. is nan,^&». \?n, j>/ur. ton, with accented Qamets, owing to the influence of the guttural. 3. The Fut. of the form 3B* takes Pathach in its final syllable when it has a guttural, as V"V., also TT0 Jer. xiii. 17. When the tone is drawn back upon the penultima, the final syllable takes Seghol, viz., before a word of one syllable, and after Vav conversive ; e. g. N3"3t^ Gen. xliv. 33; IT,!!, 3B>»1, but in pause 38^1 and TM. A very rare exception, in which a Fut. of this kind is written fully, is HD^X Mic. i. 8. The Fut. BH?, when lengthened, can also lose its radical \ as te]?,! Is. xl. 30, WJ* lxv. 23. Yet the cases are rare and doubtful where this occurs after other preformatives than * (see Is. xliv. 8). 4. In some stems the feebleness affects also the Pret. Kal, so far, that the a under the second radical becomes e or ?, as rnB>T, DSP?., V*H?' S , from BHJ, "6*. Examples are found in Num. xi. 12; Deut. iv. 1 ; viii. 1 ; xix. 1 ; xxvi. 1 ; Ps. ii. 7; lxix. 36, etc. In Syriac e is here pre- dominant : in Hebrew the feeble vowel is found only in such forms of the Pret. as have not a full vowel under the first radical. For a similar case, see § 73, Rem. 1. 5. As an exception, the Fut. Niph. sometimes has ' instead of the 1; e. g. tTPJJ and he waited, Gen. viii. 12 ; comp. Ex. xix. 13. The first pers. sing, has always the form 21"1S not 2L' : -1N; comp. § 51, Rem. 4. 6. InPiel, the radical Yodh is sometimes dropped after \ preformative, which takes its punctuation (comp. § 68, Rem. 2); e. g. *."fel for *<"$3«J and he dried it up, Nah. i. 4. 7. Fut. Hiph., like Fut. Kal, takes Seghol when the tone is drawn back, as fl?!' It him add Prov. i. 5, SJCH 1 ] and he added. On forms like JWlfP., see § 53, Rem. 7. In Jloph. are some ( of i for -1, as nin for Wn Lev. iv. 23, 28. N.B. 8. The verb V? to go, is connected with verbs *S of the first class, for it forma [afl if from VI) Fut. VI, with Vav V s \, in ;wi«c ^?M, Inf. constr. fly}, Imp. V, lengthened "7/, and also I 1 ?, and so Hiph. Y?1TI. Rarely and almost exclusively in later books and in poetry, we find also the regular inflexions from V 7 } , as Fut. ViJIj Inf. Vil (Num. xxii. 1 L, 16 : Eccles. vi. 8, 9), Imp. pi. »?n (Jer. Ii. 50); on the contrary Pret. Kal is always V? , Peri. V* , Inf. abs. if?n, Pi, I V* , HitJip. V^T}T), so that a ' nowhere distinctly appears as first radical.* An obsolete stem V\ may however be assumed, although in a word so much used as V 7 } . the feeble letter n may itself be treated like \ and so the inflexion resemble *D; Comp. also the feeble ND, e. g. y?n from ?]X (§ 6S, 2 and ^)T\ from V\\, Fut. Hiph. rntofc from 1?N and HD^IS •_> Kings vi. 19, from V?. Sect. 70. FEEBLE VERBS »D. SECOND CLASS, OR VERBS PROPERLY 'D. E. g. 30; to be good. Parad. L, § 69. The most essential points of difference between verbs properly *£ and verbs IS are the following : — * But comp. "tof*|j under Bern. 3. 118 PART II. PABT8 OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. IBBEGULAB VERBS. 1. Kul has only the Btronger of the two forms described in § 69, 1, viz., that in which the radical ■ remains, Inf. 3b), with the Fut. 4, as H&V, ] 4 p s \ tho J'athach of which becomes Seghol when the tone shifts back, as f*jT*l a?zt/ Ae awoke Gen. «, 24, TJT?i T3 " / " / he formed Gen. ii. 7. 2, In lliphil the ' is regularly retained in writing, and is pronounced as a diph- thongal >' (Teere\ e.g. rrpTl (for3W), 7*S| / joatf, i^JB ye wa»7, Is. xv. 2; lxv. 14; Jcr. xlviii. 31 ; Hos. vii. 1 1 ; also 3*p*' Job xxiv. 21 ; and once even in Fut. KalVX*. Ps. cxxxviii. 6, from JHJ. This anomaly is explained by supposing that the * of the simple form was superficially taken to belong to the stem. Sect. 71. VERBS »B. THIRD CLASS, OR CONTRACTED VERBS »B. This class embraces those verbs *S, of the first and second class, whose * does not quiesce in long % or e, but is assimilated like 3. Some verbs are exclusively of this class, e. g. JflP to spread under, Hiph. STX^, Iloph. V^', H4\ to burn up, Fut. H3£, Hiph. T\ s ^T\. Others have two forms; one sAarp with the * assimilated, the other weaker with the * quiescent, as p¥* to poi«r, JFW. p¥? and p¥*l (1 Kings xxii. 35); nr to/wm, Fut. *wh and ir (Is. xliv. 12; Jer. i. 5); IB* to be straight, Fut. X>" and IB* (1 Sam. vi.' 12). Verbs of this class (which seldom occur) are inflected like verbs 12 for which they may easily be mistaken by the learner. When, therefore, a form has not a root J2 in the lexicon, he should look for one of this class. The first two classes are exhibited in their distinctive forms in Paradigms K and L, § 69. The third exactly follows verbs |3, and is besides very rare. §72. VERBS ty. 119 Sect. 72. FEEBLE VERBS W. E. g. Mp /« me up. Farad. M. M. Vebb AYIN VAV (1'V). §72. N. AYIN YOD ( ^)-§73.| KAL. NIPIIAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. PILEL. PULAL. KAL. NIPHAL. Prkt. 3. to. D i?r* Dip3 * D^?D* Dpjin * Dpip * 2pip n?r I? • rp * 3. /. n 9Pr* ncrtjM * n»*gO * nppin * nppip nppip H33 * n3»3 • rnnj 2. m. F)Pj?_* ni?pipj * nio-pn * pppjin* nppip nppip n;2» nirz* n'wni 2./. ^Pi?. nipip? nip , pn nppjin Fippip nppip naa nu'3 ni>n: 1. c. ^PP- ^nipip: 'nip'pn ^nppjin ^Ppip 'nppip *m^ *jTto*3 'nirn: Plur. 3. c. •1P? T ■loipa 1 T lO'iJi? •ippin •ippip HpCtyj m w»a taiaa 2.m. Eppp DplDlj?? Dnio^n opppjn EpPPip Dnppip DJpaa Dowa DniM33 2./. ©Pfi Ipi^P? ipi^^D. ipppjin jnpoip l?-P'"> l/wa inirs iniDinj 1. c. w»£ Hip-ip: Mio*i?q «ppjin wppip MOD\p •133 Ufo»| U^OJ Inf. nmstr. mp* nifpn * D s pn * Dp.in* Dpip Dpip r?- flan Inf. afrsoJ. nip* Dipn * Di?n, d^n' F t'r P2H Imp. to. Dip* Dipn * 055 * Dpip r?* [izn PJur. to. ^P-1i? * •>pipn * •loijpn •lD*pn wanting *ppip ■ippii? wanting as Dipn /• njp'p * njp'pn narp^n nappip Fut. 3. to. tap* * D^» * d*P4* Dpjl* * Epip! Dpip} r?/ P?. 3. /. D-ipn Dipn 0*55 Dg?fl Dpipp Dpipn psn as Dip* 2. m. D-IPp Dipn D s f^n Dpjin Dpipn Dpipn W 2. /• ♦JMjJJF) * ^pip, n * *0»j3FI *ppin *B?^i?fl Q •ipp-v •ippip* •lppip'. o»aj 3. /. nyp-ipn rupjpri ruet>F! * nappjin njppipn nappipn rw3»an • 2. TO. •lro-ipn -101/pn ■io-f?n •ippin VXhffi •ippipn ■iran 2. /• nrp-ipn napjpn fiJOJW) njpp.in rUDtripfl njppipn nrj'zn 1. c. d-ipj D^a b*?3 Dpji: D ,P'ip? Dpip? r?, 3 Fut. apoc. D 'i?r* Dp*» i,.. T p;* Fut. with 1 cotw. DP*! , Dt*J * Bp.' T l* IW ' Fut. wi//( 5 iff. *jpnp» • PP/P' * ,3..-.. Part. acl. DP r * D'lpJ * D'P.P* DpjID • opipp DBipD ir P?? /WW. □1,7* P3« 120 PART il. PABTfl OF SPEECH, -CHAT. II. [BREGULAB VERBS. 1. I,, these verba the middle stem-letter 1 always gives up its consonant sound and quiescea; qc4 merelj in the usual cases (according to §21, 1) when a Sh*va precedes or follows, as Bh3 bdsh for &)$ b'vosh, but also when it is both preceded and followed by b full vowel, as Dip Part. pass, for Dip; Dip Inf. absol. for Dip. Hence the stem appears always a monosyllable. 2. The vowel in which 1 quiesces is essentially the vowel of the second syllable, which, in the verb, almost universally characterises the form (§ 67, 2). But this vowel, in consequence of the union of the Vav with it, is mostly made fuller and firmer, e. g. Inf. and Imp. Dip for Dip, Fret. Dp for Dip; it is, therefore, not destructible though changeable, for we have ftipp (with short a) from Dp, and Fut. Hiph. D*jT (from t3W m ) is shortened in the jussive to Dp\ The verb intransitive middle E takes in Pret. Kal the form of fift (from T))J2) he is dead: the verb middle takes the form of "flX (from *)iX) luxit, Bh3 (from bi3) lie was ashamed. Comp. Rem. 1. The preformatives in the Fut. Kal and Pret. Niph., and throughout Hiph. and Hoph., which before the monosyllabic stem form a simple syllable, take instead of the short vowel of the regular form the corresponding long one (§ 27, 2); e. g. Dip;* for Dip*.; tfpH for D^pPl; Dp1H for DIpH. This vowel is changeable, and -becomes Sh e va when the tone is thrown forward, e. g. before sufl. 13n s 7p* he will kill him, and with the full plural form of the Fut. JWHD* they will die. The 1 in Hoph. forms an exception ; for it has become a quite firm and unchangeable vowel, as if it had been transposed, so that D}i?n became D i?)Q, hence Oi>1i"l. 4. In some cases, forms of the regular verb not now in use lie at the foundation of the present inflexion; e. g. Fut. Kal WDJ for Dip* (see § 67, 6), Part. Dp, either for Dip (like Stop, the original form of St?p, Chal. and Arab, qatel, § 9, 10, 2, and § 50, 2) or for Dip (after the form of the verbal adjective /pjj; comp. § 84, Xo. 1 ). Those which conform to the regular Hebrew verb are generally the most unfre- quent, as &Sy (after the form B^5)). The 6 in Niph. comes from va (= aa), DipJ from Dip:, Fut Dip from D1|T. 5. In the Pret. Niph. and Hiph., the harshness of pronunciation in such forms as fipipj, fr^pL 1 , is avoided by the insertion of 1 before the afformatives of the 1st and 2nd person. For the same purpose, *— is inserted in the Fut. Kal before the termination H3 (comp. § 67, 4). These inserted syllables take the tone and shorten the preceding vowels, as DipJ, Hi/Sip} ; DW, Hi^pH, or JjEPjXJ, also nispn; nrapn. * On the a under the ^reformative, see Xo. 4. § 72. verbs iy. 121 Yet in some cases the harder forms, without the inserted syllabic, are also in use. Thus, Fut. Kal T |?'^9 Eze. xvi. 55 (also nVMOTI in the same verse), and rather oftener in Jlip/t., as nri23n Ex. xx. 25, though also »rnB 1 Jn Job xxxi. 21, rU3g>Jjl Job xx. 10, once fttl?*i?FI Jer. xliv. 25. 7/n/j. only T\X$, HWgn. 6. The tone, as in verbs Jfi,, is not thrown forward upon the afformatives PI— 'l, *— , as n?P, ^13, except with the full plural form jlftlpV For the tone on the i and *— , see No. 5. In those forms which do not take either of these, the accentuation is regular, as fi£p; so in Hoplial JjlDplPI. 7. The conjugations, Piel, Pual, and I/tt///>/. WHO, 3 ;>/. -imp; Bh3 / ie m ashamed (for Cfl|), *fl^a, U^S, VJ ; i3 ; lis he hat ehined. Part, nc ; D*pfa Eze. xxxii. 30. Of the Preterite and Participle, the usual form Ep is very Beldam written with X (after the Arab, mode, § 9, 1), as in DXp r Hos. x . 14, CTpNL:' Eze. xxviii. 2 I. 26; comp. xvi. 57. The Part, appears now and then also in the form of DIP for Ep T 2 Kings xvi. 7, even with a transitive sense, as ^>i? occulians, Is. xxv. 7; Zech. x. 5. 2. In the Inf. and Imp. of some verbs, 1 always guiesces in Cholem, as Ri3, 3TO, "HX. In most verbs, however, it quiesccs only in Shureq; but even in these the Inf. abtol. has 1 in the final Byl- lahle (after the form ?iOp T \ as WMpJ D^P Burgendo surgent, Jer. xliv. 29. Those verbs which have 1 in the Inf. retain it in the Fut., as NIT. In one verb alone the preformatives of the Fut. bare Tsere, viz., BH3, /««/. B03.1 (for t^3*); sec in No. 1, ahova 3. In the Imp. with afformatives (V^-ip , -10-ip) the tone is on the stem syllable, with a few ex- ceptions, as in Judges v. 12. The lengthened form [with R— ] has, on the contrary, the tone usually on the last syllable (fiB*P, njMB?), with a few exceptions where the word is Mild T's. vii. Bj .!• r. iii. 12; xl. 5). N.B. 4. The shortened Fut. as JtMnw (§ 48, 4) has the form Oft w ry Beldom ttfpj, c^; : e . g. Zb'l let him return, Deut xx. 5—8 ; 3b* L x 1 1 him not return, Ps. Ixxiv. 21 : nb^ and may he die, 1 Kings xxi. 10. Comp. § 27, Hem. 1. In poetic language as Indicative, as DTJ, DTIJ, he, it, shall be high, Num. xxiv. 7; Mic. v. 8. After Van convereive, and before word Byllable the tone i- [22 PAW II. PABT8 OF SPBBOH. — CHAP. II. CBBEOULAB VEBB8. ,,l o drawn baci apon the penultima, and the last syllable takes Qamete-ehatuph, as DJgt, ^p D|?; Job \ \ i i . 28. In jmiisr, however, the tone remains on the lasl Byllable, ai n 9»-; compare Gen. \i. 28 82 with v. .'>, 8. With a guttural or a Resh, the final syllable may take Patkack, e.g. ipM and he turned aside, Ruth iv. 1 (from TlD). The lull plural-ending P lias the tone (according to No. G of this section), hence Pfl£? Gen. iii. 8, I, PDH] Ps. civ. 7, PWJ Joel li 1, 7, 9. II. On iVjgpAaZ. Anomalous Conns are: Pret. Dpteb3 ye have been scattered, Eze. xi. 17; xx. 34, 41, 43; Inf. constr. VWi) Is. xxv. 10. Comp. also Rem. 9. III. On Uiphil. 6. Examples of the Preterite without the inserted 1: Wp^n thou liflest, Ex. xx. 25; nrion thou hillest, and even DHOn Num. xvii. 6, etc. 7. In the /»//>., besides the shortened form BBIJj the lengthened H^pn also occurs; with stiff. N.B. The shortened jFW. has the form DBJ, as "lD^j jfZ/r/i! 7/e may fofo atoay, Ex. x. 17. After Vav conversive, the tone is drawn back upon the penultima, as DTJ1; }'?J1 «/»/ /* spend Mr ntpAl, to abide; |yl, P?P fo Z>e headstrong, rebellious. Other examples: Niph, ?1E3 (from Vlft, not ??}) to 5e circumcised Gen. xvii. 26, 27; xxxiv. 22, Avith a guttural liy?. Zech. ii. 17; Iliph. ? v tH /,) despise Lam. i. 8, W?! they depart Prov. iv. 21. To this class are to be referred some forms of verbs Pe guttural with Daghesh forte implicitum, which others have derived from a false root, or uncritically altered ; viz., E'nFII for Cn^l and she hastens (from l"-in) Job xxxi. 5, OJH, Byni 1 Sam. xv. 19; xxv. 14, from EW, ivy to rtuA m/wm. 10. Verbs, in which the middle stem-letter Vav is sounded as a consonant, are, in respect to this letter, perfectly regular; e. g. Tin to he white, Fut. "ftp*, INS to expire, Fut. V\?.; especially in those which are besides also verb-- TO, as Hiy, Pi c / T\Yi to command, n-1|? to wait, etc. § 73. verbs 'V. 123 Sect. 73. FEEBLE VERBS & E. g. j»| /o (/(«•«•«. Farad. X, § 72. 1. These verbs have the same structure as verbs iy, and their ' is treated in the same manner as the 1 of that class; e. g. Pret. Kal T\U (for T\\V) he has set, Inf. t\% Inf. absol m# (for JW), Imp. )W, Fut. T\ S V\, Jussive^, with Vav canv. TtiSfy. But the Pret. Kal has, in several verbs, still a second set of forms, which resemble a Hiphil with the characteristic H elided, e. g. *JTD*3 (similar to TuT^ri) Dan. ix. 2, also fi33 Ps. cxxxix. 2; rYQ'l thou contenclcst Job xxxiii. 13, also DTI 7 t : - ' T ' T : - Lam. iii. 58. Often also complete Hiphil forms occur, e. g. Pn7. [*3n, Dniy^n, Inf. pan (also |*5), /wj>. PC ( also P5), -Port. P^O, so likewise **£ (also 3TJ), D*b>£ (also Db>), Y^'b glittering, also in Pre*. )*¥. Moreover, as passive, we find a few times Z%A. .Fttf. 1B*P from *V& to sing, fW from 1W to se*. 2. These Hiphil forms may easily be traced to verbs V, and possibly they in part belong strictly to that class. The same may be said of Niph. \\2), Pit. [313, and Ilithpalel \S\2Ky (as if from pS). These verbs are in every respect closely related to verbs ty. Hence it is that we find several verbs used promiscuously, as ty and i), and with the same meaning in both forms, as p? (denom. from 7*7) to spend the night, Inf. also ]b; D'P to place, Inf. also fflfc, 7-V. D*fe*, once Mfe*. In other verbs one of the two is the predominant form, as S'3 to acuft (7^1 is found only in Prov. xxiii. 24). But few are exclusively *y, as T") to contend, IV0 /<< a /, fc^B? to rejoice; so also 73 to comprehend, to measure. Is. xl. 12; and the denom. f*P (from TO) to pass the summer, Is. xviii. 6. The older grammarians did not recognise this class of verbs, hut referred all its forms to verhs iy, which may indeed be right in some cases. In modern Arabic we find an exactly corresponding abbreviation of the Hiphil (Conj. IV.) of verhs W. Yet the Arabic, as also the JSthiopic, has actual verbs V, and the Hebrew has some with a Yodh as a consonant, like 3*N to hate, and *\ % y to tire. A fluctuation and interchange between the closely-related stems must certainly he assumed. The Paradigm N is placed in connexion with that of verbs W, in order to exhibit the parallel between the two classes. The conjugations which it omits have the same form as in Parad. M. Rem. 1. Examples of the Inf. absol. are 3"l Utigajndo Judges xi. 25, 1«7 pouendo Is. x\ii. 7, also in Jer. 1. 34. 2. The Fut. apoc. is !?) ; with retracted tone it takes the form with Beghol, as W 2V J,. vi. 31. So with Vav conversive, Ei."M and he placed, P'l and he perceived. 3. As rurt. act. Kal we find once (? spending the night, Neh. xiii. -1 ; Powi. pose. BT or C ' L " (according to a various reading) 2 8am. xiii. 32. * * • « | L )| ,. A |; T ii. PABTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. D. [RBEGDLAB Vi:i:i; . i \-,,i, sv ircely ever suffer their K to quieace, and hence are irregular only aa represented in $ 64. A fe* example! where the x baa lost ita force aa a consonant arc: WH3 (hey are /air, ]-sr /„• blooms, Put. Hiphil of f^3, for K$! Ecol. sii. 5. Sect. 74. FEEBLE VERBS &; e.g. N>'P to find. Parad. 0. (). Vbeb LAMEDH ALEPH (X '*>). §74. KAL. NIPHAL. PI EL. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAKL. I'kkt. 3. Rl. NiO» XV03* XVO XVO * x^on XVOH * xsonn 3. /. nxvo HXVDJ n«wp nxso HX^'DH nxson nx-ionn ■1. ni. nxvn * n««D3 * nxso * nxvo * nxvon * nxvon • nxvann • •2. /■ nxvo hKjtfpj nx-so nwsra nxvon nxvon nx-iDnn 1. c. vixso TIXV03 V?K*0 *nxso vixson Tixson ■nxsonn Plur. 3. c. 1XV0 ■IX ¥03 •ixso •ixso •ix'von ix von ■lxypnn ■2. m. Dnxvo DJJ«$03 nnxso Dnxvo onxvon nnxvon Dnxvonn 2. /. ip^yp IJJK^oa jnxvp jnxyp jnxyon jnxypn jpxypnn 1. c. UK£D "xyp: MKW •13X;Vp •uxvpn WK}»n •i:x ; >:prin Inf. const r. K*XO xvon XM N¥B X^'On XVDH Xtfonn Inf. absol. kWd xyp? x'yp xvpn Imp. in. XVO* xvon XVO xvon xvonn f- Plur. m. •1XV0 •ixvon •1XV0 wanting •IX^'On wanting •'xypnn •ix-ionn H3SV?p* njxvpn * n:ixyo* njxvpn* njxypnn * Fut. 3. m. XVD* * \££®>* SWflD' XVO> X^'O* XSO' KVPn* 3. /. xvon xvon xvon xvon t^son xvon xvonn 2. m. xvon Kjjsri xson wspn wscn xvon xvonn 2. /. \xvon *KS©n »Ktt»J!| 'ksdfi wvon *xson wvonn 1. c. XVDX XVOX XVOX XVOX X^'OX Xi'^X xvonx Plur. 3. m. •m'D' •1XS0» \V^O] •1XV0* ■lX'SO* W5W •1x•iDn , 3. /. njxypn * njxypn * n:jxson * nixson * n^xson* n^xvon • njx-vonn * 2. m. ixypn •ixypn •lxson •ixypn •ix^'on •ix von ixvonn 2- / fukvoiji naxvpn n:xson .-uxson nixvon mXi'rn mxsonn 1. c. ay?? Kjfsa N;>*9? X ;VP? ^*>'P3 ksdj xypna Fot. apoc. n>'9I Fdt. tri/fc Sujf. pxyp* P, X >"?1 P^'VP! Part. act. KJJfa XVOJ XV20 xsoo X^'OO XVOD xvono pass. xi yp § 75. verbs rb. 125 it The X is here, as in verbs X5, treated partly as a consonant with a soft guttural sound (scarcely audible at the end of a word), partly as a quite inaudible (quies- cent) letter, according to the following rules : — 1. In those forms which end witli the third radical, the final syllable has always the regular vowels, e. g. 8«fa, KS&, NTO, N^H; but Pathach before the feeble letter tf is lengthened into Qamets (§ 23, 1), viz., in the Pret. : Put., and Imp. Kal, in the Pret. Niph., and in Pual and Hoph. This (t) however is changeable (§ 25, 2, Rem.), hence in the plural WX&. The Fut. and Imp. Kal have A after the analogy of verbs Lamcdh guttural. 2. Also before afformatives beginning with a consonant (H, J) the X is not heard, but is quiescent in the Pret. Kal, in Qamets, HN^'D; in the Pret. of all the other conjugations, in Tsere, riX\*£3; in the Imp. and Fut. of all the conjugations, in Seghol, Hjxi?, njttfefl. The use of Tsere and Seghol in these forms arose doubtless from the great resemblance between verbs N? and n? (comp. 75, 2), and an approximation of the former to the latter. Before the suffixes T, D?, j3, the X retains its character as a guttural, and takes (-:); as "H^yP^ Cant. viii. 1, "^"niin Eze. xxviii. 13 ; comp. § 65, 2, Rem. The reason (as in verbs Lamedh guttural) is, that those suffixes require before them a half-vowel. 3. Before afformatives beginning with a vowel, X is a consonant, and the form regular, as 'IXV^. O ' : it Farad. gives a complete view of the inflexion. REMARKS. 1. Verbs middle E, like t\?V to be fall, retain Tsere in the other persons of the Pret., 08 ^X- :. Instead of n ^V9 is sometimes found the Aramaean form riJOP for OKTJ3 she names. Is. vii. 1 1 ; comp. Gen. xxxiii. 11 (after the form JT?PP r , § 1 1. Rem. 1). 2. In the Inf. occurs the fern, form nx$p to /ill. Lev. xii. I, for ns6p. 3. The Part. fern, is commonly, by contraction, FlXyP, seldom I"lS>"3 Cant. viii. 10, and defectively written nvi* (from Nyj) Deut. xxviii. 57. In the forms D'Siph l Sam. xiv. :;:'.. and DNT3 Neh. vi. 8, the vowel is drawn back after the manner of the Syriac. 4. The x is sometimes lost, as in 'fl¥9 Num. xi. 11, 'H?? Job xxxiii. IS. Niph. "'-"--' are defiled, Lev. xi. 43. Iliph. *pnn Jer. xxxii. •">■">. See more in the Remarks on verbs •"!?, No. VI. Sect. 75. FEEBLE VERBS rh. E. g. rhi to reveal. Farad. F. These verbs, like those s h (§§ G9, 70), embrace two differenl classes of the irregular verb, viz., *7 and V?, which in Arabic, and especially in jEthiopic, are 126 PAW n. PABT8 "F SPEECH. — CHAP. tt. tBBBGULAB VERBS. mow dearly distinguished. Bui in Bebrew the original ' and 1 have passed over into a feeble H, as b substitute for a final vowel (§ 23, - r >), in all those forms ftrhicti end with the third radical, and which hence are called verbs TV; e. g. Th$ for yj he has revealed; n$ for r%) he has rested, By far tlie greater number, however, of these verbs are originally v; only a few forms occur of verbs "D. The two classes are therefore less prominently distinguished than verbs 13 and *3. A true verb "h is n^ to be at rest, whence *P]^, /W. w, and the derivative nw rest; yet in the /•'»/• it has Vtfifr, (with JWA). In H$ (Arab. »») to answer, and fl$ (Arab. W) to suffer, to he oppressed, are two verbs originally distinct, but with the same form in Hebrew (see Gesenius's Lex. art. •">$)• 1° Syriac the intermingling of these forms is carried still farther, verbs «? also being confounded with those fl?, i. e. with the two classes "O and v of the Arabic. As an entirely different class arc to be regarded those verbs whose third stem-letter is a con- sonantal n (distinguished by Mappiq) ; e. g. n?| . They are inflected throughout like verbs Lamedh guttural. It is certain, however, that some verbs n? originated in verbs with final n, this letter having lost its original strong and guttural sound, and become softened to a feeble n, e. g. ni 7?» Arab. nrD to be blunt. Hence it is that verbs H? are often related to those n?, for which the verb TO may be assumed as an intermediate form; e. g. nK*J5 and ny*^ to be hard ; nns properly = nns /,) be open. § 75. VERBS ?! 7 127 P. Veeb LAMEDH HE (H' 1 ?). §75. i KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. Pret.3. to. nta* nta3* nta* nta* ntan* ntan* ntann* 3. /. nnta* nntas* nnta* nnta* nntan* nntan • nntann* 2. TO. n$i* nta3 * rvhi* nta* ntan * ntan • ntann* ! 2. /. nta n£jj n^i nta ntan ntan ntann 1. c. *n£i »n^j3 ♦n^i wjta »njj?3n "ntan "ntann Plur. 3. c. •ita* »{>33 ij>i ^ tan •itan itann 2. TO. Dnta Dn^33 Dnta Dnta Dntan Dntan ontann 2. /• Ip^l IJ5^33 IJJ^I i,0ta iptan jntan iP'tann 1. c. w$| 13J?33 ■ttta w£l, "tan **ttv$ •utann Inf. constr. n'ta * nitan* rrtj»j * riita * nitan » ni^3n • n'tann • Inf. a&soi. nta nta? nta f^jn n"?? n * ntann • Imp. to. nta* ntan* nta* ntan« ntann* Plur. to. ■k** & r t ■ •itan l* fy wanting •tan wanting £inn •itann f- ™ta * njjio* nrta * n?$jQ * •\3tan?* Fut. 3. TO. nta^* nta"* nta"* nta"* nta"* nta"* r£jn» • 3. /. ntan ntan n^jri ntan ntan ntan ntann 2. m. ntan ntan ntan ntan ntan ntan ntann 2. /. tan* tan* -.Jjjn * tan* tan* "tan* tann* I. c. ntas ntax ntax ntax rtax nS:s ~:'nx Plur. 3. m. ^ ^ ^ 4>g ^! fa itan" 3. /. mtan* nstan * H3^3D* n3 s tan * nrtan* n3"tan* n3*tann • 2. TO. •i^jn •itan ■itan ••tan itan itan •itann 2. /. ™tan ™tan H3^3n mtan n3"tan n3"tan nstann 1. c. tS$i h 1 ?^ »fa nta? ">?a nta T 3 '"tan? Fur. apoc. ^u* ^■* *>£' ^.'!. ■ tan*.* Fut. wi/ft Stiff. '?, < ??':* ♦3^3* * ":ta^* Part. act. nSa* ntas* ntao* ntao* nSao* ntan* '-tan 1 ?* pass. 1 T The grammatical structure of these verbs (which Paradigm P exhibits) is as follows : — 1. The original Yodh or Vav, in all forms which end with the third radical, [28 PART II. I'AKTs OB Ml.]. in. CHAP. II. DBBEOULAB vkimss. rives place to n u b vowel-letter, and representing the final vowel; which is the >;llll( . ;,, ,.;,,.!, form through aU the conjugations, viz. — n r i u .,ii t he Preterites, 1173, rra, STO, etc. n r in all the Futures and Participles active, nSy, n?-), etc. n- in all the Imperatives, n?{l, IT?|, etc. ,1- in the Inf. absol. (except in Eij>h. and //"/'/'•), n?3, etc. The /'. are based on the forms fcffl?, ^i?nn (§ 52, Rem. 1), ZEpA. on the form ^Pp?, after the manner of the Arabic aqtala (§ 53, 1). In the Fat. Kal. n .?^. is a Fut. A for y^ (according to § 24, 2, Rem. a), whence also are such plural forms as V?J* (see Rem. 4). The same is true of the other conjugations, all of which, even in the regular verb, have, in connexion with the usual form, another with Pathach in the final syllable. See § 51, Rem. 2 ; § 54, Rem. / re in the Imp. <\>l is, at all events, a shorter vowel than the accented Seghol with a broad sound in the Fut. !"I7V. Comp. the constr. state of nouns in «"l— , § 89, 2, c. 2. Before the afformatives beginning with a consonant (H, 3), the original * remains, but not as a consonant. Properly it would here form with the foregoing a {Pathach) the diphthong ai ; but this diphthong in the Pret. is contracted first into / (*~)j and then further attenuated into i; but in the Fut. and Imp. it is changed into the broad and obtuse *r. Thus, in Pret. Piel, from Fl)p2 (after rT?i2p) we get first rr?3, and then, by attenuating the e into 7, ljvp|; in the .FW. /'/. "/ Pti^Wl. In the passives the e is always retained; in the actives of the derived conjugations and in the reflexives, both e and l are used alike (see Rem. 7, 9, and L3) ; <>n the contrary, in Kal (the conjugation more in use than the rest) we find only 7. Accordingly we have in the — Preterite Kal 7, as Hvi; T • T ' Preterites of the other active conjugations and also the reflexive promiscuously / and 7, as IT?} and T\ . §75. VERBS ft?. 120 3. Before the affirmatives beginning with a vowel 0, s — , ^— ), the 3WA with the foregoing vowel is usually dropped, e. g. VZ (for V?J), v}fi (for "/Afl), !TO, Dyll; yet it is retained in ancient full forms, particularly in pause, as V?r (see Rem. 4 and 12). Before suffixes it is also dropped, as ip% (Rem. 19). 4. The Ybc?/i disappears also in 3 Pret. sing, fern., where 1"U- is appended as a feminine-ending, as TV}. But this ancient form is become rare (see Rem. 1); and, as if this mark of the gender were not sufficiently distinct, a second feminine- ending M— is appended, so as to form nrn-l. So in all coniu^ations, e. sr. Hivh. jOt J.1 » it:it JO / O 1 fipJiri, common form firnJPI, in pause HJi^jin . See analogous cases, in § 70, Rem., § 91, 3. 5. The formation of the shortened Future, which occurs in this class of verbs in all the conjugations, is strongly marked, consisting in the rejection of the T\— , by which some other changes are occasioned in the form (see Rem. 3, 8, 10, 15). The shortened Imperative is also formed by apocope of the PI— (Rem. 11, 15). REMARK S. 1. On Kal. 1. For the 3 Pret. fern., the older and simpler form n^3, from IVpa (comp. the verh vb , § 71, Rem. 1), is almost entirely banished from common use. One instance is«nt"y she did, Lev. xxv. 21. So in Hiph. and Hoph., e. g. n\*"in she pays Lev. xxvi. 34, A??? she is taken captive Jer. xiii. 1 ( J. But with suffixes it is always used ; see Rem. 19. 2. The Inf. absol. has also the form 1&0 videndo, Gen. xxvi. 28. As the Inf. coruir. occurs also, though seldom, n'X"| Gen. xlviii. ll,.nb'J? 1. 20, or fe'J! xxxi. 28, as well as the feminine form nixn to see, Eze. xxviii. 17, like n ?9i?, § 45, 2, letter b. N.B. 3. The apocope of the Fut. (see above, in No. 5) occasions in Jut! the following changes : — a) The first stem-letter most commonly receives the helping vowel Seghol, or. when the middle radical is a guttural, Pathach (§ 28, 4); e. g. fej? for bflj |3»1 and he built; V0» let him look, b) The Chireq of the preformative is also sometimes lengthened into Tserc (because it now stands in an open syllabic), as K}* let him see, from ""INTI, ^P??! from HH3 f become fable. c) The helping vowel is sometimes omitted, especially in the cases mentioned in § 28, 4 ; e. g. 2'J'M and he took captive Num. xxi. 1, £l££l and he drank, jl?*j and he wept. The verh ^ST has the two forms N'T let him see, and X")!! and he saw. the latter with Pathach on account of the Resh. d) Examples of verbs which are Pe guttural (§ 58) as well as Lamedh He : BU*1 and he made, from iiy'V' IV.l and he answered, from H3y. Sometimes the pointing of the first Byllahle is not affected by the guttural; as in "ID?!, JOM, l.n) (with Dagheeh lene in the second radical) let him rejoice, Job iii. 6. c) The verbs HJH to be, and H^n / /,><>, where analogy would require the Put. apoc. to be Jfl), W, change these forms to '?J) and *n*, because (lie second Yodh draws to itself the vow< 1 i, and makes with it a long I. (Comp. the derivatives »33 for $3, "W for |$, etc., § 84, No. V.) Prom n\q /o ta, occurs once the form fcWflJ for ^HJ /it »•/// 6«, Bccles. xi. 3. li L30 PABT II. PABT8 OF SPEECH. -CHAP. EL IBBEGULAB Vi.i. . The full forms without the apocope of n r occur sometimes oven after Van. conv., especially in the 1st person and in the later books, e. g. ng"}£) and J saw, twenty times, but never in the iteu< li, n -*> M and he made, four times. i | ■)„. original ' is Bometimes retained before the afformatives beginning with a rowel (comp. N 0i 3 t aD ovi . i »p cially in and before the pause, and before the full plural-ending P - , or where for anj reason an emphasis rests upon the word. Tret n;Dn 8 he trust* Ps. lvii. 2, VDn they trust Deut uxii. 87. tmp. l*$| ash ye Is. xxi. 12. Fut. p*^T» they increase Deut. viii. 13, more fre- quently like p-^V^ they drink Ps. Ixxviii. 1 1 (comp. Rem. 12). The Part. act. lias -,A^n & fern, of the form n'aW spying Prov. xxxi. 27, HHiB fruitful P§. cwviii. ••'., in the pftin like nvnis Is. xli. 23. The Part. pass, is sometimes without \ as &y for ':':•>' marfs Job xli. 25, ID* xv. 22. 6. The second syllable is but seldom written defectively, as Hjn 2 Sam. xv. 33, ^ivyn Job v. 12, and (according to the Q e ri) n3\S"in Mic. vii. 10. II. On Niphal. 7. Besides the form with *r in the 1 and 2 Pret., the form also with H r is found, as -l^y?? 1 Sam. xiv. 8, JVR3 Gen. xxiv. 8. 8. The apocope of the Fat. occasions here no further changes than the rejection of FT"", ?|* from *y$! : yet in one verb, Ayin guttural, we find a form with (7) shortened to (t), viz., nra* (for l"ID]) Ps. cix. 18. Similar also in PL TJ??! (from rnWjl) p s . cxli. 8, and in Hithp. JTWFI (from njnnn) Prov. xxii. 24. III. 0» Pte?, P««Z, and Ilithpa'il. N.B. 9. In the Pret. Piel, the second syllable has Chireq instead of the diphthongal *T in the greater number of examples, as V?*1P, fi , *?" ! '., wdiich is therefore adopted in the Paradigm. Before suffixes, Chireq is always employed, e. g. •13n , 3" r I Ps. xliv. 20. In Hithp. not only '— , but also *T is sometimes found (Prov. xxiv. 10 ; 1 Ki. ii. 26 ; Jer. 1. 24). Yet Pual has always Tsere (*r). N.B. 10. The Fut. loses, after the apocope, the Daghesh forte of the second stem- letter (comp. § 20, 3, a) ; hence Piel 1 V.'l and he commanded; Hithp. ?3J[W and he uncovered himself, Gen. ix. 21. Less frequently is Pathach, in this case, lengthened into Qamcts, as 1JV1 and he marked 1 Sam. xxi. 14, 1NIV he craves Ps. xlv. 12. Comp. Rem. 8. 11. In Piel and Hithp. are found also apocopated forms of the Imp., as D3 for HD3 prove, Dan. L 12; ?DflSl y e /y„ thyself sick, 2 Sam. xiii. 5. 12. Examples of Yodh being retained in cases where it is more commonly omitted: Fut. ^W^Tfi icil! ye liken me Is. xl. 2.3, -lOVD?^ they cover them Ex. xv. 5. IV. On Hiphil and Hophal. 13. In the Pret. Hiph. the forms r V. 1 ??'? and fV?3i]i are about equally common ; before suffixes the latter is used as somewhat shorter than the other. The Paradigm exhibits the older with s ~. In Jlo/ih. only *t occurs. 14. The Tsere of the Inf. absol. Hiph. is the regular vowel (as in ?£P3)j to this the Inf. ahsol. Hoph. conforms, as in rnpn Lev. xix. 20. The verb n:n to be much, has three forms of the Inf., viz., na-in (used adverbially) much, ninn use d w ] ieil the Inf. is pleonastic, rfain the Inf. constr. Comp. Gen. xli. 49; xxii. 17; Deut. xxviii. 63. N.B. 15. The Fut. apoc. Hiph. has either the form Til Is. xli. 2, E»I Gen. ix. 27, PV : !1, or (with a helping vowel) ?£, for which, however, is invariably substituted the form ^ (§ 27, Rem. 2, c), as ..;.;i 2 Kings xviii. 11, T§j»1 Ps. C v. 24. Examples with gutturals : ^3 Num. xxiii. 2, $»»&, etc.. § 75. VERBS H7. . 131 which can be distinguished from the Fut. Kal only by the sense. The Imp. apoc. Hiph. has invariably the helping vowel Scyhol or Pathach, as 2"V\ increase for 3"in, Pl2"in p s . li. 4; cpn fcj alone for Spin, PlB"irj Deut. ix. 14; Pjffl for nfo(rj Ex. xxxiii. 12. 16. The .fW. Hiph. with IWA retained occurs only in 1**4*1 Jub xix. 2, from PIJ*. V. In General. 17 In the Aramaean, where as before remarked, the verbs N? and H7 flow into one another, both classes terminate in the Fut. and Part, of all the conjugations, without distinction, in Xr or *— As imitations of this mode of formation, we are to regard those forms of the Inf., Imp., and Fut. in H— , more seldom ^t and *Tj which are found in Hebrew also, especially in the later writers and the poets. Inf. iTH to he, Eze. xxi. 15. Imp. N.l.n be thou, Job xxxvii. 0. Fat. rrnrrrx Jcr. xvii. 17, K3B ^follow not, Prov. i. 10; njpjtfr^ ,/„ not, 2 Sam. xiii. 12* //>/. 7%/ *2H Hos. vi. 9. The Yodh is found at the end of the word (which is also a Syriasm) for '"It in the Fut. Kal, ^TFll and she committed fornication , Jer. iii. 6 ; (according to others even instead of "1— in the Int. Hiph. y.nn he made sick, Is. liii. 10), comp. the plur. VpDPl (hey intimidated, Jos. xiv. 8. 18. In three verbs is found the unfrequent conjugation Pilel, or its reflexive (§ 55, 2), where the third radical, which the conjugation requires to be doubled, appears under the form W; viz.. HJW, contracted PI1JO to be beautiful, from HKJ ; D'lnUD the archers, Gen. xxi. 1G; but especially niW to boiv, Pilel PIJPJ^, hence the reflexive Pl}D£ly''7 to bow one's self, to j>rostrate one's self, 2nd pert. PI*— and n»- Fut. njDri^, apoc. -inn^l for )rmp?l (analogous with *JV for W). N.B. 19. Before suffixes, the n final, and the preceding vowel, arc displaced by the union-vowel (§ 58, 3, b), as *?$ he answered me, V%, D$, /'»/. *nj£, ^JR, 2?»pA. »j|n, S^PI. Very seldom »r takes the place of the final PI— or PI—, as in 10\D3* he will cover them Ps. cxl. 10, S*j?PJ mttifo ;»c 1 Kings xx. 35. The 3 Pret. fern, always takes before suff. the older form ri?| (see No. 4), yet with a short d, as in the regular verb, e. g. -in?? for ^Pin?3 Zech. v. 4 ; in pause ^'-"V Job xxxiii. 4. VI. Relation of Verbs PI? and N? /w eocA other. 20. The verbs of each of these classes, in consequence of their intimate relation, being quite identical in Aramaean, often borrow the forms of the other, especially in the usage of the later writers and of the poets. 21. Thus there are forms of verbs N? — a) Which have adopted the vowel points of verbs PI?, e. g. Pret. *PIN?3 / restrain, Ps. cxix. 101 : Part. «9*n Eccles. ix. 18; viii. 12; Ptel. Pret. K$>9 Jer. li. 3 1 ; *flKB1 2 Kings ii. 21 ; Fut. *$}\ Job xxxix. 24; Niph. Pret. Pin&M (after nn^3) 2 Sam. i. 26; Hiph. Pret. nn«|Pin Jos. vi. 17. \_Imp. Kal -I^T Jos. xxiv. 14.] b) Which retain their own pointing, but have adopted the n. c. g. Imp. PI?"! heal, Ps. Ix. -1 ; \ij>h. rnrjn to hide one's self, 1 Kings xxii. 25 ; Ptel Fut. ^! he will Jill, Job viii. 21. c) Which in all respects have the appearance of verbs PI?, c. g. HD^ thou thirst, at, Ruth ii. 9 : l?D toy arc full, Eze. xxviii. 1G; /«/'. terj fo *■;„, Gen. xx. 6; FW. nr|nn //„-,, /„„/. J h y. I s : Part fern. xf Eccles. x. 5; Part, pass. *fe»J l' s . xxxii. 1 : 2Vi£A. nnsnj J cr . li. 9. ///////». Pi'|i:rin thou pro- phesiest, 1 Sam. x. 6; //;/: n'l23nn 1 Sam. x. 13. * The Jussive signification in these examples is the reason that tiny have 7W* like the /«(/). Put this will not apply to all other cases; and, besides, the reading in many Instances is douhtful between (r) and ( v ). Sec Gen. xxvi. "J9 : Lev. xviii. 7; Jos. vii. 9; ix. '24 ; Dan. i. 13; Eze. v. 12. 132 PART II. I'AKl's OF SPEECH.- -CHAP. II. DtBEOULAB VEEB8. 22. On the contrary, there are forma of rerba n? which, in some respects, follow the analogy of n s . e. g. in their consonants, ^'f'. it is changed, Lam. iv. 1 ; xjtjj 2 Kings xxv. 29; x:>n»l (///&\ 1 Sam. xiv. 24, from TVH to sivear. d) Verbs »B and X 1 ? (comp. §§ 69, 70, and 74), as XV} to go forth, Imp. XV, Inf. riXV, Hiph. R*».1. f ) Verbs *B and TV (comp. §§ 69, 70, and 75), e. g. T\V to throw, in Hiph. to confess, to praise, properly 12, and TYV to throw, HE^ to be beautiful, which are properly ''B. Inf. fnj, rtVV; Imp. -1"V; -FW. 1*2, with suff. ny: we shot at them (from fTV) Num. xxi. 30; Pt'& nn for W!J (§ 69, Rem. 6); i7<>/*. rnin, rnin, J n / rinin ; p M ;. rnv, fl/ , oc . ni»i. /) Verbs W and X7, particularly the verb X13 to come; Pret. X3, rjX3, once -133 for -13X3 1 Sam. xxv. 8 ; Hiph. K»?n, r>X3H, and nx^.n ; Jf^ »3X for X*3X Mic. i. 15; Imp. »3H Ruth iii. 15. So *% he refuses, Hiph., from X-13 Ps. cxli. 5. Moreover, g) the verb ^n fo live, deserves to be noticed, being treated as a verb VV, and hence has *n in the 3 Pret. Kal, Gen. iii. 22. In Hebrew it occurs only in this form. But of more frequent occurrence is the synonymous rvn as a verb TV. Sect. 77. RELATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS TO ONE ANOTHER. 1. Several classes of irregular verbs, e. g. those if and *f , nS and IT?, $ and J#, stand in a very intimate relationship, as appears from the similarity in their § 78. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 133 meaning and inflexion, from the forms which they have in common, and from their mutual interchange of forms. The affinity consists, as a rule, in the essential equality of two stem-consonants of firm sound, to which the common signification attaches (biliteral root, § 30, 2), so that the third feebler radical is not taken into account. Thus, ^J?^, ^)1, Np^ all mean to strike, to beat in pieces ; TO, Tl}, T\1} to flee. In this manner are related in form and signification — 1. Verbs IP and VV (in which the essential stem-letters are the first and last), e. g. "-pO and "^D to become poor ; t^-ID and ^'^O to feel, to touch; "W3 and "HJ to flee. it IT 2. Verbs *Q and ]Q (in which the two last are the essential stem-letters), both to each other and to the former class. They are related to each other in the verbs 2>*' and 3VJ to place, K'pa and fpj (yaqosK) to fowl; to the former class, especially to verbs W, in "A3 and ">V to fear; 210 and 39} to be good; ">[&} and ^-ID to anoint; ns* and n-13 to blow ; )*Q3 and PS /o break in pieces. Verbs N3 are less frequently found connected with these classes, as D^*X and D^' /o ie destroy* d ; BHN and B*W to M>-esA, etc. 3. Verbs VO and n? (in which the first two consonants properly form the stem), both to each other and to the former classes ; to each other in K^ and np'l to break in pieces, fc^p and fTJP, to meet ; to verbs of the former classes, in HVft and f'V? to suck, nrn and BV1 to thrust, etc. Sect. 78. DEFECTIVE VERBS. It often happens, when two kindred irregular verbs are in use in the same signification, that both are defective, i. e. do not occur in all the forms. As these, however, are not generally the same in both, the two are combined to make out a complete verb, as in Greek epxofiat, Aor. rfkOov, Fut. eXevaofiat, and in Latin, fero i tuli, latum, ferre; with this difference, that in Hebrew these verba arc almost universally related in form as well as signification, like the Greek fiaivto, A.or, '2. efirjv, from the original form /3a-&>. Of these verbs the following are the most common : — ^13 to be ashamed, Jliph. P*3D, but also tt^in (from B'JJJ), especially with the intransitive signification to feel ashamed. 31'B to be good. Pret. 310. Fut. 2Q* (from npj). Inf. 310. Iliph. 3*5*0- "U; to fear. Fut. 1W (from 115). 3VJ and 3>'3 to /;/ace, neither used in Kal. Niph. 3^3 to s/ami. /////<. 2 v >'n and t>?3 /o SreoA m p&CM. Fut. PBJ (from p9). /iwp. P 3 - ^V'- I' 1 -?- HN V?? (from j*??\ PH f>'iS (frompS). Reflex. VV'lSnn. //,),/,. ppfj. /V/^7 j'?>'? Job xvi. 12. 11V an( l "'-» '° ^ e **"«& Hence Pret. $ IV / a»* W fl a7/vh7, lit. it is strait to me, from ~H>\ /W. 3 I PART ll. PARTS 01 SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. ">>? (from IV)) and " ) '»"1 . Hiph. "'Vr 1 , ""Vn, to bring into a ttrait, to dietreu. The related form HH inaitive, to pn •>. hence to beeiege. nrc* to drink, used in Kal; bul in //>)>//. n i?'-"'"!' to give to drink, from n i?'^. ( in i^n to go, • ee above, j 69, Et m. 8. I; :1 |. l. The case is .similar when different conjugations of the same verb, having the aignifloation, borrow tensee from each other; — to' he Is able, ??V FW. Hoph. he will be able, used for Fut. Kal, which is wanting. cp; he hoe added, borrows Its Inf. and Fut. from HtpA. *|*pta, *)*bi\ fo approach. Fret. Niph. U'M fur the /Vc/. A'«/, which is not in use; yet the Fut. PR, /iwp. i":. Hid Inf. n^| of AW are all in use. nnj fo lead, Pret. usually in Kal, also the Imp. nrrj ; hut the Fut. always in Iliphil n £?l; rarely ■a o the /V'/. iron. ^nj /,» puitr out. Pret. Niph. 10?, along with Fut. Kal ^B\, hut Fut. Niph. and P/W. Kal are not in use. Rem. -■ The early grammarians often speak of mixed forms (formis mixtis) in which, as they maintain, arc united the character and significations of two tenses, genders, or conjugations. On correct grammatical principles most of the examples adduced are set aside (e. g. naipn*, § 47, Rem. 3) ; in others, the form seems to have originated in misapprehension and inaccuracy, e. g. ■S])riU33 i n tin/ building, Eze. xvi. 31 (where the plural suffix is appended to the ending ni, as if a plural-ending). Others again are merely false readings. CHAPTER III. OF THE NOUN. [SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE]. Sect. 79. GENERAL VIEW. 1. In treating of \\\o, formation of the noun, it is very important to keep in view it- relation to the verb, since most nouns may be derived from verbs (considering the 3 sing. Pret. as the stem-form, according to § 30, 1), and even those which are not, whether primitives or derived from other nouns, follow the form and analogy of the verbals. Besides, on this relation is based the explanation of the form of the feminine gender (§ 80, 2; comp. § 9-4). The adjective agrees entirely with the substantive in form, though it is manifestly only by a figure of speech that forms with an abstract signification can be treated as adjectives (§ 83, Rem. 1). 2. A regular inflexion of the noun by cases does not exist in Hebrew, although perhaps some ancient traces of case-endings remain (§ 90). The relation of case § 80. forms which mark the gender of nouns. 135 in a noim is either learned simply from its position in the clause, or indicated by prepositions. In the form of the noun there is no change; and hence the matter belongs not to this division of grammar, but to the Syntax (§ 117). On the contrary, the connexion of the noun with suffixes, with the feminine, dual, and plural terminations, and with a noun following in the genitive, produces numerous changes in its form, which is all that is meant by the inflexion of nouns in Hebrew.* Even for the comparative and superlative, the Hebrew has no appro- priate form, and these relations must be expressed by circumlocution, as taught in the Syntax (§119). Sect. 80. FORMS WHICH MARK THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 1 . The Hebrew, like all the Shemitic languages, has but two genders, the mas- culine and the feminine. Inanimate objects properly of the neuter gender, and abstract ideas, for which other languages have a neuter form, are regarded in Hebrew as either masculine or feminine, particularly the latter (see the Syntax, § 107, 3). 2. The masculine, as being the most common and important form of the noun, has no peculiar mark of distinction. The ending for the feminine was originally T\— , as in the 3 sing. Pret. of verbs (§ 44, 1). But when the noun stands without a genitive following (i. c. when it is not in the construct state, § 87), the T\— usually appears in the weakened form H— , or is shortened to H— unaccented. The original T\— is very seldom f. mud, except when the noun is in close connexion with a succeeding genitive, or has a pronominal suffix. Irrespective then of these two cases (for which see § 80, 2, /'. § 91, 4), we have as feminine-ending — a) Most commonly an accented H— as WD horse, PID1D mare ; b) An unaccented T\^-, after a guttural T\ T ^- (which also remains unchanged before the genitive), as 7lpp, fern, Tr?\2p killing, JTTIfi/gm. niHl£ acquaintance. Here the termination of the noun follows the manner of segholate forms (§ 91, 2). When the masc. ends with a vowel, we have for JV4 simply P, as MKIft Moabite, rV2N!D Moabitess ; NBn sinner. nXDH sinfulness, sin. The vowel-changes occasioned by these endings are exhibited in § 91. f * This lias been called, by Gesenius himself and others, the declension of the Hebrew nonn. t On the feminities not distinguished by the form, see § 107, 1, 8, 4. L86 PABT II. PABT8 OS SPEECH. -CHAP. III. BTOUBT. Rem. 1. Th« feminine form in n -,. v ie, in general, leea frequent than the other, and occurs almost exclusively when the other is also in use. It is only in the Participles and Infinitives that it is found more frequently than the other (e. g. n^Js oftener than nppp, nx> than nnp) ; it is, more- over, in common with At, a form lor the construct state (§ ( J5, 1). •j. Unusual feminine terminations: „ n accented, as np/13 smerald Eze. srviii. 18, nflj pelican Is. xxxiv. 11, riy?tJ> crotmf 2 Kings ix. 17, and often in prnj,, r iiiunr.s among Phoenicians and other neighhouring tribes, as J"IE"li Sarepla, JITS Ail, inn in Idumea, on the Arabian Gulf. /») n— , almost exclusively poetical, c. g. n?m heritage Ps. xvi. 6, rntJ? / p s . Ix. 13, but in prose also is found HTTJ9 morrow Gen. xix. 34. r) R~ , Aramaean orthography for n— found chiefly in the later writers, e. g. NJt? sfoep Ps. exxvii. 