:^ 
 
MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
FREET SQUARE 
 
MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 CONSIDERED WITH RESPECT TO THE 
 
 LAWS OF NATIONS, THE RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE 
 AND THE TEACHINGS OF BIOLOGY 
 
 ALFRED HENRY HUTH 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED 
 
 .... FRAGT NICHT DEN WIEDERHAI.L EURER KREUZGANGE, NICHT EOB 
 
 I'ERMODERTES PERGAMENT, NICHT EURE VERSCHRANKTEN GRII.LEN UN 
 I'ERORDNUNGEN ! FRAGT DIE NATUR UND EUER HERZ, SIE WIRD EUCH LEHREI 
 
 LONDON 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 AND NEW YORK : 15 E.\ST 16"' STREET- 
 1887 
 
v\^ 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 "T^ HOUGH many ivriters Iiave treated on tlic subject of con- 
 sangnineoiis marriage, from many points of view, no one 
 has hitherto come forzvard with a generalisation of their zvork, 
 which lies scattered and buried in a mass of pamphlets and 
 periodical literature, difficult to hear of, difficult to find, and 
 requiring considerable lime and thought to digest. Tlic con- 
 sequence has been that people have been unable to fudge of the 
 relative value of the various observations they may read or make, 
 and from a want of the necessary perspective are liable to draw 
 zvholly wrong and sometimes ridiculous conclusions. 
 
 In this work the author has endeavoured to gather together 
 everything of importance tluit has been written upon the subject ; 
 to arrange and classify it, to weigh the evidence on either side, 
 to refect zvhat is worthless, and point out the value of zuhat 
 remains. In this investigation he has attempted to divest him- 
 self of all prejudice, zvhether of tradition or custom, which might 
 tend to warp his judgment, and has, therefore, often found 
 himself obliged to treat as debatable, assumptions tvhich inveterate 
 association has rightly made shamefiil to doubt, but which, un- 
 disturbed, would make the discovery of truth impossible. The 
 importance of the subject, the happiness of many people, the 
 elicitation of truth, he conceives are sufficient to justify him in 
 this course of an inquiry which he zvould have been content to 
 
VI THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 leave to the aniniwn se7ise of tJie present age, in 'iviiicli theories 
 are ?to longer adored because our fathers have believed in them, 
 had not all-prying science lit upon the question, and after her 
 fashion made men doubt truth to be a liar, in order that they 
 might doubt those things also i^'hicli are not truths. 
 
 During the time that has elapsed since the first publication 
 of this ivork, something has been added to the immediate liter- 
 ature of consanguineous marriage and the advance in those 
 branches of biology and anthropology most closely connected with 
 it has been great. While therefore the general plan and most of 
 the matter of the previous edition remain inichanged, a consid- 
 erable portion of the ivork has beeti reivritten, and tJie whole 
 generally bj-ought up to date. The author, however, has had no 
 occasion to modify the conclusions at zvhich lie originally arrived; 
 indeed, the tendency of subsequent observation and observers has 
 been rather to strengthen and confirm those conclusions than to 
 zueaken them in any z\.'ay. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The importance of the m.ivriage laws — They should be secure and easy- 
 Fallacy of 'free-love' — The prohibitions on marriage —Alleged evi 
 results of consanguineous marriage — Importance of distinct premises- 
 Plan of this work 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MARRI.\(;E LAW 
 
 A result of social needs— There are no natural degrees— Deductions from 
 the habits of animals — Deductions from fact and fiction— Growth of 
 marriage restrictions — Hetairism — Capture of women the origin of pro- 
 hibited degrees — Objections — Opinions of savages — Opinions of early 
 and mcdisval writers— Transition from the matriarchal stage to rela- 
 tionship through males — Scheme of the development of marriage law 
 — Endogamy . 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE RESTRICTIONS UPON MARRIAGE IN HISTORY, AND 
 IN .SAVAGE COMMUNITIES. 
 
 :ient Egyptians— Ancient Greeks— Jews— Latins- Bctp/Sopoi—I'hitnicians 
 — Ancient Europe— Aral>s — Druses — Circassians — Persians - Parsces — 
 Mingrelese — Afghans — Beloochees -Hindoos — Hill tribes of India — 
 Singhalese — Burmese — Siamese —Chinese — Japanese — Cambodians— 
 Annamese — Chinese Turkestan — Mongols— Mantchu Tartars— Tunguz 
 — Jakuts— Ostyaks — Samoyeds — Kalmucks — Kirghiz — Nogais — Lapps 
 — Malays— Benkulen, Palembang, Lampong — Kalang— Bali— Sumatra 
 — Dyaks — Celebes — Caroline Islands — Ladrone Islands — Marshall 
 
THE MARRIAGli OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Islands — Tahiti — Marl<esas — Tonga — Samoa — Sandwich Islands- 
 Santa Cruz — Fiji— New Zealand— Health in Polynesia— Australians — 
 Tasmanians — Papuans — New Britain — Eskimo — North American 
 Indians — Mexicans — Indians of Yucatan, Guatemala, Nicaragua, 
 Panama, Darien, Orinoko, Guiana — Ancient Peruvians— Brazilians- 
 Paraguayans — Argentine Republic — Palagonians — Caribs — Canary 
 Islands— Tribes of West Africa— South Africa— East Africa— Gypsies 
 of Egypt -North Africa— Madagascar 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN PROHIBITED DEGREES 
 OF MARRIAGE. 
 
 Asceticism— Its growth in the Christian Church— Equal growth of im- 
 morality—Growth of the prohibitions in the Eastern Church — The 
 Western Church— Change of computation— Sale of dispensations- 
 Spiritual affinity— Prohibitions of France— Italy— Spain— Portugal- 
 England— Marriage with a deceased wife's sister— Prussia— Holland— 
 Sweden— United States— Mormons— Greek Church— Russia 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME ISOLATED COMMUNITIES WHO 
 HAVE CONSTANTLY MARRIED AMONG THEMSELVES. 
 
 The mutineers of the ' Bounty '—A community in Java— The family of 
 Da Souza— Communities in Peru— Isolated communities in England— In 
 Scotland— St. Kilda— In Iceland— Westmannoe— The Faroe Islanders 
 — Grimsey- In Ireland— The Scillys-In Sweden -In France— The 
 Pyrenees— The Cagots in Spain— The Azore Islanders— The Petits 
 Blancs of Reunion— The Akombwi— The Wito— New Zealanders— 
 Satsuma Potters -The Samaritans— The Jews 14° 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE VALUE OF STATISTICS HITHERTO COLLECTED, CON- 
 CERNING MARRI.\GE BETWEEN NEAR KIN, EXAMINED. 
 
 There are.no means of estimating the proportion of consanguineous to non- 
 consanguineous marriages— Barrenness and low viability- Goitre and 
 cretinism — Idiocy, epilepsy, insanity, and chorea Deaf-mutism— 
 
Defective j;ii;lU — Congenital malfium.itions, rickets, liydiucephalus, 
 spina biliiia, convulsions, pluliisis, tabes mesenterica, tubercular menin- 
 ijitis -Leprosy, ichthyosis, and albinoisni iS6 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE RESULTS OF IN-AND-IN liKEEDhNc; ON Till 
 
 Observations on the breeding in-and-in of animals are particularly useful 
 for determining whether consanguineous marriages can originate disease 
 or sterility without inheritance ; and these observations can be applied 
 with safety to the solution of the question in man — The in-and-in 
 breeding of sheep — Cattle — Buffaloes — Elands — Guanaco — Pigs — 
 Horses — Donkeys— Goats— Dogs— Deer— Rabbits, and experiments in 
 the production of albinoism — Fowls — Pheasants — Ducks — Pigeons — 
 Canaries — Insects . 242 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE ALLEGED BENEFITS OF CHANGE OF BLOOD IN 
 MANKIND. 
 
 r a cross is beneficial as a cross, the more distantly related the two animals 
 crossed are, the more beneficial will that cross be — Eurasians — 
 Dutch-Malays — Portuguese-Malays — Lipplapen — Spanish-Malays — 
 Aino-Japanese — Euro-Polynesians — Anglo - New Zealanders — Tas- 
 manian half-breeds — Australian half-breeds — Portuguese-Chinese — 
 Griquas — Africanders — Mulattoes— Mestisos— Paulistas — Gauchos — 
 Zamboes — Cafusos — Negro-Caribs — Negro-Mulattoes — Indian-Mesti- 
 sos— Maroons — Negro-Arabs — Persian-Arabs — Abyssinian-Arabs — 
 Kuruglis — Turks — Chinese-Cambojias — Chinese-Tagals— European- 
 Eskimo— The sterility of half-breeds is not incompatible with the unity- 
 of-man theory- A cross is not good as a cross— Debased state of half- 
 breeds— Their sterility— The more similar two races are, the safer is a 
 
 CHAPTER VHI. 
 
 WHY ARE THERE TWO SEXES? 
 
 What is an organism? — Dispersion and defence — Development of asexual to 
 sexual stage — The nature of sexual differentiation — Mr. H. Spencer's 
 views — Objections — Prof. Weismann's views^Economy of dual sex — 
 Self- and cross-fertilisation in plants — Mr. Darwin's experiments . 316 
 
IE markia(;l; oi- near kin 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Reca|)itulalion— The value of the census— The fear tlial an enquiry on the 
 subject of consanguineous marriage would be ' inquisitorial ' — Which 
 degrees should be prohihiteii and which permitted— General results of 
 this enquiry 35S 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Cases of consanguineous marriage, and statistical enquiries 
 
 hlbliograrhy of works on the impediments to marriage . 393 
 Works cited other than those in the previous Bibliography . 457 
 
 INDEX 467 
 
THE 
 
 MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 LIKE the rest of our legislation, the law of marriage is a 
 fortuitous agglomeration of acts and judgments, about 
 which we trouble ourselves extremely little. And yet perhaps 
 it is the most important of all our laws. On it depends the 
 law of inheritance, by which all property is governed, and 
 over which many nations have been divided among them- 
 selves ; and, what is more important still, on it depends theii 
 morality, and with their morality their strength as a nation. 
 For if a man is not bound to cleave to one wife he certainly 
 will not trouble himself to educate his children, or for their 
 welfare pinch and save ; wherefore, instead of servants, they 
 would grow up enemies to the State, a miserable, ignorant, 
 and incapable set of beings, who could conduct their country 
 nowhere but to its ruin. Indeed, without marriage there 
 would be no State, and no people to govern. It is a fallacy, 
 as every sensible man knows, to think that it is sufficient that 
 infants should be born, and that it is the duty of the State to 
 see that they are properly brought up. The experience of 
 foundling hospitals amply shows that this is not an economical 
 method ; State-nursing and Government schools would also, 
 as a monopoly, fail, as monopolies do ; and, lastly, but by no 
 means of least importance, is the fact that such a system is 
 contrary to human nature, and therefore could not succeed. 
 
2 THE MAKRIAGK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 But, f^ranting for the moment that we could do with- 
 out the marriage tie, and the State could take care of the 
 infants, it is more than doubtful whether the population would 
 not actually dwindle to nothing. People would not care to 
 have children, and they certainly would have but few children 
 whether they cared to or not ; and yet it is a vital necessity 
 not only that the population should be as much as the State 
 can support, but that it should be more. For in a population 
 which remains stationary every one may find employment ; 
 while in a population which increases in excess of its means 
 of support a certain proportion must either emigrate or die. 
 In the first case, therefore, the clever and stupid are equally 
 employed, the weak as well as the strong ; in the second case, 
 the State selects the strongest and cleverest, while the weak 
 and stupid die out or emigrate. There can be no doubt that 
 of two countries, one of which had a stationary population, 
 and the other an increasing population, which would ultimately 
 overcome the other, or which would exist the longer, enjoy 
 the greater amount of happiness, and progress the faster. 
 
 Since, then, the marriage tie is of such supreme import- 
 ance, all things tending to make it insecure or difficult should 
 be got rid of at once. > Marriage should not be taxed as it 
 now is, the contract should be clear and easily proved, and no 
 impediment should be thrown in the way of a marriage which 
 is not likely to produce unhealthy offspring, other than the 
 natural and only harmless impediment, want of means ; since 
 every impediment directly tends to produce immorality, and 
 immorality is directly and fatally injurious to the community. 
 
 The first condition is easily secured, because it only 
 requires a little mechanical arrangement ; but how are we 
 to know whether a given couple should be allowed to marry 
 or not? When either party is in.sane we do not allow it, 
 because we know that the chances are the progeny would also 
 be insane. If a parent of either had become insane after 
 marriage then we should not prohibit it, because, though there 
 would be a good chance that insanity was hereditary in the 
 family, yet there would also be a good chance that the 
 children might escape any hereditary taint, and the risk of 
 
IMPEDIMENTS TO MARRIAGE 3 
 
 prohibition would tliercfore be too great : we could not, for the 
 sake of possible good, drive to a positive evil. Yet wc pro- 
 hibit marriage between near kin in certain degrees of blood 
 relationship and affinity. How did we come to prohibit any 
 of these marriages, and how have we come to draw the line 
 as it stands at present ? 
 
 The sole reason why we now prohibit these marriages is 
 that our fathers did so, and their fathers did so before them. 
 Yet our fathers permitted marriage between cretins, lepers, 
 and between many other persons, in cases where we should 
 now prohibit it. Why, then, should they have prohibited 
 marriage between near kin? Did they observe that the 
 progeny were diseased in any way, as we observe that the 
 children of the insane are insane? This they certainly did 
 not ; for we ourselves cannot show it to be the case, even with 
 the aid of what statistics we have got ; nor do they give that 
 as a reason in their writings. All we have known hitherto 
 is that these prohibitions have constantly been questioned, 
 that they have been made more severe by lawgivers, and less 
 severe, again, by powerful individuals, or by the steady 
 weight of public opinion. But public opinion means public 
 practice ; and public practice, when it is against the law, tends 
 to bring the law generally into contempt. When the popes 
 prohibited marriage within very wide degrees, the people only 
 made use of these prohibitions either to live immorally or to 
 get rid of their wives or husbands, as the case might be. 
 Nothing is more evident than that it is useless to prohibit 
 marriage beyond certain degrees. Marriages may be pre- 
 vented in some measure, but immorality, the consequence, 
 cannot be ; the remedy is worse than the evil. It is true that 
 marriages between near kin have been accused in modern 
 times of producing all those diseases of the nervous system 
 and malformations which we in our ignorance cannot as yet 
 satisfactorily account for. But they are not prohibited in 
 wider degrees, simply because none of these assertions can be 
 proved. We should, in our ignorant endeavours to prevent 
 idiocy and deaf-mutism, madness and malformations, greatly 
 increase immorality and contempt of the law, and certainly 
 
4 THE MARRIAGE OE NEAR KIN 
 
 increase those very diseases, because immorality does pro- 
 duce them indirectly, as we shall see. At the same time we 
 should be trying nothing but a gigantic experiment ; and 
 even if we succeeded in stopping these marriages we should 
 rot get rid of the diseases ; because, even supposing for 
 the moment that these marriages are a cause at all, no one 
 supposes them to produce more than a fraction of the insane 
 or malformed. 
 
 Since the question of the alleged harmfulness of marriages 
 
 between near kin is the object of this work, it will be useless 
 
 to argue it any further at this point. It is essential, however, 
 
 in a question of this kind, as indeed in any, that the premises 
 
 should be perfectly clear, or the argument will be worthless ; 
 
 and this question has had its full share of indistinct statement 
 
 and irrelevant answer. ♦ The consequence is that there is a 
 
 widely spread uncomfortable feeling that consanguineous 
 
 ^ marriages are to be avoided if possible ; but if Angelina 
 
 \ insists on having Edwin, and Edwin is fortunate enough to 
 
 ) make Angelina persist in her intention, why, let them marry 
 
 \ and may they be happy 1 
 
 We will therefore put the following questions before our- 
 selves : — 
 
 I. Whether consanguineous marriages are themselves, by 
 the mere fact of consanguinity, and irrespective of any in- 
 heritance, injurious to the offspring. Whether, in a marriage 
 between two relatives who are both perfectly healthy, live 
 under healthy conditions, and whose families are perfectly 
 healthy, the children born will probably be unhealthy? 
 
 II. Whether consanguineous marriages give a greater 
 proportion of unhealthy children than non-consanguineous 
 marriages ; or, in other words, whether it is a fact that con- 
 sanguineous marriages, through intensification of a previously 
 dormant hereditary family taint, give a greater proportion of 
 unhealthy children ? 
 
 The first is a question of creation ; the second a question 
 of inheritance. Hence we may safely apply experiment on 
 the organic world to the former, and the result, when no harm 
 is done, will be favourable to the harmlcssncss of these mar- 
 
METHODS OF IXVKSTICATIOX 5 
 
 riagcs ; but if there arc aii)' evil results \vc cannot say they 
 were created by the consanguinity, since we cannot know 
 but what inheritance has come into play. Hence, for the first 
 question, the only method of investigation is a negative one. 
 For the second question the only method is a statistical in- 
 quiry, so contrived as to include the whole population of a 
 large country ; that is, so contrived as to overpower, as far as 
 possible, disturbing causes. 
 
 This last method is so obvious that we cannot but feel 
 surprised that it has never yet been tried. These marriages 
 have been accused of causing sterility, malformations, the dis- 
 eases of the mind and of the senses, of rickets, albinoism, 
 phthisis, and cretinism, and even of the production of hydatis ! ' 
 Surely this was enough to attract the attention of the most 
 callous Government — surely such a' question as this would 
 enter into the census ! 
 
 The fact is that the common sense of the world rejected 
 these theories. People had married cousins for generations 
 time out of memory. They had rebelled when these marriages 
 were forbidden, and onh' acquiesced in the law 
 on them by the whole weight of a powerful priestocracy, 
 condition that it should exist but as a tax. In these days, ' 
 however, this inheritance of the Middle Ages has been re- 
 vived, a spectre clothed in the garb of modern philosophy. It 
 is a matter for surprise, therefore, that this question should 
 not have entered into the census, despite the carelessness of 
 the general public ; but our surprise is changed to absolute 
 amazement when we find that in 1871 this method when pro- 
 posed was rejected by Parliament. Well may Mr. Darwin 
 say, in the conclusion of his ' Descent of Man ' : ' When the 
 principles of breeding and of inheritance are better under- 
 stood, we shall not hear ignorant members of our legislature 
 rejecting with scorn a plan for ascertaining by an easy method 
 whether or not consanguineous marriages are injurious to man.' 
 
 ese marriages '\ 
 when forced J 
 ocracy, under \ 
 
 ' This last extraordinary statement was made by M. Aubc in lS57, and there- 
 fore ninety years after the researches of Pallas, seventy-five years after their 
 confirmation by Goere, and thirty-six after Bremser ! It is nevertheless gravely 
 quoted by MM. Devay [Du Danger des Mar. Cons., p. 52) and Chipault {Etude 
 stir Us Mar. Cons. p. 103) without a word of comment. 
 
6 THE MARRIAGE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 We have no means, therefore, of ascertaining whether con- 
 sanguineous marriages are so injurious that they ought to be 
 prohibited, and yet it has been most positively asserted that 
 they are. What are the grounds, what the proofs, that these 
 authors have for their statements ? Certainly none that can 
 be relied upon ; and yet they have contrived to excite a sort 
 of sensation as fatal to our ease as the nurse's bogey stories 
 are to a child. 
 
 They argue deductively that, because some prohibitions 
 are found throughout the world, from the earliest to the pre- 
 sent times, these marriages must therefore be harmful ; and 
 that, because there are two sexes, therefore crosses must be 
 necessary. They argue inductively that, because in a certain 
 number of cases they have selected of consanguineous mar- 
 riage, the results as regards the progeny have been unfortunate, 
 therefore a far greater proportion of children born from con- 
 sanguineous marriages are afflicted with disease than those 
 born from non-consanguineous marriages ; and that because 
 they find that a certain number of deaf-mutes, idiots, cretins, 
 or what not, are derived from consanguineous marriages, 
 therefore these diseases were caused by the consanguinitj-, and 
 by nothing else. 
 
 I will attempt an answer to these allegations in the follow- 
 ing order.* I hope to show that the reason many nations have 
 prohibited these marriages is not because they have observed 
 any evil result. I hope to show that many communities have 
 lived without crosses, and without any excess of disease ; that 
 the statistical evidence we possess as yet is worse than worth- 
 less ; that, as far as experiment in the animal kingdom goes, 
 the evidence tends to confirm the harmlessness of these mar- 
 riages ; that crosses are seldom beneficial, and often harmful; 
 and to show that there may be other reasons for the existence 
 of two sexes besides any supposititious benefit from crosses. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MARRIAGE LAW. 
 
 AT the outset of any inquiry as to the physiological effect 
 on the progeny of marriages between persons of the 
 same blood, we are met by the argument that unions between 
 the sexes have been, and are, restricted in the nearer degrees 
 of relationship, not only among all civilised peoples, but 
 among all communities of human beings, even among the 
 lowest and most degraded of savages. And if so spon- 
 taneous and universal a law exists, the inference is only fair 
 that such restrictions are necessary to the well-being of the 
 human race, that it is made necessary by physiological 
 punishment of its neglect, and that it is developed by the 
 survival of the fittest. 
 
 I do not deny that this argument would be entitled to the 
 fullest weight were either the major or the minor premise 
 true ; but the restriction of unions between the nearest of 
 kin has never been universal ; while the development of 
 such prohibitions as exist can be traced to the play of ordi- 
 nary human passions and social needs, with which forethought 
 for the offspring or experience of any evil effects has never 
 had anything whatever to do. 
 
 This question is really a part of a much larger question : 
 the development of morality ; and I need hardly remind the 
 reader that all moral laws have been assumed until compara- 
 tively modern times — indeed, until anthropology began to be 
 studied as a science — to be implanted directly by the Deity 
 in the uncorrupted human breast. But the Creator of man- 
 
<S THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KTN 
 
 kind has also endowed him with an attribute of His own, and 
 enabled him by the use of this intellect to appreciate in 
 an ever-increasing degree the beauty of the laws of the 
 universe. In the infancy of mankind he wondered at his 
 environment as a perpetual miracle ; in his youth he now 
 wonders much more at the unity of law he sees in all things 
 round about him. Where the savage would look upon the 
 hand of a clock always pointing at the hour as a perpetual 
 miracle, the civilised man admires the beauty of the mecha- 
 nism and its hidden springs. And so in moral law we are 
 able to trace its development from the incompatibility of 
 antagonistic habits, and the unconscious choice by mankind 
 of those rules of life which best suit his social state. 
 