2, xrnp. baldness Eze. xxvii. 81, KT.ISO ?««;•/; Lam. iii. 12. ,/ PI— very rarely, a weakened form of n— (§ 27, Hem. 4), as nn/lT for ?vyi?, Is. lix. 5. ,.) n_±-, without the accent, as HOnn, Deut. xiv. 17,' fTiy'3 "H3J3 burning furnace, Hos. vii. 4; comp. K/.c. xl. 19; 2 Kings xvi. 18. In all these examples there should be the usual accented H— , but the punctators, not comprehending the feminine here, marked the n (by depriving it of the tone) as not feminine, which is however no rule for us. Also 70]2 night appears by the tone to be a masc. form, particularly as it is always construed as masc, and we find ?*/, ?y also occurring. Like it are HCnnn the sun Judges xiv. 18 (else CHIl), Hprn £>Wc Ps. exxiv. 4, nni»n r/ea//t Ps. cxvi. 15, and some other words. Much of this is doubtful.*' y) nni- in poetry, properly a double ending (as in nnxtn this f. = riN-?n, Jer. xxvi. 6 K e thibh, and in the verbal form nrta, § 75, 4), e. g. nrn$ M^ ( = n"}#, ^1}V), n W*^ salvation (=n^t^), Hfl^JJ wickedness (= fy?i?)j see Ps. iii. 3 ; xliv. 27 ; xcii. 16 ; Job v. 16 ; Ex. xv. 16, and other places. f 3. It is wholly incongruous to consider (as Gesenius and Nordheimer did) the vowel-ending H— + hs the original termination of the feminine and the consonant-ending H— as derived from it. The ^Ethiopic still has the n constantly, and in the Phoenician also the feminines end generally in n (not n or n), which is sounded ath in the words found in Greek and Roman authors (see Gesenii Monumcnta Phoenicia, pp. 439, 440 ; Movers in Ersch. and Gruber's Encyclop., Sect. III., T. 24, p. 439). The ancient Arabic has the weakened vowel-ending scarcely anywhere but in the pause; the modern Arabic is, in this respect, much like the Hebrew. Sect. 81. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. Xouns are either primitive (§ 82), as IX father, DK mother, or derivative. The latter are derived either from the verb {Verbals, §§ 83 — 85) in the sense given * The ending fl~ in these words has been taken for the termination of the Aramaean emphatic state, so making I"6n3 pass for ?n3~ . But there are these objections : a) That some examples have the Hob. article, which implies at least that the Aramaean form was not recognised ; b) That the examples in part belong to the more ancient books; and c) That we find among them so old and familiar a word as n?v. Yet nPv might be strictly an accusative with adverbial signification 7ioctu, and then used simply for nox, no regard being had to the ending something like H3333, § 90, 2, c. See Gesenius's Lexicon under ?v in the Note. t This ending HH— , too, has been compared with that of the Aram, emphatic state, or has been regarded as an accusative-ending. I A consonantal H h is quite out of the question in this ending. § 83. VERBAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 137 above in § 79, 1, as p^ just, jTTX, njTTC righteousness, from pTX to be just; D"1 A A/A, flftl high place, DTO height, from D^l^l to fo WpA; or from another noun (Denomina* fives), as 7f1 /oof, hl7fT& jpfoce a£ ffo feet. The verbals are by far the most numerous class. Rem. 1. Many of the early grammarians, who admitted none but verbs as item-words, classed all nouns among the verbals, and divided them into, a) Forma nudce, i. e. such as have only the three (or two) stem-letters, and b) Formes auctce, such as have received formative letters or syllables at the beginning or end, as HSPOO, n-1370. These formative letters are: l, \ n, 3, o, n, n, (vnaDKn)* According to the view of roots and stems given in § 30, 1, the relation of the noun to the verb is, strictly speaking, somewhat different, since, according to it, many nouns are formed immediately from the (ideal) root. But we here retain the common view, as being easier for beginners. Comj>. §79,1. 2. Of compound nouns, as appellatives, the number in Hebrew is very small, e. g. ?i»'_v3 properly worthtessness, baseness. As proper names, they occur pretty frequently, e. g. ^**T3I man of God, D*j3jiflJ whom God raises up, WJp|n strength of Jehovah, ^&'3£ father of the king. Sect. 82. PRIMITIVE NOUNS. 1. The number of primitives is, strictly speaking, very small, the nouns which are in most languages, primitive being here usually derived from verbal ideas; e. g. most of the names of natural objects, as y$& he-goat (prop, shaggy, from ^yb>), n^b* barley (prop, bearded, also from *W&), T^PD stork (pro]). pia, sc. avis), IT]] gold (from 3P1T = ^n¥ to be yellow). There are but few nouns, e. ,L r . the names of members of the body, in men and beasts, for which no stem-verb can be found, aa Dj? Aora, |*tf eye. 2. The form of the primitives is that of the simplest verbals, as 7tDjJ, TtDjJ, etc. : and it makes no difference, in the grammatical treatment, to which class the nouns are reckoned. E. g. D*1X man, follows the analogy of the verbals No. 1 (§ 84), whether it cornea from E~N be red) or not ; 2X father, EX mother, have the same form as if derived from n r^'- ^P^i which is very improbable. Sect. 83. VERBAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 1. In Hebrew, as in Greek and Latin, the verbal nouns arc connected in form and signification with certain forms of the verb, viz., the Participles and Inlini- * From this vox mcmoriulis (§ 5, p. 14, Note f) the nomina aucta are also called, by the old grammarians, nomiiui heemantica. PABT M. PARTS 01 8PEECH. CHAP. [II. lives, which, even withoul any change, are often employed as nouns; e.g. jVJ't (/,, know) * knowledge, yfo (hating) « enemy. Still oftener, however, are pre- dominantly employed for the verbal noun certain forms of the Infinitive and Participle, which are seldom or never found as such in the regular verb itself, though in use in the irregular verb and in other dialects; c. g. the participial form 7^15, thi Infinitives Tbpb, Jy^j? (§ 45, 2), etc. Some, as the Arabic sh are properly intensive forms of the Participle. •_'. A.8 to signification, it follows from the nature of the case, that nouns which have the form of Infinitives regularly denote the action or state, with other closely- related ideas (such as the place of the action), and are therefore mostly abstract; that participial nouns, on the contrary, denote, for the most part, the subject of the net ion, or of the state, and hence are concrete. It often happens, however, that a certain signification is found in single examples of derivative nouns, which is not characteristic of the form. Hem. 1. It need not, therefore, appear strange (for it is found in all languages) that a noun which in form is properly abstract, should be employed metaphorically as a concrete, and rice versd. So, in English, we say, his acquaintance, for those with wliom he is acquainted; the Godhead, for God himself; in lleh. JH1B acquaintance and an acquaintance ; TJ? simplicity and a simple one ; on the contrary, riNtpn that ichich sinneth for sin, which is a frequent use of the fern, concrete (§ 84, 5, 6, 11). 2. For facilitating the general view, we treat first of the derivatives from the regular verb (§ 84) and then of those from the irregular (§ 85). Sect. 84. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB* We distinguish here — I. Forms originally Participles, or participial Nouns, from Kal. 1- ''v*? f rm - oytpp, the most simple form of this class and analogous to the two following (Nos. 2 ami o), but not in use as a Participle. It is most frequently employed as an adjective expressing quality, as D2I1 wise, L"*in )ieu\ "IB* upright. It occurs, however, also with an abstract sense (No. 12). 2. y^? T , Jem. iyUi5, Part, of verbs middle E (§50, 2), mostly serves for intransitive notions (§43) and for adjectives of quality ; e. g. |p? old. old man ; t,"2* dry ; W^ fat. 3. ?t2i? and ?N3j3 (with firm 6), fern. P/PP, next to Part, of verbs middle 0, and properly with intransitive sense; c. g. "UJ fearing, |b|? small, G5>pJ fowl or ; then frequently as an adjective, even when no Prct. with Cholem is found, as 9H| great, pirn far, fcMljJ holy. As a substantive ahstr. "1133 honour, D1?L" peace. From this is to be distinguished No. 21, with the doubling of the last radical. * Under the regular verb we here include the verb with gutturals, §§ G3 — Go. § 84. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 13Q 4. ?P'1P, TBp, fern, ■"•ppp, npc'p, the usual active participial of transitive verbs, e. g. 3;X enenu/, P.31* suckling ; hence of the instrument by which the action is performed, as BTJ1 a cutting instru- ment. A feminine with a collective signification is found in nrn'N caravan, properly the wandering, wandering host. 5. 7^> and 9*P£, passive Participles of Kal, the latter (the usual Aramaean form) employed rather as a substantive, like the Greek verbals in to? ; e.g. 1-1DX imprisoned, n-VJ'p anointed *VBtit prisoner, D^p anointed one. Also in intransitive verbs with an active signification, as 1'VV .small, MSJJ strong. Some words of the form ?*ttj? express the time of the action, as T>'P r i_cniii as HSpn female sinner and sinfulness, sin ; l"lp?1 burning fever, with a guttural J"ll'3p signet, intensive forms are also the tln - ee following : 7. 7*J3J2 and 7-1t3j?, of which forms are most adjectives in the Cluddee, as Wt righteous, TaK strong, 1-1311 compassionate. In Heb. from intrans. verbs alone. 8. ?H9i?, as "nB* censurer, *03B> drunken one, 1133 strong one, hero; seldom in a passive sense, as "11?! &ora. 9. ?PP indicates very great intensity, often excessive, so as to become a fault or a di c. g. |33 hunch-backed, nip bald-headed, D.;>K dum&, 1/$ W/»<7, HD2 fomtf, t-'HI ,,/; The gotfe signification is found in the fern., as ^piX folly. II. Nouns after the manner of Infinitives of Kal.* 10. ?PP , ?t?i?, ?Op, (with changeable vowels), are with No. 11 the simplest forms of this of which the latter is the predominant, and the first the unfrequcnt form in the verb as Infinitive (§ 45, 2). As nominal forms they are rare, c. g. 133 man, TtJB ornament, pn>* laughter. In of these, the three kindred segholate forms — 11. i»Og, ^g, ^#J, arc far more frequent; e. g. $§, Hap (for ^P, jjfe, § 27. Ft in. 2 "i£p (for 1?P) &oo£; Clp (for 9HP) sanctuary; these have the characteristic vowel in the first syllable, and the helping vowel Seghol (§ 28, 4) in the second. Instead of the Seghol, a PathacA is used with gutturals in the second or third place, as JHJ sm/, nV3 eternity, ?1'3 iootA, Examples of feminines, H3?P queen, ^y. fear, HITy /, nprn wisdom. In masculines as well as feminines the abstract is the proper and prevailing signification, yet not unfrequently the concrete occurs, especially in the form . P~!, e. g. %fy king, "HfJ nj dwelling; sometimes with Aleph prosthetic, as 8"J$=IP'T} arm, n"l?X brood. The corresponding t'cmiiiiiiis will readily suggest themselves; the forms H/HPi?, n>1Dp coincide with those of feminines in No. 5. M. ^Opp, the Arameean form of the infinitive, e. g. ESP'P judg men t. Related forms are: "IIDtp v ,,;jr/, "ipnp desire, nippp &oo/y, n??PP kingdom, rnb'p'P toages. Under this form, besides the action itself, is specially also expressed the place of the action, as H3tp altar, ">3np (from "l?^ to drive) place of driving, i. e. to which cattle are driven, wilderness; and the instrument, as J"*73Xp knife, }?TD fork, nn?p key. 15. P?PP, J?PP, and other similar forms, with the terminations p and ]~, as P"inB interpretation, V??¥ table, |2")P T offering ; but there are also forms like P"13T remembrance, I'V-Tfl prophetic vision. For P there is a truncated form 1 , written also fi, which occurs especially in proper names, as njp and fl^^P, nPPp> for popy (comp. IIXaTwv, Plato). In patronymic and gentilic nouns (§ 86, 5), the Nun is restored, e. g. V?'^ from riVt^ the city Shilo (also still Shilun). 16. With the feminine-ending JT1, e. g. JVP3D folly, JTIXD"! healing. In the Arameean, this is a usual termination of the Infinitive in the derived conjugations (comp. No. 28). Its frequent use appears only in the later books. As a synonymous ending we find at times IV— in earlier use, as rVlN'J* remnant. Comp. the denominative nouns, § 86, 6. III. Participials of derived Conjugations. 17. From Niph. ?PP?, as niX;Q3 (plur.) wonders. 18. 19. From Piel and Hiph., e. g. rnpjp snuffers, fnDJD pruning-hnife. 20. From Poel, as ftfa and W>ty child. 21. From P<7e/ ?Dp T ,y e >n. n /PP, and 22. ?79P'f° r tne most P art adjectives of colour, as Eh#,fem. npiX red, |3K"] y/wn, }3t?B> ywW* 23. 'p^PP, 7^/PP, forms of adjectives with a diminutive signification (§ 55, 3), as Enp'lX reddish, "irnn'J' blackish ; hence in a contemptuous sense (like miser, misellus, Germ. Gesinde, Oeeindel), as ^P^p^ (with the passive form for ^IDX) collected rabble. IV. Infinitives of the derived Conjugations. 24. From Niph. the form D7WS3 struggles. 25. From Piel, like )'?3 dispersion, more frequently in the /em., as n^'j53 request, with Qamets unchangeable in the second syllable. 26. >1t3p, and 27. «B?6, ?Hppn, likewise Infinitives of Piel (the latter very common in Arabic), e. g. W&p requital; p-13n folding of (he hands; 7-IDjn benefit; •<.> « tremulous totmd). From Pilpel (§ 55, 4), ?!?J Wtce/, from ;?\ to roll, spjp contemned. III. From Stems 1Q nw/ »&• The participial forms arc regular. Forms originally Infinitives arc: 10 W //- (from BK?) ; 27. ru-ian intelligence, rVjWJ}! testimony; 28. nnjq re«/. On the formation offemininea without the Dftghesh, see ; : 94, Rem. 2. 1 \-2 PAST II. PARTS OB SPEECH. — CHAP. III. SOUN. V. From Stems ro . Participles: 2. n ?) fair, ni-n hard, /em. HpJ, ni"^. Some lose the R— as 10 wyn, For njn. i. nx'~i .s,,/-, hni. t^vj burnt-offering. 5. V 1D3 covering, ^ pure, ^ poor. Infinitives: 11. The • hul.itcs in different Forms; not often with the H— retained, as in HD3 a weeping, njn friend, nth, ns~i Dtstbn, revelation (Is. xxviii. 7, 15), commonly without it, as JH (for n|p). Sometimes the original ' or 1 appears, which is then pronounced as a vowel, i or It (comp. on *n*, § 7o, Rem. 3), ; ,s in *"}3 //•'///, VQ sickness. The 1 also quiesces, as in W3 waste. In masculines, the third radical rarely remains a consonant, as in ^H sickness, though in feminines it is always so, as in l"IJ/f? r«»/, n;iS garland. 13. inp winter, T)y : , /#». n'np' « drinking ; fern, J"I3D part, nixq Me half, TtoTIV and JVnL" /"V. 14. n3j?p possession, nX"V? appearance; Jem. niyp command. Apocopated form '!"? AetpAl, For n^JfO. 15. |#p M>«aM, |^7? destruction. 27. fl^B annihilation, n^M structure, WSTg ///W. 28. ^~ : N fe*tfc/« for rrX'X, from n3g\ VI. From doubly anomalous Stems. We present only some cases of especial difficulty to the heginner : » » I ■ 1. From a verb JQ and X?, TBg elevation for J"IKB>, from RB>3, J b xli. 17. 2. From a vcrh *Q and IT/, fniPl instruction, law, riSIO s?yn, prob. from HDJ. 3. From a verb $V and HP, D^ tumult, Num. xxiv. 17, from nxt? for J")X*C\ if (/ / . > 4. From a verb W and n?, ""X island, from H1X A? r/Mr/7 for *)K ; HIX sign for nJK, from i"llX ; 15 corr/, from ni|5 ; XFI chamber for 10 , from H1PI fo rf«?e^ ; "03 people, from H)| , Arab, tojlow together ; *"1 irrigating for *V1, from HIT. To the learner the stem is often obscured also by contraction, when it originally contains Nun, Daleth, or Zfe; e. g. 1"1J wine-press for H3|., 11333 (from 133) ; PjX «/?yrr for *13X ; nps \ faithfulness for naJM? (from l»K), J1J> time for IV$ (from rny) ; IT for VilJ (from Pint) brightness. Sect. 86. DENOMINATIVE NOUNS. 1. Such are all nouns which are formed immediately from another noun, whether the latter be primitive, or derived from a verb, e. g. pfi*]p eastern, imme- diately from DHJ3 the east, which is itself derived from the verb D*ljJ. 2. Most of the forms which nouns of this class assume have already been given, — the denominatives (which seem in general to be a later phenomenon of language than verbals) being formed in imitation of nouns derived from the verb. The verbal with ti prefixed, e. g. was employed to express the place of an action ( § 84, No. 14); accordingly this D was prefixed to a noun in order to make it a designation of place (see No. 3). Also in Greek and German (and so in English and Welsh), the verbals and denominatives are exactly analogous. The principal forms are the following: — 1. In imitation of the Part. Kal (No. 4 of the Verbals), as ~$P porter, from "W gate; T?3 herds- man, from Tg3 cattle; CT.b vine dresser, from D"i| vineyard. § 87. THE PLURAL. 143 2. Like verbals of No. 6, ri^'P archer, from nK'i? bow ; n?E seaman, from npp so//, $p . Both these forms (Nos. 1 and 2) indicate one's employment, trade, etc., like Greek nouns in t^s, revs, e. g. ttoXitt]';, ypa/x/xaTevs. 3. Nouns with ?3 prefixed, expressing the place of a thing (comp. No. 14 of the Verbals), e. g. I'VP place of fountains, from ^V fountain ; rvVPinO, nvj'N"V3 7 place about the feet, — about the head, from ?y), KW1; nt?pp for !"IXU>jpD fcld of cucumbers, from MPJ? cucumber. Comp. d/A7reA.wi/, from tt/x7reXos. 4. Concretes formed by the addition of p, \~, as 110*112 eastern, from B""l"2; P"" 1 ^ hinder, from ""•D*-* ; 1*^1? wound, hence coiled animal, serpent, from rvip « winding. ji and 11 form also diminutives like the Syriac P, as 'V^X //V//e mr/H (/« //*e «y«)i apple of the eye, from l^'R; ynW\ (term of endearment, for ??*'^'*j darling, pious nation (horn. "I'L*" = "IL"' upright, pious). 5. Peculiar to this class of nouns is the termination *7", which converts a substantive into an adjective, and is added especially to numerals and names of persons and countries, in order to form ordinals, gentilics, and patronymics ; e.g. > "p3 strange, from "l^D anything foreign ; W the sixth, from L"^ s/x; *?S1D Moabite, from 2X10; vXT^, Israelite, from 'N"?*-'"!. When the substantive i- a compound, it is commonly resolved again into two words, e. g. TP;"i? Benjaminite, from i'!?'?? (for the use of the article with such forms, see § 111, 1, Rem.). Rarely instead of *7" we have, a) the ending *f (as in Aramaean), as v'3 deceitful, and in proper names, as "7p.? (ferreus) Barzillai ; and, Z») the corresponding n— , as I"U3? (P ro P- milky) white poplar. 6. Abstract nouns formed from concretes by the addition of H-1 and TV— (comp. the Lng. termina- tions dom, hood, ness, etc.); e. g. rilS/'P kingdom, immediately from *"|?0 ; JWDpK widowhood, from 1??K, '"'J*??'*?, widower, widow; JV^KT principium, from Wl s= 8W1 princcps. (Sec the Verbals No. 16. ) Sect. 87. THE PLURAL. 1. The plural termination for the masculine gender is D*— , e. g. WD farte, plur. C'CflD horses, at times written defectively D— , as in Gen. i. 21, £3*30. Nouns ending in V take D\*— in the plural, as D V H?V Hebrews^ from "H^V (Ex. iii. 18), but usually a contraction takes place, as D*"tJV (§ 93, HE), E"*^ crimson gar- ments from "OS?. Nouns in PI— lose this termination when they take the plural- ending, e. g. T\)T\ seer, plur. D*Th. This ending 7,/i is also prevalent in Phoenician, c. g. D3T*' Sidonians, in Aramawn it is hi, in Arabic fin (nominative) and In (oblique cases) in JElhiopic un. Compare also the ending P in 3rd pcrs. pi. masc. of verbs.* Unusual terminations of the plur. masc. arc : o) Vt, as in Chaldec and Syriac, almost exclusively in the later and poetical books, c. g. ]'--,'- kings, Prov. xxxi. 3 ; ]'») days, Dan. xii. 13 ; defectively |U* islands, Eze. xxvi. IS. Comp. Judgt B Y. 10; Job xv. 13; xxiv. 22; xxxi. 10; Lam. i. 1 ; and other pi. * On the connexion between all these endings, see Dietrich's Abhandlvngen zur II . Orammatik, Leipzig, 1846, 8vo., p. G2. Ill PART ii. PABTfl OF BPBBCH. — CHAP. III. NOUN. /, \- (with D ni off, u in cluaJ *TJ for DHJ, Bee. xiii. I8j comp. the Mnilr. */. § 89, 2), e. g. »tfp ,; s . 9, fox D'|9 if i' i« nol to be wiill- □ o ; "-V peoples, 2 Sum. xxii. 44 (yet in the parallel pa , P •■ kviii. 14, we have oy, bul the other form in Lam. I Ii. 14, ana Pa. cxliv. 2). Thia ending ia, however, doubted by some in these single passages (aee also 2 Sam. xxiii. 8 ; comp. 1 Chron. \i. 1 1 ; l Bam. u. 88 K"thil>h) or in general, see Qeseniua's Lehrgeb&ude der Heb. Spra M re doubtful still is — , ' like the oonstr. state in Svriac , Here are reckoned, e. g. s Tin while cloths, Is. xix. 9; *jp for —-:■• icm, Judges V. 15; 'JWO windows, Jet. xxii. 14. Yet this last is perhaps dual (§ 88, Rem. r too windows, 'i?' may be my princes with suff.), and *r in HhI may be a formative syllable. Purthi r 'Wkfl, in Is. xx. I, is constr. St., but the *T belongs to the stem in *31J locust-swarm, Nah. .ii. 17 (from ^33) : and in 'Y^ (= ^ ; after the form ^»3) Me Almighty; finally, in »3V1£ Me Zo«* ;>. my forrf, from D'j'lB forrf) it is originally a suffix ; see § 121, Rem. 4. ,/ D— , obsolete and rare e. g. n33 = D' , !l3 flics, D^D ladder (from /?D) (prop, steps), comp. our stairs* 2. The /?wr. rvnxa. Feminines in rv— form their plural in HI*— and those in TYI, in HI*— e. g. HHV'P aw Egyptian woman, plur. ffl^Vp ; rttj?^ kingdom, plur. TWyfo. These plural terminations have, however, for their basis, the endings HJ— and TV— in the singular with double Yodh. It is only from a disregard of the origin of the terminations H-l and IT— that some words ending with the same, form their plural by the addition of B*T> e. g. JV3n spear, plur. D s CP3n and nMV$J; J113T whoredom, plur. D'flttT; D*rM3D?K widowhood, and many other instances. Strictly in the manner of the Svriac is the formation of the plural m*iy (ed1i e -voth) laws, with Fat 1 as a consonant, from the singular rrtTJ. This ending HI (-6th) stands for -dth (as it sounds in Arab., iEth., and Chaldee, see on the change of d to 6, in § 9, 10, 2), and -dth is properly only a longer and stronger form of the singular- ending dth [§ 80, '2). The strengthening is intended to denote the plural. But this ending is then by a further application appended also to such nouns as have not -dth in the singular. For the changes of vowels occasioned by the addition of the plural endings, see §§ :»■_>— 05. 3. Words which are of two genders (§ 80, 2, h, and § 107, 3) have often, in the plural, both the masculine and feminine terminations, e. g. ^S3 soul, plur. D*C'£J and rVH7fi3: both tonus may be employed as masculine and feminine, but their gender must be determined by observing the usage of the language in respect to each word. This is also true of several other words of both genders and both isc. and fern.) terminations, c. g. *rn an age, mase., plur. D^YPI and HTTP!; rw a year, fern., plur. DT and fTD0. The gender of the singular is here retained in * See the adverbs in D~ § 100, 3. Dietrich loc. cit, p. G6. § 88. THE DUAL. 145 both the plural forms, e. g. < HK masc, a lion, filHK masc, Zeph. iii. 3, filTH masc, Job xlii. 16. Sometimes usage makes a distinction between the two plural forms of the same word. Thus, D^PJ days, and D'iB' years, are the usual, but TWW , JTOp* the unfrequent and poetical forms. This distinction appears especially in the use of several words which designate members of the human body. The dual of these words (see § 88) is employed as the name of the living members them- selves, while the plural in ni (which is here regarded as neuter) represents something similar, but inanimate; e. g. 0*?? hands, m33 handles, manubria ; O)^? horns, ni3*}j? cornua altaris ; E'J'JJ eyes, fliyy fountains. 4. A considerable number of masculines form their plural in HI, while many feminities have a plural in D*— . The gender of the singular, however, remains the same in such case; e. g. %X father, plur. rVDX; UW name, masc, plur. Hlft^; on the contrary, Plpp word, fern., plur. D^pp; ^?£) concubine, fern., plur. D*$j?3, etc. 5. It is chiefly only in adjectives and participles that Ave iind the plural-endings regularly and constantly distinguished according to the gender, e. g. D*21D boni : HOMO bonce; Dvpp masc, ffiTlpb fern. So also in substantives of the same stem, when the difference depends on sex, as D*0!l filii, JTD21 filice ; ^^hfo reges ; JTDSt? regincB. Rem. 1. In some few words, there is added to the plural form in ni the other termination of the plural D*7 (before the genitive *—, comp. § 89, 2), or that of the dual D?— ; e. g. HD3 height, plur. niD3, construct state *niD3 ; ?WB> *W&$1Q Jrom the head of Saul, 1 Sam. xxvi. 12; noin wall, plur. niDin (mania), D)niOin double wall. This double designation of the plural appears also in the manner of connecting suffixes with the plural forms in ni (§91, 3). 2. Some nouns are used only in the plural, e. g. D'np men (in the iEthiopic, ting, »f Up, D?H3b> both lips, and the H of the termination TV- 1 remains, as fijfrp, dual D*WPti double fetters. The vowel-shortening in the noun upon the addition of the dual-ending is rather greater than in the plural, particularly in the segholate forms (§ 84, 11), as IK; taut II. PABTfi "i BPEECH. — CHAP. in. NOUN. Sn foot, /.////■. D^J*}, '///'// D$fli yet DjiljJ ia used as well as D^ from flj3 /wra, D^n 1, from 'JTp ,•//,,/•. Rem, l. l ausual forms of the dual, mostly occurring only in proper names, are: «) V.4- and oontr. ir- »a 1!^ (i! "- *»▼"• 17 - ;i,1(1 ^ a Kin ga vi ' l8 (*""■ nrtme . K ^ nif y in ^ two wells); b) D7 and D*7 M Cry, Dj}J| (pr. »om«)j D s ;L' : /Vo in the combination ~&V D*3«p twelve; c) *7 (with D CSS) off), 'TJ E«e. «ifi. 18, perhaps also *3ffn (double^ window) Jer. xxii. 14. 2. ( )ulv Beemingly dual are the words D?9 n>afcr, DW'kw, Dw n ! or 97^TJ Jerusalem. The former two aiv plurals from the lost singulars »0, ^ ; the latter is a lengthened form for the older tfcjft* it * temp, the shorter form D.:V ; Ps. lxxvi. 3, and the Chaldee D./r'" 1 " 1 -- 2. The use of the dual in Hebrew is confined, except in the numerals 2, 12, 200, etc. (§ 97), chiefly to sucli objects as are by nature or art in pairs, as D*T both hands, D^T« fof/i ears, £>W teet ^ 1 (used of the two rows), Dr>_V; paar of shoes, E^TN\b y^///' 0/ scales (Lat. bilances), or at least are thought of as forming a pair, as DOT ftpo (successive) days, biduum, D£tJ$ fwo years (in succession), biennium, ETC5* ftoo CM&lfe. In the former case the dual is used also for an indefinite plural, or a plural defined by a number, as D*SJ5 W six wings, Is. vi. 2 ; Eze. i. 6 ; D^SriSr^! all knees, Eze. vii. 17; tXyPTpfif cymbals, Ezr. iii. 10; ET£E> too fowls, Eze. xl. 43. For additional stress the dual takes also the numeral two, Amos iii. 12; Judges xvi. 28. For more remarks on the use of the dual, see in § 87, Nos. 3, 5 (Rem.). It cannot he doubted that the Hebrew, at an earlier period, made a more extensive and free use of the dual, and that the restrictions above specified belong to a later phase of its development. The ancient Arabic forms the dual in the noun, pronoun, and verb almost co-extensively with the Sanskrit or the Greek ; but the modern Arabic omits it almost entirely in verbs, pronouns, and adjectives. The Syriac has it only in a couple of words, but yet without living force, somewhat like the Roman forms umbo, duo. In like manner, the dual is lost in the newer East-Indian tongues. On the German dual, see Grimm's Gramm. I. S. 814, 2 Ausg. ' Sect. 89. the genitive and the construct state. 1. The Hebrew has no longer the living use of case-endings,^ but indicates the n lotions of case, either by no outward means, as that of the nominative and generally also of the accusative, or by prepositions (§ 117); but the genitive relation is indicated by a close connexion between two nouns. The noun, which Bervea as genitive to limit the other, remains unchanged, and is only uttered in Gesenii Thesaurus Ling. Hebraic, p. G2d. f On some traces of obsolete case-endings, see § 90. § 89. THE GENITIVE AND THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 11 7 more close connexion with the preceding nomen regens. In consequence of this connexion, the tone hastens on to the second (the genitive) of the two nouns,* and the first is therefore commonly shortened, by changes partly in the consonants, but chiefly in the vowels (when changeable), e. g. TH word, E'n?X "1?^ word of God, literally word-God (where Ave reverse the order, as GooVs-word^ like fruit- tree); T hand; J?1?n T hand of the king; ^"D^ words, C>H **W words of the people. Thus in Hebrew,-) - the noun which stands before a genitive suffers the change (when there is any) by which this relation is indicated, and in grammatical lati^ua^e it is said to be in the construct state, while a noun which is not thus followed by a genitive is said to be in the absolute st■ without any change in either noun. The close connexion in utterance is all thai indicates the genitive case. — Tr. I This fl— Stands in the same relation to the hroader vowel sound PI ,. , as that in the Imp. fl?| does to n... uf the Fut. rhi\, see § 75, Rem. 1. 14R PABT ii. PABTS OJ SPEECH.- CIIAP. III. NOUN. of the plural-ending P in the verb (§ 14, L, and § 47, Rem. 4). After the rejection of the », the ii,,, I vowel i of the plural-ending was strengthened by a foregoing a {Gima, in Sanskrit grammar), ..,, thai oi arose, which was then contracted to <■ (§ 7, 1, and §9,0). Instead of *r, the Syriac still • ■ to ii, brew, too, this form ma] be clearlj traced in the suffixes to the plural noun (§91,2). Of this the Old Testament, perhaps, furnishes an example in the form n# »pteq Is. xx. 4 (according to Borne, also Judges v. 16). It is obvious that the *r of the dual has come from *r. Sect. 90. TRACES OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS (PARAGOGIC LETTERS). PI— local, *t and 1 appended to the construct state. 1. As the Arabic distinguishes three cases by terminations, so we find also in the Hebrew noun three endings, which correspond in sound to those of the Arabic, but have mostly lost their signification. These endings remain only as obscure traces of a fuller and more vital organic development than the language exhibits in the Old Testament, where it no longer ordinarily distinguishes the cases by terminations. The Arabic case-endings are : -u for the nominative, -i for the genitive, and -a for the accusative (corresponding to the tbree principal vowels). In modern Arabic, these endings have almost entirely disappeared; and when they are now and then used, as by the Beduins, it is done without regularity, so that one is used for the other (Wallin, in Zeitschr. d. morgenl. Gesellsch. Vol. V., 1851, p. 9). Already, in the inscriptions upon Sinai, the regular use is not adhered to (Beer, Stadia Asiutica, III., 1840, p. xviii; Tuch, in Zeitschr. d. morgenl. Ges. Vol. III., p. 139) ; and even at present may be heard among the Arabs of the peninsula of Sinai, e. g. ammnk (thine uncle, nom.) used also for dmmik (gen.) and ammak (ace). The iEthiopic, likewise, has preserved only the a-, which is, however, still used for the whole range of the accusative, and, moreover (the distinction of case being dropped), as a termination of the constr. st. for connecting it with a following genitive. 2. The accusative relation is still very obvious in the toneless- ending PI— which is appended to the substantive — a) Most generally to denote direction towards an object or motion to a place,* (answering to our -ward), e. g. T\12t\ towards the sea, westward, <"013¥ towards the north, northward, PHIi^X to Assyria, Pl/33 to Babylon, P^HX to the earth, T]FFk-into the house; PITO to Gaza (from TO) Jud. xvi. 1; with the article, PHPIPI to the mountain, P1IV3PI into the house: TTT]i the rim- Gen. xlix. II; comp. I<. xxii. HI; Micah vii. II; Pg, cxiiL .") ;i, ;iiul other passages: in like manner it is found with many particles which are strictly nouns in the constr. st, as TIT)! ( = n7)T) besides, 'j*2 ( = p) f r0) "i ^? not, anaal). b) The ending 1 is of much rarer occurrence, in prose only in the Pentateuch, and that in solemn style, Gen. i. 24, j^K VVH the beasts of the earth for JVn ]""IN*; the same is copied in Ps. 1. 10; lxxix. 2; civ. 11, 20; Zeph. ii. 14; Is. lvi. 9; other cases are "iyi 133 son of Beor Num. xxiv. 3, 15, and 1^V£ D*fi fountain of water Ps. cxiv. 8, perhaps also 7YJ 1$$3 soul of the sluggard Prov. xiii. 4. The effect these endings have on the vowels may he seen from the examples given. The Pathach of the feminine ending fl— becomes sometimes vocal Sh e va, sometimes Qamets. Rem. As these two terminations *T and 1 have wholly lost their significance, they can no longer pass for proper case-endings : yet it is probable that once they as well as H— (No. 2) were so used in the living language ; for we find that the ancient Arabic had exactly corresponding endings, and like the Hebrew (see above) lost them at a later period. This is the case also in other tongues. In Latin, for instance, we find a trace of the local case with the same ending as in Sanskrit (in names of towns, ruri, domi, etc.); in modern Persian the plural-endings an and ha are ancient terminations of case, which are no longer so used, — not to mention the Germanic languages and the lingua Romana. Even in cases where the ancient Arabic attached, with stronger sound, case- endings to the stem, as in - 13tf , *2X, K3X (constr. st. of ^father), the modern uses all three forms without distinction of case. Hence also probably in the Hebrew constr. state *?S, *D£?s we have properly a genitive-ending, and in Chald. 33K, in Heb. MB (nS^-in)?), VC& $WOf ), «£ ^>KU£), a nominative-ending, so that ?K , 3? could more readily occur along with 7X-133, and *?-inx with Sect. 91. THE NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In connecting the noun with pronominal suffixes, which in this case denote the genitive of the pronoun (§ 33, 2, 6), we have, as in the verb (§ 57, etc.), two things to notice, viz., the form of the suffixes themselves and the change in the noun that receives them. Here we take up chiefly the first, as the second will be treated of under the inflexion of nouns in § 92. A general view of the suffixes is given also in Paradigm A. We exhibit the suffixes, first, as appended to the singular, and then as appended to the plural and dual of the noun. § 91. THE NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 1. The suffixes appended to the singular are the following: — 151 Singular. • :om. ■» — my. m. /• *| , ^7, in pause ^ )%• TO. n, l ; m-f, i, ri his. /• n. n- n— T ' r ' TV her. Plural. 1. com. «, fcf 2p' 1/ 1/ B?, D?7 DH, D— poet Ri Pi It our. your. th< ir. 1£- llcm. 1. There is less variety of forms here than when they are attached to the verb, and their use is as follows : — ■ a) The forms without a union-vowel are joined to nouns which end with a vowel, as Y?^, ;|n> ? { ? and 1-3S, !T?N M'3K, D? , ?t<, 15'?K D^nK, jn»3S, Yet it must be distinctly understood, that nouns ending in n— (see below, in No. 4) and H— (see letter b) do not come under this rule. b) The forms with a union-vowel (§ 58, 3, b) are joined to nouns ending with a consonant, which include the great mass. The union- vowel is usually a in the 3rd sing, i, fl (contracted from W7), fern. 1*7, and 3rd />/*/>•. O7, iE-r> I~ an d in these cases e is rarely used (e. g. -inTIX his light Job xxv. 3,) and almost exclusively with nouns in n— where the termination either blends with the union- vowel, or is displaced by it, as WW his field, rHb her field, ntf"10 her look; but "Hr, W-£, are the customary forms, while *>[—, -13-^- are of rare occurrence; see Rem. 2- 2. Hare forms are — Sing. 2nd pers. m. H3-i. in H323 My Aanr/, Ps. exxxix. 5; /* horses. Dp^plD ycwr horses. p^DID 7/t)«r horses. DrPplD MuvV horses. [JTpID Mc/r Ao»/v >. nioio ?//^/, tvidid //>// ///-/, Y^DID My ///-//•■ ?. ^hlDID My wian j. VniDlD his iih i. T nTilDID her mares. T irhlDID (»///• mares. D3711D1D ?/(>///• ///./,-, <. jp'jTIDID your man s. DITfiTWD M, //• // iHTilDlD Mt//- mares. Sect. 92. VOWEL CHANGES IN THE NOUN. 1. The vowel changes of nouns (to which is commonly given the Dame declen- sion), are caused, a) by a noun following in the genitive, b) by pronominal suffixes, c) by the plural and dual terminations; to which is added, again, the effed of ;i genitive following, or suffix. 2. The tone, in all these cases, is moved forward more or Less, or even thrown upon the following word. We here distinguish three cases, viz. — a) When the tone is moved forward only one place. This effect la produced by L54 r.\i:i' ii. PABT8 01 SPEECH.— CHAP. in. BTOUN. moal of the Buffixes for Bingular nouns (*— ; SJ— , '»]—; t, VT-J-; n— IT^-j U-; ; C t -, ID- 1 ), and by tin' plural and dual terminations, as lin word, H?"! my word, I'lnr. D^n-T; P)33, cfooZ D?fi}| /r/y/ V .v; l*fc enemy ,"^% plur. MJfc. The same applies to the //) JI7/(// ////• towfl 25 moved forward two places, as in the plural construct, and when the grave suffixes arc appended to the plural (D5*Tj ^?*t)- ^ n tn ^ s cise both vowels, if mutable, are shortened to the utmost, e. g. Dyn *T5^ words of the people ; D? 11 ""!^! your words ; DIT'IS^ their words. In Segholates, as they have the tone on the penult ima, there is here a difference. The suffix has not so great effect as the (heavier) plural-ending D^T, J" 1 ' 1 : the former leaves the chief vowel still under the first letter, as ^P ; but in the latter vocal Sh e va is substituted for it, but a Qftmeti is put under the second consonant, as Q' I ??P. Comp. § 93, 6. c) When the suffix is preceded by a semi-syllable with vocal Sh e va, which is the case with ^\, D2, p, also DH, |H, p (for which we have more commonly D— , }— ). Of these the first is a light suffix, and regularly affects the vowels in just the same manner as *— , 1, e. g. ^0^, "f^j *$?»• The others are grave suffixes, and have more effect in shortening the vowels, as DD*"]^, Eze. xiii. 17, etc., as is shown in the Paradigms. A similar effect is seen in the construct state of the singular number, as DwK' *&\, H^H WJ (from HXH), 3. The vowel changes in fem. nouns (§ 95) are not so considerable, the addition of the feminine-ending having already occasioned a shortening of the vowels (§ 94.) Most of the vowel changes, which form this internal inflexion of the noun, are based on the prin- ciples laid down in §§ 23 — 29. There are others, however, which are occasioned by the peculiar structure of certain forms of nouns exhibited in §§ 84, 85, 86. They are nearly all confined to the last two syllables of the word, the third syllable from the end seldom having a mutable vowel (§27 at commencement). There is a striking difference between the vowel changes in the verb and the noun. In the verb the second of two changeable vowels mostly disappears ('££, ! " 1 /Pl? T > ™Pi£)> in ^ e n o un tne fi rst P?"!* nrn, nnn^j), comp. § 27, 3. Changes of consonants are very few, and occur only in Paradigm IX. Sect. 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. Masculine nouns may be most conveniently arranged, with reference to their vowel changes, in nine classes, as in the Tables on the two following pages. See the necessary explanations in the pages which immediately follow these Tables. Yi e here only remark in general, — * About light and grave sufnxes, see Note on the two following pages. § 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 155 a) That all feminines without a distinctive termination (§ 107, 1, 3) are inflected like masculine nouns, except that in most cases they take the plural ending Hi; e. g. 2TI sword. Plur. absol. ITQ'TI, construct state ITDTI, which is also the form before all the suffixes ; see § 9.5. b) That, in the plural, light suffixes are without exception attached to the absolute, and grave suffixes to the construct state, as may be seen from the Paradigm. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns. I. Sine/, absol. conslr. Ivjht stiff. grave stiff.* Plur, absol. conslr. light suff. grave suff. Dual absol. constr. Sing, absol. constr. light stiff. grave stiff. Plur. absol. conslr. light stiff. grave suff. Dual absol. constr. (No vowel changes.) DID (horse) DID ♦WD DJWp D*WD *WD oyw? (two days) (old) R •JP! ii. D^iy IT ~ (eternity) a^npSa • i - | t : v (pair of tongs) V. III. (overs.'.r) TjJS •ype n;p;p • i- ■■. : (two weeks) (shoulder) *P2 C. ." T foonrt] nxn a:nsn 33 (k'»K) ITS awa w& *pSa D3w& a£:n IV. a. IT T (word) nil I * T r- t : apnyi B*SJ3 • i- t : (wing*) ♦633 VI. i.. ■ nag ayiep an&p nep nap ajneo (d.'ul'lo) b. D3H I T *aon •An (ttnctimn ) SHP 15hj3 D3?hj3 L. w If J ♦ehg ♦ana Grave suffixes aru those which have always a strong acct nt "r tone. Such are most suffixes of 2nd and :'r VIII. (eyes) (cheeks) IX. Sing, absol. constr. a. (enemy) 1 b. (name) 1 a. IT (sea) b. I- (mother) DM c. r* (statute) TO nth (seer) light stiff. I" : vt *J5H grave suff. DJTK D 5?^ D i??. DJ^ DDpn iv | : t Djjh Plur. absol. p : i i •• t«g» niaa D*j3Tl Dnh constr. I- : i rvto# *g! ♦J5PI 1 1" \ 2h light stiff. i- : i »ni^^ *£! ♦ritea *j5n ♦th i- grave Dual absol. constr suff. tgyft (pair of scales) Djyni&tf (nostrils) *2K IV " 1 " (teeth) IV |.. N conn IV " 1 Explanations. 1. To Paradigm I. belong all nouns whose vowels are immutable. Of course there are no vowel changes in this Paradigm, and it is inserted only for comparison with the others. pers. plural, whether joined to the singular, as M, |3 , DH, }n, but not D-, te^ Dp*T, i_'- but not IDS'; • The other suffixes arc called'//^. , or to the plural, as Q3*— , 'T~ § 93. TARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 157 Exs. "TV, top, &$, y'nr, (§25,1); Dg for DXfJ, II for T*J, (§ 25,2); 1133, p^V, pan, n^;-?, (§ 25, 3) ; KH3 for W3 (§ 25, 4). Here belong the classes of verbal nouns given in § 84, Nos. 6, 7, 8, 13, 26, 27. 2. To Parad. II. belong nouns which have a changeable Qamets in their final syllable, and are either monosyllabic or have the preceding vowels immutable; e. £. T hand. 3313 star. 131£ icilderness. O T ' T ' t : • With the suffix D3 we have the regular shortening, as in D2Jppiy, but "I* becomes EST (f r C~~; . and EH becomes DSP"*!; see § 27, Rem. 2, 3. There are some nouns which resemble, in form, the above examples, but which have an unchnny cable Qamets in their final syllable; and hence they do not belong to this class, B. g. forms like ^B, ^i?, (§ 84, Nos. 6, 13), Dj5 as Part, of verbs W, etc. Derivatives from verbs vb also commonly retain their Qamets, e. g. K^P , pfor. corutr. *$"$? • 3. Parad. III. embraces those nouns which have an immutable vowel in the final syllable, and a mutable Qamets or Tsere in the penultima as a pretonic vowel (§ 26, 3). Exs. Snj great, JTttJ ford, Dtty rfroiip, p&K (j?for. CM) faithful n , 98, p3sn hunger, JUST remembrance. The last two take in the constr. st. the forms pasn and jro?. T Here also are to be distinguished nouns which resemble the above forms, but which have an immutable Qamets before the tone-syllable. Exs. y^V for JTS8, P" 11 ? for p^n (sec verbal nouns, § 84, No. 7); also B^, />Jar. D^^ ; , Ex. xiv. 7. Many fluctuate, as yniv week; Bee Lexicon. 4. Parad. IV. embraces nouns of two syllables with Qamets changeable in both. For the changes in these vowels, see § 92, 2. Nouns of this form are very nume- rous. The influence of a guttural, especially on the form of the plur. constr., is seen in the second of the two examples given in the Paradigm. Other examples are: 3HT gold, 3JJ tail; with a guttural, M&jl guilty 3>H hungt r. In like manner are declined nouns of the less frequent form, Tttg, e. g. 33? h art. IpE* strong drink ; with a guttural, *W hair, 33tf grape. > A few nouns of this class take a segholate form in the constr. st. singular : c. g. Tpj , constr. st. TM Dcut. xxxi. 16 ; BJ»V, com*//-. j£v also l6lf 2 Sam. xvi. 13 ; T$P, COfw/r. TB^ and "U'L"; once follow, 1 by Makkeph, "|$ (for |3/») from |$ toAtfe Gen. xlix. 12; TJiJ, c©n*/r, TE) and TJ§ Dan. xi. 20; 107, constr. \^V. and |^ Ex. xix. 18 (comp. "I3| and 133 § 81. Nos. 10 and 11). Qamets is immutable in both syllables of Bnn for B^n, and BHB for B^l, § B4, No. 6. 5. Parad. V. is properly a mere variation of the preceding one. The final Tsere is treated like final Qamets in Parad. IV. except that in the constr. 8t. (j?| stands for }D|. Some nouns, however, take the segholate form (No. VI.) intheconstr, e. g. Pp3 shoulder, constr. st. sp? for t)H3; T[| //•. 1 1). Before Buffixes, and in the constr. st. of the plural and dual, they resume their original monosyllabic form and primary vowel (a, f, o) under the first radical, as v?/?» **T?P> *?HP- ^ ut the p^wr. ahs-p/. takes an a (in an open syllable, hence Qamets) immediately before the accented termination, while only a vocal Sh'va remains in the proper place of the stem- vowel (i. e. after the first radical), as "-jSs, plur. Errta. Comp. § 92, 2. These forms may be arranged in three classes, the first having A, the second /, the third 0, in the first syllable. The Paradigm exhibits, under «, b, c, derivatives of the regular verb ; under », but also in pause (§ 29, 4), e. g. tH3, and before He local (§ 91, 1), as i"l>"lS. In the Septuagint, also, the proper names like ?3H , riD.} arc uniformly written with A in the first syllable, \\[3e\, 'Ia also "^P v ; but generally ^4 appears, as in ^'EO., E5>K)Bf , 2"T1, especially in connexion with gutturals. There are, however, nouns of this form which take i instead of a, either because the a is short- ened (§ 27, Rem. 3), or because they pass over to the form "I??; e. g. 1?P.. (in pause, "IJD), H?i?, l>l. constr. *}.??; 19? j ^P? ; Pl>\ *i?"l¥; 1}?, ^11 1 ? (by way of exception without Dagesh lene in "1, hence to be read big*di, differing from *|?P); na|, ^rpT. At times both forms occur, as I/.,, *"!/2 llos. i. 2, and *£» Is. lvii. 4. Nouns of the form ^£, when their third stem-letter is a guttural, are pointed like n3T, ynr, y?P; when the second stem-letter is a guttural, like ?D3, "WJ (see Parad. d), seldom like DH>, without the influence of the guttural. It is to be observed, moreover, that in the hard combination (viz., when the second radical has quiescent Sh e va, and when the third radical in "^O would take Daghesh lene, as in '???) simple Sh'va may be retained here also, as in 'On? ; n the contrary, the forms corresponding to NrPP are always pointed as Tjyp', \?ru. 2. The form "1?D, n>'.3 (£, e ), when its first letter is a guttural, takes Seghol in the plur. constr. and before suffixes in the singular; e. g. ?JJJt, v?y, vjy. The monosyllabic form appears in Npn. With He local Tsere is retained, as ^?1?., from DTp.. Examples of this form are: ^?.V\ *H?.. 1'?". 