 In an extremely primitive state of life the practice of 
 incest need not be socially inconvenient (the only point which 
 at present concerns us) any more than it is among other 
 animals, nor excite any degree of horror among the former 
 any more than it does among the latter. Some of the older 
 writers, indeed, have tried to show that this horror exists 
 among the lower animals ; thus Pliny relates how a horse, on 
 the discovery that it had committed incest, threw itself over 
 a precipice, and was killed ; ' and Heywoode, after repeating 
 the story, concludes with, ' If then this sinne be so hatefull in 
 bruite beasts and vnreasonable creatures, how much more 
 ought it to be auoided in men and women, and which is 
 more. Christians ? ' ^ Even at the present day this idea is not 
 extinct, for Walker says, ' That this aversion, however, .should 
 * * * exist among animals ' is a strong proof of the impro- 
 priety of breeding in-and-in in the nearest degrees!^ And 
 M. Devay asserts that M. Munaret ' and other distinguished 
 observers ' noticed that animals have an instinctive repug- 
 nance to incestuous unions.'' Perhaps M. Munaret and other 
 distinguished observers hold with Pliny that fowls have a 
 sense of religion, that elephants understand the nature of an 
 oath, and that dolphins prefer the name of Sitno to all others, 
 
 ' Pliny, Hist. Anim. l)Ook viii. chap. 64. 
 '•' Heywoode, Hist, of Women ^ pp. 176, 177. 
 ^ W.ilker, On Intermarriagt, pp. 292, 293. 
 
 l)rv;iy, Pu Paiigii; t-lc. p. 65, nulc. 
 
DO ANIMALS ABHOR INCEST? 9 
 
 because their noses are turned up ? ' Ovid, althougli he liad 
 a great horror of incest, as is shown in the first part of the 
 fable of Myrrha and Cinyras, is yet at a loss to see why such 
 marriages should be forbidden, and cites the very case of 
 animals to show that they are not forbidden by nature.^ 
 Indeed, incest is constantly practised by animals, and habi- 
 tually by those which are polj-gamous. The greater number 
 of the mammalia are polygamous, since most dcer,^ cattle, 
 and sheep are so. In herds of about a dozen antelopes in 
 South Africa, says Mr. Darwin, rarely more than one mature 
 male is seen. The Asiatic Antilope saiga drives away all 
 rivals, and collects a herd of about one hundred females and 
 kids. The horse is polygamous, and so is the elephant ; it 
 is rare to find more than one adult male with a whole herd 
 of females. The wild-boar is also polygamous, but both he 
 and the elephant only consort with the females during the 
 breeding season. The gorilla and several species of baboons 
 are polygamists. Lions are perhaps the only polygamous 
 terrestrial carnivora, but the Pinnigradia, with the exception 
 of the walrus, are all so. Among birds the Natatores are 
 usually polygamous ; the Grallatores are some of them ; the 
 Rasores arc most of thein ; and ostriches, the bird of Para- 
 dise, the Whydah finch, and, perhaps, humming-birds are 
 polygamou.s.** Now, polygamy among animals means the 
 closest incest. The strongest male drives away all others, 
 often, indeed, kills them, and jealously keeps in his own 
 hareem all the females of his family. Animals are, besides, 
 much sooner mature in comparison with the length of their 
 lives than are human beings ; hence incest with them, as 
 it includes more generations, is closer than would be pos- 
 sible in mankind. Nor does the incest cease when the old 
 
 ' Pliny, Hist, .hiim., book x. chap. 57; book viii. chap. I; book ix. 
 chap. 7. 
 
 - I-clices, quilnis ista licent ! Humana malignas 
 Cura (ledit leges : et quod natura remitlit 
 Ini'idajura lugant. -Ovid, Metam. lib. x. 11. 329-331. 
 ' The roe-deer keeps even'more in families than do other deer. Two generally 
 are produced at a birlh, usually a male and a female. These pair for life, and 
 consequently the closest in-and-in breeding is practised from generation to gene- 
 ration. See Macdonald, Catlk, Sheep, and Deer, p. 643. 
 
 * Darwin, De!,enl of Man, i. 267-270; ii. 362, 363, and others. 
 
lO THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 male is turned out by a more powerful young one ; for a 
 j'oung male of the same family is f;ir more likely to be the 
 first in the field of combat. But enough of this question. I 
 have met with no authority save that vaguely cited by M. 
 Devay ; and M. Devay himself cites Aub^, who indirectly 
 shows, in accusing such unions of the production of albinoism, 
 that he takes for granted animals have no horror of incest." 
 
 If there be really an innate horror of incest, it ought to 
 show itself intuitively when persons are ignorant of any re- 
 lationship. But does it .' Can we reconcile the statements 
 of Quintiiian and Lactantius, that incestuous unions often 
 occurred in Rome from the exposure of infants who were 
 reared by slave-dealers, with this supposition.^ Not long ago 
 Selim Pasha unwittingly married his sister, like himself, a 
 Circassian slave. Selim had risen, as slaves often do rise in 
 the East, to rank and wealth ; and only found out by chance 
 that his slave-wife was his sister.' A large proportion of 
 Pepin's laws, says Hallam,^ relate to incestuous connections. 
 So probable did the authorities consider that crime that no 
 Templar was allowed even to kiss his nearest relations.'* The 
 son of Ninon de I'EncIos and M. de Villarceaux at the 
 age of nineteen was presented to his mother, and fell in love 
 with her. At length he made such violent love that she was 
 forced to confess her relationship ; upon which he shot him- 
 self dead.' The story told in the Heptameron of a double 
 incest was probably a true one, and became widely spread. 
 The first part was told in the twenty-third novel of Masuccio, 
 the second in Bandello's thirty-fifth novel, in the thirtieth of 
 the Queen of Navarre's tales, and a modified version is current 
 even at the present day in Italy.' Perhaps it may be traced 
 to an even older source, the ' Miracles de Nostre Dame,' and its 
 
 I Devay, Du Davger, etc. p. 54. 
 
 ' Cited by Lecky, Hist, of European Morals, etc. ii. 30, note 2. 
 
 ■" See Martineau, Eastern Life, etc. p. 53. 
 
 * Hallam, Europe in the Middle Ages, ii. 7, note. 
 
 » Buckle, Misc. and Posth. Works, vol. ii. art. 129. 
 
 • Bibl. des CEuvr. relalifs A r Amour, etc. v. 196. In a work there cited 
 (Tardieu, Etude MM. Leg. sur les attentats au.x tiiaurs), he says : ' Les liens 
 (lu sang ne les arrctent pas, les p^res abusent de leiirs filles, les fr^res de leurs 
 stcurs.' Sec also Brantome, CEuvres, iii. 97, 98. 
 
 ' Crane, Italian Popular Tales, p. 201. 
 
RELATIONSIIir NOT INTUITIVELY RECOGNISED I I 
 
 predecessors.' The following epitaph composed on the actors 
 was related to Julio de Medrano, a writer of the sixteenth 
 century: — " 
 
 ' Ci-git I'enfant, ci-g!t le pl-re, 
 
 Ci-git la sceur, ci-git le frere, 
 
 Ci-git la femme et le mari, 
 
 Et ne sont que deux corps ici.' 
 
 The evidence afforded by stories, ballads, and other pic- 
 tures of life is contradictory. We are all familiar with tales 
 of persons being insensibly drawn towards their kindred ; 
 such as the story of Noor ed Deen, in the ' Thousand and 
 One Nights,' where 'blood drew to blood,' and a father is 
 drawn to his son, but the recognition is one-sided. So again 
 in Molierc's ' L'Etourdi,' ^ Celie says to her brother 
 
 ' Pour moi, je me blamais, et croyais faire faute, 
 Quand je n'avais pour vous qu'une estime tr^s-haute. 
 Je ne pouvais savoir quel obstacle puissant 
 M'arretait sur un pas si doux et si glissant, 
 Et detournait ma cceur de I'aveu d'une flamme 
 Que mes sens s'eflbrc^aient d'introduire en men ame.' 
 
 VVieland makes Don Sylvio in ' Die Abentcuer Don Sylvio 
 von Rosalva,' which is a sort of continuation of ' Gil Bias,' 
 drawn in some measure to his sister, who is known as Jacinta. 
 In ' Cymbeline ' there is a decided recognition of relationship. 
 Again, in the ' Thousand and One Nights,' in the history of 
 King Omar ben Ennuman and his sons Sherkan and Zoul- 
 mekan, Nuzhet ez Zeman is brought to her half-brother 
 Sherkan by a slave-dealer, and ' blood draws to blood ' ; he 
 loves her, but he recognises no relationship. The story is 
 curious, since it shows that, despite the horror Arabs had at 
 that time of incest (shown in the story of the First Calendar, 
 where the ' wrath of God ' descends upon a brother and sister), 
 they had no idea of any evil effect on the progeny. A girl is 
 born to Sherkan, who grows up bright, clever, and beautiful, 
 
 ' Cited in Mr. Malcolm of Poltalloch's magnificent reproduction of the Douce 
 MS. story liii. p. xxxi. 
 
 ' See Dunlop's Hist, of Fiction, ii. 462-464. 
 " Moliere, L'Etourdi, ,ict v. so. xvi. 
 
12 THE MARRIAC.E OF NEAR KIN 
 
 and is betrothed to her cousin, the son of her mother's twin 
 brother.' For one instance, however, in fiction for instinctive 
 recognition of relationship there are twentyof no recognition, 
 yet one is as dramatic as the other. In the early romances, 
 incestuous love is by no means an uncommon theme, and the 
 folk-lore of various peoples give many instances. Thus, in 
 the story of Swet-Basanta, a son, separated from his mother 
 when an infant, afterwards meets her and wants to marry 
 her.^ In the Austrian story of ' Besom-cast,' a certain Count 
 Rudolf had a wife with a golden cross on her brow. The 
 wife died, and the count said to his daughter, who also had 
 a gold cross on her brow, ' Dear child, thou knowcst how I 
 loved thy mother ; I cannot live without a consort, and there- 
 fore I am about to go forth into the wide world and seek a 
 wife who shall, like thy mother, have a golden cross upon her 
 brow. And if within a year and a day I find none such, then 
 I shall marry thee.' ' So in some of the Russian folk-tales,^ 
 Finnish,'^ Icelandic," Italian,^ and in every mythology gene- 
 rally, of every nation. The stones of Parthenius Nicenus 
 contain several instances. The romance of Cleriadus makes 
 the Count of Langarde in love with his niece. In the history 
 of Amadis of Greece, Niquea is loved by her brother Ana- 
 starax. In the ballad of ' Eglamore,' contained in Percy's 
 collection, Christabelle marries her own son, but happily 
 finds out the relationship : — 
 
 ' Sir Degrabell his troth hee plight ; 
 & Christabell, that ladye bright, 
 
 to Church they her ledd. 
 through the might of god he spedd 
 his owne mother there he wedd, 
 
 in Romans as wee reade.' " 
 
 I,ady Anne Blunt heard a story of a brother ami s 
 ifd near Damascus. A Pilgrimage to Njed, i. 34. I 
 
 story i 
 
 ; that of Sherkan. 
 
 Lai Behari Day, Folk-Tales of Bengal, p. 105. London, iS 
 
 Theod. Vernaleken, In the Land of Marvels. London, 1SS4 
 
 Ralston, Russian Folk-Tales, pp. 159, 160. London, 1873. 
 
 Andrew Lang, Custom and Myth, p. 175. London, 1884. 
 
 See the next chapter. 
 
 Crane, Italian Popular Tales, pp. 48, 161, 19S. 
 
 Pcr,y flallads, ii. 380, lines 1061-1066. 
 
KIXATIONSHIP NOl- INTUIIIVKLV RKCOCNISKl) 13 
 
 The editors say that such a union is a very favourite 
 arrangement with old romance writers, though they do not 
 generally dare to consummate such a marriage. ' The wonder- 
 ful example of God showed upon Jasper Coningham ' is a 
 ballad in point' Boccaccio, again, tells a story of two men, 
 Giannole and Minghino, who both fell in love with the same 
 girl. The one tries to carry her off; the other stops him ; 
 they are both arrested ; and then it is discovered that this 
 girl is the sister of Giannole, and Minghino marries her.^ 
 Ariosto makes Bradamante furiously jealous of Marfisa until 
 she is calmed by the miraculous voice from the tomb telling 
 her she is Ruggiero's sister.^ In Day's ' Law Tricks ' a 
 brother, who does not know of his relationship, wishes to 
 marry his sister. In Massinger's ' Guardian ' a sister has 
 no inkling of her relationship to her brother ; and in the 
 same author's ' Unnatural Combat ' a father criminally loves 
 his daughter. The same, reversed, occurs in Beaumont and 
 Fletcher's ' Captain.' Defoe makes Moll Flanders unwittingly 
 marry her brother ; Goethe makes Mignon the offspring of a 
 brother and sister who were ignorant of any relationship 
 existing between them ; Moliere makes a brother fall in love 
 with his sister, and it is only when he finds out his relation- 
 ship that he becomes indifferent to her ; ■• Lessing does the 
 same,' and Racine very nearly the same.^ Voltaire makes 
 Gernance carry off his sister Acante, ignorant of his relation- 
 .ship.' Le Sage makes parents accept a child passed off upon 
 them as their own, and laughs at ' all the fine things said of 
 instinct and the force of blood.' * Indeed, as Adam Smith justly 
 says, ' We meet with many beautiful and interesting scenes 
 founded upon what is called the force of blood, or upon the 
 wonderful affection which near relations are supposed to con- 
 ceive for one another, even before they know that they have 
 
 ' Roxlno-gh Ballads, iii. 104. 
 
 ' Boccaccio, Decamerone, Giorn. Quinta, novel. 5. 
 
 ' Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, canlo xxxvi. He introduces into his story 
 another case, ibid, verses Ixxiii, Ixxiv. 
 
 ' MoliJire, Doni Garde. ' Lessing, Nathan der VVeise. 
 
 • Racine, Don Sanche. 
 
 ■ Voltaire, Le Droit du Seigneur, CEnvres, 1785, viii. 180, iSl. 
 
 ' Le Sage, Gil Bias, i. 47, 48. London, 1809. 
 
14 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 any such connection. This force of blood, however, I am 
 afraid, exists nowhere but in tragedies and romances.' ' We 
 have abundant evidence, further, in the canons enacted again 
 and again for its prevention, and in the daily record of all 
 courts of justice, that there is no horror of incest inherent, 
 even in civilised man, sufficient to prevent that crime in the 
 presence of a moderate amount of temptation. 
 
 The analogy of the lower animals, the habits of savage 
 people, the records of crime, and the opinion of those whose 
 business it is to portray human conduct are sufficient proof 
 that, whatever the origin of the prohibited degrees, it is not 
 due to any natural horror implanted in mankind ; and anthro- 
 pologists who have studied the origin of marriage are practi- 
 cally unanimous that it has developed from an original state 
 in which the sexual relations were without any regulations or 
 limitations other than those found among wild beasts.^ As- 
 suming that gregariousness is, or soon becomes, natural to 
 man, then the various communities, forced by increasing 
 numbers to separate in search of food, will generally become 
 hostile ; whence arises a limitation of sexual relations to 
 members of the community only ; a state of society which 
 Bachofcn has called Jietairism. Of any earlier stage we have 
 no example among savages, unless, indeed, in the Macadamas 
 of Cape York,^ because it is generally indistinguishable, where 
 it exists, from hetairism ; and even of the latter, which is 
 communal marriage with no restrictions whatever as to 
 relationship, we have only traces, if clear traces, left to us in 
 what Mr. Morgan calls the Malayan system,"* where relation- 
 ship is only traced by generations. Here, all of my own 
 generation are brothers and sisters ; all of the next descending 
 generation are my children ; all of the first ascending genera- 
 tion are my parents ; all of the next ascending generation, 
 
 ' Adam Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, ii. 66. London, 1822. 
 
 ^ Bachofen, Das Miitterrec/it, p. 10 ; McLennan, Prim. Mar., pp. 163, 169 ; 
 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 418 ; Spencer, Sociolog}', p. 632 ; Darwin, Descent 
 0/ Man, ii. 362. This author and Mr. Spencer, however, think there may have 
 been temporary unions, as among chimpanzees, for instance. Sir H. Main, Early 
 Law, p. 205, thinks promiscuosity would lead to infecundity, as in the case of 
 prostitutes ; but there is no parallel between the two, nor is such the case among 
 the lower animals. 
 
 • See the next chapter. ' Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 403. 
 
COMMUNAL MARRIAGE 1$ 
 
 my grandparents. Another trace is left in the customs 
 of the Turras of York Peninsula, South Australia, who, 
 though forbidden marriage within their own clan, j'et when 
 the two clans into which they are divided meet at their 
 corroborees exchange wives for the time.' The same 
 was the case with the Kunandaburi tribe when a girl was 
 married, and among the Narrinyeri after the initiation of a 
 youth into manhood ; at such times no prohibition is regarded.^ 
 Bachofen cites the Massagetes, Nasamones, Augiles, Gara- 
 mantes, Balearic Islanders, Thracians, Troglodytes, and 
 others.^ McLennan points out that in the Mahabharata it is 
 said that hetairism was formerly the custom.' The practice 
 of lending or exchanging wives, and licence accorded to un- 
 married girls, is widely spread. Bachofen further points out 
 that when individual marriages took place the bride had in 
 many cases to submit first to communistic marriage as an 
 acknowledgment of the communal right.'* Sir John Lubbock ^ 
 also points out that the honour in which the Hetair^ were held 
 at Athens as compared with legitimate wives was because 
 the former represented the native women, who still practised 
 communism ; while the latter represented strangers and cap- 
 tives. Mr. Spencer doubts whether communal marriage, that 
 is hetairism, ever existed, and considers that it was merely an 
 extremely loose state of monogamy, every man keeping his 
 wife if he was able.'' But there is little difference between 
 his view and those of Sir John Lubbock, Bachofen, McLennan, 
 and Morgan ; because none of these authors supposes that 
 at any time there were no temporary quasi-monogamic ties, 
 any more than Mr. Spencer supposes monogamic relations at 
 this period of civilisation were anything more than nominal. 
 The stage of hetairism means simply that no woman had a 
 right to refuse any member of her tribe or community as a 
 
 ' Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi, p. 286. 
 
 ' Fison and Howitt, ' From Mother-Right to Father-Right,' Journal of the 
 Anthropological Institute, p. 35, note 3 ; p. 37, note I, vol. xii. August 
 1882. 
 
 " Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht, pp. 10, 12, 15, 20, 21. 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, p. 216, note. 
 
 ' Bachofen, ut sup. pp. xix., 270. 
 
 ' Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 127 ; and Appendix, p. 529. 
 
 ' Spencer, Sociology, i. 664. 
 
ID Till-: MARRIAGE OF NKAR KI\ 
 
 temporary husband, and no blood relationship formed a bar 
 to such unions. In such a state of society it is obvious that 
 the idea of relationship through males must be non-existent ; 
 not that the people are ignorant that a father has a share in the 
 offspring, as Mr. Spencer justly points out,' but that it is im- 
 possible to trace his relationship. Hence relationship through 
 females alone was universal at this period, and even at a 
 later period in the history of civilisation of every people,^ 
 and, as we have seen in the preceding pages, can even yet be 
 traced in nearly every primitive society. 
 
 In savage communities, unless they inhabit an exception- 
 ally favoured spot, a large tract of land is requisite for the 
 support of a comparatively small number of people ; from 
 which it follows that, not only must every primitive com- 
 munity throw off its natural increase of members, but that these 
 new communities must soon, in the struggle for subsistence, 
 be at enmity with each other. This state of society is 
 admirably explained by Professor Robertson Smith in so far 
 as it concerns the desert tribes of Arabia ;' we see the like in 
 the history of Abimclech and Isaak,'* and in Australia ; while 
 in the South Sea Islands, where food was abundant, there 
 was no enmity. In such communities, warriors are of the 
 greatest value ; a measure of a warrior's value is the number 
 of the enemy he has slain and the booty he has taken ; and 
 the most valued booty is the captured women, who are in- 
 variably saved, as are in some cases the young children of 
 the enemy. Women are valuable because their progeny 
 increases the strength of the tribe, and because, too, among 
 savage people women age so much sooner than the men that 
 an inequality of the sexes is produced, which is scarcely 
 corrected by the greater mortality of males in war. The 
 booty in these cases would theoretically become the common 
 property of the tribe, but practically the mighty men would 
 
 ' Spencer, Sociology, i. 667. 
 
 ' This is entirely contrary to the views of Sir Henry M.iine, who considers the 
 patriarchal was the primitive stage. See his Early La-.v and Custom, chap. vii. 
 The arguments for the other side are given in McLennan's Patriarchal Theory. 
 London, 1885. 
 
 • Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap. i. 
 
 .enes 
 
METAIRISM TO INDIVIDUAL WIVES 1 7 
 
 not submit to give the tribe anything but a theoretical 
 propert)- in the captive of his bow and spear.' Consequently, 
 Mr. Fison shows that there was a temporary acknowledg- 
 ment of the right of the community, followed by individual 
 ownership ; ^ but even in such cases the captive's children were 
 related to her, and to her tribe, and not to her husband's tribe, 
 unless, as was sometimes the custom, they were adopted. 
 So soon as populations became numerous enough, as I have 
 said, for the subdivision and enmity of tribes, so soon would 
 plunderings begin ; and the possession of slave women would 
 inevitably become a necessary convenience of life. Hence, as 
 Sir John Lubbock points out,' the capturing of wives from 
 foreign tribes would become customary, and, as Mr. Spencer 
 points out,^ necessary as a proof of manhood. The impulse 
 to the formation of individual unions, more or less stable, 
 and condoned by occasional saturnalia, would thus be 
 given. 
 
 Hence in every tribe in this social condition there would 
 be two classes of women ; the foreigners, or trophies, and the 
 natives. The sons of the former would themselves belong to 
 their mothers' kin ; they would be regarded by their mothers' 
 tribe as of themselves, notwithstanding that they lived and 
 fought with their fathers' tribe.= They would probably retain 
 their natural common rights to community in the women of 
 their mothers' tribe ; ^ and hence since the only individual 
 unions known were brought about by capture, and since there 
 is in this state of society a recognition of the convenience of 
 individual unions, there would be a tendency for the foreign- 
 born sons to enter into unions with the native-born women 
 
 ' Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 104. Spencer, Sociology, i. 651, 665. 
 
 ^ Mr. Fison givese.xamplesof this expiation formarriage among the Australians 
 {Kamilaroi, p. 53, 155, and Howitt, ibid. p. 202, note) and others. Bachofen 
 cites the case of Cato giving up his wife to Hortensius {Das Mutlerrecht, p. 19, 
 and others V- 1/4 '• Sir J. Lubbock gives further instances (Origin of Civilisa- 
 tieii.]'. iJi. Ml U. H. Johnston gives another instance among the Wa-taita, 
 whn .1 . ill >• east of Kilima-njaro ( /X« Kilima-nfaro Expedilion, p. 
 
 4311. I ^iven by Cieca de Leon (.&«/. i/«//V«<, fol. 99, chap. 49) of 
 
 the ni.uii,.--: 1 !: ;. ms iif Cartagena shows the same. 
 
 ' Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 130. 
 
 * Spencer, Sociology, p. 651. 
 
 ' See Robertson Smith, ut sup., p. 102. 
 
 ' See ibid. pp. 69, 70 ; and Fison and Howitl, Katnilaroi, p. 54. 
 
 C 
 
IS THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 by a simulated form of capture, just as though they were 
 actually living with their mothers' tribe. Mr. McLennan and 
 after him other writers have given ample proof of the univer- 
 sality of the form of capture in marriage ceremonies, implying 
 the universality of taking foreign wives, which he names exo- 
 gamy ; and has pointed out that, as far as marriage is concerned, 
 two neighbouring tribes cannot remain in enmity for many 
 generations and continue to take wives from each other by 
 force, because they will in this way each contain children of 
 the women belonging to the other tribe. The necessary result 
 will be that marriages, though by long continued custom 
 bound to be with foreign captured women, will actually be 
 with partly related women under a simulated form of capture,' 
 and we also arrive at the most important conclusion for the 
 subject of this work, that the prohibition of marriage with 
 those who were regarded as near of kin was derived from the 
 same causes which made exogamy imperative, and not at all 
 from any evil effect, observed or unobserved on the offspring 
 of consanguineous marriages. 
 
 This conclusion has been disputed by various authors. 
 Bachofen, who is better read in mythology than in modern 
 travels, ignores the form of capture which McLennan after- 
 wards showed was almost universal, and ascribes the develop- 
 ment towards individual marriages as due to the revolt of 
 women from the indignity of hetairism : 'Dishonoured by man's 
 mistreatment of her, woman at length longs for a recognised 
 position and a better existence. The insult she has received, 
 the rage of despair inflames her to armed resistance.' Hence 
 the Amazons, a stage which is followed by the gynokracy.^ 
 A sufficient answer to this is, that nothing of the sort has 
 ever been observed among savages ; and female sentiments 
 of honour, like other sentiments of the sort, do not develop 
 from the inherent qualities of the mind, but from the outside 
 circumstances of civilisation.' Mr. Spencer's opinion,'' that 
 the symbolic capture may partly be caused by the sentiment 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 148,149. 
 
 ' Bachofen, Das Mutlerrccht, pp. xxiv. xxv. 
 
 = See I'loss, Das IVeih, i. 205, etc. : ' Di; Keuschlieil <les Weibes.' 
 
 ' .'Spencer, Sociolog)', i. 653, 654. 
 
ORIGIN OF EXOGAMV I9 
 
 of coj-ncss, is also, I think, inadmissible for the same reasons ; 
 and the examples he gives seem to me to be rather a conse - 
 quence of the custom of simulated capture than a cause 
 Nevertheless it is very possible that a physiological advan- 
 tage referred to below may tend to perpetuate and en- 
 force this apparent reluctance.' Mr. McLennan considered 
 female infanticide to be the primary cause of exogamy, by 
 producing a state of things which necessitated polyandry 
 because of the scarcity of women, and then led to the capture 
 of women from other communities in order that the scarcity 
 might be amended.- To this theory many objections have 
 been advanced, which seem to me to be valid. These objec- 
 tions are clearly put by Mr. Fison,'' who shows that among 
 savages in that grade of development which McLennan's 
 theory assumes, female infanticide is not greatly practised, 
 and that females and female children are. as valuable to the 
 community in their way as are males and male children. 
 That among people like the pre-Mohammedan Arabs, the 
 Hindoos, and the Chinese, female infanticide was, and is, 
 practised to an enormous extent is rather a result, than a 
 cause, of exogamy, and therefore will not assist his theory.^ 
 But neither will Mr. Fison's own views of the origin of capture 
 as a ceremony, nor his objection to the theory that exogamy 
 is due to the practice of capturing women, stand criticism. 
 The ceremony he thinks to be .symbolic of the struggle of 
 youths for the female,' which refers its origin back to the 
 period of hetairism. But this entirely ignores the most im- 
 portant feature of the ceremony, that the girl's relations and 
 friends pretend to defend her, while the man's relations sup- 
 port him. He objects to McLennan that supposing a case 
 where two neighbouring tribes who are e.xogamous and hos- 
 
 ' See below, p. 22, note 5 of this work. 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 165-174, 208. 
 
 ' Fison, Kamilaioi, pp. 136-138. 
 
 * See Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 279, 
 note 6. Brown, Jiidian [nfanticide, p. 56. The well-meant efforts of the 
 English to put a stop to it by punishing those villages where the disproportion 
 between male and female children is remarkable has resulted in causing male 
 mTaiUicide-as- weU_ as female. See Mrs. VJm^% Diary of a Civilian's Wife in 
 India. 
 
 > Fison, Kamilaroi, p. 156. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 tile obtain wives by capture, the result must be that all the 
 women of the one tribe must be captured by the other tribe ; 
 that the women who are not captured must cither go without 
 husbands or husbands must be captured for them.' Such 
 a state of things, however, was never supposed to exist, for 
 the prohibition of marriage within the tribe would never arise 
 until the children of captured women had created different 
 tribal groups within the community, and the real hostility 
 between the neighbouring communities had died out 
 
 Mr. Morgan says that exogamy was due to the observed 
 evil effects of marriage of near kin,^ but the sole proof he 
 gives is the mere assertion that intermixture of stocks in- 
 creases mental and physical vigour.' Sir John Lubbock also 
 says that one of the causes was ' the inferior energy of the 
 children sprung from " in-and-in " marriages,' * neither does 
 he give any proof.' Sir H. Maine agrees with Morgan on 
 the ground that mixed marriages would give a better consti- 
 tution.^ Mr. Hewitt considers the Australians introduced 
 the prohibitions to avoid observed evil effects ; ^ and Mr. C. 
 S. Wake ascribes no other cause to the limits on intermarriage 
 than a desire on the part of savages to avoid incest.* Had 
 we no other evidence than the somewhat theoretical origin 
 of exogamy given above perhaps tlais idea might be open to 
 argument ; but a consideration of the evidence that does 
 exist makes it quite untenable. In the first place, nearly all 
 prohibitions refer to one side of relationship only, and there- 
 fore if their purpose was to prevent incest they were ridicu- 
 lously inadequate to effect that purpose. In the second 
 place, if we are to believe with Mr. Morgan,' Mr. Spencer,'" 
 
 ' Fison, Kamilaroi, p. 141. 
 
 "^ Morgan, Ancient Society, pp. 69, 74, 409, 424. 
 
 ' Ibid. p. 459. ■* Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 130. 
 
 '• Yet he says (ibid. p. 128) : ' In fact, exogamy afforded little protection 
 against the marriage of relatives, and, wherever it was systematiscd, it permitted 
 marriage even between half brothers and sisters, either on the father's or mother's 
 side.' 
 
 « Maine, Eai-Iy Law, pp. 227, 22S. 
 
 ' Fison ;ii.i II..v.:r. !■' /' .'. 1 , I. '. 
 
 ' C. S. \\ ; ' ' 1 among Primitive Pjoples.'yoKr- 
 
 nal of the .: ^ 1 1878, viii. 157, 160, 168 ; and 
 
 'The Primiii.- Hvi^ n I : m, ... .. 1-, .Vugust 1879. 
 
 •' Morgan, .-huuyil .V,.. /W.r, ,-. 510. '" .Spencer, SonWo-y, i- 667. 
 
EXOGAMY NOT DUE TO AVOIDANCE OF KIN 21 
 
 and Mr. Wake,' that relationship through males was partially 
 recognised, then since no prohibitions were founded on this rela- 
 tionship (with some exceptions due to a more advanced stage 
 of development, which will be considered below) the fear of 
 incest will not explain the case ; while the theory of exogamy, 
 given above, will. The supposition is further negatived by 
 the extent of the prohibitions on one side, which includes in 
 many cases whole tribes of thousands of individuals, which 
 again would be ridiculous if due to a fear of incest, and per- 
 fectly rational on the theory of exogamy. Are we to assume 
 that savages, whose every custom can be traced to unthinking 
 usage imposed upon them by their circumstances, should first 
 have observed an evil effect produced by the marriage of near 
 kin, which we with all our modern knowledge have failed to 
 observe, and which, as I shall proceed to show, actually docs 
 not exist ; that these savages in every country in the world 
 should have met together and have imposed restrictions upon 
 marriage, implying a power of the chiefs which we see in no 
 other instance ; that wishing to prevent incest they, on the 
 one hand, forbade marriage where there was no trace of rela- 
 tion.ship, and, on the other hand, permitted it between brothers 
 and sisters ; that believing incest was mischievous to the 
 community, and having power to prevent it, they should 
 permit annual, and sometimes more frequent, saturnalia, 
 during which not only no relationship was respected, but in 
 many instances those persons expressly came together who 
 on ordinary occasions were not permitted to intermarry? 
 Can anybody, when once the facts are stated, believe for one 
 moment that such prohibitions as we find among primitive 
 people were introduced to prevent incest ? 
 
 In good .sooth there are tales related by .some tribes in 
 which they ascribe evil results to the infringement of their 
 marriage regulations, some of which are probably due to the 
 missionaries ; some to the class which seek to enforce the 
 observance of customs by stories of divine vengeance for their 
 infraction ; some to the vain regrets of old age for the hcy- 
 
 ' C. S. Wake, ' Systems of Relationship used among Primitive Peoples,' tit 
 !uf. p. 175. 
 
22 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 day of their youth. That such tales exist is not remarkable ; 
 but that they are so few is very remarkable indeed. Of the 
 class which taken in connection with the marriage prohibitions 
 of the people where the story is found, and the source of the 
 story itself, in all probability, is indirectly inspired by mis- 
 sionary teachings, is the explanation given by the people of 
 Hawaii of the small family of Tamehameha — that he had 
 married a relation.' Another is from the Greenland Eskimo, 
 where the mother of Kakamak, finding that all her grand- 
 children died before they reached the age of puberty, suggests 
 to her son-in-law, who was a stranger, ' Perhaps we are too 
 near akin,' meaning possibly that the son-in-law might be a 
 blood relation.''' A third is cited by Mr. Fison from the 
 Cooper's Creek Australians : ' After the creation,' so runs the 
 legend, ' brothers, sisters, and others of the closest kin, inter- 
 married promiscuously until — the evil effects of these alliances 
 becoming manifest — a council of the chiefs was assembled to 
 consider in what way they might be averted, the result of 
 their deliberations being a petition to Muramura (the Good 
 Spirit), in answer to which he ordered that the tribe should be 
 divided into branches, and distinguished one from another by 
 different names * * * the members of any such branch not 
 to intermarry, but with permission for one branch to mingle 
 with another.' ' Of the second class of story are the objections 
 made by some Arab writers * to marriages other than with 
 strangers, on the score that stronger children will be born 
 when there is no relationship between the parents.'' So the 
 Hindoos were reported to prefer marriage with one who was 
 no relation on the same ground.^ Again in the ' Thousand 
 and One Nights,' fire from heaven burns up two incestuous 
 lovers.' But divine punishments of the same sort follow an\- 
 
 ' Cilcid by GcrlanJ, Aiilhrol'ohgie, vi. 141. 
 
 ' Rink, Tales and Ttaditions from the Eskimo, translated by R. Brown, story 
 73. P- 39>- 
 
 » Gason's Dieyeri Tribe, cited in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi, p. 25. 
 
 * See the next chapter. 
 
 ' Ver6 non absenli.^ consanguinitatis causa, seel jiropler viro stinuihnii 
 reluctata- insollitreqiie concubinx. 
 