3. The form BHp (c) sometimes, though not often, takes Qibbuts in the cases mentioned in the preceding number; e. g. ?V, fr}{ Ps el. 2. From 30p, though without a guttural, we have in § 93. PAEADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 159 Hos. xiii. 14 1?pi? r similar to E?^,? pddfckhem. From ?£9 (letter/) comes with suff. also 1/Bfl for ftgB (not from ^?B) Is. i. 31, and so also ngFI Is. lii. 14 for n«n 1 Sam. xxviii. 14, where the Qamets-chatuph supported by Methegh is lengthened to a long vowel; comp. § 63, Rem. 4. In the plural absolute, only few nouns have the form with Chateph-qamets under the first radical as it is given in the Paradigm; e. g. D'S^H, D"}^., nirnx ; most take simple Sh*va, as 0*^3 from ■»g3, D'nO") from npi, hence Dn'nO'l with Qamets-chatuph, but also N??P from "H^D ; two have Qamets-chatuph, as E^ijJ. (kd-dhd-shim) hence also with light suii'. "'4"]" ) „ ".^'71 v r"l"l '. lj ut also VKHjrnX and with the art. regularly DV7i?£ with Chateph-qamets) , and C'w'X" shu-ru-slum), with light suff. t»ehB>, n\eh$, from &$ (see § 9, Rem. 2). The word bntf has, by a SyriaciBm, D^nfe for D^pjj with light suff. ^n'K, *$?&, fftjfe (see § 23, 4, Rem. 2); but with a prefix and the article it is pointed as Dyn^a, in the constr. st., and with grave suffixes Vj 1 ^, DJ'/iJa' With He local the Cholem is retained, as npn'sn. 4. According to the same analogy, are inflected the kindred monosyllabic forms which have their vowel between their last two stem-letters (§ 84, No. 10); as E^L", with tuff. "--'-'. / . tOD, 7t?j3; 23^, »3?B> (thus the Inf. usually without Dag. lene in third radical, not like '9/9). 5. Only derivatives from verbs 1JJ and ''V change their form (by contracting the dipthongal aw and ag to 6 and e, § 24, 2, b) in the constr. st., as J"llO prop, maicth, contracted FnO. I; | ire lie local this contraction does not take place; e. g. n Pl?, "V./ 1 (except in constr. st., as HPr i "'P , 3). On the contrary, the middle radical becomes sometimes a consonant in the plur. abs., as E'V'^ri 6 85>JFI, niyy from |*y. This is the case even with such in which this radical has already becon vowel by contraction in the general form ; e. g. "1185', plur. D'TJ^'j "W, E*"TJ^; PWj D*jP)(J\ 6. Of Segholates from verbs H? there are also properly three classes, distinguished by the ./. / '. and sounds (§ 84, V. 11); e. g. '")S, *$, v7); in pause, ♦*}£, *$., vTi ; , tv y/, subset, *n*, ""\ V/C 1 ; *» the plur. and dual, D^TO, D^rf?, &*$£! . In the />/«>-., some nouns take N instead of I account of the preceding Qamets (§ 24, 2, c); as *?V, jpftfor. D'KnB, 7. To Parad. VII. (which approximates itself to Parad. II. ) belong noons which have mutable Tsere in their final syllable, and are either monosyllabic, or have their preceding vowels immutable. It accordingly embraces all participles in Kal (of the form A?p, not /l?j5), and those in Piel and Hithpael^ the form Ttpj? (§ 84, No. 9), and several others, e. g. 7j5fi sfa/f, "WID season, VT1?V /''";/< etc. The following deviations from the Paradigm are to be noted: o) Several nouns take Pathaeh in the constr. st. (as in Parad. V.); e. g. *1?PP, constr. st. 1BDD; especially with guttui -:":, constr. st. n2|p. 6) Before the suffixes which begin with a consonant occur BUch tonus as ~-~"'-. nono'io from nsio, r "l^p? from XD3, r as 1Djfe>. c ) In words of one Byllable, 7'v /' ia retained in the plur. ahsol., as the Paradigm shows; it is also retained in several words which are Dot monosyllabic, as D*#^, EJyTJpD. 8. Parad. VIII. embraces all nouns which double their final Btem-letter when they receive any accession at the end. This doubling may be either the result of a contraction within the stem, or more of a euphonic character. 'I he vowel pre- ceding the doubling is then short; and the syllable sharpened (accordingto § 27, 1 ). If the word is of more than one syllable, the vowel of the penultima conforms the principles which regulate the vowel changes; e.g. ?$ camdy plur. D^DJ, 7£?J 100 PART H. PARTS OJ SPEECH. — CHAP. III. NOUN. |fi1M wheel, plur. D*j)fi!K; t^I wheel, plur. D*7fTp|. Nouns of almost every form are found among those which are inflected according to this Paradigm. Whether a noun belongs here cannot, therefore, be known from its form, though its etymology will generally decide. Etymology refers to this Paradigm the following classes of nouns; viz., a) All derivatives of verbs y'y (K 85, H.), as /I, ID, P n , 1.??, etc., and primitives which follow the same analogy, as DJ, "in, L"X. i) Contracted forms, like *|K (for *|$, § 19, 2), with suff. teK, H3 (for JUS), W i7A «m/. **?, ny (for riny), p/ur. D'Fiy or niny. c) Denominatives, especially patronymic and gentilic forms in *"7, aa D*JPi D*J"pnj, though the forms DH•' ,, " , !, E" 1 "]?? are at least equally common, d) Derivatives of the regular verb (§ 84) under the following forms: 10. |»T; 14. tJB>D», IPDP ; 15. |3n$, |3?|, pfor, D*|$3J; 21. tfl$; 36. b§n?, wt'M sm/7". &»"]3, Db"in, jjfer. D'SBIPJ. But there are also words of all these five forms which do not take Daghesh in the plural, and those which are here adduced are to be regarded rather as exceptions to the prevailing usage. They are pointed out in the Lexicon. Before suffixes having vocal Sh e va as union-vowel (like ^\~, E?7), the Daghesh may be omitted ; the same vowel is generally retained, however, except that in words of the form pn it is more commonly Qamets-chatuph. Pathach before the doubled letter is either retained, as 3*1, plur. D*?1; or is shortened into Chirea, as flB, »ns. 9. Parad. IX. embraces derivatives from verbs IT? (§ 85, V.) which terminate in PI— ; as n|>* beautiful, P1X1 seer, riX'"l£p appearance. Only the changes which affect the final syllable PI— (which is treated as in verbs H?) are peculiar to this Paradigm, the vowel of the first syllable being treated according to the general rules. The original termination *r for which H— is substituted (§ 24, 2, and § 75, 1, Bern.) is often restored, and affects the inflexion of the word. Thus, with suff. T!??'? {sing., thy covering, which might also be expressed by 1&5P) Is. xiv. 11, T.?PP thy cattle Is. xxx. 23, "^"p thy form Cant, ii. 14, nn\N-p, Dan. i. 15, Gen. xii. 21, Vfyp his deed 1 Sam. xix. 4, »3P? my cattle Ex. xvii. 3, and so perhaps also ^V my maker Job xxxv. 10. But forms also occur in which (as the Parad. shows) the n 7 falls away, as ^?P» Gen. xxx. 29, -lrupO Gen. xxxi. 18. In the plural D\*n»lp (f rom nnpip for *npp Part. Pual), Is. xxv. 6. Sect. 94. VOWEL CHANGES IN THE FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 1. The termination H— (§ 80, 2) appended to a masculine noun, affects the tone of the word, and consequently its vowels, in the same manner as the light suffixes beginning with a vowel (see § 92, 2, a). The following are examples of the formation of feminines in the several Paradigms : — Parad. T. DID horse, fern. PID1D. II. NTO,/^. HNTO outgoing. III. SlIJ great, fern. n^ni. IV. DjJJ, fern, T®$ vengeance. V. jj3| old, fern. njj?T. VI. ^ § 95. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS. 161 fern. T\yfo queen; "tfTD, fern. PTThD covert; fT», fern. PITO delight; h$St, fern. rta\* / dtisb cojistr. Sing, absol. constr. light suff. grave suff. Plur. absol. constr. light suff. grave suff. Dual absol. constr. (lips) (corners) a D. a. (queen) (sides) b. (reproach) WTO nisnn » t -: ^teTO • i- t |: ■ (double embroidery) C. na-in it : t (waste) nsnn i~ : t Tinn i * t : t ninn i t t: ninnn i : t . T^TO Dirnimn a. njjjv (sprout) npjv rtpjrt; rtjpji; (cymbal) b. n /r7! (skull) " iv •• i : : \ d?Pt*0 ? (double fetter) § 95. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS. 1G3 Explanations. 1. To Parad. B belong those feminines which have a changeable Qamcts or Tsere before the feminine-ending H— ; e. g. Pl¥j3 end, nyy counsel, ^p"7V fight ness, PQ^Ifi abomination. It accordingly embraces the feminine forms from the masculine nouns belonging to Parad. II., IV., V., and several belonging to Parad. IX. For the formation of the new syllable in words having Sh'va (§ 2G, 4) before their mutable Qaniets or Tsere (which falls away by inflexion as in the Parad* PI|TTC), see § 28, 1. Compare ffati corpse, th^, irfett; rb$ a wain, Trr;. Many nouns of this form, however, take in the construct state, and before suffixes, the co-existing form in 1V4 or IV-t (§ 89, 2, b, § 94, 2); e. g. I" 1 ^?-^ kingdom, constr. st. HZPlbD, with suff. Tp7?2?; rnxfifi ornament, rn&£Fl; nH£*J'p family, tVt&fo, W5t^?. Qamets is firm in all nouns like nt?j», rnSfK (§ 84, Nos. 25, 28), esiMlr. s/. ni' : ,?3, rvi2TK. Tsere is also firm in most verbals of the form n "J?^, n /*l (§ 84, No. 13); but in others it is shortened, as in HpX^ (§ 84, No. 2). The character of the vowel, in each case, is given in the Lexicon. 2. To Parad. C belong feminines derived from the segholate forma ( Parad. VI.). These two Paradigms are also analogous in their inflexion, the plural absolute in both taking Qamets under the second consonant of the original form; e, g, l 3/9i mSi&; naSa, niata: nfcna, my*} iambs. • t : ' t : - ' t : ' t : - J t: Care must be taken not to confound with nouns of thifl class those f< murines of the same form which are not derived from Setjliolatcs, particularly the derivatives from verbs n? of the Form ^'V*:, ns")0, whose masculine form is ™V?, fN")*?. The first syllable of these nouns is immutable. 3. To Parad. D belong segholate nouns formed by the addition of the feminine" ending T\^- (§ 94, 2). These correspond, in the inflexion of the singular, to masculine Segholates (§ 93, Parad. VI.). To the examples in the Paradigm may be added, rnjlDp enclosure, TUJ&s letter, TTOWfo wages. Of the form 1SD, which is not frequent in this class of nouns, H^'S woman, u-ith tuff, *KYV% U an example. The same inflexion, however, is exhibited by Borne words ending in ~ • those in which this termination takes the place of n^-i ; c . g. rn) (for W^? . wM tuj "~~ in like manner, n.3y, *ri3^' (from the masc. 3L"). — nytlD takes with sutlixcs the form Many nouns of this class borrow their plural from the co-existing form in •"!— , PI— (Parad. B) ; as rVThia capital of a column, plur. rVPlTYDj fifHTjO ploughshare, plur. ftWTjb', nnim correction, plur. mnWlj T\y\VhS Astarte, plur. ninTfV. 1C1 PABT II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CIIAr. III. NOUN. Sect. 96. list of the irregular nouns. 1. There arc several anomalous inflexions of the noun, chiefly in respect to some particular words only, or a few analogous among themselves, which may be Itrst exhibited in an alphabetical list of the words in which they are found. They require the more attention, because, as in all languages, the words which they affect are those in most common use. 2. Most of these irregularities of inflexion consist in the derivation of the construct state, or of the plural, not from the absolute state of the singular, but from another wholly different form; precisely similar to what we have seen in the inflexion of the irregular verb (§ 78). Comp. yiW> yvvai/co?; vScop, vBaro<;. 2N (as if for PHN, from T\St&*) father ; constr. st. "^N, with suff. \3N (my father), Y$N, V1N, DMN,^Zwt\ HOK (§ 87, 4). r*t brother, constr. TIN, with suff. *riN, SpPJN, DJM1N, plur. constr. *!}«, dpTttt. All these forms follow the analogy of verbs TO, as if PIN stood for PIPIN from PIPIN. <~>J I T V T T T But the plur. absol. is DTlN with Bag. f implicitum (§ 22, 1), as if from PIPIN; hence TIN, *pPlN, Pl^HN, etc. On the form VPIN (which is invariably used instead ofVPlN), see§ 27, Rem. 2, b. *THN one (for *1HN, with Dag. f implicitum, see § 22, 1, and comp. § 27, Rem. 2, b), constr. st. HPIN, fern. HPIN for JT1PIN una (see § 19, 2), in pause HPtN. In one instance, Eze. xxxiii. 30, it takes the form *1PI (by aphoeresis, § 19, 3), as in Aramaean. Plur. DHPIN some. * t -: fflPlN sister (contr. for fflPIN, as if from a masc. IHN = PIN), plur. ffl*PlN, with suff. WHN (from a sing. ITtfN/m. from TIN), also ^HIPIN (as if from a sing. PIPIN). tf'N a wan, a softened form of G&N, B^N (§ 19, 5, Rem.); in the plur. it has very seldom E)^N, the usual form being D^JN (from #JN), constr. *8#N. Comp. n^N. Pl/pN maid-servant, plur. (with H as a consonant) fiiPlON, fiiPI^N. Comp. in Aram. [PON fathers. T\m woman (for PlEON, fern, from tf}N, see B*N), cons*/-, s*. MB^N (/«ro. from fcTN, for n^\S); wiVA suff. WN, *^N, pfor. D'Bfo, abbreviated from D'tfJN, eonafr. *#J. As those nouns, though primitives, follow the analogy of verhals (§ 82, 2), it is necessary, in order to under- stand their inflexion?, that we should know to which class of irregular verbs they respectively conform. § 97. NUMERALS. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 165 )V!1 house (probably a softened form from nj| (J|l33), § 19, 5, Rem., from ITJ| fo 6m/. Lat eex, ancient Slavic tkutji with l'2-\ Sansk. sap/an, ancient Per. hapten, modern Per. haft, Gr. fern, Lat septan [Celtic teacht, also scaM], our - with vfow (Aram. n^»Fi), Sansk. tri, fern, tort, ancient Per. thri, fern, Heard [Celt tri , Gt , Lai tree; with "inx, Sansk. il«i [perhaps also Welch ychydig, i. e. few] \ with " M -n, Sansk. pantehan, Gr. imn | .Kobe Welsh pump"], Lat. quinque [Gaelic cuig] ; with l'3"iS, Lat. ouafH or [Celtic ceatfar, also peatav-]; with r 1 ::- (Aram, |nn), Sansk. dva, Lat. rfuo [Celt doit, do], etc But a close analysis makes these appan at coinckli m 1 1 again doubtful (but not in the judgment of Gesenius, Ewald, etc.), because there is ■ great probability, on the other side, that at least the numerals O'.yS' (prop, folds), B>pn (prop, the five fingers) and TJ?y (prop, combination, multitude) are to be traced back to the pure Shemitic stems ~yS' to tend, to fold, to cka ~"'~ ' i eon- tract (comp. )'!?p, I'Df?) and X'JJ to bind together (comp. ~i?X , "IJ*J3 . etc. ) 1GG PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH.' — CHAP. III. NOUN. (6 L20). Only T?N " / "' (units), fern. HflX (una, sec § 96), lb construed as an adjective. Of the remaining numbers, eacli has different forms for the two genders, but usage employs the feminine form in connexion with masculine nouns, and vice versd. It ia only in the dual form for two, D^, fern.. D*W, that the gender of the Dumeral agrees with that of the object numbered. The numerals from 1 to 1.0: — Masculine. Feminine. 1. Absol. nnx T V Constr. Absol. Constr , 2. 3. rwhw t : T ^ ^S^ 4. 5. ntstori t • - : &tsn m T 6. nw nw #$ £*>£»> 7. 8. mas* T * T • V2& P5# 9. 10. t : * rrm The other Shemitic languages exhibit the same peculiarity in respect to the genders. For the explanation of this phenomenon the following observations may perhaps suffice. These numerals, being originally abstract stibstantives, like decas, trias, had both the masculine and feminine form. The feminine was the chief form, and hence became connected with words of the predominant masculine gender ; and the other form without the feminine-ending was used with words of the feminine gender, f Usage made this a settled law in all the Shemitic languages. The exceptions are very rare; e. g. OVJ ri^T^, Gen. vii. 13 (where the use of the feminine termination is mani- festly occasioned by the masculine form of the word 0^3), Eze. vii. 2 ; Job i. 3 ; Jer. xxxvi. 23. 2. The numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed by adding to the units the numeral ten (in the form *lbty masc., TVj&SI fern.) written as separate words and without a conjunction. In such as are of the feminine gender (masculine in form), the units are in the construct state, which in this case indicates merely a * Shortened from DMjlj)B> (according to others, it is for Wft'C'S with Aleph prosthetic, § 19, 4), hence the Daghesh lene in the 2ao. t In the vulgar dialects of the Arabic, and in the iEthiopic, the feminine form of the numerals is used almost exclusively. This form appears in Hebrew also in the abstract use of the numerals (Gen. iv. 15). It may be added, that the feminine form is very frequently used for expressing the idea of plurality, as in collectives; see $ 107, 3, d. § 97. NUMERALS. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 167 close connexion, not the relation of the genitive (§ 116). These numerals have no construct state, and are always construed adverbially. In the first two of these numerals there are some deviations from analogy : the third shows the manner in which the rest are formed. Masc. *■ T T 12. f^ ^" T T 13. W SM0 Ft n i. i"H^ nriK nx»!i •©w nntry D*M^ Unusual forms are ^'V ntPOp fifteen, Judges viii. 10; ll"y n:b"j : eighteen^ Judges xx. 25. Here the masculine too has the units in the constr. state. 3. The tens from 30 to 90 are expressed by the plural forms of the correspond- ing units (so that the plural here always denotes ten times the singular); as D»B>W 30, -D^STIX 40, DOT] 50, DW 60, W3}& 70, D*±0 80, D^JJI 90. Twenty is an exception, and is expressed by D**lbty, plur. of "it'V tenA They arc of common gender, and have no construct state. When units and tens are written together, the earlier writers commonly place the units first (e. lt. tiro a, id twenty, as in Arabic); but in the later writers the order is almost invariably reversed (tiventy and two, as in Syriac). Exs. Num. iii. 39; xxvi. 11; 1 Chron. xii. 28; xviii. 5. The conjunction is always used. The remaining numerals are as follows : — 100 riXft fern, constr. TWtfo, plur. TfltOb hundreds. 200 DTlXft dual (for D^ttttp). 300 maa B^, 400 nifci' JWJK, etc. 1000 *)hk, constr. P)Sx, plur. D*|DK thousands. 2000 D£?K tfaaJ. 3000 h'sha n^?V. 4000 d^Sn* wsnK, etc. •t-: v :' • t -: - - t - i * The etymology of this word is obscure. R. .Tana explains it by iT/."V Ti" iy to tweh - t<>/,r,lr,, an expression like undeoiginti, but yet not so passable bare. Besides, this explanation would properly apply only to the /em., whereas the masc. also has IK'K, '^V'V. where we Bhould expeel "fy) '-'-."V I or ~-"V , -'-" ~V> or else must assume an inaccuracy. Others explain thus ■ something thought of in addition to tt ", fr.'in ni"y to think. f The plural forms lPX"!?, O^Ti.'', D^'H, from the Se^hnlates -fc'V, V-^' : . 1'L* : tH, take in t!.e absoluts state the shortened form, which, in other words of this class, appears first in the construct .-tate. Analogy reouii li;s part H- PABT8 of BFBZOH. — CHAP. IV. PAETICLE8. KHMM) f rQTi, bul in later books, Nim (prop, multitude = myriad), pi. HINTl, (contracted TYD"}) iri 20000 tW©1 dual. 30000 nixin vhy, 400000 nixiri yrix, etc. Rem. 1. The dual form occurs in some of the units, with the effect of the English fold: as D;ny:ns fourfold, 2 Sam. xii. 6; D?0V?^ sevenfold, Gen. iv. 15, 24; Ps. lxxix. 12. The plural nnnx [ comp. Welsh ychydig] means some, some few, and also the same {iidem) ; mX'J| decade (not efeam), Ex. xviii. 21, 25. 2. The suffixes to numerals arc, as with nouns, prop, genitives, though we translate them as nominatives, as DDJXW you three, prop, your triad. Sect. 98. NUMERALS. II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. The ordinal numbers from 2 to 10 are expressed by the corresponding cardinals with the termination *T (§ 8G, No. 5), besides which another *— is also sometimes inserted in the final syllable. They are as follows : 0#, »B*W, IfTl, *«$*!, and W?n, W, VX>, 7£2>, W^, n^y. The ordinal /rs* is expressed by pi^N"! for pBfyn, from S^Nl Agac?, beginning, with the termination |1 (§ 86, No. 4). The feminine forms have the termination JV— rarely HJ— , and are employed also for the expression of numerical parts, as JT2$?H fifth part, IVTjftj and iTTJyy te?^A part. The same meaning is found also in forms like Eton yz/^/i j9ar£, V?"^ and JD"! fourth part. For the manner of expressing other relations of number, for which the Hebrew has no appropriate forms, see Syntax, § 120. CHAPTER IV. THE PARTICLES. Sect. 99. GENERAL VIEW. 1. The particles, in general, serve to modify the thought expressed by another word or words, and to exhibit more nearly the relations of words, or of sentences, to each other. They are for the most part borrowed or derived (§ 30, 4) from § 99. GENERAL VIEW. 169 nouns, a few from pronouns and verbs. The number of really primitive particles is very small. 2. The origin of those that are not primitive is twofold; 1) they are borrowed from other parts of speech; i. e. certain forms of the verb, noun, or pronoun, are employed as particles, retaining more or less of their original signification, like the Lat. verum, causa, and the Eng. except, away; 2) they arc derived from other parts of speech, either a) by the addition of formative syllables, like DBV by day, from DV (§ 100, 3), or most commonly b) by abbreviation occasioned by frequent use. This abbreviation is effected in various ways; and many of the forma resulting from it are so obscure in respect to their origin that they have generally been regarded as primitives; e. g. ^JNt only (prop, certainly, <■< rte) for pX. Compare in German, gen from gegen, Gegcnd ; seit from Seite ; in i! [orig. a particle of time) from Weile=our while; in English, since (old Eng. sithence), (ill, contr. from to while. Such words suffer still greater changes in the Greek and Latin languages, and in those derived from the Latin ; e. g. airb, ab, a; e£, ex, e ; ad, Fr. a ; aid, Fr. on, Ital. o ; su/jrr, ItaL su* In some instances the particle has been so much abbreviated, that it lias lust its character as an independent word, and has been reduced to a single letter prefixed to the following word, as is the case with the preformatives of the Future ( ^ 17, 1, 2); e. g. the prefix b from Stf (§ 102). That this reduction of a -whole word to a single letter has actually taken place, and is I regarded as a part of the process in the formation of the language, is evident from the tact, that in the subsequent stages of this process, as exhibited in the later Hebrew, tin i. and all the Shemitic dialects, such abbreviations become more and more Btriking and frequent. Thus, for * 1 ^, so early as the period of the later Biblical Hebrew, >" and even V" had come into use, and in Rabbinic authors the full form Tf^ very seldom occurs; the ^ of the Biblical Chahl- • later period became " ! \; in modern Arabic we have hallaq (now) from hdhoaqt t litk 'why: from li-ayyi-sheiin, and many more. This view derives confirmation from the analogy <>f tin \\ ■ languages. Yet the use of the simplest particles belongs to the earliest epochs of the Hebrew language, or at least to the earliest documents in our possession. It is not strange that the derivation of these particles, which often differ widely from the original form, should sometimes be obscure. This is the casr. however, with only few of thorn ; and it is but just to infer, that even in these some change lias been effected analogous to that which may be readily traced in others. 3. Particles are also formed, but less frequently, by composition; aa V^p * Even short phrases are contracted into one word, a g. German ZWOt from U id u-ahr (>l rst rrm). IfLjbrtUtm from fors sit an, Fr. pciit-etre. In the Chinese, most of the particles %n H rbl "r aooni ; ■ -'■ "'<■ to .;.'' as a sign of the dative; i, to make use of, hence for; ni'i, the interior, hence in. 170 PABT !i. PABTS OF SPEECH. — CFIAP. IV. PABTICLE8. when fan f for IjTVTj-ftt? how taught? i. c. qua ratione ductus? comp. rl jiaOwv; *"iy?3 besides, from 73 and '"#; Tb^U^b from above, from p, ?, nbyfi. More frequenl ia the combination of two words without contraction ; as I? *"!![}*?, *? ^n, *? cx > Sect. 100. ADVERBS. 1. Primitive adverbs arc those of negation «? 7iot = ov, om, 7X = w, pX there [is] ?><>/, and some few others of place and time, as DG? Mere, TN Mew. These adverbs may at least, for grammatical purposes, be regarded as primitive, even if it be possible to trace them to other roots, particularly pronominal roots. 2. Examples of other parts of speech, which, without any change of form, are used advi rbially, are — a) Substantives with prepositions; e. g. *lfc?3 {with might), very, greatly; "IT? alone (prop, in separateness), with suff. H37 d alone (prop, in my separateness) ; rvilp ?n'M/w ; "1HX3 (as one), together. b) Substantives in the accusative (the casus adverbialis of the Shemites, § 118), comp. t))v apxvv, as ifctt {might), very, greatly ; D3X {cessation), no more; D1*H (Mzs rfay), to-day; 1T\\ {union), together. Many of these substantives very seldom exhibit their original signification as nouns, e. g. 3*3D {circuit), around; others have wholly lost it, as 13? {length), long ago ; Tiy {repetition), again, farther, longer. c) Adjectives, especially in the feminine (which answers to the neuter), as [3 recte, ita (prop, rectum), Pl!ll#&0 {primum) at first, formerly, H31 and H31 much, enough, fflN?33 wonderfully (prop, mirabilibus, sc. modis), rVJB* Me second time, JVrtJT Jewish, i. e. in the Jewish language. rf) Verbs in the Infinitive absolute, especially in Iliphil, which are also to be regarded as accusatives (§ 130, 2); e. g. ri3*in (prop, doing much), much. e) Pronouns, as HT (prop, this = a£ Mis place}, here. See a list of the adverbs most in use, with their meanings, in § 149. 3. Other adverbs are formed by the addition of the formative syllable D-7 (more seldom D— ) to substantives, as EJEiJ anc l ^JfiX truly, from jfcN truth ; D3H (for thanks), gratis, in vain, from )H ; DfiV £?/ day, from D"P ; CXH3 for D^nS *w a twinkling, from J?H3 twinkling. The termination O7, D— , occurs also in the formation of substantives like P, I7 (§ 84, No. 15); e. g. Dr"|S and l'v*19 ransom, Xvrpov, 0?p forfefer (from ??p). Such forms might therefore be § 101. PREPOSITIONS. 171 regarded as denominative nouns used adverbially. But the D7 is more probably nothing else than the obsolete plural-ending of the noun (mentioned in § 87, 1, d), and these adverbs are properly nouns in the accusative plural, hence D JOX like E^Tv'P as adv. in Ps. lviii. 2, Dsn^ like Lat. gratis, i. e. gratiis. 4. Adverbs formed by the abbreviation or mutilation of longer words; such, for example, as ^]tt only (prop, an affirmative particle, certainly, from jDX, Chald. ppH, *50)i an( l especially the interrogative H, e. g. N/H nonne? E^n nam etiam? which originated in the fuller form 7?1 Deut. xxxii. 6. This H is pointed, 1) generally with Chateph-pathach, as FipV"^ hast thou sit? (see the examples in § 153, 2); 2) usually with Pathach and Daghesh forte (like the article) before a letter that has Sh e va, as j??n Gen. xvii. 17, xviii. 21, xxxvii. 32, once without this condition, viz., SP'IO in Lev. x. 19; 3) with Pathach (and Daghesh f. implicitum) before gutturals, as ^NH shall I go? nriXH (art) thou? 4) with Seghol before gutturals that have Qamets, us *?3$Q >t"»i tgo? ^W^J Has there? The place of this interrogative particle is always at the beginning of the claw 5. Some adverbs, involving a verbal idea, admit also of pronominal sufii which are here used generally in the same form as with verbs, viz., with Nun epenthetic (§ 57, 4); e. g. 13^ he (is) present ; ^X I (am) not; ^'N he {is) not; ^HHIJJ he (is) still; l*tf where (is) he? The same applies to }!"! and n3!"l behold I (prop, here, here is), with suffixes; as *3!iri, in pause ^3H and ^371 beheld me; ^H; 13H ; W3PI , in pause 'Obn and 133n ; D3H . Sect. 101. prepositions. 1. Most of the words, which by usage serve as prepositions, were originally — a) Substantives in the accusative case and in the construct state, bo that the qoud governed by them is to be considered as being in the genitive, which is actually indicated in Arabic by the genitive-ending: compare in German statt (lessen, in Latin hujus rei causa, gratia.* Exs. 7HX (hinder /nut'*), behind, after; ¥N (side*), close by; p? (intermediate sp< tee, midst*), between; "1*3, "1*2 {interval of space, distantia), behind, about; IT? 5 !! {remoteness, absence), besides; |PJ (purpose), on account of; 711b before, over against; p {part), from, out of; TJJ (that which is before), before, over against; TV {progress, duration 9 ), during, until; 7$ (upper part), upon, over; DV {connexion, also HEtf, A^iy), with ; HHp (under part*), under, in jilitce of. * In these examples, the signification of the noun is put in parentheses, ami marked with an a^f> ri«k when it i* still in use. On a similar feature in other languages, see W. Von Homholdt uhrr du Kawiapnukt, Bd. III.. | 172 PART II. PABT8 OE BPEECH. CHAP. IV. rARTICLES. b) Substantivea in the construct state with prefix prepositions (spec, the insepar- able)* as ^3? (in face "/'), before; *£>?, *ffp (in accordance with the mouth, i.e. the command*)^ according to; 7?JQ (in consideration), on account of, |y&? (for the purpose), on account of. 2. Substantivea used adverbially very readily take, in this manner, the con- struction of prepositions; e.g. v33, pstt, D3X3 (in the want of), without ; TREp (tin ///<• continuing of), during; H?, 1? (/^* the sufficiency of), for, according to proportion. Sect. 102. PREFIX PREPOSITIONS. 1. Of the prepositions given in the preceding section, [ft is frequently written as a prefix, yet without wholly losing its Nun, which is represented by a Daghesh forte in the following letter, as *)V*ti from a forest. On the ways of using IP, the following particulars should be noticed. Generally it stands entire and apart only before the article, as )"$>} IP, also, in particular before feeble letters, as TN'IP Jcr. xliv. 18, 'P9 IP 1 Chron. v. 18, and elsewhere in the later books (like the usage of the A r a m aean) : there is besides a poetical form *?D (comp. § 90, 3, a). More generally it is prefixed (as in E^P) by means of Daghesh forte, which can be omitted only in letters that have Sh e va (according to § 20, 3, b); before gutturals it becomes P (according to § 22, 1) e. g. Q^P, cyp ; before n also P, as fine, Din? Gen. xiv. 23. 2. There are also three other prepositions, the most common in the language, which have been reduced by abbreviation (§ 99, 2) to a single prefix consonant with the slightest vowel (Sh e va); viz. — 3 in, at, on, with (from 1V3, *3), 7 towards, to (from ?X), 3 like, as, according to (from j?).* On the pointing of these [inseparable] prefixes we observe — a) They have strictly Sh e va, which is, however, changed according to the remarks in § 28, 1, 2, thus, *T?7 to fruit, l T|*3 as a lion ; and before feeble letters it follows the rules in § 23, 2, and § 24, 1, a, e. g. "ibVQ for "fo$£, rn-isv^. b) Before the article they usually displace the n and take its pointing, as ||3 for ||H3. in (he garden. See § 35, Rem. c) Immediately before the tone-syllable, i. e. before monosyllables and words of two syllables that have the tone on the penultima, they have also Qamets (§ 26, 3), yet not always, but only in the * Of the derivation of ? from ?X, there is no doubt; and }X itself may be derived from a root meaning to approach (Ileb. and Arum. T\V? i N'lS adhcesit, Arab, vl accessit). On the derivation of 3 from JV3, Aram, also ♦3, prop, in the house, hence, in (not from "3 between), see Gesenius's Ilcb. Lexicon: 3 (from J3) signifies prop. so, doubled 3 — 3 as — so. § 103. PREPOSITIONS WITH SUFFIXES. 173 following cases, a) before the Infinitives which have the fore-mentioned form, as nnp for to give, r*7f f or tojudtje, rn?7 for to bear, except another word (the subject or object belonging to it § 133) becomes subordinate to the Inf., H^? Num. viii. 19, n ?P'? Judges xi. 26; /J) before many pro- nominal forms P1T3, fl$, nj3; TOMS like these; particularly D33, C2J5, D23; and CH3, Dr6, cna (see § 103, 2); y) when the word is closely connected with the foregoing and not the following, e. g. i"l£? ns mouth to mouth 2 Kings x. 21, D?P? D)P J*3 between water and water Gen. i. 6, particularly at the end of a clause; see the instructive example in Deut. xvii. 8, likewise nv:J> to eternity, but D'O*? PI5t3? fo «// eternity Is. xxxiv. 10. rf) With the interrogative ^O they are quite closely joined by means of Pathach and Dagheth as n©3 by what f n?33 fora; mucli? Tm? (Milel) for what t whyt Comp. the Van oonvernot of the Future (§ 49, 2). Before gutturals HD? is used instead of """3?. Rem. The word •"'in*, which has not its proper original vowels (probably ^] we find , ~" : '-' 3. It is but seldom that prepositions take the verbal suffixes, as "^d 2 Sam. xxii. 37, 10, I s1 (for which we find Win in Ps. xviii. 37, 40, 48), nfnnn Gen. ii. 21, and 73(3 I xxix. 11 (here for the sake of rhyming with *3E»-lt5^). But in these cases the form of the sutlix may be certainly accounted for in this way, that the idea of direction whither is implied, s '-* ward 2 Sam. (as above), which is somewhat different from *5WI under me, R|{*£5 in its place [** he put flesh in-to its place"), "^l?? around me hither. 2. There is a tendency to obviate the extreme brevity and lightness of the forma resulting from the union of the prefix prepositions (^ L02) with the suffixes, especially with the shorter ones, by lengthening the preposition. Hence to - a appended the syllable ID, and ft? is lengthened into |$& (prop, a parte, from tin- side of — ), and for 3 and 7 we have at least 3 and 7 with full vowel ( § L0&, 1 . . 1 7 1 PART II. TARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAT'. IV. TARTICLES. a) 7 with pronominal Buifixes: Sing. Plur. I, ,U| to me. ^7 to us. fm. T?, fti?, in pause T?"l , DD7, "1 *-{/. * }*** I? 1 ?, n ? ^} to ^- > fm. 17 to Aim. CD7, Pl!3Pn, poet. ID 1 ?*! •H/. **jut. $f " ' r"' em - 2 takes suffixes in the same manner, except that for the 3rd per s. plur. we have both DrO and D3, /em. p3, but not 1JB3. 5) 3 with pronominal suffixes : aS7??//. P/wr. 1. TflajJ ^ 7. ti1D3 flS W7*. ft fro. STUMl . D33, seldom Q3Ub3l 2 J . ' T > as thou. VT fas ye. n Cm. ^Washe. DH3, TO. DMUM! 3.^ , , " T ' '•' T ' Us MD3, ^X, which the LXX have rendered &oi), lHi. 8 (in reference to the foregoing )-\)^ his generation, i. e. He and his like). The same is true of TD^ for Drrbj? ; see Job xx. 23 (in reference to the ungodly man who, in the whole repre- sentation, vs. 5—20, is a collective, which obviously begins v. 5 with the plural DTJn) and xxvii. 23 (comp. at the beginning of the representation, v. 13, D s >*ny). More striking is hoty Job xxii. 2, in reference to "QJ man (human being). Yet this, too, is doubtless collective. [It is proper to remark, that the use of i»J> for the sing. "6 is still maintained by Ewald in his latest work, AusfiihrUehes Lehrbuch der Heb. Sprache, 5te., Ausgabe, 1844. The same is maintained by other eminent scholars. — Tr.] t Not }ro, which signifies there/ore. X The use of *3 for *7 here is simply for the sake of euphony. § 104. CONJUNCTIONS. 175 . i The syllable 10 in *31t33 (in Arabic NO — no what, prop, according to what I, for 05 /) is in poetry appended to the pure prefixes 3, ?, f, even without suffixes, so that 103, 1D2, 'iJDp appear again as independent words. In this case, poetry distinguishes itself from prose by the longer forms : in the case of IP it has adopted the shorter ones, resembling those of the Syriac. The preposition IP with stiff, makes -13Q0 from him, which comes from -in'iGp (according to § 19, 2, Rem.), and is identical in form with 1300 from us, which comes from •Ij'iO'p. The Pales- tinian grammarians wanted to distinguish the last by writing it 1300, but Aben Esra, with justice, objected. The form H3EQ always stands without Mappiq, and comes from JTTI&D, 3. Several of these prepositions, especially those which express relations of space and time, are properly plural nouns, like the Germ, wegen (for the ground of this see § 108, 2, «).* They occur (some of them exclusively, while others have also the singular) in the plural construct state, or in connexion with those forms of the suffixes which belong to plural nouns (§ 91, 2). These are — ■ *T!tt, more frequently ^HNt (prop, hinder parts), behind, with suif. always HpM behind me, ^HK behind thee, VJ1K, Dp^ritf , etc. "7K, poet, also vNt {regions, directions), towards, to, with stiff, always vN to me, P5 (interval of space), between, with suff. *J*3, *$*?, but also TJ*3, ^W9i «#?, QTlWa (from tM*3, JW3, intervals). \ti from, out of, seldom % 3fi (pfor. constr. st.), Is. xxx. 11. ^(progress, duration, from rny) as far as, unto, plur. H!J (only poet.), but with suff. also in prose always *Ttf, ^IV' ^TVi ^?^V (even the last with Qamets). 7J? w/ww, ci/^r, constr. st. of 7j^ /Aa£ wAjcA is aford (from H^i? fo go up), /•/ (only poet.) but with suff. also in prose always vV, ^vVi ^7?j ^0/?i *' "' which l^vy is also used in poetry. Witt under (prop. £Aa£ z<;/mc/j is beneath), with suff. in plural l WTPl, VriHH, but also in the singular Dfinfi . Sect. 104. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Conjunctions serve to connect words and sentences, and to express their relation to each other. Most of them come originally from other parts of speech, viz. — * Some of these words, which come from stems PP, viz., »pK vl?, *"J&, m.iv e, rtainlv 1"' fenced baell to ringnlar forms like vS, »pg, HJh but the analogy of the others makes it more probable thai tl yarded as plurals. Comp. the plural forms *)2 from |3; *jn, Wl., etc., from y\ 17<; PART II. PAETfl OF SFBECH. — CHAT. IV. PABTICLE8. a) Pronouns, as "lBto and *5 that, because, for, the first being the common relative pronoun, and the lasl also having come from a pronominal stem (§ 36). b) Adverbs, as tM (not), that not, DN (numt), if Also adverbs with prepositions ; v. tr. D*"lD3 (/// tin' not yet), before that; or with a conjunction added, us *$ ^ there is added that = much more or jhmcA fes$. c) Prepositions which are fitted by the addition of the conjunctions XW and *3 to show the connexion between prepositions; e.g. T^X |y* because (from [V! ) DV viii. 22, yet chiefly only at the end of a small clause, hence ABM Dm D» Gen. vii. 13, "!|?J31 D'npX 1 Kings xxi. 10. It is otherwise when the word stands in close connection with the following, e. g. ^2 1?^ B"K) VX Ps. lxxxvii. 5 ; and hence especially with monosyllabic words, the nature of which is to lean upon the following, as constantly HJJ, J"liO, N?1, DJ1 and others. Sect. 105. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Among the interjections are several primitive words which are merely natural sounds expressed in writing, as HHNI, HX ah I Ifl, *1K wo 1 HXH ho! aha! § 105. INTERJECTIONS. 177 2. Most of them, however, were borrowed from other parts of speech, which, by use in animated discourse, gradually acquired the character of interjections, as P or nri behold! (prop, here) ; PDH, plur. toll (prop. ;///v. [ m p. from 2BV) for «#0?9 the choice of thy valleys, i. e. thy choice valleys, Is. xxii. 7, comp. xvii. 4 ; xxxvii. 24 ; Gen. xxiii. 6 ; Ex. xv. 4. With the substantive ^3 totality for all; this is the usual construction (see § 111, 1, Rem.). 2. Instead of an adjective which is to stand as the predicate of a sentence, the substantive is sometimes employed; e. g. Gen. i. 2, the earth ivas desolation and emptiness ; Job iii. 4, let this day be darkness, Ps. xxxv. 6, lxxxviii. 19, ex. 3, Is. v. 12, Job xxiii. 2, xxvi. 13. More seldom the substantive takes a preposition; as in Ps. xxix. 4, the voice of Jehovah is 022 in poicer for jwwerfid. * A few adjectives of this kind, in the form of passive participles, are T11X of cedar, B^rU of brass, comp. crmeatus C\ve) when tin- female is indicated by the addition of the feminine-ending, as nx brother, Jlinx sister; E V young man, ~-~V oung woman; TS juvencus, TXl&juvenca; ^y vitulus, **?$ vitula; <■) when the feminine gender is shown only by the construction (communia), like ?; <'.»}-«<%•, as Ttt3 camel, m./■, Ps. cxliv. 11, where the cow is intended. Writers often neglect to avail themselves of the definite indications of gender given under a,b,c, where they exist in the language, and use less distinctive terms, e. g. T)£n and ?'X as fern, for Jinx and 'iS'X, 2 Sam. xix. 27, and Ps. xlii. 2; also IV? a youth for ~-\V)_, in the Pent, and in Rath ii. 21. ((imp. Job i. 19. Compare in German Gemahl lor Gemahlin ; in Arabic, also, the more ancient language avoids the feminine forms (e. g. n?jn mistress, nC'Viy bride), which are common in later usage. The same sparing use of the designation of sex appears also in other examples ; viz., )1EK mate. architect, Prov. viii. 30, where wisdom ^0311 fern, is meant (comp. ariifex omnium natura, I'lin. 2, 1); rip a dead body (masc.), spoken of the corpse of a woman, Gen. xxiii. 4, 6; E* n ^?$ for a goddess, 1 Kings xi. 5, like ~Eng. friend, teacher, and Lat. auctor, martyr. Among epicoene nouns are found names of whole species of animals, which the mind contemplated as masculine or feminine according as they appeared strong and powerful, or weak and timid ; e. g. mate, 3^3 day, 3«] wolf; fern. rUV dove, iTTDQ stork, "W- n3 ostrich, n33TK hare. 2. The most regular use is made of the feminine-ending' for denoting the femi- nine gender, in the adjectives and participles. See § 87, 5. 3. Besides objects properly feminine, there are others (nearly the same which in Greek and Latin are neuter) for which the feminine form is preferred, viz. — a) Things without life, for which the feminine, as the weaker, seemed to be the most suitable designation, as «0J side (of the human body), thigh, H3T side (of the country), region ; nV? brow, nnyp (/reave (from the resemblance). b) Hence abstract ideas, which at least decidedly prefer the feminine form, even when the mas- culine is also in use; as DJ53, FlDiM vengeance, *lty, i"HTy help (§ 84, 11, 12). Adjectives when used abstractly or in a neuter sense (like to ko.\6v), commonly take the fern, form, as H3bjl the right, Ps. v. 10; so also in the plur. tf\71l great things, Ps. xii. 4. c) At times the feminine form is applied, when a dignity or office is designated, which borders on the abstract sense, as riling princes (like hiyhnesses), ri?np concionator, comp. l"in2D as a man's name in Neh. vii. 57, Ezra ii. 55. Even the feminine plural, HUK fathers, appears to have some reference to dignity. These words are, however, agreeably to their signification construed with the ?nasc. This use of words prevails more extensively in Arabic, ^Ethiopic, and Aramaean, e. g. in Caliph H3vn. A remote likeness is found in Lat. magistratus, Ger. Herrschaft ( = Eng. lordship) for Ilerr ( = Eng. lord), Obrigkeit for Obercr, Ital. podesta, etc. d) Collectives, as rn'X wanderer, traveller, niTIS caravan, prop, that which wandereth for the wanderers; n?ia (from masc. lyM) a company of exiles ; naB*!' Is. xii. 6; Mic. i. 11, 12, prop, that which inhahiteth, for the inhabitants; HTS, Mic. vii. 8, 10, for the enemies. So in Arabic often. Comp. the poetic "ft H3 for "ft *33 sons— inhabitants of Tyre, Ps. xlv. 13 H3g n3=»BS \33 my countrymen. Examples of its application to tilings without life, •!>'# timber. ^W clouds, HPX cedar wainscot. Comp. to wnrucov and r) lttttos for the cavalry, i) ku/a^Xos (Herodotus I., 80). e) But on the contrary the feminine appears, as in Arabic, now and then to denote an individual of a class, when the masculine is used of the whole class, e. g. ^K ships, feet (1 Kings ix. 26, comp. 2 Chron. viii. 18), H'JX a single ship; Tyb' hair (collectively), i"nyb> a single hair (see Judges § 108. THE PLURAL AND COLLECTIVE NOT 181 xx. 16); so also Hjxri a Jig, HX3 a blossom (besides the collective P. Gen. xl. 10), and other instances. But the difference is partly overlooked in the Hebrew usage. 4. Many words (besides certain names of objects properly feminine, Xo. 1, a) are distinguished by the feminine construction, without the characteristic ending. They are chiefly embraced in the following classes : — a) Names of countries and towns, contemplated as mothers,* or nurses, of the inhabitants, e. g. "WK fern. Assyria, D"IX fern. Idumcca, IV Tyre ; so also the appellative nouns which denote locality, as fTK earth, ^38 the world, "VJJ town, V™. and rnx way, "IVH court, n$JD camp, ba'C under-wurld, P.3 threshing-floor, "H?? well, etc.; at times even DIP 1 ? />/«ce.f As names of people are commonly masculine, it often happens that the same word is u- masc. for the name of a people, and as fern, for the name of a country ; e. g. i"i"J'!T >■ I Is. iii. 8, /em. Judeea Lam. i. 3; CIX masc. Idumaans Num. xx. 20, /em. Idumea Jer. xlix. 17. But such a name is also even then construed as /cm., when it is intended for the people, and this from a metaphorical use (like the German Puhlen ist im Aufstande , Job i. 15; 1 Sam. x\ii. ~1\ ; Is. vii. 2 ; xxi. 2. J b) Members and parts o/ the body in man or beast, *V and *]? hand, '-"} / ; <<>/. |J8 eye, i'X ear, yitt arm, ji^y tongue, ^22 wing, DP. /, also Qg . a nd many others. Most of these words and ideas have the same gender in the kindred dialects. c) The w r ords for light, fire, and other powers of nature, as ^"01" sun. t-"X fire , A'.\\\. ■ I . TIH (Job xxxvi. 32), and so nN and "ASH Of^n, 3^3 brightness, IHx window. Gen. vi. 10, also [JTl icmt/ and spirit, CS3 breath and so«/, etc.|| Sect. 108. THE PLURAL AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 1. Besides the proper plural-endings (§ 87, 1, 2), the language employs Bome other means for the expression of plurality, viz., a) certain words, whose appro- priate signification is collective^ designating an indefinite Dumber of a class of ob- jects, and having their corresponding nomina umtatis^ or oouns which designate * Thus DN, 2 Sam. xx. 1!>, and on Phoenician coins, stands for mother-dig, uerpimoh* (comp. pw^p, muter), nn.l by the same figure the inhabitants were called sons of the Country, U sons of Z ion, Ps. cxliv 9 | • .bylon, Eze. xxiii. lo (comp. son of the house, ><>ii of the womb). ■j- As this word DipD is usually muse., we find also in the othera more or leu fiuctQatkn la the gi ndi r. I Here belongs the poetical personification of a people as a female, I dvii. ; 1. 1 ; li». 