 « Cited by Reich, Ehe, p. 21 1, on the authority of two Muhammcdnn travellers 
 of Iho ninth century. 
 
 ' Nighl .2. 
 
TRADITION ON ITIK I'KOIUP.ITIONS 2} 
 
 infraction of tribal custom ; if, for instance, a Chinook girl 
 during her ordeal of puberty were to eat fish or berries, the 
 fish would leave the streams, and the berries drop off the 
 trees.' Again, the earth crumbled away, and the sea rushed 
 in and drowned certain Kurnai who thoughtlessly showed 
 the virile mystery, the turndun, to some women.' At Roe- 
 bourne, in Western Australia, the natives know that a man's 
 hair will turn grey if he looks at his mothcr-in law.^ So 
 again ruin and darkness descended upon the land of the Hill 
 Dyaks because one of them married his grand-daughter.^ 
 Nor are these judgments confined to savage people, for in 
 England, according to Dugard, who wrote in 1673, ' if Cousin 
 Germans have any misfortune ; if an Horse dye or the Orchard 
 does not hit, you presently know whats the cause of it. If 
 the Flock of sheep be less'ned by the Rot, the negligence or 
 unskilfulness of the Shephard, or the ill temper of the Pasture 
 shall not be thought of, but it is an apparent Judgement upon 
 the Marriage.' * Even in later times, according to the Scotch 
 theologians, the grass refused to grow because incest had 
 been committed." Closely allied to these are ideas such as 
 that related of the Kenaiyer by Sir John Lubbock,' where, 
 the custom of marrying out of the mother's stock having 
 fallen into disuse, the old people assert that the mortality 
 has consequently risen ; which is analogous to the saying of 
 a man of the Majauka tribe of Darling River to Mr. Howitt,* 
 that he believed the dying out of his race to be in consequence 
 of their disregard of the customs and laws of their fathers. 
 
 Perhaps even more convincing than these direct state- 
 ments that the prohibited degrees were not the result of any 
 observed evil effect of consanguineous marriage, are the 
 endeavours of thinkers to account for their origin ; and here 
 
 ' Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific Stales, i. 242. 
 - Fison and Howitt, Katnilaroi, p. 269. 
 
 ' Ibid. p. 291, note. ♦ See the next chapter. 
 
 ' Dugard, The Marriages of Cousin Gertnans Vindicated, pp. 50, 51. 
 ' Buckle, Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works, i. 587. 
 ' Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 136. 
 
 » Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi, p. 291, note. Cf. Lucan, book viii. ver. 
 692 :— 
 
 ' Ultima LageK stirpis, perituraque proles 
 Dcgener, incestas sceptris cessure sororis. 
 
24 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 aq-ain. it is in the highest degree significant that, with so 
 obviously fit a punishment for, or reason against, the marriage 
 of near kin, as injury to the offspring, I know of no real 
 scientific allegation against them before the time of Shake- 
 speare. Some ascribe them to a fear lest relationship may 
 become too involved ; others to a fear lest affection may 
 become concentrated within too narrow a circle ; because 
 marriage would take place too early ; because people would 
 be induced to marry each other in order that property might 
 be kept in the family ; because they are prohibited by ' God's 
 law ' ; because they outrage 'natural modesty ' ; and, only in 
 modern times, because they are supposed to prove injurious 
 to the offspring. 
 
 Socrates objected to them that they generally took place 
 between an old man and a young woman, as in the case of 
 marriages between uncle and niece.' Plato in his ' Republic' 
 does not allow the marriage of brothers and sisters ; but, 
 though in his ' Laws ' he says that such a union would be 
 hateful to the gods, yet he adds that the reason is simply 
 habit and custom, and were such marriages permitted people 
 would naturally marry those most like themselves, which 
 would prevent the proper mixture of character and property, 
 and so injure the State.^ Aristotle feared that love would 
 become immoderate if, to the usual ties of paternal or fraternal 
 love, marital love were superadded.' Chrysippus and Zeno 
 considered every prohibition, though between the nearest 
 relatives, as simply absurd ; ^ but Philo thought the respect 
 we owe to a father should preclude all thoughts of marriage 
 with his wife,'^ and in this opinion he is supported by Agathias 
 Scholast and by Statius.'' Plutarch took altogether a more 
 matter-of-fact view of the question : Who would the wife 
 have to complain to when her husband beat her should her 
 
 • John Taylor, Ekmaits of Civil Law, p. 318. 
 
 - Plato, KcpiibUc, book v. chap. ix. ; the Laws, book vi. ch.ip. xvi. ; book viii. 
 chap. vi. 
 
 '' Amyraut, Coiisid. sur les Droits pay Usquels la Nat. a Kfigh' Us Mar., 
 p. 223. 
 
 ' Fohn Taylor, Elements of Civil Law, p. 318. 
 
 » Adam, Fortnightly AVview, 1865, p. 86. 
 
 ' lohn Taylor, 'Elements of Ci^iil Law, |i 319. 
 
ATTEMPTS TO EXPLAIN THE PROIIIlilTIONS 25 
 
 parents be the same as her husband's ? ' St. Chrysostom 
 adopts the views of Aristotle : Are there not ties of love 
 enough between relatives, he asks, that you should seek to draw 
 them tighter by marriage, to the exclusion of the rest of man- 
 kind ? - St. Augustine took also much the same view as 
 Aristotle : the whole idea pervading his mind is that mar- 
 riage between near kin is to be avoided because kindred, and 
 with it charity, cannot otherwise be extended. So he con- 
 siders that the marriage of Adam's children among themselves 
 was not reprehensible, but if in the succeeding generations 
 brothers and sisters had married each other, instead of marry- 
 ing their cousins, that would have been wrong, for the families 
 would then have become isolated. Marriages between first- 
 cousins, he continues, are neither forbidden by the law of God 
 nor by the law of man ; yet he is glad to see it discouraged 
 and rare, because it is so near to that which is unlawful, and 
 that which one doth with one's cousin he almost thinketh 
 that he doth with his sister ; and, besides, one person thus 
 absorbs two alliances which ought to have been employed for 
 the increase of affinity ; while, lastly, there is a certain laud- 
 able natural instinct in a man's shamefastness to abstain from 
 using that lust upon such as propinquity hath bound him 
 chastely to respect.' Pope Gregory I. alleged, in a letter to 
 St. Augustine of Canterbury concerning the marriages of the 
 English, that marriages between near kin proved sterile ; 
 an idea which he probably got from a misapprehension of 
 the words in Leviticus, ' they shall die childless.' ■* Thomas 
 
 ' Amyraut, Comid. sttr les Droits far ksqiiels la Nat. a Rcigli les Mar., 
 p. 225. 
 
 ••' J. A. N. P^rier, Mint, de la Soc. d^Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 205. 
 
 s St. Augustine, Of the Citie of God, with the learned Comments of lo. Lod. 
 Fives. Englished hyj. Healey, book xv. chap. 16. 
 
 ' ' Qusdam terrena lex in Romana republica permittit, ut sive frater et soror, 
 sen duorum fratruni germanorum, vel duarum sororum filius et filia misceantur ; 
 sed experimento didicimus, ex tali conjugio sobolem non posse succrcscere ; et 
 sacra lex Mosaica prohibet cognationis turpitudinem revelare : unde necesse est, 
 ut jam tertia vel quarta generatio fidelium licentcr jungi debeat, nam' secunda, 
 quam pradiximus, a se omniniodo abstinere debet ' {Excerp. Ecgberti, Arch. 
 Ehor. cxxxii. ; Thorpe's Early Inst, of England, p. 337). Leviticus xx. 20, 
 21, has : ' And if a man shall lie with his uncle's wife, he hath uncovered his 
 uncle's nakedness : they shall bear their sin ; they shall die childless. And if a 
 man shall take his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing : he hath uncovered his 
 brother's nakedness ; they shall be childless.' But the second verse completely 
 
26 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Aquinas gives a different reason from all the former : all 
 persons, he says, who lived under the same roof were forbidden 
 to intermarry, since were marriage between them permitted, 
 • this liberty would violently inflame their passions ; but under 
 the new law, which is the law of the Spirit and of love, several 
 degrees of consanguinity were forbidden, because the worship 
 of God spreads and multiplies by spiritual grace, and not by 
 carnal love. Men must consequently be debarred from carnal 
 things, to the end that they may rather attach themselves to 
 spiritual matters, that love may abound in them more and 
 more, so that friendship may be extended to a larger number 
 by means of affinity. The prohibitions were rightly therefore 
 extended to the seventh degree, but afterwards the Church 
 only restrained it as far as the fourth, since it was useless and 
 dangerous to forbid it in any further degree.' Another argument 
 was advanced against these marriages by Luther, who saw no 
 actual harm in marriages beyond the third degree collateral, 
 but considered them inexpedient on the ground that people 
 would marry without love merely to keep property within the 
 family, while poor women would be left spinsters.- Theodore 
 Beza harps on the confusion there would be in relationship 
 were all marriages permitted : if a father takes the daughter, 
 and a son marries her mother, or if father and son marry two 
 sisters, then one in the character of brother and step-father 
 marries his brother's step-daughter, the son marries the 
 sister of his mother-in-law, the brother marries the daughter 
 of his wife's brother, the son of the brother marries the 
 mother of his paternal uncle ; and thus, since relationship 
 
 refutes the me.iniiig which might possibly be forced upon the first. A sister-in-law 
 is no blood-relation ; moreover, Moses absolutely enjoins a brother on certain 
 occasions to marry his sister-in-law (Deuteronomy x.\v. 5). The fact is that 
 Moses pronounced the sentence of sterility as a curse ; and what could be a more 
 appropriate curse on a forbidden marriage ? No severer could have been uttered 
 in that state of society where a man is honoured according to the number of his 
 children, and where sterility is almost universally counted as a reproach. 
 
 ' Dally, Anlhrop. Review, pp. 103 104, M.iy 1864. 
 
 "■ ' Im vierten Grad lassen wirs zu, im dritten abcr wollen wirs nicht zugeben ; 
 nicht zwar um des Gewissens willcn, sondern um des bosen Exempels willen unter 
 den geizigen Bauren, die wUrden um des Guts willen auch ihre niichsten 
 Blutsfreundinnen nehmen. Wenn man ihncn den dritten Grad zuliesse, so 
 gewohneten sie im andern Grad zu heyrathen. Sind doch sonst Jungfrauen gnug, 
 warum sollcn dicselbcn sitzen bleibcn ?' (Reich, Elu, etc. p. 135.) 
 