1 aeq. \ K/.wi.; I. am i. § Of the masc. gender in these noons the few examples are Vi" 1 * b. x \ i i . :>. pw Bi udx. 27, ;>' Zeeo hr, ]<>, ftih Ps. xxii. 16. || The particulars are found in the Lexicon. Sum.' of these words, moreover, b*\ linine-eodii nrm brass, nL"|T bow (from the stem-word L' : ip>, ny tone (for rvjg). Tl dj bow and then Bone tr u e d as masculine, from a misapprehension of their origin. 182 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. :m individual "I" the class, as *ft# an ox (an individual of the ox kind), *lj?3 oxen, e.g. TO PitS'bn five oxen Ex. xxi. 37, |NX s/waS catt?0, viz., staep or goats, T\& an individual of the same, a sheep or a good (comp. in Eng. twenty people)] b) the reminine ending (§ L07, 3, rf); c) nouns which bave the proper signification of the singular, but which are also used as collectives; e.g. DIK man, tffo human race Gen. i. 26, #*N collect, for m#&, "ETC words, ^1N the enemy for enemies. These words take the article, when all the individuals of the class are included (§ 109, 1 ). Comp. also § 107, 3, e. 2. On the other hand, the terminations which properly express plurality are employed in the expression of other kindred ideas, so that the Hebrew often uses plural forms where other languages employ the singular. The plural is used to denote — a) Extension* of space and time; hence the frequent use of it to express portions of space, regions, or places, D.*»B> heaven (§ 88, Rem. 2), D*»n» height Job xvi. 19, Tfbfp the place at the feet, nte'Snp the place at the head; certain portions of the bod;/, which are parts of its extension,! as D'PS face, O^NJV neck; spaces of time, as D*JJJ life, D^-iy? youth, D^pJ o&j o^«; and finally states, qualities, which are permanent, or of long continuance, as &*¥}% perverseness, O**?01 compassion, D'}M3E' child- lessness. b) Might and power, so far as these were originally conceived of as something distributed and complex (pluralis cxcellenticc). So particularly we find 0w£ : GW (whether the use of this word originated in a polytheistic view, and then passed over to the " God of gods," or in a monotheistic view, and as such was intended to denote God's might in its manifestations), then a few times D*BHp the Holy (God) Hos. xii. 1 ; Prov. ix. 10; xxx. 3 (comp. Jos. xxiv. 19, and Chald. prSy (he Highest Dan. vii. IS), and Q^S"1JH penates always in the plural, even when only one image is meant, 1 Sam. xix. 13, 16. Further b*jtyj==|ri$ lord, c. g. ntt'j? D^*l« a hard lord Is. xix. 4, fj^rj OIK the lord of the land Gen. xlii. 30; so also ?y? master with suff. often l/V? ^' s muster, pv^? her master. \ Rem. 1. The use of the plural, according to letter b, is very limited, and does not extend beyond the above words, which are used also in the singular as well. On the construction of these plurals with adjectives, see § 112, 1, Rem. 3; with verbs, in § 146, 2. On '316C used of God, see § 121 Rem. 1. 2. The plurals under a are also limited in common prose to few words, but in poetry there is a more extensive use of them, e. g. D^D tencbrce (of dark places), D , ?.?y j I 1 delicia, D*J*DK faithfulness, and many others. * By transferring an expression for numerical quantity to geometrical (comp. No. 4, Rem. 1). The language has other examples of the designation of great and many by the same word (see 2"}, D-I^T). t Comp. the same use of the plur. in ra ore'pwi, to. p&to, prmcordia, cervices, fauces. % Somewhat like is the use of ice by kings when speaking of themselves (Ezra iv. 18: vii. 24; comp. 1 Mac, \. l:>; xi. SI), a mode of speaking which is then applied to God (Gen. i. 26; xi. 7; Is. vi. 8). The Jewish grammarians call such a plural niniDH "12"! {pluralis tnrium or virtxavm); the moderns call it pluralis crcellcntia or plur. mqjestatUms. The use of the plural as a form of respectful address, as modern languages have it, is some- what different from the Hebrew u § 108. THE PLURAL AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 183 3. When a substantive is followed by a genitive, and this compound idea is to be expressed in the plural, it is done, a) most naturally by the plural form in the governing noun, as TH 'H33 strong heroes ; so also in compounds, as TPT19 Benja- minite, plur. *3*tt) *3| 1 Sam. xxii. 7; 6) m fo*ft, as D*7TI nS3 1 Chron. vii. 5, TD t 3 prison-houses. Is. xlii. 22, and hence DvN \)3, Ps. xxix. I, son* of G for sons of God ; c) even only in the noun governed, as 3X r\ s 3 family, htJN 1V3 families Num. i. 2 foil., CHJ£ *T? precious fruits Cant. iv. 16. On this remark, which has hitherto been overlooked by grammarians, compare also Judges vii. 25 {the head of Orel and Zeeb for the heads), 2 Kings xvii. 2!>, Dan. xi. 1">. Here the two words, by which the compound idea is expressed, are treated as a nomen compositum* The connexion with suffixes is also effected according to letters, as 15*6 08 .■'rum for ora eorum Ps. xvii. 10, DJPD) Ps. cxliv. 8, where we also can Bay their mouth, their right hand. 4. To the modes of expressing plurality belongs also the repetition of a noun, with or without the conjunction. By this is indicated the whole, all, every, as DV BV dag by day, every day, &H V'X every man, also Bfyfl w"N Ps. lxxxvii. 5, EXP DVJ Esth. iii. 4, 111} ^11 every generation Deut. xxxii. 7; hence distributively, as "Hj? TTtf "HS? £#c/j yfoc& &y ete^/ Gen. xxxii. 17: also a greed multitude, ■ with the plural form, Gen. xiv. 10; 1DH ni"lX3 ni1N2 asphalt-pits in abundance, nothing but asphalt-pits, 2 Kings iii. 16; Joel iv. 14; finally, diversity huts than one kind, as 73 signifies all and every kind, e.g. pNI J3N taw /binds . eomp. [a. i 25; D*X8 tign*\% timber (for building or burning). So of grain, as n\2n wheat [growing in theJU . -"~~ wheat in the grain. 2. Even in cases where the plural is regarded as merely poetic, we are to t onn< 1 1 with it tie of real plurality, e. g. Job xvii. 1, the graves are >»;/ i»>rtii>H, equivalent to gram -yard, man] being usually found together, xxi. 32 ; D"?! seat for sea Job vi. 8 ; COmp. tieii. x. * All tlic three methods occur alao i:> Svriac ami ^Ethiopia See Hoffinauni Oram. Sgriaea, i>. 254; I. Gram. JEthiopica, p. 139. 184 1'AKT III. SYNTAX.— CHAP. I. SYNTAX of THE NOUN. Sect. 109. USE OF THE ARTICLE. The article ('H, H, § 35) was originally a demonstrative pronoun (as in other, e.g. the Romance, languages, comp. 6, r), id in Homer); yet its force was so slight thai it was used almost exclusively as a prefix to the noun. The stronger demonstrative force of *n {this) is still found in some connexions, as Ei'H this dag, to-day; fyj?"] this night, to-night; Dy9n the only, true God = ftp] (yet this Exactly so among the Attics, 6 \\0ijvdios, 6 2i>paKocrioy. § 110. USE OF THE ARTICLE. 185 -word DTlT'N: is often so used without the article, because it approaches the nature of a proper name, § 110, 1); T?3n the river, i. e. the Euphrates; *i22n the region around, viz., that around the Jordan. 3. Hence it is used also with actual proper names of rivers, mountains, and of many towns, with reference to their original appellative signification (comp. the Hague, le Havre), as "Tfc?n the Nile (prop, thv river), pttpPI Lebanon ( prop. fh> white mountain), ^yn the town Ai (prop, the stone-heap). But its use in connexion with names of towns is unfrequent, and in poetry is generally omitted. (Comp. ^ 1 1»». 1 ). Rem. 1. The Hebrew article certainly never stands for the indefinite article; but the Hebrew conceives and expresses many ideas definitely, which we are accustomed to conceive and ex] l indefinitely. This is most commonly ^Qtn — a) In comparisons, where fancy paints the image of an object, and causes a mure distinct pci'ception, e. g. white as the wool, as the snow, red as the scarlet Is. i. is. ,/•> 1 1, , cattle Ps. xlix. 15, he hurls thee like the ball Is. xxii. 18, (lie heavens arc rolled u/> like tit'* scroll xxxiv. 4; comp. x. 11; xxiv. 20; xxvii. 10; liii. G; Ps. xxxiii. 7. Instructive examples in Judges xiv. 6 ; xvi. 9 ; Is. xxix. 8. Yet where the noun compared is already made definite by an adjective, the article does not stand any more than when a genitive follows, "-111. but n?^*p }i?3 xvi. 2, comp. Ps. i. 4 with Is. xxix. 5. Exceptions arc rare, '"-'.' wi. 1 l, 2X3 xxxi. 18. b) In the names of classes of objects which are generally known, c. g. the gold, i . the cattle, the water. Hence Gen. xiii. 2, Abraham was very rich in the caitle, the silver, and t It < (/old, where most languages would omit the article. He had much, is thi II nception, of these well-known treasures. Comp. Gen. xli. 42; Ex. xxxi. 4: xxxv. 32; I-. i. - c) Often also in the expression of abstract ideas (like to unrucoV, la modestU . h< m e of plr and moral evils, as (he blindness Gen. xix. 11, the darkness Is. lx. 2, / // e falsi hood I-. xxiv 21. On these principles, it is easy to explain the use of the article in special in 1 Sam. xvii. 34, *"}$H the lion, as the well-known enemy of the flocks (comp. rw Xwtor, John x. [2 : 1 Kings xx. 36; Gen. viii. 7, 8; xiv. 13. The frequent expression I«*"J TH should not I latcd it happened on a da;/, but the day, (at) the time, viz., as referring to what pn 2. The vocative also takes the article, and for the most part in those Cases where it is U required; e. g. "1J0 ID 3 ? y^" in o O Joshua, high priest, Zech. iii. Bj 1 Sam. xxiv. 'J. Sect. 110. The article is regularly omitted* — 1. Before the proper mime of a 'person or a country pH, D?Tp?), : ""' :I '""' people, when it coincides with the name of the founder of the race or the nam * In these particulars (relating to the omission of the definite article, ris., 1" fore prop r i am in construction with a genitive or with a possessive pronoun, and before predicates), the osagc oi "ur language corresponds to that of the Hebrew. The same la true ofthe Celtic tongues, [a Greek, it b suite otherwu article being freely used in all these cases except the last. Ik. ISC, l'AKT III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. (heir country (Ks'-C", CHS). On the contrary, gentilic nouns admit it both in the sing, and plur., as D'Hliyn, the Hebrews 1 Sam. xiii. 3, *^2TI the Canaanite (collect, § L09, 1). 2. Before Bubstantives, rendered definite by a following genitive or a suffix, which renders the use of the article unnecessary; e. g. E*«T/§ TH God's word, *3X my father. When t lie article is by way of exception used in these two cases, some special reason can gene- rally be assigned fox it ; c. g. «) In sonic cases the demonstrative power of the article is required; as Jcr. xxxii. 12, I gate this bill of sale (^Jpsn "iDDrrn^) with reference to verse 11 ; Jos. viii. 33, Vyn a half thereof ; in the next clause Vyn^ the (other) half thereof , Is. ix. 12. b) "When the genitive is a proper name which does not admit the article (according to No. 1), as ^"n»3 nSJBil the altar of Bethel 2 Kings xxiii. 17, ^PVJ ^?n (he God of Bethel Gen. xxxi. 13, ~I1L"N "H/'?n the king of Assyria Is. xxxvi. 16; comp. Gen. xxiv. 67; Jcr. xlviii. 32; Eze. xlvii. 15 (comp. xlviii. 1). c) In others the connexion between the noun and the following genitive is somewhat loose, so that the first forms a perfect idea by itself, while the second conveys only a supplemental idea relating to the material or purpose, as '^.^ l??? the weight, the leaden one Zcch. iv. 10, riK'nsn n|TEn the altar of brass 2 Kings xvi. 14, rinan jhxn *6jfe>3 J os . iii. 14, Ex. xxviii. 39, pXH rfo^Dgrr^a Jer. xxv. 26. 3. Before the predicate, which from its nature is indeterminate, as Gen. xxix. 7, 7n| D1*n Tiy yet is the day great, it is yet high day; xxxiii. 13; xl. 18; xli. 26; Is. v. 20, XT] iW? Dn,!?Xn who call the good evil; lxvi. 3. Yet there are cases where the nature of the predicate requires the article, Gen. ii. 11 23EH N-1H it is the encompassing, i. e. that which encompasses ; xlv. 12, 12*ipn *B *3 that my mouth (is) the speaking = it is my mouth that speaheth; Gen. xlii. 6; Ex. ix. 27; Num. iii. 24. See another case where the article stands before the predicate in § 109, beginning. Sect. 111. 1. When a compound idea, expressed by a noun in the constr. st. followed by its genitive, is to be made definite, it is done by prefixing the article to the noun in the genitive; as HOiT?/!? WX a man of war Jos. xvii. 1, nDrfen ^N the men of war Num. xxxi. 40; *1|X> W a word of falsehood Prov. xxix. 12, K^H W the word of the prophet Jer. xxviii. 9. The article is put in the same way when only the genitive, and not the nomen regens, is definite, as flTJ'n nj??n a part of the field 2 Sam. xxiii. 11 (see on the contrary Jos. xxiv. 32, Gen. xxxiii. f§), n 9 "JSsJ ^"N a husbandman Gen. ix. 20 (on the contrary nnl" L' :, X Gen. xxv. 27). Yet in this case we usually find another construction, in order to avoid the ambiguity, see § 115. N.B. This explains the use of the article after Vs prop, totality, the whole. The article is inserted after it to express definitely all, tchole (like tons les homines, toute la villc), and is omitted when it is § 112. CONNEXION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE WITH THE ABJECTIVE. 187 used indefinitely for of all kinds, any thing, or distributively For every [tout homme, i toutprix] ;• e. g. QT^\}"^3 (ill men, pTKjT"?3 the whole earth, prop, the whole of men, the whole of earth ; but )3i<"73 stones of all hinds 1 C'hron. xxix. 2, "O^'l any thing Judges xix. 19, -""""" d , p.. vii. 12. Yet also *n 73 every living thing = all living. Even compound proper names may be resolved again into two words, and then the second takes the article; e. g. ^PH? Benjaminite (§ 86, 5), TOCI? Judges iii. 15, 'cr^n r,'2 the Bethlt 1 Sam. xvii. 58. Exceptions where the article stands before the governing noun and not before the genitive, see in § 110, 2, b. So in the later style, Dan. xi. 81 ; comp. xii. 11. 2. When the substantive has the article, or (which is equivalenl ) is made definite by a following genitive or a suffix, then the adjective, as well as the pronoun HT T fcOn (§ 122, 1), belonging to the substantive, takes also the article. Gen. x. 12, hjlSn Tyn the great city; xxviii. 19, fcttPfl DttH that place; Deut. iii. 2 1, ^T fipjnn thy strong hand ; TPTJTI Pflnj n&J£) the great work of Jehovah. Not quite unfrequcnt is the use of the article — a) With the adjective alone, which then serves to make the noun definite, e. g. , V' , V' ; ? M*, Q( n. i. 81, day (lie sixth = the sixth day (on the contrary *3£ DV a second dag, i. B] : xii. 26 : 1 S im. Ps. lxii. 4; civ. 18; Neh. iii. 6; ix. 35; Zech. xiv. 10. So also n»nn \rz: <; : n . i. 21 : ix. 10. This is the usual construction, when the adjective is properly a participle, as Jer. xlvi. 16, ~t'~ -" the sword that doeth violence, b) With the substantive only, as In Eze. xxxix. 27 ; 2 Sam. vi. 3 (perhaps to be amended] : yet rath< r frequently in connexion with the pronouns N-in and fit, which are sufficiently definite of thi as WH n?*?3 Gen. xxxii. 23, -IT inn p s . xii. 8; particularly when the noun is mad by a suffix, HpX Tl?*? 1 Kings x. 8 ; comp. Ex. x. 1 ; Jos. ii. 20 : Judges x\i. 5, 6, 15. 1 ' indefinite is HJH Dnin Gen. xxxvii. 2, an evil report respecting them . n $H , 7 Dn?^ would be the nil report); compare Num. xiv. 37; Gen. xlii. 19, ip*f O^'Olf m ;: " r bit tin ■ Sect. 112. CONNEXION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE Willi THE ADJECTIVE, 1. The adjective, which serves to qualify the substantive, stands after it, and agrees with it in gender and number (as ?H3 Kfyt, n^Ti n|TN); and also in I made definite (according to § 111, 2). Comp. § 1 17, 2. Rem. 1. It very seldom occurs that the qualifying adjective Btanda before its substantive : when this is the case, some emphasis rests on it, as Is. xx\iii. 21 ; liii. 11 ; Ps. lxwix. 51 : >m- pare also Ps. xviii. 4. Merely poetic is the form of expression D*|JIJ '">v j xli. 7. the strt.i shields tor strong shields (comp. ver. 22 ; Is. xxxv. <)) ; or with a collective noun InsU id of the plural, E*in *?. N?$ the poor of men = the ]>o<>r. Is. xxix 19 ; 1 Eos. xiii. 2. similar is the I at. canum d 2. When substantives of the feminine gender or those which incline I 7. I tat adjectives, the feminine form sometimes appears only in the one which stands ni I in« * What, is here Bald of .- applies also to its Greek equivalent, ftoi ; <■■ g. maau <) w£ku the whole city » viii. 34), but 7raim ttoXis every city (Matt. xii. -J.")) '!'■: 188 T'ART in. SYNTAX.— CHAP. I. syntax <>f THE KOTJN. live: as D'PJI niiv) roxf'p i Sam. xv. 0; Pjm nVi^ nn 1 Kings xix. 11, Ps. Ixiii. 2. Comp, $ 117, linn. 1. N.B. :''• I" regard to number, the nouns in the dual take adjectives in the plural, at J"iiD"i E.TV lofty n/rs l'rov. \ i. 17; Ps. xviii. 28 ; Job IV. 3, 4 ; Is. xxxv. 3. Moreover, the- COTUtructtO ad tOUUm is frequent. Collectivea an' construed with the plural in 1 Sam. xiii. 15; Jer. xxviii. l ; but the pluralis majestatis (108, 2,l>) on the contrary with the singular, as P^V ^npX l» s . vii. 10; Is. xix. 4 (bul with the /'/"/•■ 1 Sam. xvii. 2G). 2. An adjective, when its meaning is more fully determined by a substantive, is followed by it in the genitive ease,* as "lNhTI^ beautiful in form Gen. xxxix. (I, D*23 V?} pure in hands l's. xxiv. 4, ^33 ^X sorrowful in spirit l>. xix. 10. (Comp. the construction of the Participle, § 132.) In the same manner are often construed the participles and verbal adjectives, only that they govern also the cases « > 1 " their verbs; see § 135. 3. On the adjective as predicate of the sentence, see § 144 full. Sect. 113. APPOSITION. 1. By this is meant the placing together of two substantives, so that one of them (commonly the secondf ) serves to limit or qualify the other, as i"l!)9?^ ^^ 8 woman (who is) a widow, 1 Kings vii. 14; FT7V15 fnyi a damsel (who is) a virgin, Deut. xxii. 28; HftX D^ftN words (which are) truth, Prov. xxii. 21. Sometimes the first of the two substantives has the form of the constr. st., see § 116, 5. Also two adjectives may stand in apposition, in which case the first modifies the sense of the second, as Tftl^fy nin3 nhn3 pah white spots, Lev. xiii. 39; in verse 19, nenpns njnp ryvi? a white red (bright red) spot. Sect. 114. THE GENITIVE. 1. It has been shown above (§ 80) that the Hebrew regularly expresses the genitive relation by making the noun in the genitive dependent upon, and closely connected with, the nomen regens in the constr. st. A genitive is always * In Greek and Latin, the genitive is employed in the same manner, as tristis animi ; see Ruhnken. ad Veil. Paterctdum, 2, !»•'(. t The first only in certain formulas, as TH ^BH , Plb?B> ^?£>n , like our the king David, the king Solomon ; Where the arrangement "!\2®n TH , 2 Sam. xiii. 39, like Cieeio consul, is of rare occurrence. § 114. THE GENITIVE. 189 dependent only upon one governing noun. The language avoids, also, letting a noun in the constr. st. be followed by several connected genitives, but, instead of it, rather repeats the nomen regens ; e. g. Gen. xxiv. 3, "pN? TPN] c /r^ TOM the God of the heavens and the God of the earth. But several genitives may follow in succession when they depend on each other. Even then the repetition of thu constr. st. has indeed often been avoided (see § 115), though this was not always attended to; e.g. TASK **H *3$ ^ the days of the years of the life of my fathers, Gen. xlvii. 9; *H|T^? Hf^l ri^jr^Bpfi W *fo jr««//(f 0/ the number of tht bows of the mighty ones of the children of Kedar, Is. xxi. 17.* In these examples (comp. also Is. x. 12, Jul) xii. 2 1 and others' all the nouns but the last are in the construct state. Yet we find also examples where the genitives, b< ing subordinate to the main thought and serving merely as a periphrasis for the adjective, stand in the absolute ttaie, while only the following genitive is dependent on the main thought. Thus, in Is. xxviii. 1. :*; *•:•-- z-;;.- s - : the fat valley (prop, valley of fatness) of the smitten of wine, 1 Chron. ix. IS ; l's. btviii Similar but rare is the case when a noun has first an adjective and then a genitive after it, at '-* JJDE Tiul'j unhewn stones of the quarry, 1 Ki. vi. 7. The usual construction is like H^ll 3fl] .~"JV a large crown of gold, Esth. viii. 15. 2. The noun in the genitive expresses not only the subject, but at times also the object; e. g. Eze. xii. 19, M#*n DpPl the wrong which the inhabitants did. on the contrary Obad. verse 10, ^r^J D&n the wrong against thy brother :j Prov. x\. 2, ^pf2 WX the fear of a king, Ehp HJ5JT the cry concerning Sodom Gen. xviii, 20, IX yftp the report about Tyre; comp. also § 121, 5. Other applications of the genitive are, j*tf TH way to the tree Gen. iii. 24, DID ^jj judges like thoi Sodom Is. i. 10, trrpK TOT sacrifices pleasing to God Ps. li. 19, njrv n$# oath sworn by Jehovah 1 Ki. ii. 43. 3. Not unfrequently the genitive construction stands also in the place of appo- sition, as TS~p TT} river of Euphrates; see more in § 1 L6, 5. Rem. 1. Between the noun in the constr. st. and the following genitiv* is found, in some rare cases, a word intervening, as in IIos. xiv. 8; 2 Sam. i. 9; Job x.wii. 3 in all I the word intervenes after ^3, comp. also Is. xxxviii. 1G). 2. Proper names, as being in general of themselves sufficiently definite, Beldom take for further specification ; yet this is the case with geographical nam. -. C^L"; "«K / | 'AaUeeS Gen. xi. 28, Dnru DTK Aram of the (wo rivers^ Mesopotamia ; bo also niK^ for Jehovah the Lord of hosts. * It would be contrary to the Hebrew idiom to say "in HUM \j3 the sons and damghU .t this must be expressed by Vnin-l in *33 the sons of David and his daughter*. [See note on mnt 12, p 27a" Tr.] t In Latin, the genitive is similarly used after injuria (Cobs. 15. Gall. I. SO), mshu (like met** hoattmm, mttut Pompeii), spes, and other words. Comp. Aul. GelL !>, 12. In Gn all oompare wlcmt rei < •■ 1 Cor. 1. 18. li)0 PAET HI- SYNTAX. — (II A 1'. I. SYNTAX or THE NOUN. Sect. 115. expression of till'; genitive by circumlocution. Besides the indication <>l* the genitive relation by the construct stub; (see in § 89, and § 111), there are certain periphrastic indications, chiefly by means of the preposition 7, denoting the relation of belonging, Avhich is not unlike that of the genitive. Accordingly, we find — 1. ? %"*>, used principally for the genitive of possession, as 0'?9? T ?~ i x '^ ^en. xx i x - 9. xlvii. 1, the flock of her father (prop, the flock which to her father belonged) ; and also where there would be several successive genitives (to avoid the repetition of the comtr. st., but see § 114, 1), as SlXL' ; S n:; ; S DTIH T3X the chief of the herdsmen of Saul 1 Sam. xxi. 8, Ttihlfo TB>g D^T'/'l! "W? the song of songs of Solomon Cant. i. 1 ; Gen. xl. 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 8 ; 1 Chron. xi. 10. (Hence the Rab- binic designation of the genitive 7®\ in Syriac and Chaldee, the relative sr \, also ^ alone is the usual sign of the genitive.) 2. ? (without "l'-"^\ which also denotes the idea of belonging, and hence the genitive of possession* as TtitNft D*|&ri the watchmen of Saul, 1 Sam. xiv. 16. This is used particularly, a) when the governing (or first) noun is expressly regarded as indefinite, e. g. *£*? j? a son of Jesse 1 Sam. xvi. 18 (whereas V! I? signifies as well the son of Jesse), Pv# ?Xp ]T)3 a priest of the most high God Gen. xiv. IS, xli. 12, T^'i D '1?y Wf two servants of Shimci 1 Kings ii. 39, IH^ n ^ a friend of David (was Hiram) 1 Kings v. 15, 1VT? "fc|? also *to|P 1VU a psalm of David (i. e. belonging to him as the author), and elliptically 1)j? of David Ps. xi. 1, xiv. 1 ; b) when several genitives depend on one substantive, e. g. tyhp fl'IB'n nj3?n a portion of the field of Boaz Ruth ii. 3, 2 Kings v. 9, ^X" n/P^ D'Djn niH Me chronicles of the kings of Israel 1 Kings xv. 31, »33 nitt^ n'UNn ^' ; ST <**1?*? Josh. xix. 51, where the pairs of more closely-connected nouns which form one conception are joined by means of the constr. state, while there is between them the 7 indicating a looser connexion (yet comp. § 114, 1) ; c) after specifications of number, e. g. K?"in? ci" 1 CTy"^ 1 . n V?V? on the seven and twentieth dag of the month, Gen. viii. 14. Sect. 116. FURTHER USE OF THE CONSTRUCT STATE. The construct state, as it serves in general to put two nouns in close connexion, is, in the flow of speech, used not only for the genitive relation, but also — 1) Before prepositions, particularly in poetry, and mostly when the governing word is a participle, e. g. before 3, as ^VP5 fiD£^ the joy in the harvest, Is. ix. 2, * Philologieally considered, the Gascon says no less correctly lafille a Mr. N., than the written language la file de — ; the former expresses the idea of belonging, the latter that of descent. The Arabians distinguish a twofold genitive; viz., one which has the force of ?, and one which has that of jD. We have the latter conception of this relation in the de of modern languages that are derived from the Latin (the Romance languages). In Greek, we may compare the so-called o^/mi KoXoa>woi>, e. g. f] Ke(paki) tco dvOparru) for rov dvOpaowov (see Bernhardy's Syntax, p. 88). § 117. INDICATION OF THE OTHER CASES. 101 v. 11; before ?, as DtiS *5?TN Is. lvi. 10, xxx. 18, IV. hiii. 5, Job xviii. 2; before 7K Is. xiv. 19; before p, as J?n£ "7^ weaned from milk, Is. xxviii. 0; before ?8 in Judges v. 10.* 2) Before the relative pronoun, e. g. *12>X Elpft the 'place where — , Tien. xl. .°>. 3) Before relative clauses without Iftf, e. g. TH n^Pl JV*lj3 /A,' city where David dwelt Is. xxix. 1, 7X J?T N7 DlpO the place of him who knows not God Job xviii. 21, 1 Sam. xxv. 15, Ps. xc. 15. Comp. § 123, 3, Rem. 1. 4) Rarely even before Vav copulative, as fiSH} H-ppn Ls. xxxiii. G, xxxv. 2, li. 21. 5) In appositions (viz., where an actual genitive relation cannot be supp as in § 114, 3), e. g. 1 Sain, xxviii. 7, 31X rny!l Hu'X a woman, mistress of a sooth' saying spirit (comp. ircuhlo-icr) exovo-cnrvevfMa ttvOojvos, Acts xvi. 10), as also in nSrQ J1*X H21 virgin daughter of Zion, Is. xxxvii. 22; Jer. xiv. 17. 6) Also in other cases where close connexion is to be expressed : thus, at times we have Tntf one for IPIX 2 Sam. xvii. 22, Zech. xi. 7, Is. xxvii. 12; and moreover Is. xxviii. 4, 16. Compare besides the constr. si. in the numerals as in thirteen, fourteen (§ 97, 2), and in the adverb (§ 100, 2, c). Rem. While in the above cases the absolute st. could in general stand quite as well as th< struct, there arc yet also constructions where the constr. st. might be expected rather than the absolute. Thus, for example — a) In geographical names like n?]M? >"P3 '3*f Abel Beth-Maachah] (i.e. A.bel of Beth-Maachah, to distinguish it from other places called Abel). Comp. on the contrary, § 111. R( in. i'. b) In some other instances where the connexion is not close enough for the genitive relation, so that it must rather be considered as apposition, or the second noun as an adverbial accusative (§ 118). Here belongs Eze. xlvii. 4, D??")? BJ? not water of ike knees, so much as water kj> to the knees ; Is. xxx. 20, )V? DJB water of affliction, or rather tenter in affliction. c) In the expression nixa? D'rriw God hosts elliptical for rflS3$ ^ ~v v s <, hosts. Sect. 117. INDICATION OF THE OTHER CASES. 1. As the Hebrew language has lost the living use of case-6fl lingi I s v 90), we must consider what substitutes it adopted for expressing the different relatioi case. The nominative is always to be known only from the syntactical construction. * The constr. state appears also before nx, the sign of the accusative, in Jer. nxiii 22, T1K »n* t So in English, York-street, Covent-garden, for near Covent-garden. Bui In Latin the genitive ti wed in such eases, as Augusta Vivdelicorum. [92 PART HI- SYNTAX.— CHAP. I. SYNTAX OF TJIF NOUN. On the modes of expressing the genitive, Bee §§ 1 1 1 -116. Other cases are peri- phrastically expressed by means of prepositions, the dative by % the ablative by |fi [from, out -'/'), and the locative and instrumental by 2 («w, af); but the She-mite regards the nouns dependent on these prepositions as genitives, because these particles were themselves originally nouns. In Arabic they have also the genitive termination. Oomp. § 101, l. On the use of the dative particle 7, in so far as it serves to express also our genitive, sec § 1 15, 1, 2. 2. The accusative, when expressing direction or motion to a place, has still fre- quently its ending H— (§ 90, 2). Else it is, like the nominative, to be known only from the structure of the sentence. Yet Ave may often know it by the preceding "HX or HX (before suffixes also H1X), which, however, is not used before a noun except when that noun is made definite by the article, the construct state, a suffix, or otherwise (Gen. vi. 2 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 17, xviii. 18), or is a proper name. Such is the usage in prose, but not so much in poetry; e. g. Gen. i. 1, \")^} ^1 E^?^ fHJ (on the contrary, D£Bh pN Gen. ii. 4, vi. 10, Ex. i. 11).* The cases are rare in which J"1X stands before an indeterminate noun, but somewhat oftener in the loftier style, where the article also may be omitted before a noun that is definite according to the sense (§ 109), as Prov. xiii. 21, D^lfTlK, Is. 1. 4, Job xiii. 25, Eze. xliii. 10. Very seldom in prose, like 1 Sam. xxiv. 6, Ex. ii. 1 (where, however, the noun is made definite by the context). (See also Ex. xxi. 28, Num. xxi. 9). Sect. 118. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. The accusative is employed, 1) to express the object of the transitive verbs (§ 138) ; but also, 2) in certain adverbial designations, where it is no longer governed immediately by the verb. We shall here treat only of the latter. * nix, which, in close connexion with a following' word and without the tone, becomes VIS and then again with the tone 1"IX, is properly a substantive derived from a pronominal stem. It signifies essence, substance (comp. niX a sign), but in construction with a following noun or suffix it stands for the pronoun ipse, avrot (comp. a similar usage in § 124, Rem. 3). But in common use it has so little stress, that it only points out a definite object. Its force is here as feeble as that of the oblique cases avrov, avra>, alrov; ipsi, ipsvm; Germ, desselben, demselben, denselben; and the Hebrew D'ptJ'n DX prop, iwtov tov ovpavov (comp. avriji» XpvantSa II. i. 144) it, the heaccn, is not stronger than ihv ovpapop. That HX may denote also the nominative, is not of itself inconceivable, and appears to be actually the ease in some instances, like Hag. ii. 17, 2 Kings xviii. 30 (yet it is wanting in the parallel passage Is. xxxvi. 15), perhaps also Jos. xxii. 17, Dan. ix. 13. Yet in other places, which some rather reckon with the foregoing (e. g. 2 Sam. xi. ■_>.">, Neh. ix. 3'2, and even 1 Sam. xvii. 34), it may be considered as a loosely- governed accusative, which it certainly designates when connected with the passive (see § 143, I, a). In Eze. xlvii. 17, is, 19, nx stands for nx*, anl perhaps ought to be so emended in the text; comp. verse 20. § 118. USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 193 The second of the above usages is undoubtedly derived from the first, and to this still belong several constructions in which the accusative is commonly supposed to be used adverbially (§ I 1, Rem. 3). But we are not therefore authorised to reject altogether the adverbial use of the accusative. Accordingly, the accusative is employed — 1. In designations of place ; a) in answer to the question whither? alter verba of motion, as PH^TI N$? let us go out into the full 1 Sam. xx. 11, % &t^T\ V$h to go to Tarshish 2 Chron. xx. 36, Ps. exxxiv. 2;* b) in answer to the question where? after verbs of rest, as ^^ ^*5 in ^ ie house of thy father Gen. xxxviii. 1 1. 7ni, they served God *i"X EX' with one shoulder L e. with one mind. With a following genitive, T£# T^Xy. for fear of thorns, [s, vii. 25; Job i. 5, he brought burnUofferings d?2 TSW? according to the number of them all. Here belong also cases like &)D3 HJ^fi the double in money Gen. xliii. L5, HEM Dnyt^ an ephah of barley Ruth ii. 17, D*2?J DJfiJS? /,/•,, years' ///„<• Gen. xli. 1. Comp. also § 116, Rem. b. Similar cases in connexion with verbs are explained, § 138 and § 139. I'-v the Bami carried still farther, many substantives have come to be distinctly recognised as aoV 100, 2, J). Rem. Similar reference to place, time, etc., may be denoted by B noun when it is conni with 3 {as, according to, after the manner of), bnl in that case the ; : ifl in the accusative * So in the Gnrk, bat only poetically, II. i. 317, ownj l!l| PABT HI. SYNTAX. OHAF. I. SYNTAX OF TIIK NOI relation, while the noun ia to be eon idered in the genitive. Thus, a) of place; c *^n:: as in their pasture, Is. v. 17, comp. xxviii. 21 ; 1?^? after the manna- of the stum i.i . at in stone the water is collected when froa a) Joh ixxviii. :'>o, wx. 14; t^w 1D3 m in gorgeous apparel, .J<<1> xxxriii. 14; ni^np M in r; dream, Is. \xi\. 7, romp, uiii. 15; b) of ftma, especially in the forma D^'3 as the day= as in tl><- day, [a. ix. 3; ll<>s. ii. 5 ; *$'? aa m //"• f/»//.v '/ — > Hob. ii. 17; ix. 9; xii. 10; Amos ix. 11 ; Is. Ii. ;i ; c) with another reference, aa in Is. i. 25, / will purge away thy dross 12? as with lye; Job xxviii. 5, t"X 1D| o/jfw the manner offirc=as by fire. Rarely another preposition is used after such a ?, e.g. n?"'^"}?? I s - *■ 26, 1 Sam. xiv. 14. It ia, moie<>\ er, oi>\ ioua that a substantive with ? may stand either for the accusative of the object or for the nominative relation. Sect. 119. MODES OF EXPRESSING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE* 1. When the comparative is to be expressed, the particle }ft ( - p) is prefixed to the word with which comparison is made, e. g. 1 Sam. ix. 2, D^rr?^ nhS taller than any of the people; Judges xiv. 18, K^IS pirift sweeter than honey ; so also after verbs, especially those denoting an attribute, as D^rr?^ H!l^ and he was taller than any of the people, 1 Sam. x. 23; VJ2r??p SpVnNI 2HX he loved Joseph more than all his (other) sons, Gen. xxxvii. 3. In other cases also the particle IP is employed in expressing pre-eminence (e. g. IP P" 1 *"!* pre- eminence over, Eccles. ii. 13; comp. Deut. xiv. 2), which the Hebrew conceives as a taking from, marking out. Compare the Latin ablative with the comparative, also the etymology of the Latin words cximiits, egregius, and in Homer Ik ttolvtwv fidXio-ra, II. iv. 96, and merely in 7racreW, xviii. 431). Hence the signification more than connects itself with the fundamental signification out from. (Compare the use of ?y in comparisons, Job xxiii. 2 ; Ps. exxxvii. 6.) The predicate is sometimes wholly omitted, and must be supplied from the con- nexion, e. g. Is. x. 10, DpEhTft DJTTD3 their idols are more numerous (mightier) than those in Jerusalem, ; Job xi. 17, DHHSkft clearer than noon. * i • - t: t • The correlative comparatives, such as greater, less, are expressed only by great, little, Gen. i. 16. 2. The several modes of expressing the superlative are in principle the same; thus, in all of them the positive form, by means of the article, or a suffix, or a following genitive, is made to designate an individual as pre-eminently the pos- * There exists in Arabic a strengthened form for the superlative and comparative, which would be like ^Pi?X. Perhaps of this origin are TDK cruel, 2]Zti. deceptive (of a drying brook), and its opposite jJVX (contr. from aitan) constant, perennial, although these forms have lost their force and remain as solitary traces, in the same way as the Lat comparative disappears in the Italian, and still more in French, and its place supplied by circumlocution (with piu, plus). § 120. SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 195 sessor of the quality expressed (comp. le plus grand); e. g. 1 Sam. xvii. 11, (7;/'/ David was ftpfpn the small (one), i. e. the smallest) and the tkra great {ones), i. e. greater, etc., Gen. xlii. 13; Jon. iii. 5, D3tpp T2) UTlSbfrom the greatest among them (lit. their great one), even unto the hast among thru, (lit. their little one).] 2 Chron. xxi. 17, VJQ pDp */* seven years (are) they; Ec V. 18, KV1 D^PPK ftflto PIT ;/«5 is 6r0 properly always in the accusative (§ 33, 2, a, § 58), im ,l is the mosl common form of expressing the accusative of the pronoun (see Rem.). In certain cases, however, it is used through an almost inaccurate brevity of expression for the dative, as Zech. vii. 5, *^J?W1 did ye fast for met i. c. to my advantage, for 7 DflftV^; Job xxxi. 18, 3K3 Y?"U he (the fatherless) foEffl prop, his litter of Solomon, Cant, iii. 7 ; comp. i. 6. § 122. THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 19f> 4. In some instances the force of the nominal suffix or possessive pronoun has become so \. that it has almost ceased to exist ; e. g. '$*1N my Lord (prop, my lords, see § 108, 2, b), viz., in addressing God (Gen. xv. 2, xviii. 3 ; Ps. xxxv. L'3), but then without regard to the pronominal suffix, the Lord, meaning God;" ;,: Wl! (prop, in his or its connexions sb he, it together), i "HIT tiV^'bl Ex. xix. 8, then even after the fir.st person, without regard to the suffix, as VW -;~::: 1 Kings iii. 18; comp. Is. xli. 1, after the second person in Is. xlv. 20. Similar is — hear, ye nations D/? Micah i. 2. Sect. 122. THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN8, 1. The pronoun of the third person WH,fem. N*n. plur. ITCH, fern, p, frjT\ ea, id; ii, ecu, ea) is also used as a demonstrative pronoun, and then it tak - larly (see exceptions in § 111, 2, b) the article, Lut almost everywhere in connec- tion with a substantive equally definite; e. g. JOPin t^Nn is vir, fcWUI E?2 eo die [comp. in vulgar English, in them days for in those days]. When employed in this way, N-1H is to be distinguished from the demonstrative HJ; for HJs= ovros, hie, always points to an object present or near, but WH=:auT05, is, indicates like the arti § 109) an object already mentioned or known [the former answering to this, and the latter nearly to that']. The distinction is clearly seen in Judges vii. 4, of whom I say to thcr, " this [HJ) thai villi thee," that one (tMn) shall go with thee; and of whomsoever I say to thee, " this "'. thaU n with thee," that one (Sin) shall not go. So also in l's. xx. 8, fyK oirot, and HOn avrtM in Hence '"ITH Dl*n this dag, means the day in which any one speaks or writes [Gen. xxvi. but Wnn DVn (that day) means the day or time, of which the historian has just made mention (Gen. xv. 18; xxvi. 32), or the prophet just predicted (Is. v. .'JO; vii. l v relate or to predict. 2. The demonstrative PIT (also IT, IT) has also, especially in poetry, the fore the relative XW, comp. in English that for which; e. g. Ps. civ. s . to the plaa DH7 JTlp* PIT which thou hast destined for them. It is even employed (like ""->•. § 123, 1) to give a relative sense to another word; e. g. Ps, l.wiv. 2, Mo nt Z 13 Ttiyj HT on which thou rficdlest. t : - t n.T is used adverbially, a) for there, n J n|H see there/ ami then merely as an ln1 especially in questions, as HJ H£? wherefore then' (prop, wherefon there?)', h) in reference to /i»»r, for 7Jo?«, as D'Oya nt »o;t- (already) //r/Vr, Gen. xxvii. 36. 3. The intcrroijiitirc \p can he used in reference to a plural, as nVH '- Gen. xxxiii. 5 (for which, however, *pj *fi is more accurately used, Ex. s. 8), also in reference to things, yet only when the idea of persons is implied, e. is. -->-" '- who are the Shechemites? Judges ix. 28; comp. Gen. xxxiii. 8.— % fi may also stand in * See Geaenii Thesaurus Lingua llt.r..,,, p. 329. Comp. tb E I hnu\ ('-"'• s ' Saultis ('jrPi'?), also the French Notre Dame. 200 PART in. syntax. CHAP. n. syntax of THE PRONOUN. the genitive, as *J? H3 whose daughter? Gen. xxiv. - ; -'). It is also used indefinitely for any one whoever, and Hfi for any thing whatever (Job xiii. 13). For Hip in this sense, we have also the specific term n<fp (from H/pl lift quidquid). On ill" use of H^p in the sense of d igation, see § 153, 2, p. 239, Note.* Sect. 123. RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSES. 1 . The pronoun X'NI often serves merely as a sign of relation, i. e. to give a relative signification to adverbs or pronouns; e. g. D&? there, ED* — XK where; fift^ ttiYfar, nS^— n^« whither; Dtfp toce, nrtf — DBfe wtac*. In the same manner, the Hebrew forms the oblique cases of the relative pronoun, who, which, viz. — Dative, h to him, h X\S* to whom; DnS, \rh to them, EnS T0K, rrb T8fc to I v -: ' T T ' I '•' T ' V T v -: I I V T v —. whom. Accusative, IHfc, HHX fo'm, for; 1HK X'tf, MHX XK ?/7i0m {quern, qitam). With prepositions, 13 therein, T2 XNt wherein, ^Jl&p therefrom, Wfifi XX where- from. Genitive, W? XX wAose language, Deut. xxviii. 49. The accusative m>A0??i may, however, be expressed by HEW alone, as in Gen. ii. 2. Rem. 1. The Hebrew is able in this way, to give a relative sense to the pronoun of the first and second persons in the oblique cases, for which in German (and English) the third must be used ; e. g. Gen. xlv. 4, *n*K 1^6? ; Num. xxii. 30, ty **fe ; Is. xli. 8, Jacob T?HD| T$f whom I have chosen; Hos. xiv. 4. But in the nom. of the 1st and 2nd persons, this is admissible also in German, e. g. (!<'>• ir/i, do- da, die wit; where der stands for icelcher, and serves (like the Heb. ~%'$) merely as a sign of relation. 2. The word "IK'S is commonly separated from the one which it thus affects by one or more words, as D'C' TV7\ x*x where teas, Gen. xiii. 3. Only seldom are they written together, as in 2 Chron. vi. 11. 2. The relative pronoun XX frequently includes the personal or demonstrative pronoun he, she, that, for which the Heb. has no appropriate word (see § 124, 2), as in Latin, qui is stands for qui; e. g. Num. xxii. 6, ifcfi XXI and (he) whom thou cursest; Is. Hi. 15, tyti0 xS IPX (that) which they hare not heard. The pronoun is almost always to be supplied where a preposition stands before XX; the preposition is then construed with the supplied pronoun, and the relative takes the case which is required by its connexion with the following part of the sentence; e.g. XX? to him who, and to them who; XXp from him who, from § 123. RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSES. 201 those who or which; *1^3 prop, according to thai which) hence, as; X\X~HX him who, that which, or those who* Sometimes the idea of place or time is also to be supplied; as %"^? Ml (that place) when ; ^^P from (that time) w/tcn. 3. The pronoun *l!5W may be omitted in all the cases which have been specified : there is then no expression of the relative, as in the English construction tht /. ' I met; the book I told you of; where the only indication of relation is, that the relative clause is added to a preceding word, in the way of apposition. This omission of 1BW (most frequent in poetry) takes place — a) Where it would stand as a pronoun in the nominative or accusative; e. g. Gen. xv. 13, D!"H X^ T'1X3 in a land (which belongs) notto them ; Ps. vii. 16. 7X?|P nnt^3 73*1 and lie falls into the pit (which) Ac mn ; ."?S refer*, n< with us to the relative Itself, rht tj ; x cy Gen. xxxi. 3-2, for i©y itftt with whom (\liv. <), lo): perhaps ~" ; sz I riril 12, be Dn| -."N m which. Comp. also VTjW-ijpg nx Zech ru. 10, fur in'x np* x; ; N. f The Arabic omits the relative when the substantive to which it refers is indeterminate, as above; bol it when the substantive is determinate. In the latter ease, the Hebrew commonly ins. rta it in pr. xxiii. 39; Ex. xiv. 13); though it is sometimes omitted, Ex. mil 20 ; i Bam. kvUL 14; ea pod al lj in | Pa. xviii. 3; xlix. 13, '21 ; Dent, xxxii. 17 ; Job iii. 3. 20z I'AKT III. SYNTAX. — CHAT. II. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. Sect. 124. mode of expressing those pronouns for which the hebrew has no proper forms. 1. The reflexive pronoun in the oblique case, myself, thyself himself is expressed, o) by the conjugations Niphal and Hithpael, see § 51, 2, § 54, 3; b) by the pro- nominal sullix of the 3rd pers.,* e. g. TTI ^HNt y? &$*) and Ehud made himself ( sil»i ) a sword ; Gen. xxii. 3, Abraham took two of his servants IDX with him, for with himself; viii. 9; 1 Sam. i. 24, she carried him up fifty with her, for with herself; Jer. vii. 1 9 ; Eze. xxxiv. 2, 8, 10. In like manner is the pronoun suus, sua, sunm expn by llic pronominal suffix of the 3rd pers. with the noun, since ID'ID signifies as much equus suns (prop, sui, genit.) as equus ejus ; c) by circumlocution with substantives, especially #33, e. g. 'C?M JHX N 1 ? i" know not myself, Job ix. 21; Jer. xxxvii. 9; n!Hp5 within herself (prop, in her inner part), Gen. xviii. 12. Comp. Rem. 3. The Arabic, in a similar manner, expresses the idea self by soul, spirit, and so the Sanskrit (atman); the Arabic also by eye; the Rabbinic by D¥JJ, D^3 bone, *\W body ; the Amharic by L' : K") head; the Egyptian by mouth.] Comp. in middle High German min lip, din lip. 2. The personal or demonstrative pronoun is generally omitted (comp. 123, 2) before *)£'X in all the cases, both singular and plural: very seldom it is expressed by the interrogative pronoun, as '®~?\ti that which, Eccles. i. 9; iii. 15. Rem. 1. Each, every one, with reference to a person, is expressed by t"S a man, sometimes repeated t^N ^"'X Ex. xxxvi. 4, t^NI E^N Ps. lxxxvii. 5 ; with reference either to persons or things, by ?3, commonly without the article (§111,1); by repetition 1^3? " | i?3? every morning; also by the plural E , "]i?2p every morning, Ps. Ixxiii. 14. 2. Any one, some one, is expressed by t!"S Ex. xvi. 29 ; Cant. viii. 7 ; and by CHN Lev. i. 2; any- thiny, something (especially in connexion with a negation), by "Q1J, "tt" 1 )"''? without the article. Comp. besides, § 122, 3. 3. Self is expressed, independent of No. 1, c, in reference to persons or things, by RW, N* 1 " 1 , as N-in *3*!K the Lord he, i. e. the Lord himself, Is. vii. 14; nttn DH-in»n the Jews themselves. Est. ix. 1. The same is N1H, NM with the article; e. g. WT\T\ B««ri Job i. 1, the same man, N H nn W2. at the same time (but this signifies also that man, at that time, comp. § 122, 1). In reference to things, the noun D^ prop, bone, body (in this case fig. for essence, substance), is also employed as a peri- phrasis for the pronoun; e.g. n$n Dl*n D>*y3 on the selfsame day, Gen. vii. 13; comp. 1EH QVV3 in his very prosperity, i. e. in the midst of his prosperity, Job xxi. 23. 4. The one — the other (alter — alter) is expressed by "It or "inx repeated, or by t^"N with HX brother or JH friend ; and where the feminine is required, by ntt'N tooman, with mi"IS sister or JT1JH friend; both the masc. and fern, forms are used also with reference to inanimate objects of the same So also in the German of Luther's time, as er machte ihm einen Rock (where ihm stands for sich), which may be literally rendered into old-foshioned English thus, he made him (i. e. for himself) a coat.— Tr. t M. G. Schwartee, Kopt. Gram. Berlin, 1850, p. 34G, 351. § 125. USE OF THE TENSES IN GENERAL. 203 gender. See the Lex. under these words. The same form is used to express one another, as Gen. xiii. 11, and they separated, VPIX 5gO &>& the one from the other, i. e. from one another ; Ex. xxvi. :{, fixe curtains shall he joined nnins - ^ HL5'X to one another. (But comp. Ex. xxxii. 27, for the usual sense of these words.) 5. Some is often expressed by the plural form alone, as u"?) tome days Dan. viii. 27, &)y some tjears Dan. xi. 6, 8; and sometimes by "\~'*f 5.".'. sunt qui Nell, v. '2 — i. CHAPTER III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Sect. 125. USE OF THE TENSES IN GENERAL. From the poverty of the Hebrew language in the means of expressing the absolute and relative divisions of time (§§ 40 and 48), we might naturally expect some variety in the uses of the same tense. We are not to infer from this, hoAvever, that there was scarcely any well-defined and regular use of the two existing tenses ; on the contrary, each of them has it-; distinct sphere, as already intimated in the first Xote in § 17. The P ryes to express what is finished and past, whether it actually belongs to the past, or properly lies in the present or even in the future, and is only represented a- past, that it may thus appear as certain as if it had already happened, or that it may stand, as relatively earlier, in comparison with a subsequent event. The Future [called also Imperfect and Tempus Infection'], on the contrary, expresses what is unfinished, hence what is continued and in progress (even in the past), what is coming to pass and about to be. The Future i-. besides, especially used in a modified form (§ 48) for expressing the relations of the I Iptative, the Jussive, and the Subjunctive. We must further add the peculiarity of the Hebrew diction already mentioned in §49, viz., that of joining, by means of Vav co\ ,Futurcs to a Preterite and Preterites to a Future. Fuller information on these points will be found in the following sections. It is a false view, which regards the so-called Preterite and FutUTl ' originally to express distinction of mood* rather than relations <>f time. * Much nearer tlie mark would be the distinction of them into A eta and Actio \ • :>> t lie designation introduced into Latin irrammar after V 204 PABT HI. SYNTAX. CHAT. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. \ i uunplea of the Preterite and Future used expressly to denote opposite relations of time, we refer to Is. rivi. 1, nl'X ^xi ,r vL"y Vlj I have done it, and I will (still) bear (you); and vs. 11, * i n~\}' r ) nifeVK PjX W)P 'lilN'pS f]X / have Spoken it, and will briny it to pass ; I have purposed, and ivill aocomplieh it; Deut. xxxii. 21 ; Nah. i. 12; 1 Kings ii. 38. Sect. 126. THE USE OF THE PRETERITE. The Preterite stands — 1. In itself and properly, for absolutely and fully past time (Prceteritum per- fectum\ e. g. Gen. iii. 10, 11, ^7 ^^ ^ K '^ 10 ^ ias declared to thee? vs. 13, ivhy hast thou done this? Comp. verses 14, 17, 22. Hence it is used [for the historic tense] in the narration of past events, Gen. i. 1, in the beginning God created (Pret.) the heaven and the earth (comp. iv. 1; xxix. 17). Job i. 1, there was (Pret.) a man in the land of Uz ; ii. 10. For this latter purpose, the Future with Vav conversive is commonly used in continued narrative (see § 129, 1). 2. For the Pluperfect. Gen. ii. 2, PTO XW Ift^fcO-p his work ichich he had done; vs. 5, Jehovah had not yet caused it to rain; vii. 9; xix. 27; xx. 18; xxvii. 30; xxxi. 20; Jonah i. 5. 3. For our Present, where this denotes, a) a condition or attribute already lon^ continued and still existing, as ^I^T [comp. olSa] I know, Job ix. 2, x. 1 3 ; «? *J?1JT I know not, Gen. iv. 9; ^Wlhate* Ps. xxxi. 7; TljTTC I am righteous, Job xxxiv. 5; fi/12 thou art great, Ps. civ. 1; TO^D I am little, Gen. xxxii. 11; or, b) a permanent or habitual action (often in statements of general experience), e. g. THpNl I say, I mean, Ps. xxxi. 15, Job vii. 13. — Ps. i. 1, happy the man who walks ( v^) not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor stands (^V) ^ n ^ ie wa H of sinners, nor sits (X*J) in the seat of scorners ; x. 3, cxix. 30, 40. Here (in the expression of our present) the Preterite and the Future are used with equal propriety, according as the speaker views the action or state expressed by the verb as already existing before, but still continuing or perhaps just now ending, or as then first about coming to pass, in progress, or perhaps occurring at the instant (comp. <$ 127, 2). Accordingly, we find in nearly the same sense k? TV?b) Ps. xl. 13, and ??\\* N7 Gen. xix. 19, xxxi. 35. In such cases the two tenses are often employed interchangeably, e. g. Is. v. 12, Prov. i. 22, Job iii. 17, 18. * Similar in Latin are ziovi, memini, odi. § 12G. USE OF THE PRETERITE. 205 4. Even for the Future, in protestations and assurances, in which the mind of the speaker views the action as already accomplished, being as good as done. In German [and English] the Present is sometimes used, in this case, lor the Future. So in stipulations or promises in the way of a compact, Gen. xxiii. 11, I give (*JVU) to thee the field ; vs. 13, I give (W^) nioney for the field; particularly in prom made by God, Gen. i. 29, xv. 18, xvii. 20. Also in confident discourse, especially when God is said to be about to do something, (perhaps, with reference to the divine counsel, where it is present as an accomplished fact, ) e. g. iTirV *flW iTTVTfi thou deliverest me, Jehovah, Pa. xxxi. 6; hence frequently used in lively repre- sentations of the future, and in prophecies, e. g. Is. ix. 1, the peopl who walk in darkness see (1N*1) a great light ; v. 13, therefore my people goes iut>> captivity {TDl ) ; verses 14, 17, 25, 26; xi. 1, 2, 4, 6, 10. (In these cases also tin- Preterite may be interchanged with the Future, see, e. g., Is. v. 12; Prov. i. 22j -T..l> Hi. 17. l ($, In Arabic, the Preterite, made still stronger by the particle 1?., is likewise employed in emphatic promises, etc. They say, I have already given it to thee, meaning, it is as good as dune. A Bi usage is that of the Lat. peril, Gr. oAwAa, 8u6opa^. (II. 15, 128). 5. For those relative tenses, in which the past is the principal idea, viz., a) for the Imperfect Subjunctive (which is, however, expressed by the I nt. also, § 127. 5); e. g. Is. i. 9, )yt2n rnbsn ^\*n DHD3 we should have been [essemwi] as Sodom, we should have resembled Gomorrha ; Job iii. 13; b) for the Pluperfect Subjun Is. i. 9, WIPI "hh if he had not left; Num. xiv. 2, HT10 h if w< had but died! (h with the Future would be, if we might but di ! § 136, 2); Judges xiii. Jobx. 19, F1JTK TV\T! N^ 1Bfc3 I should be as if I had never been; c) for the Future Perfect (futurum exactum), e. g. Is. iv. 4, JTJH EX when he shall havi away, prop, hehas washed away ; vi. 11. — Gen. xliii. 1 1. *J?75t *^?^T tS? '/ ' am bereaved (for, if I shall be, ubi orbus fucro), then I am bereaved (the language of desponding resignation). ***** G. In all the foregoing cases, we have viewed the Preterite in its independent use, when not connected with preceding verbs, Bui its use la no teas diversified, when it is joined to preceding verbs by the conjunction 1 ( I'"' 1 < ./ the * The assurance that something will happen, <-an aba serve t" express the wish thai something may happen. So Gen. rl. 14. 131 "3ri-}2Tni npn nsy xrrv'L"yi and do thou a Undnete Tpray, to m (prop, thesj rorelj kindness to me, I hope), and make mention of me to Pharaoh. The addition of K£ m ■ V • here unquestionable. In Arabic, likewise, the Pret is employed in wishes and obtes t a tion s. In Qeb. farther, Job xxi. 16, the counsel of the wicked '30 njjrn be far from mti .wii. 18. Comp the me of ti following the Imperative, in N"o. (>, c. 208 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAT. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Preterite). It then takes the tense and mood of the verb f/oing before, and it shift* the tone forward, as explained above in § 49, 3. Bence if stands — a) Most frequently for the Future, when that tense goes before it, e.g. Gen. wiv. 10, Jehovah will send his angel ^Tfl UvfVl and prosper thy way (prop, and thru heprospers). Judges vi. 16; 1 Sam. xvii. 32. Here the Future, in the pro* vi. 38 of the discourse, passes over by means of the Pret. into easy description, and the sense of the Pret. follows the usage explained in No. 4 above; also — b) For the Present Subjunctive, when the preceding Future form has this sense (according to § 127, 3); e. g. Gen. iii. 22, hw\ npS"j IT nSp» |3 lest he put forth his hand and take and eat (prop, and so takes and eats); xxxii. 12; xix. 19; Num. xv. 40; Is. vi. 10. c) For the Imperative, when a verb in that form goes before; e. g. Gen. vi. 21, riSpX 1 ] y? Pip take for thyself and gather (prop, and then thou gather •est) ; Gen. xxvii. 43, 44; 1 Ki. ii. 36. As in the case under letter a, the command here passes over into a description of that which is to be done. At times the Pret. in this sense is put separate from the Van, as in Ps. xxii. 22. d) For the past or the present time, according as the preceding Pret. or Fut. may require. Rem. 1. The Pret. with Vav conv. relates to futurity, also when it is not preceded by a Future tense, but by some other indication of futurity. Exod. xvi. 6, 7, Q£*VT} ^"?V. at even, then ye sJiall know; xvii. 4, yet a little while ^/jJEH and they will stone me; 1 Sam. xx. 18; 1 Ki. ii. 42; Eze. xxxix. 27. After a participle which relates to futurity 1 Ki. ii. 2. The Pret. with Vav conv. may be thus employed in the sense of the Fut. (and Imp.), even when there is no indication of futurity, e. g. after antecedent clauses which imply, a) a cause, or, b) a con- dition. Comp. for letter a, Num. xiv. 24, because another spirit is with him WTW1*3Q1 and [therefore) I trill bring him ; and without the causal particle, Gen. xx. 11, there is no fear of God in the place 'Mjnni and {therefore) they will hill me (for because there is, etc.); xlv. 12, 13; Ex. vi. 6. Comp. Ps. xxv. 11, for thy name's sake Rnppl so forgive (or thou wilt forgive). For letter b, Gen. xxxiii. 10, if I have found favour ^Di??! then take; and without the conditional particle (§ 155, 4, «), Gen. xliv. 22, should he leave his father TV?) then he (the father) would die ; xxviii. 20 ; xlii. 38 ; Is. vi. 7, lo, this touches thy lips "©.1 and so is taken aiuay thy iniquity. — Also to other very various specifications of the present we find appended by means of 1 with the Pret. those of the future (e. g. Judges xiii. 3, thou art barren ?T?J1 ^"1™ tjut thou shalt-conccivc and bear ; 1 Sam. ix. 8, here is the fourth part of a shekel ^031 that tcill I give), or expressions of a wish (e. g. Ruth iii. 9, I am Ruth ^rl^ then spread), or also of interrogation (e. g. Exod. v. 5, the people are many in the land DHX Dri2L"ni and will you let them rest? Gen. xxix. 15; 1 Sam. xxv. 10, 11). 2. A very frequent formula in prophetic language (like *H*J and it came to pass in the language of history) is HM1 and it will come to //ass. This is found both with a preceding Future and without it (see Rem. 1), especially when a particular time is named, as Is. vii. 18, P">V'*. S-inn Q1'3 rvni ; . § 127. use of the future. 207 Sept. 127. USE OF THE FUTURE. The significations of the Future are perhaps still more various than those of the Preterite. But the language has here a more definite expression for certain relations of mood, inasmuch as it has (according to § 48) a shortened and a lengthened form of the Future, the former in the jussive sense and the latter in the cohortative (see § 128). The Vav conversive also has a very extensive influence on the force of this tense (§ 129). Yet the shortening, as has been Bhown in treating of the verb, is not obvious in all the forms, and in other respects, also, there is some uncertainty, so that the common form occurs in almost all tin- relations, for which the shortened form is especially designed, The Hebrew Future forms, in general, the exact contrary of the Preterite, and expresses, accordingly, what is unfinished, what is coming to pass and future, but also what is continued and in progress at any point of time, even of the past (see the first Note on § 47). Hence the Future stands — 1. For strictly future time : Gen. ix. 11, b)Z% Tiy !Y!T K7 there sltatt not again be a flood; also in narrative for the future with relation to Borne past point of time, as 2 Kings iii. 27, the first-born who was to reign {regnaturus erat), 2. For present time; 1 Kings iii. 7, JT]K K7 / know not; Is. i. 13, k rx K7 f cannot bear. Gen. xxxvii. 15, It is employed especially in the expression of permanent states, which exist now and always will exist, hence also in the expres- sion of general truths (where the Pret. also is used, bul Less frequently, ^ L26, 3, a, &,), e. g. Gen. xliii. 32, the Egyptians may not eat ><-ith th>- Helm m ; Job iv. 17. is man more just tlu in God? ii. 4; Prov. xv. 20, 3N* n^u M C^n j3 ,/ wise son dens a father ; and very often so in Job and Proverbs. In the same formula is used Bometimea the Preterite, and sometime! the Future, bul not necessarily without difference of meaning, e.g. Job i. 7, K3$ |$9 whenct comeet i'>" xvi. 8, nsri nrp'^N whence didst thou comet 3. For a series of relations which in Latin arc expressed by the Subjund especially by the Present Subjunctive. In this way is expn Bsed what is Future or what is expected to occur, according to a subjective view or according to Borne other condition. It stands — 208 TAUT III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. Ill- SYNTAX OF THE VERB. a) For tli" Subjunctive after particles signifying that, that not (///. ne\ as X\s % , *$, 'TBfc ]yth, and 1^7 (without, X ; N), also TBte p- that, in order that;* e. g. Gen. sd. 7, ty^P^ N7 "l^N //m£ Mry ///>/// not understand; Num. wii. 5, ypl xb *$$ \V^7 that there come not near; Deut. iv. 1, vnn [Sfirp ///,// ye may live; Eze. xii. 12, nWf N7 X'X [y* that he see not; and after |3 tlkrf wo/, ferf, e. g. IT rh& |fi Gen. iii. 22. £) For the Optative; Job iii. 3; DV "DX* pereat dies; vs. 5, 6, 8; vi. 9. In this sense the lengthened or shortened form is properly used (§ 128, 1, 2), followed often by the particle XJ;f e. g. X3"*TDJ*, Ps. vii. 10, that might erase — ! "Jpptf KJ"*lJTJ Gen. xliv. 18, might thy servant speak, for let thy servant speak; ver. 33, NJ"3t?* may he now abide. Yet, at times, the full form is employed even where the shortened one clearly exists, e. g. HX'TH let appear, Gen. i. 9; comp. xli. 34; HXT ?K Job iii. 9. c) For the Imperative, the place of which it always supplies in negative com- mands (prohibitions). When it expresses prohibition, it is preceded by «?, as Sbjin X7 $0M s/iaft not steal Exod. xx. 15; when dehortatory, by ?K, as NTJV7X fear not Gen. xlvi. 3; Job iii. 4, 6, 7 (and in this connexion with 7X the jussive or shortened form is proper to be used, § 128, 2). It is also used for the Imperative when the third person is required, and for the Imperatives of the passive voice, so far as the forms of these are not in use (see § 46); e. g. 7IK *!T let light be, Gen. i. 3; TW let him be put to death, Ex. xxxv. 2, 1 Ki. ii. 24. Comp. § 128, 2. d) For the so-called Potential, where we use may, can, might, could, ought, etc. ; e. g. Gen. ii. 16, b2XF\ TOJJ thou mayest eat; Prov, xx. 9, *tbfc^ *fo who can say? Gen. xliii. 7, TQ *H£ could we know? Gen. xx. 9, W \fo 10& (deeds) that ought not to be done. 1. Even for time past. It is thus used chiefly in these cases: a) After the particles TX then,% D^D not yet, D*]t?2 (ivhen not yet) before; e. g. Jos. x. 12, V^irV T3T TX then spake Joshua; Gen. ii. 5, n?T DTK) there was not yet; Gen, xxxvii. 18; X¥fi DTDS ie/bre f/wm comest forth, (priusquam * When those particles have B different signification, the Future is not used; e.g. WJ because, with the Pre/. Judges ii. "JO, Tj'N because, Gen. xxxiv. 27. t The particle X3 (§ 105) gives to the verb the force of a request and of a wish. On its use with the first person, see § 1-28, 1. I When TX signifies then in respect to future time, this form of the verb has a future sense (Ex. xii. 48). § 128. USE OF THE LENGTHENED AND SHORTENED FUTURE. 209 exires), Jer. i. 5. (Compare the use of the Pret. and Fut. in the same sen- tence, 1 Sam. iii. 7.) b) Often also of customary or continued action, and in extended representation, like the Imperfect of the Latin and French languages. Repeated or customary action, as it involves the conception of something unfinished and yet to be, is properly expressed by the Future. Job i. 5, thus did (H^IT) Job & nimuaUy ; xxii. 6, 7, 8; xxix. 12, 13; Judges xiv. 10; 1 Sam. i. 7 ; 1 Kings iii. I thousand burnt-offerings he offered, n?5|!) Is. x. 6; Ps. xxxii. 1 ; xlii. 5. Yet also — c) Of single acts that are done and past, where the Preterite might be expected. Such is the case, at least, in poetry, on the same principle as we employ the Present tense in lively representations of the past. Job iii. 3, perish the day, 12 T?}tt in which I was bom; vs. 11, JTlEX Ern.2 X*? HEP why died I from the womb'? iv. 12, 15, 16; x. 10, 11 ; very notable also is Judges ii. 2. 5. For the Imperfect Subjunctive, especially in conditional sentences (tin conditionalis) both in the protasis and apodosis. Ps. xxiii. 4, ^|?N~*3 D|* . . • . K'VK N7 even if I shoidd go I shoidd not fear ; Job v. 8, I would a unto God (were I in thy place); ix. 21, I shoidd not know myself (if I spoke other- wise); x. 18, I had died, and no eye had seen me; iii. 16; vi. 14. In this i also, the shortened form is properly used (§ 128, 2, c). Sect. 128. USE OF THE LENGTHENED AND SHORTENED FUTURE (COHORT A 11 YK AND JUSSIVE). 1. The Future as lengthened by the ending PI— (the CohoriaHve) is used almost exclusively in the first person; and is expressive of purposi or endeavour § 48, 3). Hence this form is employed, a) to express excitement of one's w If, or a determination, spoken with some degree of emphasis. Ps. xxxi. 8, **?$$ nnpbW let me be glad and rejoice ! ii. 3; HjJIJIl) cornel letusbr< \der. Also, with less emphasis, in soliloquy; Ex. iii. 3, iTtjTjW KJTHDK / will turn aside now andsee; Gen. xxxii. 21. b) To express a wish, a request (for leave to do some- thing); Deut. ii. 27, TNSfX let me pass through; Num. xx. 17. KfTTTSl^ let us pass through, I pray thee, c) When a purpose i> expressed, and the verb is com- monly joined by \ to a preceding Imperative; Gen. xxvii. 1. bring it hither, nJDNl and I will eat = that I may eat; xxix. 21 ; xlii. 34; Job x. 20. Less frequently, d) it stands in conditional sentences with ij\ though, expressed or implied, Job 210 PAST in. SYNTAX. CUM', in. syntax OP THB verb. xn j. i; ; x i. |7 ; i's. cxxxix. 8. Moreover, it stands, e) frequently after \'VJ § 130. THE IMPERATIVE. 211 2. If there be, however, any connexion with an earlier event, the Fat. with Vat conv. may even begin a narrative or a section of one. In tins case we find a very frequent use of \"T1 (/cal iyevero) and it happened ), wish (Ps. viii. 2, and with i?, Gen. xxiii. 13), permission (2 Sam. xviii. 23; Is. \K. 1 I). It. is employed especially in strong assurances (comp. thou shalt have it, which expresses both a command and a promise); and hence, in prophetic declarations, as Is. vi. 10, tliou shall mule the heart of this people hard, for thou wilt make. These may be either, a) promises, Ps. exxviii. 5, thou .shalt see (PlfcjH) the prosperity of Jerusalem; Is. xxxvii. 30; lxv. 18; Ps. xxii. 24; Gen. w. 7; or, A ) threatenings* Is. xxiii. 1, howl, ye ships of Tarshish, Hot ye shall {will) howl; vs. 2, 4, x. 30, xiii. 6. In all these cases the use of the Imp. approximates much to that of the Fut., which may therefore precede (Gen. xx. 7; xlv. 18) or follow it (Is. xxxiii. 20) in the same signification. In nearly all its significations, the Imperative is enlivened or strengthened hy the addition of the particle ^J tigs! (§ 105), thus, in the sense of command, both the milder (do now this or that), e. g. Gen. xxiv. 2, and the sterner or menacing, e. g. Num. xvi. 26; xx. 10; and in the sense of entreaty, e. g. SJ ^TpS Gen. xii. 13. In the sense of ironical permission we have K3"Hpy only persist! Is. xlvii. 12. 2. We may, from the above, explain the peculiar use of two Imperatives joined by and; a) where they are employed in a good sense, the first containing an admonition or exhortation, and the second a promise made on the condition implied in the first (like divide et impera), e. g. Gen. xlii. 18, Vtl) y&2[ HXT this do, and (ye shall) live; Prov. xx. 13, keep thine eyes open (be wakeful, active), and thou shalt hare plenty of bread; Ps. xxxvii. 27 (comp. vs. 3); Prov. vii. 2; ix. 6; Job xxii. 21 ; Is. xxxvi. 16; xlv. 22; Hos. x. 12; Amos v. 4, 6; b) where a threat is expressed, and the first Imp. tauntingly permits an act, while the second denounces the consequences ; Is. viii. 9, W'rfi D^EW tyl rage on, ye people, and ye shall surely be dismayed; Is. xxix. 9. Instead of the second Imp. the Fut. also may be used; Is. vi. 9 ; viii. 10 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 44. Rem. 1. How far the Pret. and Fut. may be employed to express command has been shown in § 126, 6, e, § 127, 3, c, and § 128, 2. 2. It is incorrect to suppose that the form of the Imp. is used, as some grammarians maintain, for the third person (let him kill). Among the examples adduced of this usage is Gen. xvii. 10, "DJ"v3 D37 yVQT\ every male among you shall be circumcised. (In verse 12, ?1B) is used. But TtEli) is the Infinitive which gives the same sense, § 131, 4, b.) Equally mistaken are the other examples, viz., Ps. xxii. 9 (^>j| Inf.); Gen. xxxi. 50 ; Judges ix. 28 ; Is. xlv. 21 (in the last three passages we have actual Imperatives of the 2nd person). * Analogous is the form of menace in the comic writers, vupula, Terent. Phonn. V. 6, 10, rapidare te jubco, Plaut Curculio, IV. 4, 12. § 131. use of the infinitive absolute. 213 Sect. 131. use of the infinitive ab80lute. The Infinitive absolute is employed, as lias been remarked in § 45, 1. when there is occasion to express the action of the verb by itself, neither connected with some- thing following nor dependent on a preceding ooun or particle.* The most im- portant cases of its use are — 1. When it is governed by a transitive verb, and consequently stand- as an accu- sative. Is. xlii. 24, "ffrn ttM xS they would not go; vii. L5, THTO JTE D1KB inpS y\t$$ until he learn to refuse the evil, awl choose tl" 1 good; Jer. ix. 1. Bere, how- ever, the Inf. constr. is oftener used, with or without a preposition, always accord- ing to the construction of the preceding verb, § 142, 1, 2. In the same construction is Is. xxii. 13, behold ! joy and gladness, 1^1 fN¥ Ofaupi ~~2 2l"in the slaying (prop, to slay) oxen, the slaughtering sheep, the eating flesh, tin- drinking nine (where th nitives are mere accusatives governed by behold !) Is. v. 5, / will fell you what I will do to my tine, yard VYIj }T"lS . . . lrG-lw'O "Ipn (he taking away [to take away) its hedge and the tearing down its wall, — q. d. that will I do. 2. When it is in the accusative and used adverbially^ (in Latin as gerund in do) ; e. g. y^^ bene faciendo for bene, Hinn multum facu ndo for multum. Hence — 3. When it is used for emphasis in connexion with a. finite verb: a) It then stands most commonly before the finite verb, to which if gives, in general, strength or intensity. 1 Sam. xx. 6, *3Sfi ?NB^ /fctB^ he urgently besought of me ; Gen. xliii. 3, he strictly charged us (T>n TSfiJ). A very clear example is in Amos ix. 8, I irill destroy it from the face of th earth, thai I will not utterly destroy (TpD'X Tfiffrl K7) the house of Jacob. Judges i. 28. Its effect is often merely to give a certain prominence to the thought contained in the finite verb, — which in other languages is done chiefly by the tone of the voice or by particles, — as in assurances, questions (such especially as i excitement in view of something strange and improbable), and contrasts; Gen, xliii. 7, could we (then) know? xxxvii. 8, WJ tpbfl 'SfTOn wih thou (indeed) * Here the Tnf. constr. is always used. But when several successive infinitives are to hav< t pn p often written only before the first; and the second, before which it i> to be supplied by the mil in tlio absolute form, as inL ,; i V^nS to eat mid (to) drink, Ex. sxxii. 6; comp. 1 Bam. xxii. IS; v\\. 26; Jer. riL 18; xliv. 17. This ease is analogous with that explained in § 121, •"!. Comp. al ' Son. f On the accusative as a casus adverbiaUs, see § 1 18. In Arabic it takes, in thi In reneral, the Inf. absol answers in must eases (see Not, 1,2, 3, of this * i tion) I of the Infinitive, to which No. 4 also is to be referred. •j II PAKI m. syntax'. — OHAP. in. syntax ok THB VERB. rule over us? sxxi. -">", hadst thou even gone* (ft^?^ T^)* since thou didst so earnestly long (fi3pD3 spp}); Judges xv. 13, we will bind thee, but ice will not hill thee; 1 Sum. ix. • !>) When the [nf. Btands after the finite verb, tliis connexion generally indicates continued or lasting action. Is. vi. 9, VM2& WP^ n\ear on continually; Jer. wiii. 17; Gen. xix. 9, 1315$ D2JJh and /*e w?z7/ always be playing the judge! Two Infinitives absolute may be thus used; 1 Sam. vi. 12, iyjl ^"PH 1J?n /Ary //•r/// going on and lowing, for they steadily went on lowing; 1 Kings xx. 37. Instead of the second Inf., a finite verb is sometimes used (Josh. vi. 13), or a participle (2 Sam. xvi. 5). Rem. 1. This usage in regard to the position of the Inf. is certainly the common one, though not without exceptions. It sometimes follows the finite verb which it strengthens, when the idea of repetition or continuance is excluded by the connexion. Is. xxii. 17 ; Jer. xxii. 10 ; Gen. xxxi. 15 ; xlvi. 4; Dan. x. 11, 13. In Syriac, the Inf. when it expresses intensity stands always before, and in Arab, always after, the finite verb. — When a negative is used it is commonly placed between the two (Ex. v. 23), seldom before them both (Gen. iii. 4). 2. With a finite verb of one of the derived conjugations may be connected not only the Inf. absol. of the same conjugation (Gen. xvii. 13; xl. 15), but also that of Kal (e.g. *\~P ^ptt Gen. xxxvii. 33 ; Job vi. 2), or of another of the same signification (Lev. xix. 20 ; 2 Kings iii. 23). 3. In expressing the idea of continuance (letter b), the verb ^n is frequently employed, with the signification to go on, to continue on, and thus denotes also constant increase; e.g. Gen. xxvi. 13, '1}\ WC "^.l he became continually greater and greater. 2 Sam. v. 10; Gen. viii. 3, D)E>n -13^1 . . . lif'l "?]1^n and the waters flowed off continually. (The participial construction is also frequent here; e. g. 1 Sam. ii. 26, ^iOl VlJI ^?h PXIEL? "I^Q the child Samuel went on increasing in stature and in goodness ; 2 Sam. iii. 1.) A similar mode of expression is found in the French : le mal va toujours croissant, la maladie va toujours en augmentant et en empirant, grows tvorse continually. 4. When it stands in place of the finite verb. We must here distinguish the two following cases, viz. — a) When it is preceded by a finite verb. This is frequent, especially among the later writers, in the expression of several successive acts or states, where only the first of the verbs employed takes the required form in respect to tense and person, the others being simply put in the Infinitive with the same tense and person implied. (Comp. § 121, 3.) So with the Pret. Dan. ix. 5, 1\0\ ttTTO we have labelled and (we have) turned away ; Gen. xli. 43, he caused him to ride in the second chariot, 1HX pnjl and placed him; 1 Sam. ii. 28; Jer. xiv. 5. With the Fat., Jer. xxxii. 44, they icill buy fields for money (Fid.), and write and seal bills of sale, and hike witnesses (three Infinitives), Num. xv. 35. As much as to say, I understand well wherefore thou art gone, viz., from earnest longing. The Vulgate renders it, esto, ad tuos ire cupiebas. § 132. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 215 b) It may stand at the beginning V }f the sentence, without a preceding finite verb. The Infinitive (being the pure abstract idea of the verb) may Berve aa a >hort and emphatic expression for any tense and person, which tin- connexion requi e. g. it stands a) for the Tret, in lively narration and description, Kke the Latin Injinitivus Mstoricus. Is. xxi. 5, JIH^ 7DN T\"t % iT} TWi [H/BNl ^JITJ t>> prepare the table, to set the watch, to eat, to drink (sc. this they do'), for they / lix. 4; Hos. iv. 2; Eze. i. 14; Job xv. 35. Also, fi) for the Fut. in ir< proper sense. 2 Kings iv. 43, "lTuTA tdjj to at and to leavt thereof ( bc. ye shall do)j 7) most frequently for the emphatic Imp., as Deut. v. 12. TflfiB' / (sc. thou art to, ye are to); so Ex. xx. 8, *0 to remember (oughtest thou); hence, with the full form, p"lttB%) 1T&#, Deut. vi. 17; *T3TJ? lb?, vii. 18. For the Cohortative Is. xxii. 13, inch TDK to m£ arad to drink 1 (sc. Lei us eat and drink); 1 Kings xxii. 30 to disguise myself and go (will I do). Rem. 1. The /»/". for the finite verb is seldom found in connexion with the subject, U in xl. 2; Eze. i. 14. 2. The examples are also few of the Inf. const?-, employed in these eases. Such are I-. Lx. 1 1. where it is used adverbially like the gerund in do; it is connected with ;i finite verb in Nth. i. 7 (J»q), Ps. 1. 21 (m\n), R u th ii. 16 (to), Num. xxiii. 25 (ip). Sect. 132. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 1. The Inf. constr. as a verbal substantive is subject to the same relati case with the noun, and the modes of indicating them (§ 117) arc also the same. Thus, it is found, a) in the nominative as the Bubjecl of the sent , ii. I s . TO? DINH HIT! ilta N? not good (lit. the being of man in his sep tration) that should be alone ; b) in the genitive, Gen. x\ix. 7, spsn fl> tempus li, here is to be referred the case where the Infinitive is dependent on a preposition being originally a noun), sec No. 2; c) in the accusative, 1 Kings iii. 7. >*"X N s NliJ HN¥ I know not (how) to go out and to come m, prop. / know not the going out and coming in. (In this case the Inf. absol. may also be used, ^ 131, L.) 2. For the construction of the Inf. with prepositions, as in the Greek brfclrcu, the German [and English] languages generally employ a finite verb with a con- junction which expresses the import of the preposition; e. L r . Num. sxxv. 19, 11"iyj3!l when he meets him, prop, in his meeting with him. Jer. ii. 85, """-^ /$ because thou sayest, prop, on account of thy saying. Gen. xxviL I. m wen dim TlWpso that he could not set (comp. the use offl? before a aoun to< 216 l'AIJT HI- SYNTAX'. — CITAT. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. from, and tlic absence <>r want of ;i thing). The lexicon must be consulted for particular information on the use of the < li U"« T-.nt prepositions. ;;. Willi reaped t<> relations of time, the Infinitive refers also to the past (comp. mi the Participle, x L34, 2), e.g. Gen. ii. 4, EN*]^ when they were created (prop. in their being created). Ri m. 1. niL'^S rvn (or niL"_yS \vith the omission of njn) signifies, 1) he is about to do, intends or purposes to V r\)r\\ Jehovah saveth me; xxi. 1, Eccles. iii. 15, Prov. xix. 8, comp. xvi. 20. 2) It is to do for it must be done (comp. I am to give). Jos. ii. 5, "113?? "WU'n s \} s .1 and the gate was to shut for was to be shut. More commonly without HM; 2 Kings iv. 13, rilb'y? n ? tvhat {is) to be done • 2 Chr. xix. 2. Also, 3) He uas able to do (comp. the Latin non est solvendo). Judges i. 19, B^iy X? he coidd not drive out* 2. The Hebrew writers frequently pass from the Infinitive construction (described in No. 2) to the use of the finite verb, before which the mind must then supply a conjunction answering to the preposition before the Infinitive. Thus, a Pret. follows, in Amos i. 11, '*Orn X\TW\ — 1S"n /JJ because he pursued — and stifled his compassion; Gen. xxvii. 45; a Fut. with Vav conv. in Gen. xxxix. 18, N~ipXl vip ^"IHS when I raised my voice and cried. Is. xxx. 12, xxxviii. 9; most commonly a Fut. with only \ prefixed, as in Is. v. 24, x. 2, xiii. 9, xiv. 25, xxx. 26. (Comp. the participial construction, § 134, Rem- 2.) Sect. 133. connexion of the inf. construct with subject and object. 1. The Infinitive may be construed with the case of its verb, and hence, in transitive verbs, it takes the accusative of the object; e. g. Num. ix. 15, "HX D*j?n jX'Sn to set up the Tabernacle; 1 Sam. xix. 1, TPrHX Jl^rip to kill David ; Gen. xviii. 25, pHV l"M?n7 to kill the righteous ; 1 Kings xii. 15; xv. 4; 2 Kings xxi. 8; Ezc. xliv. 30; Lev. xxvi. 15, *niX£"73 - riK T\W% to do all my commands; Gen. xix. 29, D*TpniTfcjPafcFja when he overthrew the cities; Prov. xxi. 15, LD5E>£ TWV to do judgment.^ In like manner it takes the accusative of the pronouns, e. g. Tjni* D*pH jpo? in order to establish thee, Deut. xxix. 12; ^Tt?n to bring me bach, Jer. xxxviii. 2G; S )TTP to s ^ a y me i Ex. ii. 14; ^#j??7 to seek me, 1 Sam. xxvii. 1; ^ * This sense is necessary from the context, and in the parallel passage Jos. xvii. 12 it is expressed by •173* X7 •J'ninp. Comp. also the Hebrew 7 pX non licet mihi, and the Syr. '? T\h non possum (Agrell. Suppl. Synt. Syr. pp. 9," 10). t In cases like the last, DSy'O might be easily regarded as genitive of the object (§ 114, 2), which construction is common in Arabic ; but since in other instances DX is used, and since a form like W\)T\ never occurs in such connexion, which form would decidedly mark the constr. state and also the genitive relation, we must suppose that the Bebrewa considered, at least as a general rule, the object of the Inf. to be in the accusative. Compare Nos. 2. and 3. § 133. CONNEXION OF THE IXF. CONSTR. WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 217 v. 10; xxviii. 9; 1 Chron. xii. 17; Gen. xxv. 26, Cnfc AT/? quum {mater) eos pareret. If the finite verb governs two accusatives, then they will be employed also with the Infinitive, as H«r?3T»f ^nfc D^TM JPTta nnx since God has shown thee all this Gen. xli. 39. The same construction takes place with a verbal noun ;uial< >ir<>us r<> tin- Infinitive, as ni!T"nNI T^V^ knoirkdye of Jehovah (prop, the knowing Jehovah)^ [g. \i. 9, nWTjv TlK to fear me Deut. v. 26, Is. xxx. 28, hi. 6.* 2. The subject of the action is commonly put immediately after the Infinitive, sometimes (where the Inf. is regarded rather as a Bubstantive) in the genitive, but generally in the nominative; e. g. 2 Chron. vii. 3, ^'^ HT"! the descending of the fire; Ps. exxxiii. 1, TIT D3 D*nN rnt? that brethren dwell together; Ex. wii. 1, there icas no water Dl?H Hint/? for the people to drink ( prop, for t 1 ,, drinking of the people). The genitive relation of the subject is quite plain after Infinitive* feminine-ending, as in Is. xlvii. 9, HNft T"Dn H2W3 although thy enchantments O ' '• •l"" T i"- ~;t. %' are very numerous ; Gen. xix. 16, Ivy PVjIT nSpn? Inj Jehovah 1 s pity >>u him ,• and also when it is expressed by a suffix, like ^*lp!l when I '■.ill, Pg. iv. 2, 1 (yet also incorrectly ^?1^5 when I return, Eze. xlvii. 7, for ^C'2). On the contrary, the genitive is excluded, and the subject to be considered rather in the nominative in such cases as these: Ps. xlvi. 3, j"lN *Vpn? (not *Wl?) when the • Deut. xxv. 19, v Hjnj rVJniD when Jehovah gives to the* . _ Sam. xix. l'i>, 12/Sk ^?En 0^7 that the king should lay if to heart; also when the Inf. an«l the subject are separated, as in Judges ix. 2, B*N D33 hm EN t*K Wflf Z22 bfefcn 1HJSI whether seventy men rule over you, or one man rules over you? Joh xwiv. 22, px huh W *ir©!"H that the evil-doers hide themselves then ; Pg. lxxvi. 10, See further in No. 3. 3. When both subject and object are connected with the Infinitive, the rule i<, that the subject should come Immediately utter the Inf.. and then the object When the latter is plainly in the accusative, the subject La then put, as in N sometimes in the genitive, but chiefly in the nominative. The genitive (which prevails in Arabic) appears, e. g. in Deut. i. 27, OTlfc HIJIJ Hn:L'- hatesus; Is. xiii. 19, DlpTlX DViSx rOSTlpj) as God overtim w Sodom ; Is. \\i\. 13, TIN nnx*V their fearing me; Gen. xxxix. is, 71p \Snn3 as I lifted up my v but the nominative is found, e.g. in [a. x. L5, WFpTH IT--* (J'^tJ as if th ' could shake them that lift it up (where we should have had v""-. if '^--' w\ ore in the + Bzamples of an accnaathre of the object writh the [nf. paaaii 21S PABT ill. SYNTAX. — CHAP. m. SYNTAX OF THE VEBB. genitive). A.ccordingly the Bubjecl is usually to be considered in the nominative, as 1 Kings xiii. I, tflTTKn B*N WT*f ~]ht?n ybpb as the king heard the word of the man of God. Gen. xiii. I<>, Jos. xiv. 17, 2 Sam. iii. 1 1, Jer. xxi. 1, Eze. xxxvii. L3. Now and then the order of the words is different, the object being put immediately after the Inf., and the nominative of the subject coming nexl [as a supplement) e.g. Js. xx 1, inx nV~ M 3 jii"ip when Sargon sent him; Ezra ix. 8, M*$7$J W2W. "^C?? that our God enlighten our eves; •2 Chron. xii. 1, EV^n") niDpp p?n| when Rehoboam had established the kingdom. Jos. xiv. U, Is. v. 24, xxix. 28, Pb. lvi. 1. Sect. 134. USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 1. The only existing form of the Participle is used to express all the tenses, as flti dying (Zech. xi. 9); he who has died, dead (very frequently so); he who is to die (Gen. xx. 3); 753 he who falls, has fallen, will fall; T\Vty facturus (Gen. xli. 25; Is. v. 5); though it most frequently has the signification of the Present. The passive Participles, therefore, stand also for the Latin Participle in -ndus, e. g. N"TD metuendus, terrible, Ps. lxxvi. 8; 7?rU? laudandus, worthy to be praised, Ps. xviii. 4. 2. The Participle, standing in place of the finite verb as predicate of the sen- tence, denotes — a) Most frequently the Present :* Eccles. i. 4, N3 "0*11. ^Vn 1)1 one generation goes, another comes; vs. 7, D , ??' n QvC'pL 1 "''? all the rivers flow ; Gen. iv. 10. If the subject is a ]>e>'sonal pronoun, it is either written, in its separate form, in immediate connexion with the Participle, as ^JX N"V / fear Gen. xxxii. 12, D*X"V "13n3^ we are afraid 1 Sam. xxiii. 3; or it is appended as a suffix to the word KG {is), as Judges vi. 36, y/pOD ip* DX if thou surest. In the same manner it is appended, in negative sentences, to i'$?; e. g. D.PP'P "^S DX if thou send not aicay, Gen. xliii. 5. Hence, b) the Future (conceived of as present, comp. § 126, 4). Is. v. 5, i" will tell you "I*-"*? flS nb : y *:$ what I do, for what I will do. Gen. xix. 13 ; xli. 25. Also, c) the Past, especially when it stands connected with the statement of other past con- temporaneous circumstances. Job i. 16, N3 i"in "13"1P HT 1)]} the one (was) still speaking, and another came; vs. 17. Gen. xlii. 35 ; Ex. ii. 6 ; Judges xiii. 9 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 23 ; 1 Ki. i. 5, 22. But it is also used with reference to past time, and even for the perfect Preterite, without any such con- nexion ; e. g. Deut. iv. 3, nixin D3»3^ your eyes which have seen.] With the verb JVn it serves to express the Imperfect.^ Job i. 14, niL'hh VH Tg3P| the oxen were ploughing, Gen. xv. 17; Judges i. 7; xvi. 21. Hem. 1. In all the three cases alluded to above, a, b, e, n$n is employed before the Participle for awakening special attention; e. g. (a) For the Present, PHP) "!J3n behold! thou (art) with child, * In Syriac and Chaldee, it is more frequently used for the Present than in its proper signification as a Participle. t For the use of the article here before the predicate, see § 110, 3, Rem. I In Syriac, the Present is expressed by interficiens ego (comp. letter a), and the Imperfect by intcrficiens fui >interficiebam. § 136. EXPRESSION OF THE OPTATIVE. 219 Gen. xvi. 11; xxvii. 42 ; Ex. xxxiv. 11. (/>) For the Future, Gen. vi. IT: Is. iii. 1: vii. 14; xvii. 1. (c) For the Past, Gen. xxxvii. 7: xli. 17. 2. By a change of construction, the Participle is often immediately followed by a finite verb; the pronouns that, zvho, etc. (1?'^) implied in the Participle, must then be mentally supplied before the verb. So Part, and Prct. in Is. xiv. 17, that made CM? the world as a wilderness, and (who) destroyed (P~lv}) the cities thereof. Also Part, and Put. [Present , BO that the second clause begins with 1. or without it, e.g. Is. v. 8, ta*]j?! FTTB'a TTVff TV 2 2 n*3 v: : "~ , , r //o con house with house, and (who) join field I to field ; vs. 11, l2:j : xxxi. 1 ; 1 Sam. ii. K; Prov. xix. also with Vav conversiie, e. g. Gen. xxvii. 33, K2'1 TV "HJ3 Ma/ /««//< huuttd game and brought it ; xxxv. 3 ; Ps. xviii. 33. (Compare the strictly analogous deviation from the Intinitivc-conatruction, § 132, Rem. 2.) Sect. 135. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. When Participles are followed by the object of* the action which they expr m they are construed in two ways; 1) as verbal-adjectives having the Bame govern- ment as the verbs to which they belong; e. g. 1 Sam. xviii. i )( .». TH"^ 2*N David? a enemy (prop, one hating David)-, 1 Ki. ix. 23, Dtf!! D*Tin they who rvk tfo / Ps. xxxiv. 13, D"»n J'Snn he who desires life ; Eze. ix. 2, DH3 B^S clothed with linen garments ; 2) as nouns followed by a genitive (§ 112, 2); e. g. Gen. xxii. 1 2, N"" D^;X one that fears {a fearer of) God; Ps. lxxxiv. 5, ^JVS ^lT in unit, s o/*Ay A- Eze. ix. 11, DHSH ti^Q 1 ? the one clothed with limn garments; 2 Sam. xiii. .".1. *pTI DHJQ having (their) clothes rent; Ps. xxxii. 1, Jitf *HPJ whose tran This latter construction with the genitive is properly confin The Participle of the verb N12 to enter in, is also construed thus, as this verh 18 I by the accusative (comp. ingredi portam)] e. g. Gen. xxiii. lo. US? *|f3 thost who enter m at the gate. Hut there are also examples of the Participle, regarded as a noun, being followed by a g< oitive in i where the verb to which it belongs is construed only with a preposition : e. . "'-" " ~ "ho rise up against me, — against him, i'or Ivy, *?]! C , -^ i l's. x\iii. 1". L9j 1 M ut. xxxiii. 11; I-. lix. 20, ]}*'$ *2tJ> those who turn from evil. 2. The difference explained in No. 1, holds also in regard to the mffi A.fter the first method, we have ^bty he who made me\ after the Becond *w*> my maker. Sect. 13G. EXPRESSION OF THE OPTATIVE. We have already Been (§ L27, 3, b) that the Future, especially as cohortal with the ending T\— and with the particle Nj. ia employed to express the I optative. Here must be added two other forms of circumlocutioD by which it La expn - viz. — 220 PART HI- SYNTAX. — CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VEBB. 1. By questions expressive of desire, «■. ir. 2 Sam. xv. 4, &fi# *)1±?] *fi who will make me judge? i. e. would that I were made judge I Judges ix. 2!), DJTTJTM \f\\ *£ *TS Pttfl //-,w/A/ ///) by an Infinitive, as Ex. xvi. 3, Urnft |JT~V? that we had died! c) by a finite verb (with or without 1 : ), Deut. v. 20, DrT? DT EG? iTTn |ft*-*& ///S? Ruth i. 8, nh3^_ thou (fern.) hast made a league Is. lvii. 8; Joel ii. 22; Am. iv. 1; Cant. ii. 7. (Compare the analogous use of the pronoun, § 121, Rem. 1.) 2. The third person (most commonly in the masc.) is very often employed impersonally, e. g. *H)1 and it happened; r) IX and w *W (lit. it ivas strait to him) he was in trouble; w DPI and w DH*1 he became warm. It is also employed thus in the fern., e. g. 1 Sam. xxx. 6, 1)\? "ixrfi and David was in trouble ; Ps. 1. 3; Jer. x. 7. The Arabic and JEthiopic commonly employ here the masc. and the Syriac the fern. form. 3. The indeterminate third person (where the Germans use man, the French on, and we they, one,) is expressed, a) by the 3rd pers. singular, e. g. fcOD they (prop, he) called Gen. xi. 9; xvi. 14; 1 Sam. xix. 22; xxiv. 11; b) by the 3rd pers. plural, as Gen. xli. 14, IPIXH^ and they brought him in haste, for he was brought; c) by the 2nd person singular, e. g. Is. vii. 25, PlteJ? K"Dfi"W there shall § 138. VERBS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 221 no one go thither; so in the common phrase ^|N3 TJ or ^XS until •> ■ ■. d) by the passive voice, as Gen. iv. 26, KhjJ? Srnn TX //„ /, they began to caU upon — * Rem. 1. In the first case (letter a), the force of V*K (impersonal, implied: the full construction occurs in one instance, 1 Sam. ix. 9, t> ,:, Sn ~*;x - : 7|jhP ^TlJTR the treoder shall not trend, for they shall not tread = there shall be no treading; ixviiL 1 ; Jer. ix xxxiii. 4. The last not un frequent in Arabic. 2. When the pronoun is to be expressed with emphasis, it is written B6] the corre- sponding verbal form; e.g. Rri3 ITJjIK thou hast given, Judges x\. 18; 1 Kin 7: Ps. ii. 6; exxxix. 2; also after the verbal form. Judges w. 12, and this occurs in the later writers without any special emphasis, as W ^"la'l Eccles. i. 1G, beginning; ii. 11, 12, 13, 15, l'<': \iii. 15. 3. In the poets and prophets, especially, there is often, in the sami tion, a suddat transition from one person to another. Is. i. 29, DJiHPD TJ'X D'^'N': 'L"2' T • • <;,,// f, c ashamed of the groves in which ye delight, where both the third and second persons an with reference to the same subject. Isa. lxi. 7; Deut. xxxii. 