SHAKESriiARE AN'D liURTOX 2/ 
 
 gets SO hopelessly confused, it is very proper that many 
 canons should have been enacted to prohibit such marriages.' 
 Shakespeare is the first author I have met with who recom- 
 mends crosses : — 
 
 ' Our madams mock at us ; and plainly say 
 Our mettle is bred out ' ^ 
 
 but this may be for the same reason as Robert Burton, who 
 urges the necessity of occasional crosses, not because in-and- 
 in breeding creates disease, but because he considers that any 
 previous disease in the parents becomes intensified : ' For 
 these reasons belike the Church and common-wealth, humane 
 and divine Lawes, haue conspired to avoide hereditary 
 diseases, forbidding such marriages as are any whit allied ; 
 and as Mcrcatiis adviseth all Families, to take such, si fieri 
 possit qttce maxime distent natiira, to make choice of those 
 that are most differing in coplexion from the ; if they loue 
 their owne, and respect the common good. And sure I thinke, 
 that it hath beene ordered by Gods especiall providence, that 
 in all ages there should be, as vsually there is, once in 600 
 yeares, a transmigration of Nations, to amend and purifie their 
 brood, as we alter seed vpon our land, and that there should be, 
 as it were, an invndation of those Northerne Got/ies, Vandales, 
 Scythians, and many such like Nations, which come out of 
 that continent of Scandia, and Sarmatia, as some suppose, 
 and ouerranne, as a deluge, most parts of Europe and Africke, 
 to alter for our good, our complexions, which were much 
 
 ' Reich, Ehe, etc., p. 141. But Beza forgot that a very stringent and wide 
 law indeed is requisite to prevent confusion if we choose to make it ; for, let A 
 marry B, and C, his father, marry D, a daughter of B by a former husband. 
 Then A becomes father-in-law to his own father, C. A's step-daughter becomes 
 his step-mother. C becomes his own son's step-son. D becomes her own grand- 
 mother, because she is the mother-in-law of her mother. Let, further, D 
 have a child, F. F is then brother of A, because both have the same father, C. 
 But B, A's wife, is grandmother to F, her daughter's child. Therefore, A 
 becomes grandfather of his brother. Let, further, A have a child, E. Then D, 
 his grandmother, is also his halfsister ; and C, A's father, is at once grandfather 
 and brother-in-law of E. A is step-father of D, who is grandmother to E. 
 Therefore A is great-grandfather of his son. D is half-sister of E, and step- 
 mother of A. Therefore A is the nephew of his son. The relationships in this 
 case might be carried on indefinitely. Much the same would follow if father and 
 son married two sisters. 
 
 - Shakespeare, Henry V., act iii. sc. v. 
 
28 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 defaced with hereditary infinnaties, which by our lust and in- 
 temperance we had contracted. A sound generation of strong 
 & able men were sent amongst vs, as those Northerne men 
 vsually are, and innocuous, free from riot, and free from diseases. 
 To qualifie vs, and make vs as those poore naked Indians are 
 generally at this day ; and these about Brasile (as a late 
 Writer relates) in the Isle oi Maragnan, free from all hereditary 
 or other contagion, where as without help of Physicke they 
 Hue commonly 120 yeares, or more.'' Campanella also re- 
 commends crosses, for he sa}-s that in order to render marriages 
 more fertile, and to prevent any infraction of the laws of the 
 Church, Italians, Dutch, and Spaniards should intermarry. 
 Yet he recommends this quite as much to consolidate the 
 Spanish monarchy as for any other reason.^ Bishop Jeremy 
 Taylor compares marriage with a mother to a river returning 
 to its source, or to the marriage of to-day with yesterday. 
 Further, he says it is a contradiction of rights that anyone 
 should be at once the superior and inferior of the same person ; 
 that there is a natural abhorrence of such mixtures ; that 
 brothers and sisters would not have a chance of choosing 
 elsewhere, and would marry while yet too young ; that if. 
 there were but one sister in a large family they might all fall 
 in love with the same sister ; or they might do the same if 
 there were several sisters, and quarrel in consequence. Yet 
 he ridicules those who, ' making the law of Nature to be a 
 sanctuary of ignorance and an artifice to serve their end, just 
 as the pretence of occult qualities is in Natural Philosoph)-,' 
 would use it as a standpoint to forbid the intermarriage of 
 first-cousins ; and gives the following reasons ' why the Pro- 
 jectors of the Canon law did forbid to the fourth or to the 
 seventh degree.' ' They that were for four gave this grave 
 reason for it. There are four humors in the body of man to 
 which because the four degrees of consanguinity doe answer, 
 
 ' Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, pp. 81, S2 (Pt. I. Sec. II. Subs. 6). Oxford, 
 1 62 1. This last passage seems very hard on the doctors 1 
 
 " Th. Campanella, De Monarchia Uispanica, 1640. Lib. xv. :— ' Turn ne 
 ecclesise nimis onerentur : et quo foecundiores reddantur, Itala; cum Flandris aut 
 Hispanis connubio jungantur. * * * At vero ut Ilispani cum Italis et Flandricis 
 mulieribus unam familiam constituant, perutile est Hispani« : sic enim mundus 
 paulatini mores Hispanicos induet.' 
 
JEREMY TAYLOR AND DUGARD 29 
 
 it is proportionable to Nature to forbid tlic marriacje of osc ns 
 to the fourth degree. Nay, more ; there are four Elements ; 
 Ergo. To which it may be added, that there are upon a 
 man's hand four fingers and a thumb. The thumb is the 
 surf's, or common Parent ; and to the end of the four fingers, 
 that is, the four generations of Kinred we ought not to marry, 
 because t/ie life of man is but a span long. There are also 
 four quarters of the world ; and indeed so there are of every- 
 thing in it, if we please, and therefore abstain at least till the 
 fourth degree be past. Others who are graver and wiser 
 (particularly Bonavenlure) observe cunningly, that besides 
 the four humours of the body, there are three faculties of 
 the Soul, which being joined together make seven, and they 
 point out to us that men are to abstain till the seventh 
 generation. These reasons such as they are, they therefore 
 were content withall, because they had no better : yet upon 
 the strength of these they were bold even against the sense 
 of almost all mankind to forbid these degrees to marry.' ' 
 Almost the same reasons are advanced by Amyraut. He 
 considers there is an innate horror of incest which he accounts 
 for in this way : our horror of marriage with parents is due 
 to our respect for them ; for since in a monarchy no one can 
 be subject and monarch too, so no one can marry his mother 
 and thus become monarch over her as her husband, and 
 subject to her as her son ; while in our sisters we see the 
 representative of our mother, therefore neither can we marry 
 with them.- Dugard says that one argument he has heard 
 against the marriage of cousins-german is that they ' do not 
 thrive, and that God shews by the ill prospering of them that 
 such Marriages are unlawfull, and by no means approv'd of 
 by him.' One judgment ' which is said often to accompany 
 these Marriages ' is ' a Want of Children and a Barrenesse,' 
 which he has ' taken notice of * * * not only from the Mouthes 
 of some,' but has seen 'in print too, and that from no less a 
 Man then the Pope.' They were also blamed for hindering 
 
 ' Jeremy Taylor, Duct. Dubit., book ii. chap. ii. rule iii. sees. 18, 19, 20, 27, 
 34, 66. 
 
 '' Amyraut, Considerations sur ks Droits par Usqueh la Nature a ReigU- les 
 Mariages, pp. 258 286. 
 
30 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 the spread of relationship.' But if ' some ' were of this opinion 
 'others' were certainly not. In a curious Dutch pamphlet 
 published in 1668, and translated into English the same year,'^ 
 a fictitious account is given of the discovery of a colony of 
 English people, of some ten or twelve thousand, all descended 
 from a man and four women, who were wrecked on 'a fourth 
 island in Terra Austral is Incognita.' The first gentleman is 
 stated to have been the happy father of forty-seven children 
 by his four wives, and these children marrying among them- 
 selves produced the population already mentioned within 
 seventy -eight years from the landing of the original parents ! 
 Montesquieu places difference of age in the first rank of natural 
 prohibited degrees. Were a man permitted to marry his 
 mother, he says, she would be aged long before he would. 
 Marriage between father and daughter he thinks forbidden, 
 because it is the office of a father to bring up his daughter 
 morally, and hence he has a natural abhorrence of corrupting her. 
 The horror of incest in the collateral degrees he ascribes to the 
 same source, for brothers and sisters are brought up in moral 
 conduct at home ; while uncles stand in the place of fathers. 
 Even a teacher, or other persons living under the same roof, 
 would for these reasons not like to intermarry.^ 
 
 We should be led too far were we to enter into and discuss 
 the many interesting questions connected with marriage and 
 the development of relationships. What concerns us at present 
 is merely to establish the fact that the prohibitions on mar- 
 riages between near kin arc not due to any innate horror of 
 incest, or to any observation of evil results, or indeed from 
 any desire to avoid marriages of this sort. But there are still 
 two branches of the subject pertinent to our inquiry which 
 may be briefly discussed ; namely, the cause of the recognition 
 of relationship through males, and the cause of endogam)-. 
 
 We have seen that so long as there were no moderately 
 
 ' Dugard, The Marriages of Cousin Germans Vindkattd, pp. 30, 31, 36, 
 S3. 97- 
 
 = Onldeckinge van 't Eylandt van Pines, zijnde een waerachtige Beschryvinge 
 van 't vierdte Eylandt in 't Zuyder onbekent Lant, zo van desselfs Vruchlun, 
 Dieren, Gelegcntheyt, als mede de voort-teclinge de Engelse Natie, &c. op't 
 selve Eylandt. 
 
 ■• Montesquii-u, De r Esfrit Jes I.ois, book xxvi. cliap. xiv. 
 
KFXOGNITION OK MALE RELATIONSHIl' 31 
 
 permanent unions between single pairs of primitive people, so 
 long the relationship of father must be unknown, or at most 
 a matter of inference from the resemblance of the child to a 
 possible father ; but the mere fact that these inferences were 
 made ' is sufficient to show that savages do not ignore the share 
 of the male parent in his offspring, even when they do ignore 
 all relationship through males, and Mr. Morgan's tables of con- 
 sanguinity show that, though primitive man modestly refused 
 to hazard a guess as to the male parent, he was quite cogni- 
 sant of male relationship, calling all possible fathers father, 
 and ail possible brothers brother. Wesee, then, male relation- 
 ship recognised, great uncertainty as to fatherhood, and suc- 
 cession through women alone, the obvious deduction being 
 that succession was through females only because the father- 
 hood was uncertain ; which is confirmed by history and 
 modern instances, as shown in the preceding pages. Should, 
 however, fatherhood become certain, or moderately certain, it 
 is obvious that succession through males must be recognised ; 
 on the other hand, it is equally certain that for long after re- 
 lationship through males was recognised there was no assur- 
 ance that the reputed father was the real father. Now, we 
 have seen that children belonged to the community of the 
 mother first ; and secondarily to the mother's male relations ; 
 we have only, therefore, to suppose that when a woman 
 became the captive of her husband, or his tribe, there would 
 be an unwillingness to allow her progeny to belong to the 
 mother's tribe ; and since the father belonged to the victors' 
 tribe the child might be adopted into it. That this was actu- 
 ally done is shown by Professor Robertson Smith ; and, as he 
 points out, it could not have been done at all, unless in most 
 cases the putative father was actually the father, and in all 
 cases the mother his property.^ Mr. McLennan thought that 
 in most cases this recognition came through group marriao-es, 
 or polyandry, but even he saw that this was not alwajs the 
 
 ' Herodotus, e.g. says of the Machlyes : Mi'{i>' 54 iitlKowov twp yvvaiKuv 
 iroiiovrai, niri avvoiKiovris, KT-qyijSdy re tii<r-y6ix(voi. inehv 54 yvvaiKl tJ) TraiSi'oi- 
 bZphv 7fVr)Tai, ffufKponeovai Js Tuvrh 01 ivSpes rplrov /XTivhs, Ka] ti? &y oUri ruy 
 avipuv rh irai5/o»', tovtov Tra^s vofiiQirai. iv. 1 80. 
 
 ' Smith, Kinshif and Marriage, etc. chap. iv. and p. 278. 
 