15, 17 : Mic. ii. 3. — In .! the third person is probably employed SeiKToctos for the first, compare also ri. -1 according to the reading V?). Sect. 138. VERBS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. All transitive verbs govern in general the accusative (§ 118). On this rule we remark — 1. There are many verbs which are construed both without an objed (absolutely), and with one (in this latter case the verb in German and English often takes the prefix be)\ e. g. H3? to weep, and to be-weep; 38?) to dwell, and to dwt " wit; Xyj to go forth, and also like egredi in the form egredi urbem (Gen. sliv. 4 i. Here notice further : Rem. 1. Several verbs of this kind take after them their own substanl from the same root and with a corresponding signification, as "in? ~ins Ps, xiv. ... "W "V; K p i. IS, like fiovXevuv (3ov\d<; II. x. 117 ; most frequently as a Bp< cification, or a- a lim idea of the verb (as also in Greek); e.g. Gen. xxvii. 84, ""-' """■ "T'V ~VV ,',,/ a haul and bitter cry ; vs. 33 ; 2 Kings xiii. 14; Zech. i. 14; lChr.zziz.9. Comp. i 2. Verbs which signify to flow, to stream, take in thi thai which scntcd as poured forth in a stream. Lam. iii. 48, '3*8 TJB E!r"\^? my ■ water. Joel iv. 18, the hills flow milk. So b]) /„ run, to flow, Jet. i\. 17. \-} i •■'. J I IT. 1 and s^ to gush forth, to flow abundantly (hence, to bear along, OS doe* a torn I imihw, * Sometimes, on the contrary, the impersonal atcunt must be anderstood u strictly the pmfra dkintr, Job rit :». nights of pain hare they appointed me, fox are ap po in te d me (no. by God); W. 19; sril IS; axxB. 10; ua So in Chaldee very frequently (Dan. ii. SO; iii. 4 ; v. 8), and in Syria.-. 222 PABT Ml. SYNTAX.— CHAT. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. l„it mora bold, is Prov. ixiv. 81, D*3tetyp i^p nSy njn] and behold it (the field) &m o# yofw w;> /o thorn*. Is. v. 6. Compare in Greek, trpopiuv v8wp, Hymn, is A.poll. 2, 202; idtcpva o~ni£tu>. ;;. |, [g ajgo to be n garded as a mere poetic usage, when verba which signify to . to speak, in cry, and tin' like, take an accusative of the instrument or member with which the act is performed This i- besl illustrated by the example ?Vl| Tip ?V\ to cry a loud voice (comp. Rem. 1), for to cry with a loud voice, Eze. xi. 13 ; to speak a lying tongue (Ps. cix. 2), hence, Ps. iii. 5, X~vx vip with mil whole) i'"'"' / cry; T>N"P *B lxvi. 17, »•//// my (full) mouth I cry : so, to speak with the mouth, Ps. wii. 10, with the lips, xii. ."»; to labour with the hand, Prov. x. 4; to help with the right hand, with the hand, with the Bword, Ps. xvii. 13,14; xliv. 3 ; lx. 7; ^^ ny»trin* ; in which cases the accusativus instrument* is employed. In the same cases ? instrumenti is also used, • to pro«« with the mouth, Ps. lxxxix. 2; cix. 30; to supplicate with the mouth, Job xix. 16. But the same use of the accusative is found in Greek; e.g. 7rpo(iatv€LV 7ro'8a, ttolUlv £ic£os (see Poison and Schafer ad Eurip. Orest. 1427, 1477, Bernhardy Synt. Gr. Sprach. S. 110); and that the accusative is actually dependent on the verb, in these cases, is clear from a comparison with those given under Perns. 1 and 2. In like manner, f in German, the instrument is sometimes construed as the object of the verb, as in the following examples, which are strictly analogous to those given above: Schlittschuhe laufen; eine herrliche Stimme singen; eine tiichtige Klinge schlagen [so in English, to ring the bill, to sound the timbrel, etc.]. 2. Many verba govern the accusative in consequence of a peculiar turn given to their signification, when the corresponding verbs in Greek, Latin, and German are construed with other cases; e. g. POS? to reply to (like afieiftofial Tiva, prop, to acquaint one); 1H causam alicujus agere (prop, to defend him before the judge); y£'2 to bring good news to one, to cheer him; £)W to commit adultery icith one (prop. to embrace one adulterously) ; yiS to become surety for one (to bail him). Pern. 1. In the same manner are construed even the passive and reflexive conjugations Xiph., Hoph., Hithpa., the verb sometimes assuming under these forms a signification which requires the accusative, as N23 to prophesy, Jer. xxv. 13; 3D3 to surround (prop, to place themselves around), Judges xix. 22; 'Hpnjin / am made (involuntarily) to possess, Job vii. 3; 7??^ to plot against, Gen. xxxvii. 18; |312nn to consider, Job xxxvh. 14. 2. In very common forms of expression the accusative after such verbs may be omitted without injury to the sense (an elliptical expression), as T\~\2 , for IVT3 n"]3 to make a covenant, 1 Sam. xx. 16 ; rnC' to stretch forth, sc. "I* the hand, Ps. xviii. 17. 3. Whole classes of verbs which govern the accusative are, a) those which signify to clothe and unclothe, as Db? to put on a garment, 13^3 to put off a garment, * In 1 Sam. xxv. 26, 33, we have T"^ and »V as subjects to the Inf. V^in, see § 133, 2. I" The Hebrews used also, on the other hand, the 3 instrument* where we have the accusative. They used indifferently, as we also may, the constructions to shake the head (Ps. xxii. 8), and to shake icith the head (Job xvi. 4) ; to gnash the teeth (Ps. xxxv. 16), and to gnash with the teeth (Job xvi. 9), where head and teeth may be regarded as the object of the verb and as the instrument. But there is a deviation from our mode of expression in these phrases, viz., H?3 "IJ?S to open the mouth (Job xvi. 10, prop, to make an opening with the mouth), gpl? kn8 to spread out the hands (Lam. i. 17, prop, to make a spreading with the hands), comp. 7ip2 \tO and ?)p jro. : § 139. VERBS WITH TWO ACCUSATIVES. 223 •TTtf to put on as an ornament; e. g. |N¥H ^"O X*?h the \ ihed with flocks, Ps. lxv. 14; cix. 29; civ. 2; b) those which signify fulness or //•-// to swarm with (Gen. i. 20, 21), WC? to fc satiated, pfi to overflow (Prov. iii. 10), npn fo wawf, Sb^ to fose (children)] e. g. DT& pKTI N^ni ,/W to> ?a«^ was filled with them Ex. i. 7; rcbn Dp*"1»1 trtfpH |VW *Sw lit. pgrAa/M the fifty righteous will want fre, i. e. perhaps there will h lacking fwt fifty Gen. xviii. 28; DD\}# Ejl /3p'X (tflAy) should I lose you both togt ! Gen. \.\vii. 45; c) most verbs of dwelling, e. g. }?^, 113, 2^*, not merely wi a place (Judges v. 17; Is. xxxiii. 16; Gen. iv. 20), but also among a people, loftfi any one I Pa. v. 5; cxx. 5); d) those which express going or coming to a place (/<'•/< focum); hence N1H, with the accus. to &e/aK owe. With this is connected the accus. lo '. § 11 s . I. Sect. 139. VERBS WITH TWO ACCUSATIVES. Two accusatives are governed by — 1. The causative conjugations (Piel and ffiphil) of all verbs which in Kal govern one accusative ; e. jr. HMn nn 1TlK?fi /Aaue ////»// //■//// /' Ex. xxviii. 3; && HB Ififc V%7_) he clothed him in (caused him toptU on) gam of fine cotton, Gen. xli. 42. And, further, TJK to gird one with Ps. xviii. 33, ft? to We&s one with Deut. xv. 14, 1DH to caiwe ; to anotni Ps. xlv. 8); to///, to bestow, to deprive (Eze. viii. 17: Gen. xxvii. 37; Pr. *xii, 2 to do one a favour or aw injury (1 Sum. xxiv. 18); to m ■" .//////./ (I xvii. 5); e. g. #ip HiTO |B# lfifc r\ s t' % j) and make if a holy anointing oil* Ex. xxx. 25. In such combinations as the one last mentioned, we often adopt another con- struction, viz., and make of it a holy anointing oil, i. e. we treat the first noun as an accusative of material, 1 Kings xviii. 32, rfc|& r:;xrrnx Ttgfi and h the atones an altar, prop, built the stones into an altar; Lev. xxiv. 5. More notable examples of this construction are those in which the material is placed last, as <):i the passu 22-1 PART HI- SYNTAX. — CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Ex. xxxviii. :;, n^TI} nw vSrSa all its vessels he made of brass; (ion. ii. 7; Ex. xxv. .'I'.*; xxxvi. 14. There ifl anotheT use of two accusatives alter the same active veil), viz., when the second serves to limit the first, by expressing more definitely the object of the action. This nearly resembles the adverbial use of the accusative (§ 118); e. g. 'fy 'D ri2n it, smite one mi the cheek, for to smile his clink, I's. iii. S (comp. Dent, xxxiii. 1 1 ; 2 Sam. iii. 27) ; ^'2.3 '£ n3H (o smite one as to his life, i. e. to smite him dead, Gen. .wxvii. 21 ; and in the same manner with ^-lt? Cien. iii. 15. Sect. 140. VERBS WITH PREPOSITIONS. The Hebrew language has no verbs compounded with prepositions. Those modifications of the verbal idea, which other languages indicate by composition with prepositions, are expressed in the Hebrew either, a) by appropriate verbal stems, as N13 to go-in, N¥* to go-out, H# to re-turn, Ulp to pre-cede, TVO to oc-cur ; or, b) by prepositions written after the verb [as in English], e. g. X7D to call, with 7 to call to, with 3 to call upon, with ^HX to call after; 7SJ to fall, with 7tf to fall u I 'on and also to fall off, with \J£7 to fall clown before; ^7!1 with ^HN to #0 a/fer, to follow. It is the task of the Lexicon to show the use of the several prepositions with each particular verb. The subject of whole classes of words construed with this or that particle will be best referred to § 154, 3, which treats of the construction and use of the prepositions. [See on the subject of this section, Nordheimer's Tleb. Grammar, § 1037.] Sect. 141. CONSTRUCTIO PR^IGNANS. The so-called constructio prcegnans occurs in Hebrew particularly when a verb, in itself not a verb of motion, is connected with a particle which implies motion ; so that, for the completion and correctness of the sense, another verb of motion is to be mentally supplied, so that the principal verb properly obtains the accessory idea of motion through the particle; e. g. 7X tt£fi to turn or look in astonishment to one, Gen. xliii. 33; HIP!) »irjN tfW? for T\f\\ nriX T\jh fc&fi to fill up to follow Jehovah, i. e. to follow him fully, Num. xiv. 24; Ps. xxii. 22, OTTOS) Dip*] *T&b hear (and save) me from the horns of the buffaloes; Is. xiv. 17, ilTO fiflS H7 VVDH his prisoners he did not release (and let go) to their homes; Ps. lxxxix. 40; Gen. xlii. 28; Is. xli. 1. § 142. CONSTRUCTION OF TWO VERBS TO EXPRESS ONE IDEA. 221 Sect. 142. CONSTRUCTION OF TWO VERBS TO EXPRESS ONE IDEA. When one verb serves to complete the meaning of another, the second (accord- ing to the sense, the principal verb) is construed as follows, viz. — 1. It stands in the Inf., both absol. (§ L31, 1 ) and (more commonly) after the other verb, e. g. Dent. ii. 25, 31, HH 7HN / begin to < . G< Q. xxwii. 5, KM WDV) and they went on to hate; Ex. xviii. 23, Tfig rhy thou canst endure; Is. i. 14, Xb>3 '11^73 / am weary to bear. Bui -till more frequently — 2. It stands in the Inf. preceded by ?, as Deut. iii. 24, HlK^rr? ni?nn thou hast begun to show; Gen. xi. 8, ffi317 VT^rM and tin;/ ceased to build; xxvii. 20, K¥/p7 JViHft thou hist hastened to find, i. e. hast quickly found, etc. These two are the usual constructions in prose after verbs signifying to begin (/nn, " - s - ~ . continue (Pippin), to hasten pD?), /o erase (Hn, n /?), to be finished (EOH; ; so also, fa moia .) — Judges \i.\. •'•, jvl N3"7iO'n be pleased now and lodgi ; Jos. vii. 7. — Gen. xxvi. I s . *&V% --'" he returned (repeated) and digged, for he digged again ; xxwii. 7; i' Kings i. 11. 13; Gen. xxv. 1, he added and took a wife, for he took again a wife. — Esth. viii. 6, TiW) 731N r03*X how should I endure and witness? for how should I en lure to • t : - T T witness? — Cant. ii. 3; Eccles. iv. 1, 7. The construction can also begin with the Fut. and proceed in the Fret, with ] ;\u § 126, 6), as in Esther viii. G; Deut. xxxi. 12, that they »ia;/ learn (Fut.) and) fear, Hos. ii. 11 ; Dan. ix. 25. And on the contrary, it may begin in the Fret, and proceed in the Fat. with \, Joh xxiii. 3. * To permit one to do a thing, is expn sed by hVl'tS '- IP}, and Tf&ty B |nj, prop. ' I one to do a thing} Gen, xx. (5, yap'p Trinj n' 1 ? I have not permitted thee to touch. f So after words which include an analogous verbal idea, e.g. N"i s px it is not permitted to enter ~".' |*U (poet.) there is not to be compared, IV. .\1. <>, Tri" ready, prepared, commonly with f, without it in Jul> iii. B. 226 PART in. syntax. — CBA7. HI. syntax of THE VERB. A, vi,,,,,, , ,„ N , i. e. without the ) and, both verbs being of* the .same tense, gender, ;ill( j number (as under Letter a), but Yvith a closer connexion of the second with the Bret. Deut. ii. 24, Bh Snn A,v//// and take possession ; Hos. i. 6, DITTW PfpiK N 1 ? / //•/// //"/ «/.» on and /</ multiply and speak==speak not much; Lam. iv. 14, fl?2P i?JV X?!l so ffart M,// cotifci B0< towcA; Job xix. 3; Hos. v. LO. This construction is more poetical than that under letter «. Comp. e. g. ^Tpin with 1 following in Gen. xxv. 1 ; xxxviii. 5; but without ) in IIos. i. 6 ; Is. lii. 1 ; though it occurs also in common prose, as in Neh. iii. 20; Deut. i. 5; Jos. iii. 16; 1 Chron. xiii. 2. c) Likewise ao-vvherw, but with the second verb in a close subordinate connexion in the Future, depending on the conjunction that implied. Job xxxii. 22, X? PlipX WT I know not to flatter (prop. I know not to begin, that I should flatter = 1 cannot natter). 1 Sam. xx. 19, TTFl ftW?&[ and cause on the third day (that) thou come down, for on the third day come down. Is. xlii. 21, 7H^_ ysn he desires to make great. In Arabic and Syriac, this construction is very common ;* in Hebrew rare; but it was necessarily used in those cases where the second verb was to be distinguished from the first in person or number. Is. xlvii. 1, ^ r -1N"]p , - ^pin fcO thou shall not add (that) they shall call thee, for thou shall not continue to be called; Num. xxii. 6, ISJJHJSl 12TI23 73-1X v-IX perhaps I may be able (that) tee shall smite him, and I shall drive him out. All three constructions (letters a, b, c) and also another akin to that under letter c, are found alike in some verbs in Syriac. He could go, may, for example, be expressed by po/uit et ivit (letter a), potuit ivit (letter b), potuit et iret (not in Hebrew), potuit iret (letter c). See Agrell. Suppl. Synt. Syr., p. 33. 4. It takes the form of the Participle, Is. xxxiii. 1, TTIB' ^pTirGf when thou shall cease as a destroyer, i. e. to be a destroyer = to destroy ;% 1 Sam. xvi. 16. In the same manner is construed also the verbal adjective, 1 Sam. iii. 2, his eyes mri3 -l^nn began (to grow) dim. Of this construction is Gen. ix. 20, , " 1 9']^j} V*$ QJ ?P)1 and Xoah began (to be) a husbandman. Hem. 1. In very many of the above examples, the first verb only serves, in effect, to qualify in some manner the second, and hence we translate it by an adverb, as already shown above. Comp. further Gen. xxxi. 27, 5"W P^Iiru PIG? ivherefore hast thou secretly fled i xxxvii. 7, your sheaves * The Arabian says volebat ddaceraret for he would rend; and so the Syrian, !>CL»;J (o. volebat tolleret (Luke xviii. 13), he would lift up, but oftener with the conjunction that, ]Z]j> \t) . he would come. The Latin also may omit the conjunction in this case ; Quid visfaciam f Ter. Yolo hoc oratori contingat, Cic. Brut. 84. So in German [and in English] Ich wollte, es ware; Teh dachte, es giuge \_I would it were, I thought it went.'] t For TfOL]3 (§ 20, Rem.) Inf. Hiph. of DDB. \ This construction is also common in Syriac (see Hoffmann's Gram. Syr., p. 343, b), where it is by no means to be taken (as is done by J. D. Michaelis) for a Grsecism. § 143. CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 227 shod around and hawed, for lowed around; 2 Kings ii. 10, ?fet?7 F'V'*? 1 ! 1 thou hast made hard in asking, i. e. hast made a hard demand (comp. Ex. xiii. 15). The verb which qualifies the other ma] occupy the second place, but never without special can [». lib. 11, 1TJ*; ~XT h< $haU and he satisfied (with the Bight), and lxvi. 11, that ye nun/ suck and be satisfied by that . xxvi. 11. Jer. iv. 5, -1X/P •1X1'? means, call ye and thai with full r>i<,=, all aloud. 2. Of another construction are those verbs which take after them in place <■(' an accusative) a sentence or clause depending on *3 or "l^S that (§ 155, 1' : such, e. ■_'.. as I G a. i. 1. I 1 know (Gen. xxii. 12), to believe, to remember, to forget, to say, to think, to happen. On the oini- of the conjunction before such clauses, see § 10.3, 1, c. Sect. 143. construction ok passive verbs. 1. When a causative conjugation (A'<'7, Hiphil) has two accusatives (§ li its passive retains only one of tliem (the second, more remote obiect |, taking the other as a nominative, or including it in itself. Ps. Ixxx. 11, 7T958 D ©3 the mountains are covered with its (the vine's) shade; 1 Kings xxii. 10, - , "".'- H'L."!:""*-: clothed with garments (prop, made to put on garments)] Ex. xxv. 40, IVttjr^N riJOft which was shown thee (prop, which thou wast made to set ). Several striking phenomena in the construction of the passive are readily explained, if i it as an impersonal active {dicitur — one says, they say), just as, on the contrary, the impersonal active often supplies the place of the passive (see § L87 Nbt< . We may thus explain '.: cases, in which — a) It takes the object of the action in the accusative. Gen. xxvii. 12, >- -"V '"- ~ s ' ~~;~~ -;•• and they made known to Rebecca the words of Esau; iv. is. Trims ~ - : bore) to Enoch, Irad; xxi. 5, pnyj"ns v? I.?]n3 at the time of bearing fa ->■< ti^<.'-. xl. 20, njna-nx n-lj>ri or the day when Pharaoh was born; xvii. 5, "-* ~:l-.-x - P KTg n~ sliall no longer call thy name Abram. Ex. x. 8, njTiB . s PitpD"] M i;.""* i; j teas brought to Pharaoh. Lev. xvi. 27; Jos. vii. 1">. h) It does not agree (as often happens) in gender and number with the noun, by it (comp. § 147), because the noun is, in this case, regarded not as the Buhject but as the ol of the verb passive. Is. xxi. 2, Y"*'I0 'T 1 ? nwn visionem diram nunciaruni wtihi (the noun in tin- accusative); Dan. ix. 2 1, septuaginta septimanas destinarunt (VflJ : 1 Kings ii. 21: Is. \i\ Gen. xxxv. 2G ; Hos. x. 6.* 2. The efficient cause, after a passive verb, mosl frequently takes 7, and is therefore in the dative (as in Greek), as Sv* *]V"G blesSi I of ■ I, Gen. xiv. 19, Prov. xiv. 20. More rare, but equally certain, La the Barae 1. (prop, from, by which origin, source, in general, is often denoted), Ps. szxvii. Gen. ix. 1 1, Job xxiv. 1, xxviii. 1 ; *J$t? a parte, Gen. vi. 13 j - . Num.xxxvi. 2. Sometimes this relation is expressed without preposition with accusal. \nstru\ * Comp. Olshauaen Emendationen turn .1. '/'., S. 24, U. 228 I'AKT III. SYNTAX. (II AT. IV. 81 BJECT AM) PREDICATE. (comp. § L38, L, Rem. 3), as [s. i. 20, fe?W? S*lH % ^ swwrd shall ye be devoured, cuiiiii. 1 's. \\ ii. I .">. Rem. Many neuter verba are sometimes used as passive, in consequence of a peculiar applii of their meaning; e. g. T3J toyo down, — spoken of a forest, to he felled; H?^ for to /» brought u/> (on the altar), LeT. ii. 12; to be enteral (in an account), 1 Chron. xxvii. 21; NV) to be brought out Deut. adv. 22. CHAPTER IV. CONNEXION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE PREDICATE. Sect. 144. MANNER OF EXPRESSING THE COPULA. The union of the substantive or pronoun, which forms the subject of the sen- tence, with another substantive or adjective as its predicate, is most commonly expressed by simply writing them together without any copula. 1 Kings xviii. 21. DWKH np; Jehovah (is) the true God; Gen. ii. 4, Hin^in H^K this (is) the history; ii. 12, niD Kinn p>\ri an; ^ ^ 0/Ma* ? aW( ^ (i s ) goo d ; is. xxxi. 2, cpn wn Da rt/so /ie (is) wise! — In this construction, a personal pronoun of the third person, which refers to the predicate, frequently serves to make prominent the union of the subject and predicate (see § 121, 2). Less frequently the copula is expressed by the substantive verb m. Gen. i. 2, and the earth was (nn^H) waste and empty; iii. 1, the serpent was (T\ S T\) crafty; vs. 20. Also by & and \% (which include the idea of the substantive verb) when the subject is a pronoun and the predicate is a participle (see § 134, 2, a). On the gender and number of the copula, see § 147. Rem. Instead of the adjective, the Hebrew often employs the abstract substantive as a pre- dicate (§ 106, 1, Rem. 2); especially when there is no adjective of the signification required (§ 106, 1), e. g. )'V VniTj? his walls (are) wood=of wood, wooden. Here the sense is the same as if the substantive, which stands as subject of the sentence, were repeated, in the constr. st., before the predicate ()'# n"Wj? VrfrVj?), This full construction occurs Job vi. 12, »ri3 Q>}M H3 DM is my strength the strength of stones? Similar examples are, Cant. i. 15. D*V XTV. thy eyes (are) doves* eyes; Ezra x. 13, D*pB>| nyn the time (is the time) of showers ; Ps. xlv. 7, D*r6« ^M thy throne (is) a throne of God = solium divinum;* second member (with the full construction) "&*$ 03» struct But see Hengstenberg's Psalmen, IL, p. 415. rhilology requires no other than the simple and natural con- :tion, "Thy throne, O God!" &C, which is given in all the ancient versions as well as in our own— Tit. § 145. CASE ABSOLUTE. 229 ID^O tt?^ a righteous sceptre is the sceptre of thy dominion. So also especially with ? of com- parison, as Ps. xviii. 34, rib^Z £«n my feet like hinds' feet ; Is. lxiii. •_', n;2 :pfl| ^nj3 My //(( /-- ments (are) We the garments of one treading the wine-press; xxix. 1; Jer. 1. 9, ^i-l? l v yn his arrows as those a/" a hero. Sect. 145. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE; CASE ABSOLUTE. 1. The most natural arrangement of words in the Bimple sentence, in calm discourse, is properly this, viz., subject, copula, /. a ripening g becomes the blossom; viii. 13; Gen. xlvii. 21. Very rare is the arrangement as in 2 Kings v. 13; some great thing had the prophet commanded tin . Ex. xviii. 23. d) The adverbial expression, which is then immediately followed by the verb. Gen. i. 1; Jos. x. 12, ytfirr T|Y TK; Judges v. 22. * Rarely the object ia ins< rted between the m [rative and the verb (Job ttii. 7. \\\iv. 9 v. 10), tlao the Bubject (2 Kings v. 26), or an adverbial i - | Pb. vl -')• 230 PART [II. syntax. CHAP. IV. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, Another arrangement, viz. subject, <>i>jr<-i, verb, which is common in Aramaean (Dan. ii. 6, 7, R, | ( . found in Hebrew, though seldom and only in poetry. Pb. vi. 10, HgJ "rbzy nin;; x i ,-, . | s x jji is; \ii\. 6. See Gesenius'a Comment, on la. slii. 24. On the absence of inflexion in the predicate when pul first, see § 1 17. -j |; u , the greatest prominence is given to any substantive in the sentence (whether it is the genitive, or accusative of the object, or employed by way of qualification of any kind) by permitting it to stand, absolutely, at the beginning of the sentence, and then representing it, in its proper place, by a pronoun (com- pare c'est moi, qu'on a accusd); e. g. the genitive, Ps. xviii. 31, ITpl tf&fl 7NTI Q d — perfect is his way, for God's way is perfect; xi. 4, civ. 17; — the accusative, I's. Ixxiv. 17, winter and summer — thou hast made them, for thou hast made winter and summer; Gen. xlvii. 21, Ififc "V2§0 DtfrrfiK the people — he removed them; xxi. 13, comp. Jer. vi. 10.* The suffix may also be omitted, Ps. ix. 7, and the connexion indicated by ) (as sign of the apodosis). Ps. xviii. 41 (comp. 2 Sam. xxii. 41). Job xxxvi. 26, IpH N ;L, 1 1*J# 13D&, sc. Eh? the number of his years — there is no searching (to them). Gen. iii. 5; Job iv. 6, xxiii. 12, xxv. 5; 1 Sam. xxv. 27; 2 Sam. xv. 34. The use of the participle in this manner is peculiar, and resembles the Latin ablative absolute, Prow xxiii. 24, npb'M D3n T?Y I he who begets a toise son (i. e. when one begets, etc.), then he mag rejoice. 1 Sam. ii. 13, \^D "HW KM n ?.t f3*T B"R"v3 when any one brought an offering, then came the priest's servant ; ix. 11; Gen. iv. 15. Sect. 146. RELATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER. The predicate (verb, adjective, substantive with copula) conforms, regularly, to the subject in gender and number. From this rule, common to all languages, there are many deviations, partly occasioned by regard to the sense rather than the grammatical form of words (constructio ad sensum), partly by the position of the predicate before the other members of the sentence. In respect to the first cause, we remark — 1. Collective nouns, e. g. D57, *13 people, IY3 family, and nouns used as col- lective, as u"X men (see 108, 1), are usually construed with the plural, Judges ix. 55, Sxnp"-^ \XT) and the men of Israel saw; xv. 10. 1 Kings xx. 20, Efi iu'N WX and they slew every one his man ; Prov. xi. 26. So when the collective * Such a case absolute may also have 7 (in respect to) before it, e. g. Ps. xvi. 3; Is. xxxii. 1. § 14G. RELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE TO GENDER AND NUMBER. 231 is itself fern, but represents individuals which are of the masc. gender; e. 'j. ~2 Sam. xv. 23, Errm pKPTO tfie whole land (i. e. its inhabitants) wept;* 1 Kings x. 24; Gen. xlviii. 6; 1 Sam. ii. 33, xvii. 47; and vice versd\ Job i. 11. HIBNn VH TJJ3TI £A T *:*" the beasts of the field pine for — . Job xiv. 10, HWS!? *)top^ its floods wash away. Jer. xlix. 24, MfiTPlX D 'h'2T\ pains have seized upon her. Ps. xxxvii. :il ; dob xii. 7. The same principle applies to pronouns in connexion with their antecedents, Job xxxix. 15; Is. xxxv. 7; 2 Kings hi. 3. 4. Moreover, those plurals also which designate persons are construed with the singular, when, instead of the whole sum of individuals spoken of. the attention is directed to each one of them (comp. a3 for omnes and omnis). Num. x\ THS TTttfl ^^3 T?-3? blessed (be every one of) those who bleu I (each of) those who curse thee; Prov. iii. is, ntPKfi v^r^ l>"i'l".i C 18 evei 7 " I "' "' ) those who retain her; xxvii. 16, H^TJfiX H % 3fiK; xxviii. 1. 5. Dual substantives have their predicates in the plural, Bince Vi rbs, adjectiv* 3, and pronouns have no dual fonn (§ 88, 1 ). Gen. xxix. 17, rVO*1 Pl«2 *jFpl / the * Sallust. Jugurth. 14, pars in orucem acts', pars bestiis objeoti. f D*r6« is lure and there construed with the plur. only in the older biblical books, and in certain f. i expression which perhaps had their origin in polytheism. 6en.xz.l3; xxxy.7j Ex ^ : '": Pi ' A later writers Btudiously avoid this construction, as polytheistic; comp. Ex m I Neh. ix. vii. 23, and 1 Chron. xvii. 21. See the Lexicon [translated by 8 P. Ti 8 Bagal } Perfectly analogous is tlic Greek construction t.'. np6ftara faim, where the Attica admit tli.' plural onlj persons arc designated : n'i avbpairo&a fKafiov. In Arabic, such a plural is called phtraUs mktmamu (i of men), and is construed chieflv with the/em. ring n like all its so-called pluraliafracta (collective forma). '2.32 PART III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. IV. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. eyes <>/ Leah were tender; Ps. xviii. 28; Is. xxx. 20; 2 Sam. xxiv. Z\ 1 Sam. i. 13, niw rrnf^ /*ar ///»* „„,/■,■,/ .- 2 Chron. vii. L5, mn^'p ^ ronna vrr »yg ; v i. m ; Mi. -ah vii. L0, nrsnn WJJ my eyes shall see. Jer. xiv. 6; Is. i. 15; Job x. 8; xx. L0; xxvii. I; Ps. xxxviii. 11. Rarely the principle stated in No. 3 of this BectioD is extended also to the dual; e. g. Mic. iv. 11. Sect. 147. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER. The other cause of deviation from the general rule, is the position of the pre- dicate at the beginning of the sentence. The subject, to which it would regularly conform, not being yet expressed, it often takes its simplest and readiest form, viz., the masc. sing., even when the subject, which comes after, is feminine or plural: the predicate in this case is not subject to inflexion; e. g. — a) The verb: Ts. xlvii. 11, PISH fh)} N2 there comes upon thee evil; Mic. ii. 6, ni»75 3D? X7 reproaches do not depart. Ps. lvii. 2; Dent, xxxii. 35; Esther ix. 23, DHVWI hzp) and the Jews undertook. 2 Kings iii. 26, nDPl^n pTPI hard »••:-" |- : D "tt:--J-t was the battle. 1 Sam. xxv. 27. Often the verb may here be regarded as impersonal, as in il vient des homines, il a pant deux volumes (§ 145, 1, a). More seldom before the plur. fern, we find (at least) the masc. plur. Judges xxi. 21, rrW HDJ fcWTDS when the daughters of Shilo come forth. b) The adjective: Ps. cxix. 137, Y£??^ *%fc righteous are thy judgments ; vs. 155, PlSrltyj . . . pirn far (is) salvation. (The German also neglects, in this case, the inflexion of the adjective: gerecht (sincl) deine Gerichte.) c) The participle as substantive: Gen. xlvii. 3, 'pGS l N ^ *tfh shepherds (are) thy servants. Also — d) The copula, when it precedes the subject.* Is. xviii. 5, iT5B T\ s 7\\ 7/pJ 102 the blossom becomes a ripening grape ; Gen. xxvii. 39; xxxi. 8. But if the construction is continued after the introduction of the subject, the verb must conform to it in its gender and number. Eze. xiv. 1, D*6?JK *b& 813*1 <:pb 1Xh ; Gen. i. 14; Num. ix. 6. [ndependently of this arrangement, the 6W1, standing for the copula, is retained between plur. and /em unchanged. Josh. xiii. 14, in^n; Sin « 'L| : S tf e offerings of Jehovah thai is his inheritance. Comp. Jer. x. 3 § 148. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 233 Rem. 1. In general, the language is at times Bparing in the use especially of the feminine forms (comp. § 112, 1, Rem. 2), and when a feminine substantive has more than one predicate, coir itself with giving to the nearest one the appropriate feminine form. The following arc instructive examples; Is. xxxiii. 9, H$ n /?P£ ?3$ the hind mourneth and lanauieheth: xiv. 9, nm FVWB "S- ; D ^r! 1? "^ Sheol beneath is moved . ... it sttrreth up the shade* to thee. Examples of the masc. form in remote predicates, Gen. xxxii. 9 ; xlix. 1 ~> : Lev. ii. 1 : v. 1 : x\. 6 : in BUch as stand in dependent sentences, Job vi. 10, ?bni n~> (~>'w"X, nrn3; x\. 26; '- On the same principle, pronouns which refer to plural nouns take the form of the singular \ they stand remote from their antecedents; Job xxxviii. :J2 ; Dent. xxi. In. 2. The cases in which the predicate follows the subject, without conforming to it in L'end. i number, are mostly those in which a verb passive is to be n \ d and in construc- tion with the accusative (§ 143, 1, Rem.); or the predicate is a participle \ve; e.g. Gen. iv. 7, ]'?"> nxtpn nn2? at the door is sin a lurker i. e. a lurking lion). I V n 7 S| ? n *?" , ?| renuc mihi sunt (where y n , ,; ? i* to be und I I rv. 17. ~ and darkness, there became (with a special emphasis on the noun, — the verb Btand Sect. 148. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 1. When the subject is composed of a nominative and genitive, the verb Bonn - times conforms in gender and number to the genitive instead of tb ning noun, — viz., when the word in the genitive expresses the principal idea; i Job xxxii. 7, ri/ppll )yy DW Sh the multitude of years (i.e. many years) si teach wisdom; Gen. iv. 10. 2 Sam. x. 9, Hprtel «:* vk\ % nr~ battle-front against him, i.e. the bn is ah Gen. v. 5, D")K «pj-^3 1*!VJ and all the days of Adam were; Ex. xv. 20; Gen. iri 2. When several subjects are connected by and, their common predicate usually lakes the plural form, especially when it follows them; Gen. viii. 22, Tp] TXjJ] JH] VGB* 1 VO .... Dhl seed-time and harvest and oold and heat shall p I T and in the masc. even with subjects of different genders, as, Gen. wiii. 1 1. -"""-X D*3j5T TVt) Abraham and Sarah (were) old; Deut. xxviii. 32. When it prec it often conforms in gender and number to the 6rs1 I as being the nearest ) Bubject. Gen. vii. 7, n^l ffi KW there went in Noah and his sons : Ex. xv. 1 ; Num. xii. 1. JTTWrt D^Tfc "tnijll there spoke Miriam and Aaron : Gen. xxxiii. 7: xliv. 1 1. Rarely the preference for the singular and also the masc. appears, when the predicate follows the subject; Prov. xxvii. 9, ^nfy ITjhp |2» ointment and \ rejoice the heart. If the construction is continued, it is always with the plural form, e. g. Gen. xxi. 32; xxiv. Gl ; xxxi. 1 I j xxxiii. 7. 23 1 PART in. SYNTAX.— CHAP. V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. CHAPTER V. USE OF THE PAKTICLES. Sect. 149. Of the particles, as connected with the system of forms and inflexions (§§ 99 — 105), we have already treated in their relation to the other parts of speech. We are now to consider the signification and use of these words, which are so neces- sary to the nice perception of the sense, and hold so important a place in the philosophical treatment of the language. We shall present, in a general view, their most important peculiarities, leaving the more complete representation, as well as the necessary proofs, to the Lexicon. Sect. 150. THE ADVERBS. The most important adverbs, classed according to their signification, are — 1. Adverbs of place : DB> there; HB, n*3, HT and '"U3, hie, here, D?n and n|H hither, the latter also here (from the Chald. ID this), ^Xpn thither, farther on (prop, to a distance), hence HSrrt ^pp (from thee hither) on this side of thee, and HXpni T]?3J? (from thee farther on) beyond thee, 1 Sam. xx. 22, 37. Is. xviii. 2; ?)3, more commonly W?l? above, nnnp bcloiv, iyyp upwards, npp downwards, pin outside, pnp on the outside, n?|o and n»»3S within, CTJg, D^l? before, on the east, linx behind, TViyiX back- /cards, "133 over against, PPJ to the right, PP'P on the right, D^O on the ivest (prop. on the sea side, a'?p and 3»3D» ,„- 0M/ , r /, nvppip M j9n>/^. To many of these adverbs jp is prefixed, or the accusative-ending H— appended, indicating respectively the relations from and towards; e. g. 0'^ Mere, DtS'P thence, HB^ thither; pin outside, nyin outwards. There are several which occur only with H— appended, as Hpp , HNpn . Both these additions, however, express also the relation of rest in a place, as np'J* sometimes there (not merely thither), pp'P oh Me /-/y/t/ (not from the right). The n- is in bcth cases accusative- ending (§ 90, 2), and IP properly denotes hanging off from an object, and hence being upon the side of it, like a dcxtra ct sinistra, a latere, a tergo, and in French r/essous, r/essus, dedans, dehors.* 2. Adverbs of time; these are in part the same with those which have been mentioned as adverbs of place, and which, by an easy transition, are made to express relations of time ; as D^ then, like eicei; H3 now; ""IXpn onward; HjlH ty am J contr. !"l3"iy hitherto. Exclusively such are ; !"iny at the time, hence now, at this time, (also without the pure designation Cant. it. 1, *iyp3 nnp -Vl'73 ftey //e along the declivity of Mount Gilead, e monte quasi pendentes. Comp. Soph, Antig., -Ill, Ka6t}iuff (*Kpooi> (k Trdyuv; Odyss. xxi. 420, in bi(j)poio Kafiij^vos. § 150. THE ADVERBS. 235 of time, like vvv, vvv), and presently, soon; EVn 'this day) to-day; -"". - ,,; ! 1 - at this day "":~. "BflK yesterday, and then of old ; PD§ yester-evening, last night; -■-""-" firom V3V tkrt -" three days ayo; ino to-morrow; ri^n©p >i tin- morrow; E^p" 1 ' by day; nW? by wight; n ";- and --'-""* in the morning early; Dl*n~p3 // te whole day, then all the time, always; TQQ perpetually, always, -",'. t ^? J or ever, n>'3 n'i'3) continually ; TX £fan, with reference to both past and future time, **'- lony since, formerly, ^~7, do., ">33 {length long since; "liy (to r .commonly yet, with a negative no more; "1^3 (/i [Job ix. 'J I . hence often used inl questions (see § L53, 2, Rem.), 3113 and S'C"^ (/•, D JP^ truly, i?S certainly, indeed, and by apo H*i ?3Jj (corrective) nay rather, immo, Gen. xvii. It); 1 Kings i- 13; vttt perhaps.* The expression of asseveration may easily pass over into that of opposition comp. verum, and of limitation ; and hence some of the above-mentioned affirmative particles are partly ad tire and restrictive, as "^ only, |?*?, ^S (especially in later usage) but. M st stl I is D?1X on the contrary (the LXX. ov /jlijv dAAa), thus used almost exclusively in and Job. Restrictive also is PI (used before adjectives like ^) merely, i. e. only. d) Of cause : ]$'?$ , }??, \\}? , therefore. e) Of accession: E; also, ami ^nior expressive of accession) *!*? adeo, yea more, even, — botli winch, however, often take t:. of conjunctions. 4. Adverbs of neyation : on these, see § 152. 5. Interrogative adverbs include all the former classes: thus, the question may relate to place, as ♦«, n*X, where? the first with saf. i*x where (is) he t so nj *x. — s. ~;-x. ~:x where f— n*.*p *t$, |?KO, whence/ fl3K f r0 m nrg) whither/ to time, w 'flD wfofif ,_- : ~v until when t lout/? 'i:x ny, the same; to quality, as nrs, tpg, r.rrx /' , • to quantity, "'-- how often/ to cawe, as HB? and 8WP (§99,3; wherefore t — Respecting the pu particles 3, DN, see § 153. Most of these interrogative particles are Formed by prefixing '*. % ^. whi irlure (comp. Germ. tOOVon? teohin?), but by 01 beforc particles of place, time, etc. In this manner, and by the application of the ending f*7, of the prep. |P, and of :'. tj : x, are formed whole classes of correlative adverbs, as HJ her . ""- ~* * s """-' '- v ' whence/ r-TO "fg whence relative;; trf there, n$ thither, D^9 then t, D^ ~- s whither, C V"P "^PB whence. * Compounded of is and £ = nS, comp. Aram. KD^ »*«**< r «<><. /<"7<« - : ; " t,,, • sense of W l/ftO«, in Num. xxii. :?.!, then whether not {soke iiiently /)rr/»iy«. doubt, solicitude, and also li'pe. 23(j pab'i hi. syntax. — chap. v. usb of the pabticlbs. Sect. 151. I ( INSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. I. Adverbs not only serve, in general, to qualify a clause or sentence by expressing circumstances of time, place, etc., but also to qualify single words, as adjectives, e. g. "TNft I21D very <> i?3 all of him (his whole) thou shalt not see (but only a part). On the use of N7 in interrogative sentences, sec § 153, 1. On the position of X7 in the clause, see § 145, 1, and Note. § 152. words which express negation. 237 ?X, like fir}, Lat. ne, for the subjective and dependent negation is connected with the futut Jussive)', hence the phrase K3J 7X « e veniat, may stand either fur he shall not eome, or for may he not come. See ahove, § 127, 3, c, and § li' Sometimes it stands absolutely, without the v. rl>. like //// for / ) -^?. to cat, ?3X > FOj? not to cat, Gen. iii. 11. Rarely with a finite verb it mi that not, Jer. xxiii. 14. |3 {removing, a clearing away) is the same as ne, that not, cially after the mention action by which an apprehended evil is to be pi. v* nted or ahunn . lix. 1 '■ : verbs signifying to fear, to bra-are dike Sa&o /*»/. vereor ne) xxxi. 24, 31 : — also at the b< ginnii the sentence, especially in the expression of apprehension or fear, ( ten. ill. 22, nj ""'-' ""- and now, lest he stretch forth his hand. 2. Two negatives in the same sentence, instead of destroying each other, as in Latin [and English], make the negation stronger, liki 1 Kings x. 21, T^^di XTO K7 5)D3 TX silver was not at all r< yarded for any thing, (in the parallel passage, 2 Chron. i\. 20, K7 is omitted I. Ex. \iv. 1 I.— Zeph. ii. 2, tfQ*"K7 D*1C?5 lit. before there shall not come (so in Germ. < '• er nicht kommt, an J in Lat. priusquam . . . non). Is. v. 9, l&V P$?, prop, without no inhabitant 3. When one negative sentence follows another, especially in the poetic paral lelism, the negation is often expressed only in the Bret, while its inflw •■ nds also to the second. 1 Sam. ii. 3, multiply not words of prided—let (not ) that which is arrogant come forth from your mouth. Ps. ix. 19; Job iii. 10; xxviii. 1<; xxx. 20. (Compare the same usage in respect to prepositions, s v 154, 1.) 238 I'ABT HI. SYNTAX.— CHAP. V. USE of THE PARTICLES. Sect. 153. interrogative words and sentences. 1. [nterrogative sentences are sometimes, though rarely, distinguished as such merely by the tone of voice in which they are uttered; e.g. 2 Sam. xviii. 29, 19}b DW is H well with the young man? Gen. xxvii. 24, 1C?y *33 HT HAX art //><"/ mi/ son Esau? 1 Ki. i. 24. This is somewhat more frequent when the sentence is connected with the previous one by ]; Jon. iv. 11, D1PIX K7 ^Xl and .should I not spare? Job ii. 10; x. 8, 9, 13; Judges xi. 23; xiv. 16; and also after the particles D3 (Zech. viii. 6) and *)X (Job xiv. 3). But negative sentences still more readily take, in utterance, the interrogative character; e. g. with «?, when an affirmative answer is expected (nonne?) Job xiv. 16, TlXLsrrTi? "ffib^JI X7 dost thou not watch for my sin? Jon. iv. 11; Lam. iii. 36, 38; with 7X in expectation of a negative answer, 1 Sam. xxvii. 10, UVT\ DJ^X'2~7N ye have not then made an excursion in these days?* Even the few interrogative particles originally expressed either affirmation or negation, and only acquired by degrees their interrogative power.f Respecting Q and its original demonstrative signification (being related to the article), see § 100, 4. Probably **? where? sprung from a negation; — full form 1^ (hence J^P whence?), prop, not there, is not there, — uttered interrogatively, is not there? = where is? VX is he not there? for where is he? Job xiv. 10 man dies l'SO. and where is A«? = M3*$ and he is no more. In Arabic, *K has become an interrogative pronoun = 7? who? (comp. the Germ, too (ichere), and Eng. icho); but this is not its original use. On the abbreviation of PX into *K, see § 152, 1. 2. Most commonly the simple question begins with lie interrogative H nun\ — the disjunctive question with H utrum followed in the second clause by EX an (DN — n=atrum — an?), as in 1 Kings xxii. 15, ^jTti'DNt V~0 sna ^ ire go or shall we forbear? The indirect form of inquiry differs only in having CX more frequently in the simple question, and in the first member of the disjunctive question. More particularly — The i} is strictly a sign of the simple and pure question, when the inquirer is uncertain what answer may or should be given. Job ii. 3, hast t/tou considered (^f? R®±'D) my servant Job? * In the same manner are used ovk {nonne?) and py ; the former (Horn. U. x. 165, iv. 242) in expectation of an affirmative, the latter (Odyss. vi. 200) of a negative answer. t So in Greek and Latin, originally affirmative and then interrogative are rj, man (=nunc), an (probably, perhaps); originally negative and then interrogative, — oik, fiij, — ne ; in German, nicht icahr? (not true?) nicht ? (not ?) § 153. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 230 Often the inquirer expects a negative answer (numf), which may be expressed in the tone fa Gen. iv. 9, »?3« »flK IDbn am I (he keeper of my broth.,)' Job xiv. 1 I. if a man di>; FTTPn ,,•/■/ he live again? Such a question may have precisely the force of a negative assertion ; 2 Sam. vii. .*;, n !? Y" n .3?fl n ^^p shalt thou build a house for me? (in the parallel passage, 1 Chron. xvii. i, "131 nnX fcO thou shalt not build a haute for ftu : and. tier vend, t lie negative form "1 | tion has the effect of an affirmation ; *On nonnet is it nut tot fur njri behold J 2 Kinga vr, 2] : xx. 20, comp. 2 Chron. xxvii. 7; xxxii. 82.* On the other hand, the question may lie so utl as to show that the speaker expects affirmation and assent, when it corresponds, in effect, with the negative form of the question in English; compare tin- use of y yap and y yip oC for it and of the Latin, ne for nonnc ?\ Job xx. 4, $|HJ nSTH dott thou {not knout thit t — '1 i.e simple question is very seldom introduced by DN, and then always in connexion with something implied which gives a disjunctive sense, like our or perhaps (German odt , Lai Is. xxix. 1G; 1 Kings i. 27; Job vi. 12. The disjunctive question (utruni — an?) is usually expressed under the form CS — n, ^lso CS1 — M, Job xxi. 4, with emphasis on the first question CSl ; — ?,SH, xxxiv. 17; xl. 8, 9. I German [and English], with IX or before the second clause, Job xvi. 3, 19. 1 .. this combination DK — i} does not, however, always require opposition between ti. . but often stands in poetic parallelisms and in other passages (Gen. xxxvii. 8; Hab. iii. 8), where the same question is merely repeated in different words in the second clause, as in Job :\. 17. H man just rather than God; and (DX) is a man pure rather than his Maker t \. xi. 2, 7; xxii. 23; hence 1. also stands before the second clause in such cases, Job x. 3; xiii. 7 ; xv. 7, 8, or there is no particle at all to connect the clauses, as in Job xxii. 1. The form of the indirect question is, in general, the same. After verba of inquiring, dou examining, the simple question takes n [whether), Gen. viii. 8 ; Ex. xvi. 4, and ~N. I . .\ \'.l. 1 9 j 2 Kings i. 2; the disjunctive question [whether — or) DN — T\, Gen. xwii. 21, and also P — H, Num. xiii. 18. — The formula EX JT2V *p (who hnoiveth whether — no/] is also used affirmatively like the Latin nescio an, Esther iv. 1-1. For interrogative adverbs of place, time, etc., see § loO, 5. The words HT (§ 122, 2) and N1EX quite, then, serve to give animation or intensity to a qu (like 7tot£, tandem, Eng. then, note); as K12S TjTUp u-hat aihth thee note* quid tibi tand> m ■ Is. xxii. 1 ; X1DX n'X where now? Job xvii. 15. 3. The affirmative answer is given, as in Latin, by repeating the predical the interrogative sentence; Gen. xxvii. 2 1 ; xxix. 6j Judges xiii. 1 1 ; the negative answer is X7 no, Gen. xix. 2. * In a similar manner, no what? [why fit spoken with indignation, expresses prohibition under the form of reproach or expostulation. Cant. viii. 4, *.TJWTHJ way do ye route t Jobxri.6; xwi. 1. I no is very frequent in the Arabic. | See Heindorf ad Plat. Phadr. 266; Heusinger ad Gift de Off. iii. 17. 240 PART III. BTNTAX. — CHAP. V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. Sect. 154. T II E r R E POSIT! N S. 1. The simple* propositions, like the adverbs, originally denote for the most, part physical relations, viz. tliose of space, and are then used tropically of intel- lectual relations, as those of time, cause, etc. The prepositions of place originally denote either rest in a place, or motion from or to a place; but in each class there are some (several in the first, few in the second) which take also the signification of the other. a) The most important propositions of place are: a) Of rest in a place, 3 in, by, at, ^V upon and over, rinri under, "IHK, S ~)F$ after, *3B? before, 1H, rob, >1D, before, opposite to, ?>'^, riX with (apud), by, near, "W3, *U?2 (prop, in separation from), about (1T, '•ly?? besides, *Fy3 without, besides, ]Vl, \^y? on account of, 3£y (prop, as a reivard), for, because. 2. The Hebrew language developes a great degree of dexterity and accuracy of discrimination in the composition of prepositions. Thus, those of motion are set before others denoting rest, so as to express not only a change of relation, but also the local one which was existing previously to the change, or which follows as the result of it, as in French de chez, oVaupres.'f So — a) With p: injSlfi away from behind, j^O out from between, 7$?ft away from upon or above, Eyft, H^ft de chez quelqiCun, Hnnp away from under. b) With ?N (more seldom): **1HN 7X to behind or after; ? ) >! inft without, i. e. o« ///<• outside of ? pnfi 7N /w//i without, Num. v. 3. Thus also compound prepositions, which have adopted an adverbial significa- tion, take after them 7 (more seldom ]ft), and again become prepositions; e. g. 7$12 * Among these we reckon such forms as *3Bp, |1/•/. //,.//,. besides. This accessory preposition may also precede the adverbial form; e. g., 13f9=Jt? "TO besides, ^31173? without, Syr. ,_k) ,s\o*; rarely it is wholly wanting, U nrjsjO for ^ J - --*:. .1 '•, XX vi. 5. 3. We now present a few prepositions, — such as occur most frequently and have the greatest variety of meaning, — with their principal significations, in order to explain their construction with verbs (§ 140), and the most important idioms connected with thein.f a) 3, which, of all the prepositions, has the greatest variety of signify notes, 1 ^ prop. rest in a place (iv), hence in with reference to time, and to state or condition. ""sz r'L'N-i EiX'3, — with reference to a company, or number of individuals, among, e. u- C P*?, — with I to bounds or limits, within, as D^i'y'a within the gates, — of high objects, ujmn, ai ctt: horses, Is. lxvi. 20; but it has rarely all these significations after verbs of motion =cfe i in loco). The Hebrew says, a) to drink in a cup (for, to drink whal is in it . Gen. aliv. Arabic and Chald., Dan. v. 2, iv Trorqpiw iv x/>vcrw vwea* Xen. Anab. vi. 1, 1, .">, Ezra ii I hihere in Florus, French boire dans line tasse); /3) in the manner, Ml the model or rale, for the manner or model (comp. iv rw vofiu), hunt- i?i modttm), as '3 "Q"|3 according to the twfinmf. 'B J")VI?3 according to the counsel of any one, M£flD"13 ttp?¥| Mi ( a ft vr ) '""' image, after our HI, Gen. i. 26; vs. 27, and v. 1, 3, Adam begat a son iO?V 3 toHD*13, Somewhat different is the signifi- cation in Gen. xxi. 12, in Isaac (pn>'.' , 3) = after Isaac thy seed shall call themselves. Bs] ial atten- tion is due to the passages, where we have, y) the 3 essentia or pleonasticutn of the grammarians, which everywhere means, as, tanquam (Fr. en). Fx. vi. 3, I appeared to Abraham. . '"'-" " :< - as God Almighty. Is. xl. 10, the Lord will come P}^? as a strong one. The mi si stria: it is before the predicate-adjective after the verb to be ( = conduct or behenn . I les. \ii. II, M the day of jog 31D3 iVn l, c thou joyful ; Fx. xxxii. 22, thou knowesi tit, WJ1 '■■"- '- . are evil; Job xxiii. 13, "'C 1 ? 3 ^ 1n ne IS one [without a rival]. (In Arabic this idiom is fr< .j . see Thes. Ling. Jlcb. p. 174.) 2) Nearness, vicinity (Lat. ad, apud), at, by, on; " 1 '7?? = iv voraptZ, by tin ru- . ! K. 16; WV3 in the eyes of =. before the eyes of one (iv u(f>9a\fxoU, II. 1. 687). In this sense it frequently indicates motion (Lat. ad), to, unto: it differs, however, both from . N to, /'■nurds, ;ind "1£ usque ad, since it denotes that the object towards which the motion tends is actually arrived al (which is not determined by the use of ;$), and yet does not fix attenti illy upon this point, as is done by IP. Gen. xi. 4, a tower DJD^3 i-'N" 1 whose top may n ven. 11 it expresses the relation of verbs of motion (and others analogous to them) to their obj< cts : e. g. 3 TnX to lay hold on, 3 P|J to touch, 3 7*$ to ash at, to consult, 3 KTJJ to call upon. - ~N~ (m| upon, 3 ypL?' to hearken to. Verbs having the signification of the last two, often include of the pleasure or pain with which one sees or hears anything. ('<< n. axi. 16, / i uld not witness the death of the child/ Hence, in B tropical Sense, Ml respect to, On account '. - "".- V on account of i. e. to have joy Ml something. * In the Syr. ,-io \SA^ means oser, a* preposition, bat \>AA ,-So aborn :\- advert (set Ho ffmann! ( Syr. p. 280). The Hebrew in bite manner says \chfrom (s starting point) onward. Ibt J ;*-. prw 1st ly t: usque a, usque ex, comp. also mde, t For fuller information, Gesenius's Lexicon mu-t be consulted, Tn. 17 242 PABT III. SYNTAX. — CHAT. V. QBE OF THE PARTICLE8. Willi lip' idea lit' vicinity, nearness, thai of accompaniment, and of help, instrumentality [with) readily connects itself. Gen. xwii. 11, with mystafffifHQfy) I passed over this Jordan. Pa, iviii. 80, by thrr MX) have I rushed upon troops. Verbs of coming and going, wiih 3. (to come, or go, villi) express the idea ot bringing; e. g. .Judges xv. l, Samson visited his wife with a kid, brought her a kid. Deut. xxiii. 5. b) •!•' signifies upon (tVi) and oivv (i'tt*/)) ; very frequently of motion (down) j/ywn or om* — (up) iij>on or "'"' a thing. In the sense of (vesting) upon, (coming) upon, it is used after verbs signifying to be heavy, i. e. burdensome, afflictive (prop, to lie heavily upon), Is. i. 14 ; Job vii. 20, — to net or appoint i>rrr [commission), as ?y li??, — to pity, to spare, as ?V Din (prop, /o look tenderly upon). "With the primary idea is connected that of accession (conceived as a laying upon) and of conformity , after, according to (with reference to the rule or pattern, upon which a thing is laid to be measured or modelled), and of cause (ob quam), on account of [prop, upon something as ground or motive], although. In the signification over, it is often used with verbs of covering, protecting ^V HD3 , by \)i ^ (prop, to place a covering, a shield, over) ; and so also with those of kindred meaning, as ?V Dnpj to contend for one (prop, in order to protect him), Judges ix. 17. It is used for at, by, chiefly in cases where there is an actual elevation of one of the related objects above the other, conceived as an impending over ; e. g. D'l 1 'V by the sea [or, as we may literally render it, on the sea~\; but also where this is not the case, as T ?y, like our on the side. Hence, it expresses the relation of motion to the object at which it terminates, — to, towards, so that in the later Hebrew style and in poetry it is often used for ?X and ? ; e. g. Job vi. 27 ; xix. 5 ; xxii. 2 ; xxxiii. 23. c ) ^ (§ 1^2) indicates motion, removal, away from anything. Its fundamental signification is separation from a ichole, derivation, descent. As constr. st. of the noun IP part, it properly means part of hence off, from, used at first with reference to the part which is taken from the whole, as to give, to take part of '= from. This fundamental signification appears plainest, when it expresses some (more rarely one) of; e. g. V\ \3j>Tb some of the elders of Israel, CHO some of the blood (Fr. du sang). It has the same signification when (apparently pleonastic) it is connected with the words one, none, in the so often misapprehended idiom of the Hebrew and Arabic non ab uno, i. e. not any one, not the least, prop, not even a part, a piece, the least portion, of one. Lev. iv. 2 ; Deut. xv. 7 ; Eze. xviii. 10. In its most ordinary use, with reference to motion aicay from, it forms the opposite of ?X, IV, and is employed not merely after verbs which express actual motion, as to depart (from), to flee (from), but also those of kindred signification, as to be afraid, to hide, to beware: comp. in Gr. and Lat. KakvTrro) i-n-b, custodire ab. In its tropical use with reference to time, it may mean either y)-o»i (a time) on, in which case the reckoning is to be made from the beginning, not from the end of the period specified (like d-n-b vuktos, de node, from the coming on of night), as T9*P> Job xxxviii. 12, from the beginning of thy days onward; or it may mean next from, i. e. immediately after (i£ apicrrov, ab itincre), as TiPC"?* Ps. lxxiii. 20, immediately after awaking. Gen. xxxviii. 24, D'V'IC! *h&Q after three months. Hos. vi. 2. For the use of it to denote rest on the side of an object, where the idea is that of near distance, of being just off from (the p rope abesse ab, pendere ex aliqua re), see § 150, 1. For its use in the expression of comparison, see § 119, 1. d) ?K, ^X (prop, regions, directions, hence towards), denotes motion, and also merely direction towards (with reference both to material objects and the operations of the mind), whether one reaches the place towards which the motion is directed or not. In the former case it is equivalent to "iy, e. g. -liVS-px cve ,i un ( j t ; s rnouth, Job si. 23; sometimes it means even penetration into a thing, equivalent to W^, e. g. nann-^X X13 to go into the ark. § 155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 243 It is certainly an unfrcqucnt and improper use of this particle (though sustained by unquestion- able examples) when it is employed to denote rest in a place at which one has arrived. Jer. xli. 12, they found him Q'?"] W'jp'^ii hg the great waters in Gibeon. It u i dly in the formula D'tpDTTTN at the place, Deut. xvi. G; 1 Kings viii. 30; yv\ ?X on tin mountain, 1 Bam. xvii. 3. Compare the Gr. ei's, e's, for h>, e. g. e's 8J/aovs fUvtiv, Soph. Ajax, HO. The German use of zu in Ml Ilaiisc, zu Leipzig, is quite analogous. e) ? (an abbreviation of'K, but more commonly used in the tropi< wards, denoting motion or merely direction, either of physical o ad : hene- . | ;ts a sign of the dative, and also of the genitive of D § 1 IS, 2 . and then with the signification with respect to, on account of in behalf of , Such a daiifous commodi is u ially in the language of common intercourse and in the I motion, as (o . / especially in the Imperative, e. g. TfTJ go, get thee man/, 1^* - "" : !'u-r other verbs, as v"nt?' ! l be thou like, Cant. ii. 17. [1 U :n of the later Style common in Syriac) when active verbs are construed with ? instead of the accu- 3 'IS. Lam. iv. 5. [Compare Ex. xwii. :), Num. xxxii. 15.] Very often also, especially in poetry, it denotes rest in a place, — hence at, or in, with reference to place and time; as I^PV on thy right, 27iy? at evening. On the use of i - and other verbs to denote the efficient cause or author, see § 143, 2. f) 3 (as an adverb, about, nearly), as a prep, as, like to; for denoting similarity it is doubled - I as-so, and also so-as in Gen. xliv. is, in later authors M — ?: according t<>, after, from t.\ conformity to a model or rule ; as a designation of time, about (circa). Apli - Kapkveri- fads, as the grammarians called it, is nowhere found with certainty. In all force applies. ^y03 is indeed = t3yO little, but prop, as a scrap; Neh. vii. 2, for he teas FIDM L""S3 as a trui- man must be. 4. In the poetic parallelism, a preposition which stands in tin- firsl member may (like the negatives, § 152, 3) be omitted in the corresponding place in the s member; e. g. 3, Is. xlviii. It, he will his pleasun on Babylon (^222), and his power on the Chaldeans (lT^'3 for D**$OSl). Hab. iii. 15, Job xii. 12. S Job xxxiv. 10, Is. xxviii. G; j<9, Is. xxx. 1 : Gen. xlix. 25j Hnfl, [s. l\i. 7 Sect. 155. the conjunctio x 8. 1. The Hebrew language, considered with reference t<> the number <4' ir^ con- junctions, frequently consisting of several words combined, and it< ability f" form still others from most of the prepositions by the addition of "Tw^J mil Ti^ 104, 1.' >. exhibits no small degree of cultivation and copiousness, compared with it> usual simplicity. But writers often neglect the means which it furnishes for accurately expressing the relations of sentences and members "t" a sentence, contenting them- selves with less perfect modes of connexion:* hence the vario ttions * Comp. ;j 107, l, l: ra , § 147, II 244 PABT ill. SYNTAX.- CHAP. V. USE OF Tin: PABTIC1 which certain conjunctions in frequent use (particularly \, *3, ^tftt) either actually have or al least whereby they must be expressed when translated into our Western lancuaces where we are Qot permitted (see No. 3) to retain the loose and indefi- nite connexions sometimes made by these particles. Of the most extensive application is ), < (§ 104, 2):* a) Properly and usually copulative {and), connecting single words as well as whole sentences. When three or more winds stand in connexion, it is used either before every one after the first (2 Kings xxiii. 5), or before the last only (Glen. xiii. 2); rarely after the first only (Ps. xlv. 9). In certain phrases it is commonly omitted, as yesterday (and) the day before = heretofore, Ex. v. 8. The tone of animated description or narration may also occasion the omission of it {constructio asvndeta)', as Judges v. 27, at her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay. Job xx. 19; Cant. ii. 11, v. 6; Is. xxvi. 17. A> connecting words, it is often explicative (like isque, et quidem). 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, 11^3-1 no"}? in Ramah and { = cvcn) in his oion city, 2 Sam. xiii. 20, Amos iii. 11, iv. 10 ; even when the second idea is subordinate to the first, and would properly be expressed as the genitive after it (the iv 8ia SvoTf of the grammarians), as Gen. iii. 16, I ivill multiply »|31i71 UP'VV thy pain and thy conception, i. e. the pains of thy prey nancy. As connecting clauses or sentences, it denotes either continuation (for then), hence before the apodosis (like German so in da — so) and after absolute designations of time — (see Gen. iii. 5 ; Ex. xvi. 6 ; Prov. xxiv. 27, IT? 0^?'^ "*" afterwards, then build thy house) ; or enhancement, as in Job v. 19, in six troubles he ivill deliver thee, yea, in seven no evil shall befall thee) ; or com- parison, as in Job v. 7, man is born to trouble, and so the sons of liyhtniny fly on high, for just as these (birds of prey) fly high: xii. 11 ; xxxiv. 3; Prov. xi. 16; xvii. 3; xxv. 3, 25. But the J'av is also — b) Adversative {and yet, while yet); Judges xvi. 15, how canst thou say I love thee *J?X pK "^|?1 and {yet) thy heart is not ivith me (i. e. while yet) ? Gen. xv. 2 ; xviii. 13 ; Ps. xxviii. 3. c) Causal {for, because); Ps. v. 12, let them ever shout for joy, because {when, since) thou dost defend them. Is. xliii. 12, ye are my witnesses ?$"*?&?,! and I (am) God, that I am God. d) Inferential, {then, so then, therefore) ; Eze. xviii. 32, / delight not in the death of him that dicth — -l^'Hl therefore turn ye. In this sense it may stand even at the beginning of a sentence, when it implies an inference of some kind from circumstances already mentioned; 2 Kings iv. 41, and he said TO [5 "Trip-! then take meal ; Ps. iv. 4, -lin-l then know ye ; ii. 10 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 3. e) Final {in order that, so that); in this sense chiefly with the cohortative or jussive (§ 128). Of scarcely less extensive application are the two relative conjunctions (prop, relative pronouns) TV'?? and > ? = oti, quod, quum, that, because, — running almost parallel with each other in their significations, except that '? occurs as a conjunction far more frequently and in a great variety of senses, while "KJ'X is generally a relative pronoun, and takes prefixes. Both are prefixed, like quod, to a whole clause, standing in place of an accusative, and governed by the preceding active verb as its object. *1£'N is even preceded by the accusative particle T1S ; Josh. ii. 10, njHJ B^aWH^K ns ■lSyOU' we have heard (id quod exsiccavit) that Jehovah hath dried up, — more commonly I^S toJMMP, and still oftener *? WyOB?. 1 Sam. xxiv. 11, 19. Hence the following uses of '? : a) it is employed before words directly quoted, like the Gr. on. (very seldom See fuller particulars on the use uf Vav copulative, in Gesenius'a Thesaurus I. p. 393 et seqq. § 155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 245 "HPS, 1 Sam. xv. 20); b) it is temporal=orc, prop, at the time' that, at the tin: mctimes passing over to the conditional power of DX [Eng. when=if, dim ring only in the form of repre- sentation], Job xxxviii. 5, comp. vs. 4 and I s bi Idom "'-"*. 1. Lv. 22 : I 1 it. \i. 6 . — but with an accurate discrimination between the two, well illustrated in Ex. xxi.: o causal, eo quod, because, fully *| \V\, "SPg \&L, propterea quod, also for-=yhp\ "- "- "-' •: because — and because, Job xxxviii. 20), when more than one can d) adversative (in which sense *? only is used) either, a after . but, — prop, but it it e. g. thou shalt not take a wife for my son from the daughters of the Canaanites — but . II =for thou shalt take a Hebrewess, the former being prohibited because t: or, (3) where negation is only implied, e. g. after a question which involves denial ^ 153, '. . when it may be rendered no, but, — but no,— fur surely iXXa yap Mil . \i. • . done to thee? . . .for surely 1 brought thee up, etc. Job xxxi. I s . - IS - : -. _> , 2. We now arrange the remaining conjunctions according to their significations, and in the case of those (very many in Dumber) that have a variety of Benses, exhibit together the different uses of each as it first occurs. We must, howi confine ourselves here to a brief general notice, leaving the more compl te view, with the references and proofs, to the Lexicon.* a) Copulative: besides \, -1, the properly adverbial forms E3 also, and ^X intensive, then it added, wholly, even, once combined Dj"f)$1 s and even also, Lev. xxvi. 1 1. The first is often used with plural forms emphatically, to include all, e.g. D^y' DJ both the two, 73 C5 all together. It all gives emphasis to the following word; Gen. xxix. 80, and he loved • ~~"~ s "-- : ■ \el not, Rachel) more than Leah; 1 Sam. xxiv. 12. — *3 ^X is prop, add that, hence nut to mention,— according to the connexion, much more, much l< is. b) Disjunctive: IN or (etym. free will, choice, hence prop, vel, but also aut excl isive, 2 K ii. 16). Sometimes it stands elliptically for '? IN* or [be it) that, <>r it must be that, when it ■. be rendered unless that, e. g. Is. xxvii. 5; — hence the transition to the conditional sense, ;/'. but if, Ex. xxi. 36 (the LXX. lav 8e, Vulg. sin autem), if haply, 1 Sam. xx. 10, winch has ' without reason (comp. on V'lN, § 150, 3, Note). Repeated, i** — 1X . . it is the same as DX— DK. c) Temporal: *3, TJ'X = ore. quum see above), for which n. particle DK (Is. iv. 4; xxiv. 13); 7&, "^ TJ, »? "TO until that, a!- D* "•' D* "-"X TJ mtU that when, *W also during, so long as, 1W2, the same, "V'X '""N after that, **'-" "'-' s " N ' : met that, cru?2 and D^.P before, npns f or TflJ nr/]E before Ps. d) Causal: (besides »3 and ^"X. No. I, C, < ~— y ' : ^S ■"<». 01 ' : >J, with the omission of T^g (§ 10 i, 1, c), Ps. xlii. 7; xlv. ;',. ]Z"r'"'Z G( a. ■• and }rt ^ (Job xxxiv. 27), for '? irt, f^ IS^M "-' s "" "-* ~ : ' s ~'~' N ^ fAe circumstances that = for this cause that, and emphatically """-"* ■ s"~:"". that, 1^8 "^ 3 P» "^ IV! prop, on the account, that , and •? nnfl *3 3py (prop, as a reward that), that. e) Final: 10* IP? 1 ? to the end that, T0< 1*3^1 w <"F THE PARTICLES. /' Conditional: principally DK and W Tor which rarelj '?* , if. The first (which is also a particle of interrogation, $ 153,2) is purely conditional, leaving it, uncertain whether what u expressed bj the verh is actually so, is actually done, or not (rather the former), — as, if I do — nftVe done hall do! on the contrary, W* expressly implies thai it is not so, is not done (if I should do had done', at least that it is very uncertain and even improbable. Hence CS may properly stand where W would express the thought more accurately (Ps. 1. 12; exxxix. 8; Hoe. ix. 12 ; hut n cannot lie used for DK. Especially in solemn asseveration, expressed under the form of conditional imprecation, EK is used ; Ps. vii. 4 — 6, "131 ^'TV — HXT Wfe^TJIC if I June dune lliis -thru let the enemy persecute me, etc. ; Ps. xliv. 21 ; lxxiii. 15; exxxvii. 5. What has heen -aid of EX and -1? holds good, also, when they are connected with the negative, as in ^ EN*, *\?*?, and v*/. It must be observed further, that EX, after forms of swearing, e. g. ni.T ^n ^.y Jehovah lives, has the force of a negative (hence ^ EN is affirmative), 2 Sam. xi. 1 1 ; xx. 20. There is here an ellipsis, which is sometimes filled up, as in 2 Sam. iii. 35, V"'" 1 '^-"^ '12 EX *3 fppi* nbl E^nPX so may God do to me and more also, if- — . Hence generally after verbs of swearing and adjuring, EX stands for not, Cant. ii. 7, iii. 5, also elsewhere in poetry, as Judges v. 8, Is. xxii. 14. On IN, *3, "®W, as passing over into conditional particles, see above, in No. 2, b, and No. 1, c. lr?3 in all points as, Ecclcs. v. 15. i) Adversative: (see on the adverbs, § 147, 3). Decidedly belong here, '? DpX only thai — hut, nevertheless, and the difficult combination EN s ? , prop, that if , for if, most frequently hut if, in the sense of *? explained under letter d, but united with EN to form a connexion with the verb. Ps. i. 1, happy the man wlio walks not (if he walks not) in the counsel of the ungodly .... vs. 2, but if (EX *?) his delight is in Then simply but, Ps. i. 4 ; Gen. xxxii. 29, but if, but when, Gen. xxxii. 27, and merely but=except (after a negative), xxxix. 9 ; xxviii. 17. A-) On the interrogative particles, see § 153, and — I) The optative particles above, under letter f. 3. A certain brevity and incompleteness f of expression (see No. 1) appears, among other things, in this, that instead of the compound conjunction, by which the relation is fully expressed, may be used one or the other of those composing it. Thus, instead of the full form ^C'K ]V\ on the account, tlt, K?, not, hence it hecomes, when uttered interrogatively, first an optative particle (§ 136, 2), as HW -IP nonne vivatf for would that he were alive, then a conditional par- ticle, if lie were (dive (which is, however, riot the case). f More rare is pleonasm, or an unnecessary fulness of expression ; e. g. EX > 2, for if, Ex. xxii. 22, comp. old Germ, wenn thus (prop, if it is thai) and o'.d Eng. "if so he that." On the contrary, a degree of pleonasm in the particles is quite at home in the Chaldee ; e. g.. Vs T7;ijX , ?3 (Germ, all dieweil) wholly— for— that=because, _l ?3 ■"VT'?? just for this—therefore. Emphatic, not pleonastic, is the repetition of the conjunction in }y_'3-1 ]Vl because, 1. v. xxvi. 43. Like the German sirdemal und aU dieweil. § 156. THE INTERJECTIONS. 247 4. This brevity of expression is sometimes carried bo far, that the conjunction, which is required to show the relation of one Bentence or part of a sentence to another, is omitted altogether. This occurs — a) In conditional clauses: Gen. xxxiii. 13, drive they them hard, then they will die, — for, if they drive them hard they will die. Job \ii. 20, (if) / have sinned, what do I unto thee? Gen. xlii. 38. b) Where comparison is expressed: Ps. xiv. 4, CH"^ i?JM , -' *?^ /// ' ' & ''"'"' m V people (as) they would eat bread, prop, (as) those who eat bread. Job xxiv. 19, drought and heat bear off the snow-water, 'INDH TINp* (so) Sheol (those who) sin. Jer. xvii. 11. c) In members which are usually dependent on the relative conjunctions. Gen. xii. 13, say FIX T^X thou art my sister, commonly TN* T"N "2. Ps. i\. 21, that they may learn, they are men. Is. xlviii. 8, for I knew, thou art utterly faith- less. Ps. xvii. 3, I have purposed, my mouth shall not sin. In all tin - the second member stands properly in the accusative; comp. §142, 1. Rem. 2. Sect. 156. THE INTERJECTIONS. The interjections which correspond to out ah t oh! alas! woe! expressing de- nunciation as well as lamentation (nntf, *1N, *IPI), are connected with the object of the threatening or lamentation either by the prepositions /£, ""K. 7, or without any of these particles, as !|J7 *1X woe to us! *W *1H woe to flu \ ' Is. i. 4; *TH T]X alas, my brother! 1 Kings xiii. ■■'• ,| . On the construction of '">?.n with the suffixes, see § 100, 5. INDEX I. (the numbers refer to the pages.) X, as Consonant and Guttural, 17; prefers ~, 43; as Feeble Letter, 19, 43, seq. ; as Dilated Letter, 14; Interchanged with n, ^, and *, 44 ; Omitted, 44. ta, 245. &K, 235, Note * *«, Interrogative Particle, 238. P«, |H«, 236, seq. fe, 237. ^*, 242. DK, its Difference from &, 220, 246. "£ : X, as Relative Pronoun, 69, 200; as Relative Conjunction, 244 ; /> "ffi'8, 190. OK, Sign of Accusative, 173, 192, Note*; as Pre- position with, 173. 3, Preposition, 172, 174; its Use, 241. T^3, 201, Note*. n, with Mappiq, 32, 45, 128; as Feeble Letter, 45. H, see under Article. H, Interrogative, 171, 238. H— , ending of Cohortative and Imperative, 81, seq. ; of Nouns, 135, 148. N-1H, and K*H, 64; how distinguished from HT., 199. rWl, its Anomaly, 129; with the Participle, 218; with 7 before Infinitive, 216. 1, as Vowel-Letter, 19, 22, 43. ), see Vav Copulative and Conversive of Preterite. *!, see Vav Conversive of Future. njn] , Prophetic Formula, 206. WJ, Historic Formula, 211. '., as Vowel-Letter, 19, 22, 44. njn*, with prefixes, 173. naVbpj, so. 3, with Suffixes, 174; its Force, 243. '3, 244, seq. DK *3, 246, and Note f. |3 ^ *3, 245. 7S , with Negative, 236 ; with Substantive, with and without the Article, 109, seq. ?, its Pointing, 172; with Suffixes, 174 ; its Mean- ings, 243; as Sign of the Dative, 192; for the Genitive, 190; with the Passive, 227. l6, 236; in Prohibition, 208. •I 1 ?, its Etymology and Use, 246, Note *; 220. Sth, with Plural Force, 174, Note *. 0, Sign of Participles, 87; Formative of Nouns, 137. ■O for HO, 69. •D for IP, which see. no and *D, 69. 10, Poetical Addition to Prefixes, 175. jnj n?, 220. IP, Preposition, its Pointing, 172; with Suffixes, 174; its Senses, 242; with Comparative, 194. |, see Nun. y, its Pronunciation, 16; as Guttural, 42, seq. hy, Preposition, 242. *5f£, 167, Note *. 1, as Guttural, 43; Doubled, 43. •B>, Prefix, 69. n, Feminine-ending, 136, 147. INDEX II. A-sound, 24. Abbreviations, 15. Absolute Case, 299. Abstract for Concrete, 138; expressed by the Feminine, 180; takes the Article, 185. Accents, 32—34. Accusative, indicated by JIX, 192 ; by the ending il— , 150, 192 ; governed by the Terb, '221 ; double, 223 ; as adverbial Case, 171, 193. Adjective, Circumlocution for, 179; with the Article, 187 ; with a Substantive, 187; classed with Nouns, 134. Adverb, 170; expressed by a Verb, 226, seq. Alphabet, 13. Aplneresis, 37. Apocopated Future, 82. Apocope, 37; of Verbs n"7, 129. Apposition, 188, 191. Arabisms, 44, 68, 80, seq. Aramaean Tongue, 1. Aramaisms. See Chaldaisms. Archaisms, 8. Arrangement of Words, 229. Article, 67, seq. ; its Syntax, 184—187. Aspirates, 17, 31, 40. Assimilation, 37, 91, 106. Case Absolute, 230. Case-endings, Traces of, 148—150. Cases, 146, 191, seq. Celtic Tongues, 3, Note % Chaldaisms, 10 j in the Form of the In- finitive, 78; in the8rd pen. fern. Put, 80; in Piel, 88; in Verbs r\"7, 1"1 ; in Verbs ]}"]), III, seq.; in Verbs )"]}, 122; in the Plural, 143 ; in the Fe- minine, 135, seq. Chateph-Pathaeh, 29; shorter than Uia- teph-Seghol, 54 Chateph-Qamets, 29. Chateph-Seghol, 29. Cbireq, different Sorts of, 21, seq. Cholem, 28. Cohortativc, 81, «ff n 209. Collective Nouns, 181—183; their Syn- tax, 230, seq. Common Nouns, 179—181. Commutation of Consonants, .">ti. Comparative Degree, 194, Composition of Words rare, 81, 186, M / Compound Notions, how put in Plural, 183; with Art., 186; with Buff, 183. Conditional Clauses, 247. Conjugations or Derivative Vit!h, 7"— 72; Number and Arrangement of, 72; unusual Forms of, 93, Conjunctions, 17.",, seq^ 243 247. Consonants, Pronunciation and Division of, 15; softened into Vowels, 18, 38, 43—45. Construct State, 146; seq.; its 0*86, 1--. seq., 190, seq.; with Art. 186 Construction, a(rvv8(ros, 225, seq.. nant, 224. Contraction, 37. Copula (logical), how expresses 1, Daghesh, 31. Daghesb forte, 30, seq.; various Sorts of, 38; where used, 88, n j. \ exclnded from Gutturals, II ; and from ~i, 48 ; Omission of in Verbs ]}"]}, 110. Daghesh lene, 31, 40. Dative, 192 \ oomp. 190. Declension, 185, and Note*, 158, 162. Degrees of Comparison, 191. Diphthongs, 18,23; how avoided, U Doubling of Consonants, .is ; it- KH'eet. 87. Dual, 145; of Numerals, 168] Bvntu of, 188, 231, seq. Ellipsis of the Relative, 201 ; of Other Pronouns, 200; other a assume. 0, I'M, .v ■/., 201 ; of the Oon< junel ion, 246, seq. Bpiooane Nouns, 179 Epithets, poetic, 178. Peeble Lett re, Vav and Yodh, 15, - feminine Gander, Endings of, 186; Vowel < Ihanges of, 160, teq. \ in Oon- Btruof state, ii7; in Plural, HI; other Indications of, 178 I ahstracl and collective Noun-, 180; form of in th«- Infinitive, 78, hh'>. lie. PormSB lni\t:r, 1". '• ; ■ i- •. aoota el uudsa, 187. Future, Name, 79, Note • ; I and [nnexion, 79 ; shortened and lengthened, 31 \ with "> • I 83, 810 | with 5 of, 807, seq. emenl in, 187, 280 Genitive, I i Gentilii nitive, 191. Gerund, Gutturals, 17, 11 unmatica] Exhibition, Helping \ Hiphil, -'.'- 8L II ithpael, 91. Homogeneous \ Ilophal, 90. ', 21. liii|„rati\ , , 'Ath- ene.!. tax, 211, -• . ; other I \\. Imper imlocutkm, Impersonal Construction, Indo-( ;.n:. - eompart-d, 8, B Infinitive, I I" the Inf. A I ' with r, 1,215. Instrumeal ; . 176. 247. Intern . 110. Kal, it* Porn and M Kaph vi r K'thil lh au, -ton-. -: liquids, 17; qn + ; incompatible, »ublr, ll. Mappi,|. 82. . I Ifatn tlethegl . Mdelnnd Mir 250 INIM'.X II. Negative*, 280, mq> Neuter Gender, wanting in Hebrew, 186, ISO. Niphal, B5, uq. Nomina anital is, 181, Nouns, their Derivation and Sorts, 188 - l i". | with Suffixes, 150 153; their Declension, 168 168; irregular, 164, n /. ; Bj ntax, 178, Number, ) 13-148 1 Agreement in,be1 ween Bubjeol and Predicate, 232, teq. Numerals, 188 168; Sinus of, 15; Syntax, 195. Nun, assimilated, 37, 106; epenthetic (de- monstrative}, 97, O-sound, 28. ( taomatopoetica, 8, 50, seq. Optative, 208, 209, wg. Paradigms of Nouns, 155, seq., 1G2, Paragogio Letters, 1 18 -150. Partioipial Nouns, 138, seq. Participle, 84, seq.-, with Suffixes, 100; its Syntax, 213—220 ; changed for Verb, 219. Passives, their Construction, 227. Patronymics, 143. Pathach, 21, 21; preferred with Guttu- rals, 41— 43; Furtive, 22, 42; in Pause for Tsere or Seghol, 57, 80 ; in Piel for Tsere, 87, seq. Pause, 56, seq. Perfect. See Preterite. Phoenician and Punic Languages, 2, 7; 19, Note X ; 29, Note * ; 38, Note ; 09, Note ; Writing, 4. Piel, ^~,seq. Pleonasms, of the Pronoun, 198, seq.; of the Particles, 246, Note ; of the Ne- gatives, 237. Pluperfect, 204 ; Subjunctive, 205, seq. Plural, its Endings, 143—145; in Pre- positions, 175 ; its Use, 181—183. Pluralis excellentirc or majestaticus, 182; its Construction, 188, 231. Poetical Expression, 8, seq. Pointing <>r the Hebrew Text, 19. Potential, 208. Predicate, asuall; without the Article, 186 ; its Connexion with the Subject, 230 Prefixes, I72j with Suffixes, 174. Prepositions, 171 ■ 175, 240 248. Present, how expressed, 204 207, 211,818; Present Subjuno! ive, 206. Preterite, 75 -77; with Vav Conversive, 83; with Suffixes, 97, teq.; its Syntax, 204—206. Pronouns, 63; Personal, 63, »eq.\ Suffix, 65; Demonstrative, 67; Relative, 69; Interrogative and Indefinite,!;!); Suffixes to Verbs, 97—99; to Nouns, 150-153; to Adverbs, 171; to Pre- positions, 173—175 ; Reflexive Pro- noun, how expressed, 202, seq.; Syn- tax of Pronoun, 197—203. Proper Names, with Article, 185; with Genitive following, 1S9. Prosthesis, 38. Pual, 88. Punic Tongue. See Phoenician. Qamets, 21, 24. Qamets-C'hatuph, 21, 20; distinguished from Qamets, 27. Q.'ri, 35. Qibbuts, 21, 26. Quadriliterals and Quinqueliterals, 61. Quiescents. See Letters. Radical Letters, 58. Raphe, 32. Relation of Verbs to each other, 132, seq. Relative Pronoun, 69, 200; Relative Cour junctions, 244, seq. Repetition of Words, 183. Roots, 58—61. Scriptio plena et defectiva, 23. Seghol, 21,24, seq.; with Gutturals, 42; before Gutturals with Qamets, 53, seq. Segholatc Nouns, 139, 158. Servile Letter-, 58, 137. Shemitish Languages,] 6; Relation to each other, 2. Sh' v;i, Name, 28, Note ' \ simple and com- posite, 29 ; moveable, or roc simple under Gutturals, 42; the m<>\ eable, a half-vowel, 48. Shureq, 21, 26. Sibilants, 17; transposed, 38. Billuq, 83. Square ( haracter, 14. State, Absolute, how far from Construct, 190, seq.; Construct, its Endings, 1 17; its Vowel-changes, 1 17 ; its I seq.; when it takes the Article, 186. Stem-consonants, •">'.), seq. Stems, different from Roots, 58, seq. Subjunctive, 207, seq. Suffixes, see Pronouns ; their Syntax, 198; Grave and Light; Note on p. 155, seq. Superlative Degree, 194. Syllables, Theory of, 48-50. Syriasms, in the Pointing, 45. Tenses, their Use, 203, seq.; Relative, 205. Tone, 55—57 ; Signs of, 33. Transposition, 36, 91. Tsere, 21, 25. Vav Conversive, 83 ; Origin of, 83 ; wil h. Preterite, 84 ; with Future, 84 ; Co- pulative, 84; its Form, 176; its Force, 244. Verb, its Form and Inflexion, 70 — 73; Irregular Verbs, 73, 100—106; Verbs Middle E. and O., 75 ; with Suffixes, 94—100; Contracted, 106— 112; Fee- ble, 113—132; Doubly Anomalous, 132, seq. ; Defective, 132, et seqq. ; Syntax of, 203; with Prepositions, 224 ; in Combination, to express one Idea, 225—227. Vocative, with the Article, 185. Vowel-Letters, IS. See Feeble Letters. Vowel-Signs or Points, 20, seq. Vowels, 18—21. INDEX III. TEXTS ILLUSTRATED OR PARTICULARLY NOTICED. GENESIS. 1. 1 . . . . 40, 192, 204, 229 1, 3, 4 .... 83 . 1, 3 ..184,231 2 176, 178, 228 3 184, 208 4 . . . . 90, 184 [Genesis 1. 1, 4. 4, 10. 9 227 .... 56 173 •••• 35 , . . . 40 .... 187 .... 208 229,232 • •• *94 18, 19 83 20, 21 223 21 143, 152, 187 22 105 24 .... 150, 210 26 182 bis, 241 Hi ... 35, 205 187 . . . 200, 204 92, 216, 228 ,04, 208, 229 ... 1 18, 224 186 29, 176, 228 208 21? 198 173 ... 29,87 . . . 228, 229 3, 4 122 4 -.4 5 100, 230, 244 7 •'•• 19} 10, 11 204 11 43, 23 7 12 .... 13 .... 9 14 lii ■••■ 77 ,. .. 204 14, 17, 22.. 204 1G 19 20 22 21 1 7 9 10 12 14 15 144 <6 >28 132, 206, 208, 237 i«9 . 204, 210 *04, Z39 218, *33 .... 21 ..1 198 l66, 2}0 15, 21 [68 17 •-'■ IB 227 10. 11. 20 22; 23 79 25 27 2(i .... 197, 221 1,3 24. 5, 8 122 5 *33 20 24 2 19' 9 j 5 9, 10 210 10 192 13 227 it; 1- 1 17 219 19 21 206 7 2,; 9, 15 9 204 11 . . 35, 196 bis 13 1C6, 176, 202 19 136 20 193 3 *H 5 7, 8 8 i 3 g 9 202 12 117 13 122, 196 bis I 1 190 19 133 22 176 10 I'- ll .... 27, 22- II ... 29, 87 20 .... 1 - 'J 1 . ... 130, 151 22 .... 198, 133 •_'l 118 26 .74 27 130 1 110 6, 15, &c . 1 9, Ki, 15,19 210 12 r- - 21, ftc. . 1 bis, 6 21 22 1 2G I 1 2.1 4 .... »37,H« 5, 8 122 (i 112 7 1 12, 182, 208 H 9 10 210 12—15, 27, 28 110 28, 32 122 28 OLD 12, L3. I !. L5. 10. 18. 19. iAMEXT. 1 211 4 8 151 13 ....2.2.247 2 . . . . 1 - -, 244 •"> .... 151, 200 7 1 84 9 94 10 217 11 203 1 21. 4 5, ftc 210 in 13 6, 185 18 190 19 23 1-2 1,2 210 2 .. .. 1 »8, 244 12 »i6 13 .... 1 9 ^ , 2 i 17 218, 133 L8 ... 199, 20c, 19, 20 1-4 1,2 210 4, 5 mi 8 207 11 . . .. 161, 21 9 11 22 1 211 .') ..... 2 • , 2 2 7 8 1 " - in 212 12 212 13 114 17 .... 1 7 ; 18 19 . . . . 1 61, 20 26, 1: 122 1 3 .... ir 5 *45 11 12 2 2 13 -44 20 21 .... 171. |S 4 ■i:> 116 ...... - ■ 28 - 245 ■■ 214 11 I -. II 1 ■ 16 18 19 11. 19. 2 1 21. 29 3.5 3 8 7 9 11 |3 16 1- 1, 3 5 - 12 13 16 24 32 1 3 4 12 15 17 1 I 1. 6 10 11 13 1. 3 9 12 i" f,l 1 B ; i". 21 26 27 31, 1 - 13 18 1 1 i\ Genesis 2 1'. 2 I B :, Z'.f - 4 I 13' • -4' 230 -4' ■• •" 1 1 bit 130 ■ 2 2 1 17. . . . . 21 .211 ill |I4 . . . . 2 1 31. 34. 16.] •J 7. 24 33 :\; I.- 17 19 1 7 9 10 1 17 21 15 13 it 15 18 17 50 II 12 16 17 18 21 5 : - 11 1 I 7 16 . . . . 1 is .... 112 .... 245 .... 147 - L'.iL' 34. 22 27 35. 36. 37. :;s. 39. in. 41. 30 3 7 s 11 21 26 2 2 :\ 7 8 15 17 18 19 21 29 32 33 5 11 17 2 1 4 5 6 9 11 13, 14, 14 18 3 5 10 14 15 18 20 1 12 14 17 21 23 25 26 34 39 40 42 43 49 51 1 6 11 13 18 19 25 28 30 34 35 LQonesis 122 208 >7* « 9 231 90 »3' 151 --; — i 210 187, *io 194 219, »»5, 226 ....213, 239 207 146 .... 208, 222 67, 179 —+ 237 171 -> + .... 1*5, 226 •• 193 198 -42 .... 105, 201 201 188 246 68 15,18,19 211 17 6 105 .... 216, 217 I9 1 190 181 205 . . 6, 89, 214 186 227 193 6, 190 220 ='9 . . . . 151, 160 ... 218 bis . 186, 187, 197 bis 208 218 »93 • ■• 185, 223 214 . .. 130, 183 88 9- 186 • ■• 64, 197 195 21 2 187 183 --+ ....182,229 209 218 34. 22. 12. 38 - 6, 224. -47 13. 3 *I3 5 218 7 108, 2 1 3 11 205 15 193 32 6, 207 33 224 II. 4 221 5 241 9, 10 201 14 233 18 .... 208, 243 22 206 33 117 45. 4 200 12 186 12, 13 206 18 212 46. 3 208 4 214 27 184 47. 3 232 4 190 9 189 21 .... 229, 230 48. 6 231 11 129 49. 10 39 11 149, 151, 165 12 158 15 211, 233 21 184 23 111 25 243 50. 17 177 20 129 EXODUS. 1. 1 84 7 223 10 80 11 192 18, 19 80 20 231 21 198 2. 1 192 3 39 4 117 6 .. .. 198, 218 10 99 It 216 17 99 20 79 3. 3 209 18 H3 4. 2 69 10 .. .. 158, 179 13 201 5. 5 206 8 2++ 10 237 16 237 23 214 6. 3 241 6 206 8. 8 210 11 90 [NDEX TO TEXTS. 8. 17 237 9. ih 45 27 186 10. 1 187 8 199, 227 11 105 15 236 17 .... 122, 210 27 225 11. 8 28 12. 5 179 6 195 16 236 48 208 13. 2 88 15 227 18 112 14. 7 157 11 237 13 .... 201, 247 15. 1,21 39 1 233 4 178 5 .... 97, 13° 14 81 16 136 20 .. .. 80, 233 16. 3 220 4 239 6, 7 206 6 244 H 93 29 202 17. 1 217 3 160 4 206 13 80 18. 20 ... . 201 bis 21, 25 168 23 76, 225, 229 26 80 19. 8 199 13 117 18 i<7 25 198 20. 4 236 8 215 9 193 15 208 20 198 25 .... 121, 122 21. 1—36 .... 245 28 192 29 231 36 24< 37 ....179, 182 22. 8 231 22 246 23. 20 201 21 87 30 236 31 97 25. 39 224 40 227 26. 3 203 33 84, 91 27. 3 2+3 18 196 •28. 3 223 Deuteronomy 28. 39 29. 27 [81 29 178 :'.o 99 30. 25 223 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 3S. '85 99 23' 2'3 241 97 203 Si 231 131 152 219 208 185 78 202 224 24, 25 195 3 224 4 .. 13 . 4, 8 6 .. 22 .. 25 . . 27 .. 3 .. 4 .. 12 .. 13 .. 11 .. 2 .. 32 .. 2 .. 4 .. 14 .. LEVITICUS. 1. 2 .... 2. 1 . . . . 12 4. 2 22 • •• 233 ... 228 ... 242 ,...245 23, 28 117 5. 1 233 6. 3 198 10. 19 171 11. 43 125 12. 4 125 13. 10 64 19 188 39 188 14. 21 90 15. 24 210 16. 27 227 .. .. 131 . . . . 100 130, 214 .... 233 .... 6+ 23. 32 196 24. 5 223 25. 21 129 26. 15 216 33 88 34 129 43 246 44 24* is. 19. 20 9 20 6 17 NUMBERS. 1. 2 .. . 47 .. . 2. 33 . . . 3. 6 . . . 24 .. . 39 ... 4. 20 . . . 5. 3 . . . 8. 13 ... 183 92 92 104 186 167 106 240 104 4.1.| 8. 19 17? 9. 6 13a 1 5 216 10. 2 78 4 ! 11. 11 125 12 117 25 114 12. 1 233 13. 1M .... 6 9 , 239 14. 2 205 3 5+ 7 236 24 .... 206, 224 37 187 42 237 15. 28 97 35 214 40 206 16. 26 212 17. 5 208 6, &c 122 10 112 20. 3 220 10 212 17 209 20 81 21. 1 87, iz 69 117 217 214 210 ■ 214 221 - 61 ' ■'" 184 •3' 1 I ''•4 1 5 68 • 1 1 2 1 2; 21 1 190 1-1 118 . 206 ; 1 : 2;i . 160 253 11. 25.] 19. 13, 16 182 22 23 20. 6 .. .. 16, 21; ■ w 11 16 1- 19 31 '44 21. 2 8 93 8 14 .... 1 183 13 21; . 218 24. '• - 11 .. . 11. 19 244 12 26. 5 .. - 1»». 11 . II '22 la 1- ... •j 1 ■ 213 . 31 12 1 10 I 7 '.' 10 II 18 SO. 6 31. •-* 2 SAMUEL. 1. g a 3. 1 11 . -- . 4. 1 10 .. ■ 7. :. in g 11. 11 . - 254 13. 15. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 12 17 20 31 32 39 i 2:5 25 33 34 .'i 13 22 1 l 16 18 20 23 29 2 20 27 19 20 21 9 12 14 20 33 37, 41 44 6 8 11 3 24 10 IS [2 Samuel 12. 0. ■ -• ' ■ i Jl 193 -■ II 119 1 1 1 1 B8 *3> 198 »3° 230 "4 '57 [9] 2 1 1 +3 "»- -45 212 Z38 zi 1 217 180 181 246 9i »93 1 ja 87 i93 122 173 230 14+ 151 '44 186 -44 -114 1 KINGS. 1 Kings . . . 1. 12 ... 27 ... 43 .. . 52 2. 31 3. 7 ... 18 .. . 24 .. 5. 9 ... 15 .. . 25 6. 7 ... 19 .. 7. 14 ... 37 .. 8. 24 .. 30 38,43 48 . . 9. 8 .. 21 .. 23 .. 26 .. 27 .. H 221 »39 2 35 179 236 215 199 t8 4 236 190 209 189 *45 188 151 -47 *43 81 77 1 1 1 21 1 219 180 28 ID 21 ... •Jl 11. t ... 15 18. 15 ... 17 ... 21 ... 24 ... 1 3, 1 . . . 7 .. . 30 ... 11. 2 .. . 3 ... 15, 4 ... 25 ... 31 ... 16. K) 17. 14 ... 18. 21 32 .. . 44 .. . 19. 11 20. 20 ... 35 .. . 36 .. . 37 ... 21. 7 ... 10 121 , 176, 15 .. . 19 .. . 22. 10 . . . 13 .. . 15 .. . 25 .. . 30 .. . 35 2 KINGS. 1. 2 .. . 7 ... 8 ... 11, 13. 2. 10 ... • 89, 16 ... 21 .. . 24 .. . 3. 3 . . . 16 .. . 23 ... 26 .. . 27 ... 4. 13 25 .. . 41 .. . 116, 43 ... 5. 9 ... 13 ... 22 ... 23 .. . 26 .. . 6. 13 ... 19 .. . 8. 21 .. . 9. 17 .. . 10. 21 .. . 11. 5 .. . t 9 6 *37 *3» 180 87 zi6 21 1 --7 81 «7 29 -47 106 216 1 y 6 190 i 9 6 !32 228 223 97 188 230 131 i85 214 221 210 116 197 227 193 238 131 215 118 239 69 179 225 227 245 l i l 180 231 183 214 232 207 216 67 244 **5 190 229 211 21 1 229 146 117 85 136 173 81 INDEX T<> TEXTS. 13. 10 196 II ZZ1 15. 2] 239 16. 7 121 11 [86 1H 136 17. 29 is. 1 [96 11 130 2G 30 192 19. 23 151 25 44 20. 20 Z39 21. 8 216 22. 1 195 23. 5 244 15 112 17 186 25. 29 132 1 CHRONICLES. 4. 27 19* 5. 18 172 7. 5 183 9. 13 189 11. 10 190 11 '44 12. 2 46 17 217 28 167 33 183 13. 2 226 15. 12 201 27 94 I 7 - 4 239 21 231 18. 5 167 20. 8 67 21. 23 40 25. 5 .. . . i9<; bis 26. 28 "184 27. 24 228 30 85 29. 2 187 9 221 17 184 2 CHRONICLES. 3. 3 195 6. 11 200 29,33 81 40 232 7. 3 217 15 232 8. 18 180 9. 20 237 10. 7 68 11. 4 81 12. 1 218 13. 7 92 15. 8 92 16. 12 132 19. 2 216 20. 35 91 36 193 24.] JOB. ■'"'• ii 1. 1 .... 202, 204 3 I". 5 .... 193, 209 7 1 - I I 179, - l8 > 23" 15 181 16 218 17 218 19 1 80 2. 3 238 4 207 10 204, 2}8 II 1 84 3. 3 56, i 14, 201 bis, 206, 209 4 178 4, 6, 7 .... 208 5 99 5, 6, 8 208 G 129 8 225 9 208 10 237 11 209 13 205 16 209 17, 18 204 26 46 4. 3, 4 188 5 211 6 230 12, 15, 16 .. 209 13 78 17 207, 239 19 221 20 no 5- 1 35 7 244 8 209 12 130 16 136 18 131 19 2+4 6. 2 214 3 .... 57, 183 5, 6 259 9 208 1" 233 12 ....228,239 14 209 20 233 21 22! 26 106 27 2+2 7. 3 .... 221. 222 9 211 13 204 20 ....242. 247 8. 3 239 8 44 18 105 21 .... 44- 131 9. 2 204 15 .... 93, 246 21 .... 2C2, 209 24 235 10. ] :•>. 1 !. 15. 18. 19. 20. 21. [Job 3 239 4 > 5 239 8 232 8, 9, 13.. ..238 10, 11 209 11 99 13 204 1G 210 18 209 19 205 20 209 2,7 239 17 ....194,210 ~> 231 11 244 12 243 24 189 5 210 7 239 13 200 25 192 28 221 2 211 3 238 9 90 10 80,211,238 14 239 16 238 19 231 7.8 239 13 143 22 130 27 90 31 210 35 215 3 239 4 222 5 99 G 210, 239 7 90 9 222 10 222 12 133 14 i8<; 17 146 19 182 1 183 2 39, 210 12 221 15 239 16 80 2 [9] 7 198 21 191 2 99, 131 3 226 5 242 15 99 1G 222 23 112 4 239 5—20 1 74 10 .... 1 2 1 , 2 ; 2 17 210 19 244 23 .74 26 233 4 2 ; 9 1G 205 10. 3. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 2G. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 3G. 23 202 32 183 2 ....174, *4» 4 239 6, 7, 8 .... 209 ' 22 V 18 205 20 151 21 .... 90, 212 23 239 28 56, 122, 210 30 237 2 . . . . 178, 1 94 3 . ... 2 2 O, 2 2 J 12 230 13 241 1 227 9 201 19 .... 201, 247 21 [18 22 143 24 in 5 230 5 241 9 9+ 13 178 3 189, 235 4 232 23 1 74 4 227 5 1 94 17 237 2 220 10 ~(> 12 201 12, 13 209 1-1 9V 21 39.46 14 19+ 20 237 1 239 5 122 10 143 18 .... 1 98, 245 21 1-1 22 32,45 6, 10 n; 7 233 11 114 15 221 18 .... 44. 1-.-- 22 2;'. 4 131 5 103 13 23 242 25 94 3 244 5 2 4 10 »43 13 149 17 239 20 2:1 22 2.: 23 22V 27 24? 10 i' 11 114 2G 230 INDEX TO TEXTS. 3G. 32 181 I 37. 3 87 j 131 11 38. 3 103 4 ....117,245 5 245 7 111 12 242 1 I '9+ 18 245 20 245 21 »33 30 ... . 92, 1-4 32 233 39. 9 15 24 131 40. 2 21c 8,9 .... 22 112 23 242 41. 7 187 15 :>, 17 142 22 187 25 46, 130, 184 42. 2 77 10 152 16 '45 PSALMS. Psalma 33 1. 1 . . . . 204. 2 24'. 4 .. .. iHf, 24'. G 114 2. 2 184 3 .... 82, a » G .... 1, - 7 .... 76,117 1<> 244 3. 2 112 3 5 zzz 5 224 I. 1. 1 .. 3 s - 21: 3 1 244 8 2 1 5. 5 2- ; g 1 18 in 1- 12 244 13 --; 6. 2 129 1 64 in i 7. I— G s 121 10 188, 208 12 187 1G 201 8. 2 2 12 ;> 211 6 22; 9. 7 .... 197, 14 38 i '. 11. 12. 16. 17. 1-i. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 31. 32. 33. 34. 18 19 .... 11, 21 3 15 1 ; ' 1 190 1 I 230 5 230 3 . 1 . . : ' 1 ' ■ ' 221 3 230 •'• - 6 ;i 247 10 .... 1-;. 222 13, 11 13 3 l 17 222 28 1 - - 3D 31 230 33 1 If, - ■ '•i 229 37, i". 18 40, 19 11 'I '4 + 18 in 11 1 . 8 9 1 .. 2 9 2.2 L6 22 .... ; 11 212 I : . I 1-- 1—22 14 '.i 7 '-4 1 198 (i 7 .... s 15 - 4 21 1 . . . . 1 • i, 2 1 1 1 7 . 1—22 .... 14 13 G .... 58, 255 73. 14.] 35. 14 158 16 .... - 1—40 .... 14 m 20 . .. HI 31 38. 11 . . 15 41 . 5 7 .. .. 11. 3 ■'• M 21 .... . 1: .... '"''• 3 7 - .114. 244 10 .. 12 46. 3 . 19. 8 112 13,21. 16 ... 9 • 211 10 12 .. 21 2 . 5 .'■ 1 . I 7 19 . . .. :- 56. 1 :.7. I - 12 GO. 1 I 1 16 1 1 112 ..Mi ■ 10 .117 ;i. is 7.1. 10 .. 14 .... 256 rPsalm 73. 15 146 211 14a 74. 9 199 17 21 iai 76. :i >4'> H 118 11) ill 78.17 91 11 130 7'.'. 8 110 12 168 80. 1 89 11 227 H 9+ 81. 6 201 14 220 8 1. 5 219 B7. . r > .... 184, 202 88.19 178 89. 2 2:2 40 224 51 187 90. 15 191 91. 4 112 6 193 92. 16 136 94. 1 90 102. 1 112 5 Si 103. 3—5 15a •1 15] 104. 1 - 4 2 223 3 184 7 122 8 199 11,20 150 17 230 18 187 20 210 24 112 29 114 105.24 130 109. 2 222 13 130 29 223 30 222 110. 3 178 4 H9 112. 7 85 113. 5—9 150 114. 8 150 116. 6 91 12 15a 15 136 118. 11 .. .. 112 his 18 89 119. 1—176.. .. 14 22 in 30, 40 204 101 131 137 232 155 2,2 120. &c 9 1 211 5 m 3 124. 4 i 3 6 127. 2 .... 45, 136 73. 15. 128. 8 130 :> 1 2 129. S 245 132. 12 15a 1 33. 1 217 134. 2 193 137. 1-9 9 3 105 B 246 6 97, 194 138. 118 139. 1—24 .... 9 1 99 2 .... 123, 221 5 151 8 .... 210, 246 11 .... 173, 211 19 220 20 114 140. 10 131 13 77 141. 5 132 8 130 144. 2 144 3 . . . . 21 1 bis 8 183 14 180 145. 7 187 149. 2 181 150. 2 159 PEOVERBS. Proverbs 33 1. 5 117 10 131 22 204 28 99 2. 11 97 3. 10 223 18 231 4. 21 122 25 118 5. 22 198 6. 17 188 7. 2 212 13 112 8. 27 in 30 180 9. 6 212 10 182 10. 4 .. .. 44, 222 11. 3 .... 38, in 16 244 26 230 12. 21 236 26 122 13. 4 1*0 5 228 21 192 14. 3 80 10 43 20 22; 15. 20 207 16. 20 216 17. 3 244 4 114 I x I > I : x TO TEXTS. 19. 8 116 26 2 1 v 20. 2 1X9 9 208 13 212 16 103 21. IS 216 22. 19 197 21 .... 30, 188 23 zzi 21 130 23. 15 197 24 .... 123, 230 24. 5 179 27 244 31 222 25. 3,25 244 27. 9 233 16 231 28. 1 228, 231 29. 6 112 12 186 30. 3 182 6 55 30 236 31 68 31. 3 143 4 176 27 130 ECCLESIASTES. 1. 4 218 9 . . . . 202, 236 12 184 16 221 17 17 2. 7 233 11, 12, 13, 15, 20.... 221 13 .... 46, 194 19 239 22 69 3. 15 . . .. 202, 216 17 184 18 69 48 57 4. 1, 7 225 9, 12 196 5. 7 218 15 246 18 197 6. 1 201 8, 9 117 7. 14 241 16 91, 92 26 184 8. 12 mi 15 221 9. 12 89 15 .... 88, 184 18 131 10. 5 .... 131, 201 10 229 17 15a 11. 3 130 12. 5 124 9 88, 2?i Isaiah CANTICLES. Ciiniicles 195 1. 1 1 , 1; .... 99, 198 7 *9 15 228 2. 3 225 5 246 7 .... 220, 246 11 244 14 160 17 243 3. 7 198 8 85 4. 1 234 9 99 16 183 5. 5 213 6 244 9 99 7- 13 239 8. 1 125 4 239 5 99 bis 7 202 10 125 ISAIAH 1. 4 ....158,247 9 . . . . 20<; bis 10 '189 13 207 14 225, 242 15 232 16 91 18 18c, 246 20 '.228 21 149 22 185 25 ....183, 194 26 194 29, 30 245 29 221 31 159 2. 4 . . . . 40, 231 7, 8 211 9 211 20 198 3. 1 219 8 =5 15 38, 69 16 84, 88 17 151 4. 4 . . .. 205, 245 5 ".205 2 223 3 212 5 . . . . 2 1 8 bis 6 222 8 219 9 -37 11 191 11, 23 219 12 178, 204 13 205 14,17,25,26 205 15, 16 211 19. 18.1 5. 17 193 19 82 20 186 24 116, 218 30 199 6. 1 210 2 146 3 183 4 .... 84,23} 7 206 8 99, 182 9 .... 212, 214 10 .... zoC, 212 11 205 7. 2 181 14.. 1 2 - , 1 ' 1 , 202, 219 15 213 17, 18, 19 .. 83 18, 20 199 18 206 25 .... 193, 220 8. 9 212 10 212 12 81 13 229 23 149 9. 1 205 2 190 3 194 11 211 12 186 13 211 10. 2 216 6 209 12 189 14 185 bis 15 217 16 116 22 221, 246 30 212 11. 1,2,4,6,10 205 9 217 13. 6 212 9 216 18 88, 230 19 217 22 229 14. 3 227 9 233 11 160 17 .... 219, 224 19 91 25 216 15. 2 118 16. 2 185 10 221 17. 1 219 4 178 5 181 10 223 18. 2 234 5 .. .. 229, 232 6 123 19. 3 112 4 .. .. 182, 188 9 144 10 188 18 6 INDEX TO TEXTS. 20. 1 4 21. 1 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. 2S. 29. 30. 31. 32. [Isaiah 218 144. 148 116 . ... 181, 227 215 130 114. i;,2 .. .. 179. 189 *39 ....123, 178 8 211 213, 215 246 '49 2 '4 18? 20. 1. 10 26. 11 17 5 10 1 3 4, 4 6 7, 9 12 16 21 1 7 8 9 13 14 16 49 21 23 1 9 11 12 18 20 23 26 28 1 It',. 15. . . 212 ..212 .. 91 ..194 ..112 ..in ..112 • ■ *45 .. 185 .. 99 .. 160 ..121 ..122 tlf ^27 .. 244 • .245 I! .... 80 .... 191 .. . . 221 .... 243 .... 142 .... 191 .... 44 .... 85 187, 193 .... 191 .. .. 229 ....185 .... 194 i8< . . . . 212 .. .. 217 .... 85 .. .. 239 .... 187 .... i8< 218 .... 243 .... 125 .. .. 175 100, 216 .... 191 ..191,232 . . 160, --• j 216 -'7 219 228 *4« 198 2 3° 33. 1 .. 22^ 6 .. 1 9 * 9 .. »33 10 .. 9« 12 .. J9 16 .. 223 20 .. 212 34. 4 .. . 112, ,--- 5, 7 U 10 .. 173 11 .. 136 35. 2 .. 19 1 3 .. 188 7 .. . 121, 2}I 9 .. 1*7 36. 11,13 6 11 .. 8 15 .. 192 16 .. . 186, 212 37. 16 .. 197 18 .. 210 22 .. 191 24 .. • if. 178 26 .. 4+ 30 .. 212 38. 5 .. 91 9 .. 216 16 .. 189 20 .. Xl6 40. 1—3 L .... 183 10 .. Hi 12 .. 123 20 .. 88 22, 23 [84 25 .. 1 30 30 .. 117 41. 1 .. . 199. 22 4 2 .. '30 7 .. . . . 56, 85 8 .. 200 23 .. 130 25 .. '3* 42. 21 .. 226 22 .. ■ 57. '83 24 21 ;, 22*;, 2^0 43. 8 .. 9° 12 .. *44 28 .. «4 44. 8 .. 117 12 .. 118 l."> .. '74 18 .. 1-2 45. 11 . 2 12 20 .. '99 21 .. 212 22 .. 212 46. 1 .. - 4 6 .. 184 11 .. 204 47. 1—1 r > 181 1 .. 2-. 2 .. ' | 9 .. -17 ID .. 1 c 1 11 .. 2 ;2 12 .. . . 201, 2 1 2 1 1 .. 99 18. 8 .. .. 88, 24- 11.. tfj 48. 18, 19. 6 49. 6 112,. 14 .... 1-2 7. 21 - - . . 50 1 2 4 . . . . i B 1 8 9 .. .. 1 ,2 51. 9 12 21 .. .. 194 .. .. 191 10. 5? 1 1 ) 11. 15. .... 24^ 15 3 12 53. . . . . 6 8 13. 10 1 J 1. 22^1 11 1-:. ixi 54. 1. 181 14 55. 5 9 .... 97 .... 246 56. 9 15 10 17. 57. 4 5 158 6- -58. 3 •• 39 18 8 3 .... 220 19 59. 86 4 20 5 54. 13* 22 16 .... 84 20 .... 219 60. 2 185 /, 10 99 11 14 88 .... 215 23 61. 7 11 221, 243 2 10, 247 62. 2 .. .. 4 63. 2 .. .. 22., 25. 3, 5, 6 .... 84 3 .... 91 65 14 17 .. .. Il8 26. .... 86 27 18 23 .... 212 28. 66. 8 .. .. 186 11 .... 22- 29 20 .. .. 241 tEMl 30 JEP AH. 31 .... 6 1. 5 32 l f > 35 36 .... 114 3. 5 6 .... 1 a .... 1 ;i 12 25 .... 121 33 36 1 .... 22" 11 .... 4- 19, 21 5. 6 $8, 11a 10 22 ■ 11 26 43 6. 10 1 l 19 29 18 19 1 I •j 4 17 23 3 9 17 :i 17 19 5 6 17 10 2 11 17 2 3 13 6 10 1 I 15 20 24 29 4 1 I 17 39 3 13 15 6 16 1 ii 9 s 15 16 3 1 21 33 4 II 12 33 11 22 2 23 '.' 26 ."p IS 6 17 106, [44, 45. Ezekiel - .112 .213 .112 • 90 . 2. 3 . 221 . 221 . 81 . 220 . 89 • 117 . 214 . 1 ,1 ■ • 54 • -47 '3' 149 1 1 1 184 229 214 . 93 97 - -'4 201 90 1 -2 210 186 90 1 1 1 210 11 - 1 25 -'4 191 : 1 1 21 ■ 2 '3 257 13. 11.] 41. 18 ,-• 19 25 121 121 46. 8 114 16 20 48. 2 112 31 11. S 49. 3 - 11 17 24 . 50. 9 34 12; 51. 9 34 • 50 11? ■ LAMENTATIONS. 1. 1—4 1 + 1 149 1—22 .... 181 3 1 • 1 1 '43 12: 14 17 20 3. 12 II 144 - 18 . ..143 1. 1 • 11 EZEKIEL. 1 . 6 .... 145, . 11 : 14 .... 11 8. 18 112 1J . . . . 1 ; 1 , 1 ." 1 8. l" . 7. 8 ... 17 146 27 .... 9. 19 9. I II 1". 9 18 .. U. 13 1; 18. 12 .. 19 13. ; i" 11,88 11,18.... 11 1 6 18 258 [Ezeklel 13. 17 I m IS .... 144, 146 211 15a 11. I i ; i :; , ... 16. 1 63 .... 181 • 43. 9 1 5 78 27 I98 31 134 33 .Ml 80 ;.:. 121 :•; 1-1 Gil »3 17. 7 87 18. 7 u>S 10 14a 32 -44 •Jit. 18 , 7 13 22 27 1<; 19 43 7 15 lit 8 30 It 2 4 7 15 17— 21 1 . 10 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. 41. 45. 17. 48. 1'.! 96 202 64 «4 -v ' 4 99 217 68 206 1 - - 14^1 1 1 2 15a 19a 83 216 186 1 12 191 217 186 192 192 186 DANIEL. 1. 12 130 13 131 15 160 2. 4—7, 28 . . 2 6—8, 10 ..230 30 221 3. 4 221 5. 2 241 3 221 7. 18 182 8. 13 61 22 80, 211 27 203 9- 2 123 5 214 13 192 24 227 25 225 26 195 10. 11,13 214 11. 6, 8 203 15 183 20 10 INI) 1 . X 'I'o TEXTS. 11. 31 187 12. 11 187 13 '4.^ HOSEA. 1. 2 .... 158, 201 6, 8 .... .. .... zz>', In- 2. 5 1 94 H 225 17 194 3. 1 103 4. 2 215 5. 10 226 G. 1 210 2 242 9 45, 131 7. 4 13d 12 46 14 118 8. 2 106 7 90 9. 9 194 12 246 10. 6 227 12 .... 21 1, 212 14 .... 44, 121 12. 1 182 10 194 13. 2 187 8 180 14 i<9 14. 3 189 4 200 JOEL. 1. 20 2; 1 2. 4, 7, 9 122 18, 19 211 22 220 23 211 4. 14 183 18 221 AMOS. 1. 11 216 3. 11 -44 12 146 4. 1 220 1 Corinthians 1. 18.] 3 .. lit .. I, 6 15 .. 6 . . 8 .. 11 .. OBADIAH. 10 .. 11 .. 12 .. 15 .. MICAH. 1. 2 8 .. . 11, 12. 15 ... 3 .. . 6 .. . 13 ... 3 .. . 8 ... 11 ... 8 .. . 3 .. . 77 244 212 ... z\ 1 90, 213 • •• '94 189 100 90 a*6 JONAH. 1. 5 204 3. 5 195 4. 11 238 bis 199 117 , 180 132 221 232 21 1 231 114 232 , 121 ■ 245 8, 10 180 10 .... 130, 232 1-1 H9 NAHUM. 4 4 8 1 1 7 17 117, 211 104 151 .. 89, 132 H4 HABAKKUK. 1. 13 15 ZEPHANIAH. 2. 2 11 3. 3 9 HAGGAI. 1. 4 2. 17 ZECHARIAH. 1. 14 2. 17 3. 8 4. 10 122, 181, 5. 4 6. 7. 14 8. 6 9. 5 10. 5 11. 7 9 17 12. 10 14. 10 MALACHI. 1. 8 14 • 214 • 40 • *39 . 106 • '49 • 243 237 150 '45 '93 '97 192 221 1 22 '85 186 '3' 92 198 88 238 54 121 191 218 149 201 187 100 77 106 104 APOCRYPHA. 1 MACCABEES. 10. 19 182 11. 31 182 MATTHEW. 8. 34 187 12. 25 187 LUKE. NEW TESTAMENT. JOHN. ACTS. 18. 13 226 5. 2 6 10. 12 i8<; 19. 13, 17, 20 .. 6 16. 16 191 21. 40 6 22. 2 6 26. 14 6 1 CORINTHIANS. 1. li HEBREW READING BOOK PREPARED WITH REFERENCE TO THE TRANSLATION OF RODIGER'S EDITION OF GESENIUS'S GRAMMAR. BY BENJAMIN DAVIES, Ph. D., D.D. HEBREW READING BOOK. PREF ACE. Tins Reading Book is designed as an introduc- tion to the translation of Hebrew, and based upon special and constant references to the forms and rules of Gesenius's Grammar. It is well known that by such a plan the difficulty of learning the inflexions and constructions of a language may be effectually lessened. This advantage is here in- tended to be secured to the Hebrew beginner. In selecting and arranging the portions for trans- lation, great pains have been taken to make them progressive (from short and easy to more difficult), and also as diversified as the limited space would allow, — so covering nearly the whole ground of the Grammar with the references. In the Notes, the main object has been to furnish the learner with those references to the Grammar, by which he will be able to understand the forms and the constructions, and so to make himself master of its principal contents. Other help is given where needful, especially in the first exer- cises ; but care has been taken to leave Buitable scope for the skill and research of the student, lest he should become too dependent on such assistance. The experienced teacher, also, will find sufficient scope for his vivd voce instruction, while conducting the student through the portions. In order to avoid a mechanical committing to memory, the teacher should go over each new Paradigm with the scholar, and orally explain the deviations from the Regular Verb, and the normal forms indicated by the asterisk. In thi memory will be greatly assisted by the analogy and structure of the lai for example, if the scholar percei; i Parad. a. how the 3rd pers. Pret. -r . ""— ifl a model fur the 3rd Pret. plur. -12D, and how niZD is a model the remaining forms of the first and second | he then has in reality hut tart for the whole Preterite. II he further p< i how all tli- fundamentally follow th< analogy, lie is I : d by the inultipl thi Paradigms, which he can thus reduce, in to hut one, greatly to the and the facility of finding out doubtful for' In connexion, however, with th< sons, and during the first W thing should be read and translated [such Scripture Phrases in thi- I ichi r the opportunil lain the '■ and Particles, the construct stai the student in the inf. The teacher should take care that in • cisea the pupil reads with fluency, without stumbling and stammering, for ti.i- i ad, il aloud and repeatedly whal i linesa in rradiivj, there OUght expert in-- in writing th( ■ that they may be distinctly legible I As a further exercise in the hr< gular Verbs, it is illy recommended to write out the inflexions 262 P R i: i' A.CE of a few others, afteT the model of the Paradigms, and then to do the same wholly from recollection. Then the Btudenl maj begin to inflecl in writing smli verbs as partly follow more than one Para- na, e.g. k' 13 i n ,V, etc. '" doing this, it will be found necessary to enter more fully on the study of those sections of the Grammar which Impart the requisite information, ami even to notice the ex- ceptions in the Remarks. With the Paradigms of Nouns, the same course may be followed ; but it is necessary, moreover, that the learner should be accustomed to trace back the noun to the stem-word or root. Indeed, these two points affecting the noun, viz., its derivation and its declension, must be constantly attended, to in ac- quiring the laneuaee. As soon as a good knowledge of grammatical forms is gained, tbere must be a systematic effort to acquire tbe no less important knowledge of words. The memory must, of course, be tasked for this purpose, just as in learning any other lan- guage. It is an injurious plan to require of the pupil but seldom or never the effort of committing to memory. Tantum scimus, quantum memoria te- nemtu* The perusal of the Syntax may sometimes be left to the student without oral instruction ; and so also may the complete mastering of the whole On mar. But this Leads as to another point, viz., the inexpediency of using skeleton grammars, which ^\\.- but a rough sketch of the forms and structUTi the language. A full Grammar should be used at once, in which the more important parts, usually printed in larger type, should be learned first, leaving the rest in smaller type for after study. As appropriate Exercises in Hebrew composition, the student may be required to re-translate from memory what he has just translated from the He- brew ; to read and point some unpointed text ; and also to write out Hebrew translations to be examined by the teacher, with reference to the inflexion and pointing of the words, and also to their syntactical construction. To the above suggestions by Gesenius, it may be well to add, that the blackboard may often be used with advantage by a teacher who meets a class in a lecture-room. It was so employed by the great Hebraist himself, in lecturing to his large classes of students. No pains have been spared to ensure perfect accuracy' in this production, as well as in the Gram- mar. It is confidently hoped, therefore, that there will be no room to complain of typographical or other errors. READING LESSONS. I. SCRIPTURE PHRASES AND SENTENCES. 5 33^ *b"p ns 1 5^'nan ^n ~i:n 2 :*pi3« \*n \;; ,; »t£ 3 : nsnsb pnv "Oj 4 :rbo\ 3io nirv nnx 5 : ugh n'iSx Vopn 6 • T^li? ID? 1^ *o 7 :px? 3yjn nsa 8 : D^jsrrns id'd n s x 9 :«1P t l' : j D?»Bto pn>* 10 : rnhx py i3i» 1 1 : rrtiT m-rnx |?n »t? 12 : T^x-nxi 1»38~nK ~i33 13 : L ,: pj?x ?n» T o V2T 1 [ jDnnyn jnAg vqjj 15 I'rirro T33n 16 fDrrw "n-'rV'ri rtinj Sy 17 : *:u": TgRE^f 1 S : dzj/t roprnn 1 nnyi 1 g ItQl) Dntpj -in 20 : V2X "'pt"! crn ;z 22 • yypb) 11*9*3 ^s'Tio - 1 :~icb : n Vip-nx DJl[0V3 25 ^ipn ny?x ;- x^ *a •qniyso i£"n nj 26 :D"Vip ^? wjfi onbna $ag 27 * The accent or tone of words in these Phrases is always at the end, except when marked on the pmul- titna by the sign (_l)» or by one °f the regular (§ 15). : z.z :<-'- "■-'- -x J I : B ~;s : - :: i-] 1 ? -- ■_'■:--■ :■::- | : -:-" -:s-n- ■:--;v--:x _• :»'-; JDJW ::•:• l^g 1| M 1 -' r _ x | :-•:••::- v •;■: i^x'-ii nrs ir: D^O ~:- J :Sp rrionn •ETTP r:-;- rdV ••:--;• jpfalD st •;••:• -:s-: s;; ~:x-: : : ---x r'z-x •--:: --.-:- : ••:•:• •::: I : —x »] ;-S' "i-x-- : -~x •-';- •-•;•:■ — ;x -•;■_■• -:z n : DgJDBI r--: z::x JTJJ " . _....- ... .- - - . _ ! :" :_'■ ~:-x- irs ~: ^ 1 -•:•• rite -"• - ,- x -- :^:x; ':x- ; - :•-:- ~:x ;x~- : -~x ---. -- M -s »| : ---x- : •:•-■: •:-; rx-:- : •;-- : -•_■ x \y -;--s - ■ v: ~ . ....... ...... -.-.. .- .- : □'•::- •:•;• - ' ' IP n ': ~". * ... j^ a __ s _ :x s - s - .-- s : --; :• :•: vfj \W : -:-x --•" -r--x \ ; ...__. _-. . ; ----- r - s !•-•;-: :-x-v: r-;- -;-• ~-~ z~: OTJ 264 II. EXTRACTS IN WtOSE iwjjyg bjyj 'inxi uftrnjf "pjpsri T3x so :e3m rrr-n nxi S-y n^p3"fyf qjj oi : Dp/nx-cy -lonS-vx'^ ^yn- k s^ 02 c^ya in$99 ySrrrnx 1|JJ ir-nx njfa D^JJ 63 PjpitD^ 'npy- »tj ttl* ; x no »jpi^ |n 64 ynp wrj? nnx Sx l6q «$>aS nnx ax n'Vh 65 nrnhx nna ^n^ vnx3 ir\x f|3j -^03 nnntj *pTj 3^5 on?j n^V-i dv d»$6bJ 66 nx'^p"iy x'dn 16 chpprrpxi y|n-«6 B^jp II. EXTRACTS IN PROSE 1. The Priests' Benediction. Num. vi. 22—26. pnx-^x 131 23 : ~>bx>> !-il: : d-^x rv\p\ yn)\ 22 rank nipx h*-t'\ J5ITIK irrnn na nbxjj ns-^xi ^?M l^a 1 rrn; nx; 25 : l^f^ r-nn» jP"B' 24 : Dij>sp 3$ Db/M spjJK r:s 1 nin^ xb» 26 : Wi 2. Jotham's Parable. Judges ix. 6 — 15. ^)'}\\ -1%! k$d rvs-^ai D3c ; ;|>j>3-^3 *bdk»i 6 nyQ 7 : Q3; ,: 3 x : x : aso pWcy ?£»$> 'fe?*PiN t*3M tap ^v'.'l Ea+Jpri ■**]? Tbfijl ifch ani^ : D*r&K D3^x : yp*^i dx' ^_y? $k WDB' nnS npx' s i rv£ nrpx'»i t^o on^y nb ! p^> n^yyn b^nT^n 8 oi-H-nx »JP»J>Tnn rtfrj ar6 npxh 9' :u£jj npftp la'vyn-Sy jnjj* *n?Sni D»8MKi D*n?x visa* "'S-i^x npx'ni 11 \\-shy *a>» nx-^b nW? n^yn vrok»j 10 rnton 'n3i3n-nxi : ^np-nx »r>Hnn njxnn on) ■*?? ;pj^ D'syn n©x»i 12 icrvyrrb yvpS »ri:£m : *n$ ^nn. }s)n onj -ipx'ni 13 *u£p *aftp nx ■Sy jn£ ^rpSni o^axj o\n*>x npb-pn 4?ri»fl T8. 8 and 12. 1-17 njTO nnx y\h ipsn-hx ta^n-Sa viptfji 14 sn'Vi'n nox3 d& D»¥jm-7K npxn tok»j 15 ; a ^y ^p -DXi j>¥3 ran ?k"3 D3^g ^c6 -nx D*ne>D cnx :p33^n n-ix-nx !?3xm. noxn-jp L* : x xvn px 3. Elijah's Ascension. 2 Kings ii. 1—12. pnD^n r-nye? -in^x-nx riirr ni^yna *rh 1 -Sx -in^x npx'n 2 :S^iin-|p y^xi -in^x ^ s i ipx'^ Sx-n'a-ny on^^ riirp ••a rib ^-3^ yc :, ^x :Sx"rr3 n"i»i ^3Tyx _ t33x 3»M"*rn rnnr*0 I'l"'^ n»K*l y^'^5<- 1 ?X i ?X-n" , 3"TL ,: X DH*»33n-»33 -ix>; s .i 3 ywth H'p \onx-nx np^ n\n\ oi»n »a Fijrijn v^x 1 yj ; ^x -in'^x iV nox'i 4 : -vj : nn »n»T »3KT3| tox'i JT .... T . ,.. ... _ j*",,"'" *■"». ••• *; -"ni rnnpn npx'i inn; *3n?B> mn; »a na ^orap 1 D'x>33n-p3 -vj ; 3M. 5 : inn* -ix'3 t 'i ^sryx-cx 3^3 cai»n *a nyVn v^x vyotsri y'^x-^x ~i.TTa -i-j''^. ♦nyn' ox-qs nox' s i tj : x'-i Syo ^o'nx-nx np^ rnn* rim\ *a r-12 **)*3e *rwg i? npx'i e i-v^nn ^3Tyx-DX g^B3-»ni rrtnpn npxn n:Tvn »3n^f v » i- «nap n-TO "en III. EXTRACTS IX POETBY. 265 \%n awaan £?d e^k cyvvm 7 iOjTOp nfa fe ^ ^Kg n£ *nx ns-:s -x:-- .-■:■- nj9M 8 itf.T.T^y now on\yj : -i pirra i|3jo -npy»i s — t3j~( wriM D^n-nx rojl c6a»J iri"nx-r-ix -in^x •in^xi. Dinp w 9 :nnnn3 Dn*3» l"OS»*l nani qsyo np_^x dto? l|"nfe^« no Sxp> y^^x-^N' tom ■to&m 10 !$»*? jra-ia q;;.w ; - , 'si w>ijn I'l'^x tdk»] Tfal ^g cr — -- ^ 11 :--• rnx prv: ^--- -x- ::l- ; -x\ [g :=••:•_••- — opa rn^2 pmh *ry injrj x;- ••:■•—• ^s-.- 351 -:x : Z'T~ !■::- z;~—. III. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREW POETRY. Before the student begins to translate the follow- ing Extracts, it is proper in a few brief statements to call his attention to the subject of Hebrew Poetry. Those who ma}' desire fuller instruction arc referred to Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry, especially Lecture xix. ; Herder's Geist der Hebr. Poerie; De Wette's Einleitung in die Psalmen; Ewald's /' tische Bilcher, I. ; and Nordheimer's Hebrew (''ram- war, §§ 1120—1130. The greater part of the Old Testament is poetical in its composition, though only the Psalms, Joh, and Proverbs (technically called n^>« , from the first letter in the Hebrew name of each) are generally termed poetical books. The style of these writings is, however, very unlike what is called poetry in most other languages. It does not consist in mi like the versification of the Greeks, the Etonians, and nearly all other nations; and much less does ll hibit rhyme (see below), like most of the poetry of modern Europe and Asia. In its form or structure, the poetry of the ancient Hebrews was distinguished from prose, chiefly if not solely, by l>ie\ ity of expr< B- sion, and by impressing the sentiments in the way of repetition, comparison, or contrast. Hence, it has some characteristics of long peculiar words, forms of words, the Grammar, § '2, 1. But th< which in fact constitutes its rhythm, or correspondence in thought ami expression* be- tween the clauses of . which accordingly, in its simplest form. f only two members (StOTl^Ov). Hence the poetry or rhythm of the H rally termed paraUt lit mutual correspondence between the 1 period. And the different i. \hibiting I • Sometime tion <>r com in expression, while the thought runs on in '■< waj el prose, as iii Job t It 1- : Scripture to notice tins parallelism. There arc nun 11s and |>i< - ■ ... h a clue : thus ' :;, and hit whethei otata means 1st ~ rt the dooht ran scarcely remain when 1 whiie M /wn aUnds parallel to the term in question, and determines it to mean in Salem. 2G6 III. EXTRACTS IN POETBY. parallelism mainlj con titute the varieties of* the poetic Btyle, of which these are the principal: — I. Lyric Poetry, consisting chief!] of such compositions ;i . the Psalms, distinguished by tin- effusion of pious sentiments. '-'. Epic Poetry, as in Job -ai least the style of this book resembles the epic more than any other production of the classic muse. ;;. Didactic Poetry, as in the Proverbs. -1. Pastoral Poetry or Idyls, such as the Canticles. 5. Prophetic Poetry, which is best exemplified in the earlier prophetic books (Joel, Isaiah, Habakkuk, etc.), for in the* later (e. g. Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah), it scarcely differs from prose. Parallelism is generally distinguished into three sorts, according to the relation in sense between i responding members, which relation may be synonymous, antithetic, or synthetic. 1 . Synonymous Parallelism. — In this the second member is more or less a repetition of the first. These examples may serve to illustrate the cor- respondence : — Prov. vi. 2. s^jnrnoKa rns 1 ?*? Thou art snared in the words of thy mouth ; Thou art taken in the words of thy mouth. Job v. 6. •AT 'I For affliction comes not forth from the dust ; And trouble springs not forth from the ground. Sometimes each member of the parallelism consists of two parts, so that we have four clauses, as in Gen. iv. 23 * *r»"tps najNn ^ "•■go * This passage strikingly exhibits rhyme as well as paral- lelism. The same is found in many other poetic sentences ; e. g. in Job vi. we find it six times, viz , in vs. 4, 7, 9, 13, 22, flffb "ruin u ;, « »? Adah and Zillah, hear my voice, Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech ; For I have slain a man to my wounding, And a youth to my hurt. As another instructive example of this parallelism with four clauses, we may adduce Ps. six. 8. nonpri nirv mJn r»3D«3 njn) nny : »na no'sno The law of Jehovah is perfect, Reviving the spirit ; The testimony of Jehovah is sure, Making wise the simple. It may be remarked in general, that under this synonymous parallelism, which is the most frequent form of the Hebrew rhythm, we find an exceedingly great variety of constructions. 2. Antithetic Parallelism. — In this the idea of the second member stands in opposition or contrast to 29. But there is no satisfactory proof that in these or other cases the rhyme was (as De Wette, etc., suppose) designed by the poet. On the contrary, it is almost certain that the poet had no such design. For, if he had, he might with perfect ease have given in Job vi. (en more rhymes, e. g. in vs. 8 there might be as good a rhyme as we find in vs. 9, by a very simple change in the arrangement of the words ; thus, instead of the present order — \-rwr Nion jn^TJ : niS» jw Tngrt] he might, without affecting the sense, have written — 'rfore NilT WJJTJ iTnrn trim ym i j i As another proof that rhymes in Hebrew Poetry are un- designed, we may point out the fact, that they consist in the recurrence of like suffixes or terminations in the inflexions of nouns and verbs, so that they actually often appear also in the plainest prose, e. g. Josh, xxiii. 1 1 — COVrMsnh "fctti crnoifti : tavftg rrtrrrw mrvb III. EXTRACTS IN mi. IKY. 207 that of the first. This construction is specially fre- quent in the book of Proverbs, where very many of the sentiments are thus illustrated or impressed by antithesis ; e. g. Prov. x. 1 : nx-riQb" D3n ja :'V2« ruin b'Da fa-i A wise son makcth a glad father ; But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. For other examples, see Ps. i. G ; cii. 27, 28 ; cxlvii. G ; Is. i. 3. 3. Synthetic Parallelism. — In this the idea of the first member is enforced not so much by repetition or antithesis in what follows, as by expansion and modification ; e. g. Ps. xxvii. 4 : K>pax nniN «n vy-bi nirv-rv:n »naB> One thing I ask from Jehovah, It will I seek alter, — My dwelling in the house of Jehovah all the da\s of my 1 To behold the beauty of Jehovah, And to inquire in his temple. %* In most editions of the Hebrew Bible, the is not gil :. the above ezampl lines according to the parallelism, hut the same form as the pi .. \\ . Dent, xxxii.. Judges v.. and 2 Bam. accents, hov the divisi lines. Thus, a simple parallelism is divided into two member^ by Athnach (~T~) with Mahpakh (,--); and in a compound 00 ins of the members are usually made qeph-qaton (J.) and Rebhia (_l). l. 1'uit or the Song "i Moses. Deut. xxxii. 1 — 4. *m»s taa Srn .. T . ,.- : 3i"y"\?y D^a-pi nrrjW?. Hj >an DeB>D wvna *a :sin x ; n p^V mangj =••:■.■'•- »3*mj3 i -_...- r- N" x — pel •: ; 2. Parable of the degenerate Vinei \i:i>. Isaiah v. 1 — 7. bho |3»] px*> •lnyaM *i$ipRl -inip.-Tyn. 2 ! IBB^a D7.3 : d»b>k3 k»y»i o^my riwyh ip*i ta avn np»-oai &na pa-i wa NJHDBe» rn-irv l ,: \xi p^r-iT aefy pinjn 3 yno ia Ti^'y t6i *p*o^ niy nVL"y^-np 4 : »tyia Nrnynix nnyi 5 - d"l* ; x3 ctm D\33g mj!>j6 *rwp nynb !vni lna-Ve'D Tpri vpxS ni: : y "3x-x ,: x n« aprix v - •'■ »JT3 2H i6l Vp. N t n C? ' n j0*^l 8 : r-:-:" — •--: •-: vty l*ODnp nivx D*?yn "v -•:- Tjpel - ■;• tjjji rniry l- :, si 'rxx" ma, r-x:v -•-• -~: •: : r-nrn Pigl$ "•:": — — zz:-.- •'•• ' _ 8. PbaISI or \ QOOS W111. Pror. w\i. !•' SI. npj} 11 '^-'r B£??fQ — N V-"' '*-" — "'-"* 1" jm6l ato »nn^?J 19 I "-"' * tf\ — v: :- — AT : . ?« psna rym cr\--"- < , -:v nehi 1.; M ■••• ?l 268 in. i:\tuacts in i-oi.i ;.', . : ncnS N*3J0 prt"jlJ9 ?niD nnsa nrrn i i : ,te3 : rrn'-ij?^ phi nrvriS rnp-;nni rM "rtya I Dgjj] 1 5 7 :d-o 1-1:0 n\BD na?p innprn rnb* n»DJ in rnnp a'io- , 3 rto$$ 18 Jp'j^J npxrvj rnnp riya ■laon n^ri -iii. ,;, ?3 nrta ,; n'Tin SFnj'^a na?}"i^ -s s 21 :ppN^ nn^ ; it'ti pyS nb-13 nss 20 i^Q D^a-in 22 id^l'"' L'bS nrpa^a *3 :ta : D nivn 1 ? kit, v. i.-,. *rtya H " : jnni N " 3 v. i«. ^ nr^3 v. is. novo "^y v. is. »« nVba nVya Dnycra ynb 23 :n,V : -i3> (©|TK} b^ n'p-nnb'y runa -lijm "ispni nnb;^ 17921 injPJJPTQ? inni-'i rfs 20 : P"jns ni;^ pnb'ni rrj'-uS "nnniy 20 t^y^S nb^n irpiv 27 : nyvj^y npn-rn.ini n^crn nnns n-li^K?l C'.^v ^i?, 28 :^wx'n t6 jri/vy Dr6i nira '^y rv)y nxi ^n -"ib'y nm ni:n 29 Sffc^M nj>ya xvi n)rv-nK?. ntrx *B»n barn jnn tjw| 30 : rcra lyvyv d*$b>3 n\^n»jj rpnj nao ajjpan 31 sV^nnri v. 25. ty N " 3 v. 27. np mrtn 2C<> NOTES. I. SCRIPTURE PHRASES AND SENTENCES. N. B. For the derivation of Nouns, the Lexicon must he consulted ; hut this necessity can occasion no difficulty, even to the heginner, now that he can have Gesenius's, with the words in alphabetical order. 1. P'ri' gho-dhel le-bhu.'bh.*' Fruit-nf grcat- ness-of heart, i. e., boasting. P'ri' is a noun masc. sing, in the constr. state (see § 89), and belongs to Class or Farad. VI. i. (§ 92): the S has Da with Dagh. fori § 18, •">.— < >hs< iv. how the a r the noun, and ith it in gender and number (see § 112, 1), and in taking the art: 111,2). .',. ^i iim'' slri;, *hho-tha'i. 7 the yeare-ofthe Ufe-of my father*. Y'm>', noun plural, constr. state; the Bing, £". irregularly in- flected v§ 9G). Sh*n/, noun fem. i sing. n fV" ; *) m,t ' uro xv ''^ ploral see §87,4). ( Idyy/, noun masc pi. < .-t.; Bing. s ~. Parad. Y1II. — the ploral form with Bing. \-':s , in m. pi. (but with /mrmmim for I . with raff. 1 v *r in cause of panMi 83l*q, 270 NOTI'.S. ■I, a): sing. 3$, irreg. inflexion [§ 96).— Observe here tin" succession of three nouns in constr. si. (§ 111, L), and the effecl of the elo e connexion in utterance nol only changing the vowels (aa in No. 2), luil also eliding or Blurring over the consonant B »p< for D'pj, ,(,•., according to § 89, 2, a).— dbserve also the absence of the art. before the nouns, owing to their being in the constr. st., and as such not needing the art. (see § 110, 2); comp. our expression God's word for (he word of God (see Note* p. 185). I. Xe'-kher ts&d-di'q Ubh-ra-kha'. The memory- of a righteous (man) /or a blessing, i. e., is hlessed. ZekhSr, Parad. VI. b; article omitted (§ 110, 2); eonsty. state without any change (see above, No. 1). Ts&ddfq, adj. masc. sing., agreeing with CHS mem, which is understood. Llbhrukha , noun fern. sing, absol. state, Parad. B. c ; with prep. ? (o prefixed (§ 102, 2), here with short Chircq (?) according to § 28, 1. — Observe the ellipsis of the copula (i. e., the verb (o be), according to § 144. 5. At-ta' Y'ho-va' tobh v e sal-la'ch. Thou, Je- hovah (art) good and forgiving. Ada , pronoun personal or separate, 2 pers. sing. masc. (see § 32). Y'hova, pr. name: for the signification and the pro- nunciation of this word, see Lexicon. Tobh, adj. masc. sing., agreeing with nriX. Vsalla'ch, adj. masc. sing., with conj. 1 and prefixed (§ 104, 2). — Ohs. ellipsis of copula {art) according to § 144. G. Tiq-tol e lo' a h ra-sha'. Thou wilt slag, O God, (he wicked. Tlqto'l, verb 2 pers. sing. masc. fut. Kal; root ?{?£, Parad. B. cH'lf, noun masc. sing., Parad. I.; the ■? with Mappiq (§ 14) and Pathach furtive (see § 8, 2). Rdsha (on omission of V , see p. 16) adj. masc. sing., agreeing with E"1H under- stood; art. omitted in poetic style (see p. 184). — Observe the arrangement of the words (§ 145, 1). 7. Mi yish-ko'n b'ha'r qodh-she'-ldift. Who shall dwell in (he mountain-of thy holiness? i.e., in thy holy mount. Ml. pron. interrog. (§ 37) used of persons. Yishkon, r. I?-*, Parad. B. B'hd'r, noun masc. sing, constr. st., Parad. VIII. a; pi. Dnn for D^.B, because 1 excludes Daghesh forte (see § 22, 5). QHdhtWkha, noun renp, Parad. \7. c) with suff. 2 pers. sing. masc. (§ 91, 1), joined by mi of (— ) because of the pause. Silluq (§ 20, 4, b). — Obs. Bubst. used to expn - adj. sec § 10G, 1); and for the position of the suff. 1~, see § 121, 0. 8. Ka-bhe'dh ha-ra-a'b ba-a'r£ts. Heavy wot the famine in the haul. 133 , verb 3 pers. sing, inasc. pret. Kal (see Parad. B.), agreeing in gend., numb., and pers. with its nominative (§ 146 at beginni ayVI, noun (Parad. IV.) with art. P) (see § 35, 1). n,r'?' noun (Parad. VI. a) with prep. 3 prefixed with Qamets because it displaces the art. and takes its pointing (3 for H3, see § 102, 2, b, and § 23, 5); see also § 29, 4, a, § 93, Rem. 1, for the (7) instead of (7) under N. The arrangement is the same as in No. 6. 9. Ay-ye' so-phe'r eth-ham-migh-da-li'm. Where (is one) counting (he towers? Sdpher, act. part. masc. sing. Kal; r. "I?!?, Paradigm B. "!"•£, sign of the definite accusative (see § 117, 2, and Note*), here followed by Maqqeph (§ 16, 1) and hence with (~) shortened to (7), see § 27, 1. Dy'UBn, noun masc. pi. absol. st., Parad. II., with art. prefixed (§ 35); in accus. case, governed by sdpher (see § 135 and § 138). 10. Tse'-dheq mish-sha-ma'-yim nish-qa'ph. RigJdeousness from heaven looked down. DJDB't?, noun masc. plur. but seemingly dual (see § 88, 1, Rem. 2), with . prep. |0 prefixed (§ 102, 1); on plur. form in this noun, see § 108, 2. Ifty'}, verb 3 pers. m. sing. pret. Niphal, r. *$&, Parad. B.; here with (7) for (~), because of the Silluq (§ 29. ! . — Observe, the proper sense of this verb in Niph. is reflexive, viz., (0 bend one's self forward (see § 51, 2, and the Lexicon under *\\?y)- 11. The iniquitg of his fathers shall be remem- bered. "^\\ (glz-zu-hhcr verb (r. "Of) 3 pers. sing, masc. fut. of Niphal, which has here a passive force (see § 51, 2, d), Paradigm B. jiy {"von, not "on, because the cholem requires a consonant before it, which must be the 1 , and not the V which has the Chatcph-Pathach, see § 26, 1) noun in constr. state (Paradigm III.), governing the verb in gend., NOTES. 271 numb., and pers. (see § 14G). I^N. ("bhd-thd'v, see § 8, 5) compare on No. 3; there scriptio plena, here scriptio defectiva (§ 8, 4). — The arrangement is according to § 145, 1, a. 12. Who hath tried the spirit of Jehovah f *P (see §37, 1). !?r» (thtk-ken, n without Dagheeh lene, because the preceding word ends with a vowel and is in close connexion, § 21, 1) verb (r. J?PI) in Piel, which has here intensive force (§ 52, 2, a), Parad. B. "J")X sign of accusative here before a noun made definite by the constr. state (see on No. 9). nn (ru"ch, with Pathach furtive, § 22, 2, b), noun in constr. st. (Parad. I.). 13. Honour thy father and thy mother. 13?, verb (r. "1?3 , see on No. 8) 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. of Piel (here causative of Kal, § 52, 2, b), agreeing with nriX thou (see No. 5) understood; Parad B. "flN (twice) before a noun made definite by the suffix (see on No. 9). T?*? (d-bh'i-kha), noun irre- gular (^?,§ 9G, 2) with suffix 2 pers. sing. masc. (§ 91, 1, Rem. 1). \ copulative conj. prefixed with Shva (§ 104, 2). y®& noun (DK, Parad. VIII.) sing, fern, with suffix, here appended by Seghol instead of Sh'va, on account of the pause accent Silluq (see § 29, 4, 6). 14. His blood from thy hand ivill I require. TIT? (mly-yu-dh'khu ', second syllable with Methegh (§ 1G, 2), to show that the vowel-sign 7 stands for u not 6, see § 9, 12, Hem. 1, a) noun fern, singular (T Parad. II.), with prep. V? prefixed (§ 102, 1) and suffix appended. t5>j?3, Parad. B. On the arrange- ment, see § 145, 1, c. 15. / was stolen from the land of the Hebrews. '£1333 verb (r. 333, Parad. B.) 1 pers. sing, com., pret. of Pual (the passive of Piel, § 52, 2). D, prep. (IP) prefixed according to § 102, 1. n art. (see No. 8). 16. He has made heavy my chain. T32H, 3 pers. sing, masc, pret. of Hiphil (causative of Kal, § 53, 2); r. 1??. K'chdsh-tl' (nt. ,! m , § 95, Parad. D. b). 1 7. Upon Jehovah I ivas cast from the womb. , FlDX"n (hvxh-la'kh-tl) 1 pers. sing, com., pret. of Hopha] [passive of Hiphil, § 53, 2); r. ^\Ti\ Parad, B. crn, noun, Parad. VI. (here with 7 on account of the pause accent, § 2 ( J, 1, a, and § 27, Rem. 2, c). 18. I will keep myself from my iniquity. i-.~L"N'. 1 pers. sing. c. fut. ofHithpael [with reJUxive force, and here with transposition of n, see §51. and 3) ; r. TQy*, Parad. I No. 15). 19. And now l pers. sing. m. fut. Pual lee P ' !'.. but here with 7 because of Silluq), agreeing in . numb., and pers. with the subject. 21. Because thou hast forgotten tht vation. J? rot 5 , {sha-hhu-chat. 2 pers. sing. fern. pret. Kal I ' "-- I Guttural, Parad. F.). 'D^j*, (the n loses both Mappiq and Pathach fwrtt\ cause it ceasea to be final, § 22, 2, b ; on the plural use of this word pluralis excettenti* l?y*.\ noun, Parad. VI. e, with sufl fi in. 22. A wist ion will gladden hie father. tion and agri 1 m< nl of adj. and bu I . va«, sec § 96, -' 23. Jehovah will keep thee from all n-. evil.) Tr9f^ yUh-mor*-khtt, §9, 12, I, •; 1 10, 1, at 1 ad ; § 21, 2, e) 8 pen '"■' K sutlix. 2 p' rs. sing, n ^ h. ra "~~ ' • • ; ■' ''' which takes away the tone of the word ■ makea a closed unaccented Byllable, which • have a long TOW( 1. ■ pr*3 (verb |Q, Parad. G.). 31. Gen. xiv. 21. |R, 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. Kal of IP? (Parad. G., and § 66, 1). »/>, § 103, 2, a. PB3, noun singular, but here with collective force, § 108, 1. np, 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. Kal of npS i vil) |b, Parad. G., and partly after Parad. P.; see § 66, Rem. 2). ^ for l) on ac- count of pause, § 103, 2, a. 32. Judges xiii. 16. *?l'3fy9, 2 pers. sing. masc. fut. Kal of 1*y (Parad. U.) with suffix, 1 pers. sing. com. (§ 60). On the position of the negative, see § 145, 1. fcjJfr, 1 pers. sing. com. fut. Kal of ^>?K (verb KS, Parad. I., sec § 68, 2); here with - instead of ~ on account of the conjunctive accent, Munach (7), § 68, 1. See on No. 7. 33. Jer. xvii. 14. I rf*#n i imper. Hiphil of V'S" r (verb *£, Parad. K.). "$#*, 1 pers. sing. fut. Niphal of V?^), with lie paracjogic (§ 48, 3): see also § 29, 4, b. 34. Job xiv. 1. *N'* : , pass. part. sing. masc. Kal of y>\, in constr. state, according to § 135, 1. On the construct state of the adjectives ■>>*£ and y?^, see § 112, 2. Conjunction 1 prefixed with Shureq, before simple Sh e va, according to § 104, 2, b. 35. Genesis xxviii. 12. 3VD, part. sing. masc. Hophal of 3>'J (verb "£ of 3rd class, § 71) or 3>'J (verb IB, Parad. G.). n>"]N, fT8 with He para- gogic or ancient case-ending for the accusative, § 90, 2: so also in last word. ¥'£9, part. sing. masc. Hiphil of y« (after Parad. G. and F.). 36. Is. xxxvii. 23. FIB^l, Piel, Parad. E. On the next word the accent (_L) Zaqeph-qaton, § 15. ntonq, Hiphil of On (verb W, Paradigm M.). f, with Daghesh forte conjunctive, § 20, 2, a. 37. Judges xiv. 14. 73SntD, part. sing. masc. Kal of ??X, with article H (§ 35, 1) and preposi- tion O (§ 102, 1). K*J, verb *fi and &, Paradigms K. and O. 38. 1 Sam. ii. 27. tbtfu] infin. absol. Niphal of •V! (verb H7, Parad. P.), with He interrogative pre- fixed, according to § 100, 4 (see its use in § 153, 2): this infin. stands before the finite verb to make it emphatic, according to § 131, 3, a. TV3 , constr. st. of JV3 (Parad. VI. h.). 39. Ps. xxxi. 14. nngj infin. Kal of V$> (Para- digm H., § 66, Rem. 2), with preposition ? pre- fixed according to § 102, 2, c, and § 142. 2. «3»T NOTES. 273 verb yy (Paradigm H.) inflected here as regular (after Paradigm B., see § G7, Rem. 10, also § 29, M). 40. Num. x. 30. *J?*7?iD noun fern. sing, (seg- holate, Parad. D.) with suffix. ^K (Parad. K.) from "H^J or "H?? , see § 69, Rem. 8. 41. Prov. vii. 1. 'Di^P* (a-mits-vd-th&l, see on No. 11) noun fern. plur. (Paradigm A.) with suffix appended (§ 91) and conj. \ prefixed with Shureq before the labial D (§ 104, 3, b.) 1$* for ^X (prep, fix § 103, 1, Rem. 1), see on No. 31. 42. Jer. xliii. 9. ng see on No. 31. D»33tJ noun common gender (§ 107, 1, <■) plural (J3K Paradigm VI.), governing nftty in /«». pi. (§ 112, 1) but the suffix of the next word in the muse. DH3CU-1 (lit. o?if/ Mom 7<«s/' /*»/ lAem) prct. for impel, accord- ing to § 126, 6, c. 43. Ps. civ. 24. HO prop, interrog. pron., but here an adverb of interrog. (lit. as to what* then how? see § 100, 2, e, and Lexicon sub voce). -12"] (Parad. H.) pret. for present, according to § 126, 3. Under TJP${0 (Parad. IX.) Methegh and the accent Athnach - (§ 15). fc6o, Parad. O., § 74, Rem. 1 ; see also § 138, 3, b. pXH, always so for f1«H for the sake of euphony with the art. (§ 35, 1, and §93, Rem. 1). 44. Judges xiv. 18. See § 37, 1, Rem. for "HO and HO. l ,; :n : 9 noun m. (Parad. VI., § 93, Rem. 4) with prep. IP (§ 102, 1) which here denotes the comparative (see § 119, 1). 45. Gen. ix. 20. ?n»l 3 pers. Bing. in. fut. apoc. Hiphil of ??n (Parad. H.), with Vav convert § 48, 2) giving to the fut. the sense of the pret. (see § 129). V&). from PO| (Parad. II. and F.). 46. Ps. xxxvii. 8. *fjn (r. HQ-J, Parad. P.) imper. Hiphil shortened from n2"in ( SC e § 75, Rem. 15, and § 48, 5). Conj. 1. with Pathach, according to § 28, 2. 47. Ex. xxi. 12. n?rp part . Hiphil (r. n^, Para- digms G. and P.) in constr. state, according to § 135, 1. HO) (lit. and he has died =80 that, etc., sec § 155, 1, e) pret. Kal of TWO (Parad. M., § 72, Rem. 1) with J, according to § 101, 1, d. rilO inf. absol. put for emphasis (§ 131, 3, a) before BD* 3 pers. sing. masc. fut. Hophal. 48. Gen. iii. 13. Bee on No. 45. »&Vn, Hiph., Parad. G. and O. ^2*0 (see on N 2 fut. with Vav. oonv. (§48, 2): observe distinction Methegh and Silluq, according to Note f on p. 34. H|! of def. accusative in its separate or absol. form (§ 117. 2 , ~" : X reL pronoun (§ 36) here implying the demonstrative = what (§ 1- * § 108, ■ . 39,4, a). 50. L v. x\. 1 i. w ; n: - .-: . g _ the two forms of nx wit;. Rem. 1). \*} fern, sulf. S pers. plur. 51. Judges ix. It). ":~ I ;n. imper. Kal of V* (Parad. K., se. "N noun. 2 pers. sing. fern. (§ with the verb for emphatu Bee§l '"■"-" ' -khl'), see § 46, Pun. 2 | nee of Daghesh hue in 2, see § 21, 2, A - 52. Jer.xliv. 25. nty . . R infin. absolute for emphasis (see on 1 '-""- dhd'r-ml) 1 pers. plur. pret. Kal, with 7 fur account of Silluq. 53. Amos ii. 10. Sec § 137, & m. J. ~v digms I), and P. . 54. Di at xvi. 19. 16 I re fut. ngn ( n L?7, Parad. Q.] to < xpn M pro ' 3, c). y&\ ( l/'ur-:. ofilV (not Parad. M ;_.];.; •: constr. state of TV Par. id. VX 55. Is. xxxvii. lit. >g press dieeuation § 1 and x\ see in § 152, Rem. ftf*. fn\. IP: on N ith Buff., according --->:. \ 21, :..■■:- n lit. who— in him — in whom, § 123, 1 56. I'.x. x\ii. 2. ;/ in appearance but plur. in fact . I, I nn'j'pi. 1 pers. pi. com. fut B ' md = that, § L28, l. . 57. -':---: T3f sec § L27, ■"•. -. U^i prep, with .1. 274 SO IKS. i • ;. 3, Bee on No. 55. WJ (/ have i/i'mt it), in? [§66, Elem. 8 . -mi'. 8 pan. ring.— On the arrangement of this sentence, sec § L45, 2. I. cnn dv?;3 ^compare mlgai Englieh, in thsm days), § 122, 1. ?DD, Pared. II. mrS Pi«l, Pared. P.; see § l 12, 2. 60. 2 Chron. x. 10. tfl^J, noun (Parad. VIII. c), • Zaqeph-qaton, ?BIJ, LmpeT. Hiphil of ?!?l>. 61. Prov. vi. 6. j Chron. xl 4. Nnm.xx.ll. Ml, see on No. 45. T.!( n ??, |E and nS"), Hiphil fut. apoc. (fur n|31, § GG, 2, and § 75, 5, with Rem. 14). 'ngO, noun (Para- digm IX.' with suit". 8 pers. Bing. masc. (*n.i. for the u-uali. \SSO")\ distinctive accent Tiphcha (§ 15). - ■'. 5. 64. Job xl. 4. *J#B, Paradigm II. ?$fN$, fat Hiphil of 3w, with suffix with Nun eptnthttie (see § 58, 4). *>$P, Paradigm M. to^, sec § 103, 2, Rem. G5. Mai. ii. 10. Ellipsis, §144. fe (Paradigm VIII. c.) with suffix (§ 91, 1, Rem. 2). Expri for reciprocal pronoun, § 124, Rem. 4. . V. 25. y£, Hiphil of liX (Paradigm M., jussive form. § 128, 2). ?3.n'1 (r. |3n, Parad. II.) 8 pers. Bing. maBC. fut. Kal with suffix with Xmi epenthetic .nd ) prefixed according to § 104, 2, c. *.* In reading these Extracts, it may be well to learn more of the names and uses of the Accents (§ 15). 2. Jo 1 HA MS P.VK.VBLE. Judges ix. 6 — 15. V. 6. iDpJjQ tut. Niphal (Parad. D.). QV prep. at or by, see Lex. B, 2. V. 7. VP|!! (r. "UJ) 3 pers. plur., used according to § 137, 3, b. V. 8. See § 131, 3, a. — Obs. rttfo with small circle referring to the margin, where a different form of the word is given (see § 17). Both the K'thibh naify? and the Q'ri HD^D have the same sense, and stand for 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. Kal, with Heparagogic (§ 48, 5). This K'thibh form of the imper. is not recognised in the grammars, but it occurs also in Ps. xxvi. 2 : comp. verse 12 below. V. 9. ^/inn pret. Kal (the Chateph-Qamets irre- gular for Qamets, with He interrog. § 100, 4, Rem.), used (ox fut., according to § 126, 4. 1M« »fT"*& which in me God and men honour (see § 127, 2). *4?ilJl P ret - with Vav - conv - ( see § 48 ' 3 > and § 126 » 6, a). yi3? (inf. with prep.) to wave. V. 10. See on No. 51 above. V. ii. N?ntp (pno, Parad. VI. e). niiian ac lj. * See § 5, Rem. 4. NOTES. 275 fern. sing, with the art., because its noun has a suff. (see § 111, 2, and § 112, 1). V. 12. K'thibh *3&0 but Q e n »?Vd, see on verse 8. V. 13. TOb'pn part, with art. (prefixed according to § 20, 3, b), answering to our relative pron. with the indicative, which cheers. V. 15. -lDn from non. lfo3J>n, see § 109, 3. . 3. Elijah's Ascension. 2 Kings ii. 1—12. V. 1. *n»1 fut. apoc. § 75, Rem. 3, e) with Vav conv. (§ 49, 2), used for tense of narration (§ 129, 2). ni^n2 Hipbil of rbv (see § 132, 2, and also § 133, 3). rnVD3 (§ 10, 2, Rem.— comp. rnyps in verse 11) with Chateph-Qamets irreg., which is noticed in the margin pop spm 'DH, i. e., the D with Chateph-Qamets. &VV7) (No. 10, p. 270; §118,1). V. 2. XJ"2K : , see § 130, 1, Rem. ^B3 *f^ W"*0 (lit. living is Jehovah and the life of thy soul) as Jehovah liveth and by the life of thy soul, a form of oath : *D const, st. § 89, 2, c. DX if=nof, see Lex. C. 1, c. ?$J"JV3 (also in the next verse) in the ad- verbial accusative, § 118, 1. V. 3. Cri'n prop, the day = this day, see § 109, at beginning. T.P$ plttr. excel. (§ 108, 2, b). n$."n . V. 5. in H ") s 2, prep. 3 prefixed, according to § 102, 2, a. nyYn, pret. for pres. (§ 126, 3) ; sec § 153, 2. V. G. n3T£n, § 109, 3, and § 90, 2. D?'.^ their ttvo = both of them, § 97, Rem. 2. V. 7. Construction of the numeral, § 120, 2. V. 8. nj2J>, see above on No. 54. rryjBI noun fern. (Parad. D.). H33, see above on No. 0;}. ) conj. with Qamets, see above on No. 47. 2 prep, with art. (§ 35, 2, B. b, and Rem. 2). V. 9. D"J?y? inf. with stiff, and prep. § 1 (see also above i . ) and =s that after WJ. 131 »B W^iVl (fa) 1 inferential, § 155, 1. ■' i-alkiwj to walk and to tpeak, thai lol a chariot, etc. : see § 184, - c, and § 131, 3, b. H'!! fut. Kal of ^. adverbial accus. (§ 118, 1). V. 12. \ according to § 28, 2 "- § 64, 3. Yfltf L N~-'; "" / • md his horsemen. — Observe, that in He I: ■ nouns cannot be in the construct state before the same genitive (see Note* on § 111. 1 ~-~ '8*3?*. V^ would be scarcely admissible place, and hence the lan_ [aired cither the expression of the genitive after each nou:: -" ^tofe* •♦gntt ^HB*, as in verse II, '-'-' I L"N) or the use of the poa ronoun at second noun (as exhibited in • .or the j>c- riphrasiic construction (sec § 115) which the genitive in the manner of '•'■ 1: '~ ^NHL"^ D*BHBn^ the chariot and the / Israel). — There arc some apparent i Jer. xxvi. 9, where we Br. " ' ndUrs of— benders of— the bote; but the I in the construct Btate •• j" st like L. s ~T:~n2 rip-ina virgin daughti 11 of the same chapter [see § 116, 5). le (k« pef Rem.) 276 NO'I'KS. III. K XT It ACTS IN POETRY. 1 . PjLBl 0* Tin: SOHG 01 MosES. 1 >• ut. KXxii. 1 — 4. • # * In thl« Kxtrnrt, tin- jinrnllol members nre clearly ex- blbited in lepante lines. V. 1. Article before vocative, § 110, Rem. 2. "7.3-1X1, § 128, 1 : § '-".i, 1. b. \ 2. 5|B, verb |». S H\ § 103, 8. V. 8. nn, verb »&. !? prep. (§ 102, 2, a). Y. 1. "ftv5 ffo »w/.\ i. 0. Jehovah, case absol. 5 1 15, 2). — Large v (so the marginal notice calls mark out the word as having a peculiar use or mystic sense attached to it by the Masorctic authors (sec § 3, 2). 2, l'\i:\i:ir op the Deoeneeatb Vineyard. Isaiah v. 1 — 7. V. l. S3 rrypfo (§128, 1, a). *T1$ conceminy »)i/ btloved, i. e. Jehovah. V. 2. IV} with double accus. (§ 139, 2). H33, : . Rem. 8. njg, § 75, Rem. 9. V. 3. 3;JT and B*K collectives (§ 108, 1, c) and hence with verb plur. (§ 146, 1). V. 4. See § 132, Rem. 1, 2. V. 5. l'T r with two accus. (§ 139, 1). nb ; l? part, for fat. (^ 184, 2, &). ipn and pB, § 131, 1, Rem. TJ?3? lit./i)/- fo fff/ up = to be eaten up. X. 6. "lil n^) (§ 126, 6) aw/ ft sAaZZ #0 up (i. e. grow) &rtar and thorn (§ 138, 1, Rem. 2). "VP»D9 lit. //•»»» to ra*n (§ 132, 2). V. 7. Observe the striking paronomasia or alli- teration between t23" r "0 and rlBB'lp, and between np*iy and n i7VV, which we can partly copy in translation, thus, — he looked for right, and behold might! for weal, and behold woe! 3. Pkatsi: ok a Good YYiii.. PrOT. xxxi. 10—31. * # # This piece is alphabetical, a sort of Hebrew Acrottick (§ 5, Rem. 2). V. 10. nL' : X, § 96, 2. V. 11. Pret. for present (§ 126, 3). V. 12. mrfe (§ 59, 1, a, and Rem. 3). V. 14. ntoKS {k6-"n1y-yolh, see page 28, Xo. 2, Rem.). V. 15. "liy?, either as noun (in continuance of) or as infinitive {in continuing of, § 132, 2), while it is yet niyht. Fut. with Vav convers. for present (§ 128, 3, «). V. 16. npOT, see above, on No. 39. Qri n{HM referring to the wife; but K'thibh either Vt?J re- ferring to the husband, or V®} (Niphal, is planted), agreeing with CH3 as subject. V. 18. Sense of Q'ri and. K'thibh is here the same. V. 20. 9$, § 102, 2,b. V. 21. B>aJ>, pass. part, with accus., § 143, 1. V. 27. n»Bi!t, § 75, Rem. 5. QV*' nb^JJ, but K'thibh (with tlie same sense) rfo*p*rj; the latter probably derived from >PJ, but the former from V. 29. ri13"], adj. put before the noun either for emphasis, many women, etc., (see § 112, 1, Rem. 1), or as predicate, many are //3, see § 91, 1, Rem. 2. V. 30. " fiXT "L V X a woman fearing Jehovah, put prominently in nom. case absol. (§ 145, 2). — Observe, the crowning praise of a good wife is the fear of the Lord or piety. See § 54, Rem., at the end. ' "."'Mill PJ465 G . 845 L 009 5 27 773 7 ^ 001246 ^ f *C9.ir, 937