32 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 case,' and recognised that when a woman became the property 
 of her husband her progeny also became his.^ From this 
 followed property in children even when the wife was not a 
 captive, but had been purchased by her husband. With the 
 rise of the idea of succession through males, the part of the 
 mother was lost sight of in proportion to her insignificance as 
 a slave ; and hence, as Bachofen was the first to point out, 
 arose the remarkable custom of the father lying-in when his 
 children were born, known as ' faire la couvade.' ' The more 
 striking the custom,' says Bachofen, ' the more must it be 
 founded on some reasoning. The wider it is spread, the more 
 evident that it cannot be due to caprice or chance.' =* And the 
 reasoning is shown in the story of Orestes, which will be dis- 
 cussed in the next chapter. So the Egyptians held that a child 
 was indebted to its father alone for its existence, while the 
 mother was little more than a nurse, according to Diodorus,^ 
 whose statement is remarkably confirmed by a painting in the 
 tomb of Rameses VII., a monarch of the twentieth d}-nasty.= 
 Mr. Tylor, indeed, objects to this explanation of the custom of 
 the couvade, that the Arawacs of Surinam, although they 
 practise it, reckon relationship solely through females ; « but 
 this is most probably a transition state, where the father is 
 beginning to be recognised, yet old ideas of relationship still 
 prevail. When once the relationship through males is recog- 
 nised, and women become personal property, the development 
 to succession through males alone is a necessary consequence ; 
 but the development is slow, and in few cases entirely obliterates 
 old notions of the stronger relationship through women. 
 
 For the sake of greater clearness, I have drawn up in the 
 accompanying table a sketch of the development of marriage 
 law. In the first stage mankind is on a level with beasts, and 
 no restrictions are recognised. In the second, while there is 
 no restriction as regards the members of the community, a 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, p. 1 74, note ; Patriarchal Theory, p. 231. 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, 284. ' Bachofen, Das Muttenecht, p. 256. 
 
 < Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, 1st series, ii. 64, 65. 
 
 » That this idea is not impossible even to moderns, see .Sterne's Tristram 
 Shandy, 1819, i. 393. Boswell also had serious doubts on the subject ; see Life 
 of Johnson, 1848, p. 472, note 3. 
 
 " Tylor, Review in the Academy, Fcbrurvry 26, 1876, p. 199, on Hcllwakl's 
 Cullurgcschiclilc. 
 
SKETCH PLAN OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARRLAGE LAW. 
 [Note. —The Arabic numerals are merely to assist in reference, and do not suggest any order of development. ; 
 
 FIRST STAGE. 
 Hetairism, or Promiscuity. 
 
 SECOND STAGE. 
 
 THIRD STAGE. MATRIARCHAL 
 
 (.5) 
 ndividual property in females ir 
 of foreign blood. Children 
 mother's kin. 
 
 Beenah and Mota, or temporary unions, generally 
 exogamous, which continue only so long as the hus- 
 band remains with his wife's tribe. Children belong 
 to the mother's kin. l 
 
 Deega, or purchase of a wife, who follows her husband, 
 but does not belong to his tribe. Children belong to 
 the mother's kin. 
 
 FOURTH STAGE. TRANSITION. 
 
 Communal Hetairism, sometimes modi5ed by tem- 
 porary unions with totem restrictions, condoned by 
 pre-nuptial or yearly hetairism, and aftenvards 
 e.\piatory rites. Children take the mother's totem. 
 
 Thibet Polyandry. One 
 wife of several brothers. 
 allotted to the husbands in 
 
 ToDA Polyandry. One set o 
 marry one set of sisters in 
 Children belong to the family. 
 
 . belong to the husband's 
 
 STAGE. PATRIARCHAL. 
 
 or communal marriage, with 
 jan imported into the tribe. Chi 
 I belong to the reputed husband. 
 
 with anyone not 
 prohibited degrees. 
 
 SIXTH STAGE. 
 
 SEVENTH STAGE. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF MARRIAGE LAW 33 
 
 certain right of property is recognised in tiic captor of a 
 foreign woman, but all children are children of the communit}-. 
 In the third stage the former systems of relationship continue, 
 but the children of foreign women are considered as quasi- 
 foreigners, and a sort of individual property is recognised 
 when the ceremony of capture has been gone through ; but 
 no individual property is recognised in women of the same 
 female descent as the would-be owner. Hence gradually 
 restriction as to marriages between persons of the same kin on 
 the female side, or of the some totem. From this idea of pro- 
 perty implied in the individual possession of a wife the custom 
 naturally develops of the purchase of wives, cither with or 
 without the right to own their children. The early promis- 
 cuosity dies out, since relatives sell their female relations, and 
 men prefer to have slave-wives. Then relationship through 
 males begins to be recognised ; and at last we arrive at the 
 comparatively civilised ideas of true marriage. Only when 
 the old ideas of common property in the women of the tribe 
 have died out can individual marriages with women of the 
 tribe take place, often only after expiatory rites, and the 
 idea of stronger relationship through females crops up again 
 in the superior right of a relative to the hand of his female 
 relations, especially when the community considers itself 
 superior to neighbouring communities. When individual 
 families begin to be recognised, pride of race is a natural 
 consequence ; and when surrounding communities are in- 
 ferior, that pride will forbid intermarriage ; hence we get what 
 Mr. McLennan called Endogamy. 
 
 Endogamy is founded entirely on pride of blood, and 
 prevailed always, as it still prevails, where a superior race, 
 or even a superior family, is in the neighbourhood of inferiors. 
 Did we argue like those who assert that exogamy was invented 
 to avoid consanguineous marriage, by parity of reasoning 
 we have a right to say that exogamy was found by every race 
 to be only fit for savages, and that no civilised race could be 
 formed without a law prohibiting marriage with foreigners. 
 On examination of the customs of various people we find 
 that this is universally the case with every civilisation of anti- 
 
 D 
 
ske: 
 
 [Note.— Th( 
 
 (2) 
 
 kidual wives Ijy capture. Ch 
 
 belonging to the tribe. 
 
 I 
 
 (4) 
 
 Individual wives by capture. Children 
 
 belong to the mother's kin. 
 
 Individual property 
 of foreign blood, 
 mother's kin. 
 
 es modified by tem- 
 restrictions, condoned by 
 tairism, and afterwards 
 ike the mother's totem. 
 
 Thibet Polyandry. One woman the 
 wife of several brothers. Children 
 allotted to the husbands in succession. 
 
 I 
 (13) 
 Tod A Polyandry. ( 
 marry one set of sis 
 Children belong to the 
 
 I 
 
 (IS) 
 
 Polygamy in which the husband has the 
 
 right to his wife's sisters. 
 
 I 
 (18) 
 Marriage w'ith anyone not 
 prohibited degrees. 
 
 I 
 
 (9) 
 inal marriage, with a 
 ,ed into the tribe. Chil- 
 the reputed husband. 
 
DEVELOl'MENT 01- MARRIAGE LAW 33 
 
 certain right of property is rccofjnised in the captor of a 
 foreign woman, but all children arc children of the community. 
 In the third stage the former systems of relationship continue, 
 but the children of foreign women are considered as quasi- 
 foreigners, and a sort of individual property is recognised 
 when the ceremony of capture has been gone through ; but 
 no individual property is recognised in women of the same 
 female descent as the would-be owner. Hence gradually 
 restriction as to marriages between persons of the same kin on 
 the female side, or of the some totem. From this idea of pro- 
 perty implied in the individual possession of a wife the custom 
 naturally develops of the purchase of wives, either with or 
 without the right to own their children. The early promis- 
 cuosity dies out, since relatives sell their female relations, and 
 men prefer to have slave-wives. Then relationship through 
 males begins to be recognised ; and at last we arrive at the 
 comparatively civilised ideas of true marriage. Only when 
 the old ideas of common property in the women of the tribe 
 have died out can individual marriages with women of the 
 tribe take place, often only after expiatory rites, and the 
 idea of stronger relationship through females crops up again 
 in the superior right of a relative to the hand of his female 
 relations, especially when the community considers itself 
 superior to neighbouring communities. When individual 
 families begin to be recognised, pride of race is a natural 
 consequence ; and when surrounding communities are in- 
 ferior, that pride will forbid intermarriage ; hence we get what 
 Mr. McLennan called Endogamy. 
 
 Endogamy is founded entirely on pride of blood, and 
 prevailed always, as it still prevails, where a superior race, 
 or even a superior family, is in the neighbourhood of inferiors. 
 Did we argue like those who assert that exogamy was invented 
 to avoid consanguineous marriage, by parity of reasoning 
 we have a right to say that exogamy was found by every race 
 to be only fit for savages, and that no civilised race could be 
 formed without a law prohibiting marriage with foreigners. 
 On examination of the customs of various people we find 
 that this is universally the case with every civilisation of anti- 
 
 D 
 
34 THE MAkKIAClE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 quity, as it still is, with scarcely an exception, out of Europe. 
 With noble or royal families this is carried further, and 
 not only is marriage outside the nation or tribe forbidden, 
 but it is forbidden with any but the nearest kin. Apparently 
 also the results would justify the contention that marriage 
 with kin was enjoined because it was found to be beneficial, 
 seeing that half-breeds (as I shall show in a later chapter) are 
 nearly always inferior to either parent, that those nations 
 who were endogamous were invariably superior to their neigh- 
 bours, and that those families who prided themselves most 
 on their blood were superior to others. In Fiji the chiefs 
 who marry their relations are a much finer set of men than the 
 common people who do not. The Persians, the Egyptians, 
 the Greeks, the Romans, the Astecs, the Peruvians, and the 
 Indians were all endogamous, sometimes incestuous, and 
 always superior to their neighbours. But, as a matter of fact, 
 the only reason in all these cases was pride of race, and the 
 prohibition of foreign marriages was only useful so long as 
 their civilisation was ahead of that of their neighbours, after 
 which it must become a hindrance to progress. For the 
 same reason a neighbouring nation or a tribe of low degree 
 might be compelled to be endogamous, because its neighbours 
 disdained to intermarry ; such is the case with many Indian 
 castes. We never see endogamy practised excepting in cases 
 of pride of blood or of isolation ; and those who practise it, 
 themselves explain the cause as an endeavour to avoid the 
 contamination of ignoble blood. 
 
 In the next chapter I propose to apply these principles 
 and show that the prohibited degrees are in conformity with 
 them, so far as they can be traced in actual practice and in 
 history, and are not otherwise explicable. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE RESTRICTIONS UPON MARRIAGE IN HISTORY AND 
 IN SAVAGE COMMUNITIES. 
 
 THE most ancient community of which we have any 
 record (with the possible exception of the early 
 Assyrian) is the ancient Egyptian ; nor have we any direct 
 information concerning their marriage law before a com- 
 paratively recent period, and can only infer from their 
 later customs, and from the general law of development of 
 marriage prohibitions, that they passed through the phases 
 marked in the table before they reached the earliest recorded 
 stage, namely, the fifth. They were divided into castes, 
 within which it was proper to marry ; ' and not only the 
 royal line, but the meanest of the common people married 
 their sisters, as among the ancient Peruvians. Beyond the 
 legend of Isis and Osiris and some confirmation from the 
 monuments, however, we have no direct proof of this of 
 earlier date than the Ptolemaic period.^ Thus in the story of 
 Satni-Khamois, translated by M. Maspero from a papyrus, 
 one parent says to the other, ' Ahuri, our daughter, loves her 
 brother Noferkephtah ; let us marry them together, as is the 
 custom ; ' ^ and no such custom could ever arise anew among 
 the common people, exclusive of the royal line, if it had ever 
 been forbidden. Diodorus, again, who, although he wrote in 
 the late Ptolemaic period, in all probability had access to 
 reliable information, mentions it as customary.' Philo 
 Judaeus, who was born in Alexandria, says that the law of 
 
 ' Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, first series, i. 239, 245. 
 ' Ibid. ii. 63. 
 
 ' Maspero, Contes Populaires de VEgyptt Ancienne, p. 52. 
 ' Dioiiorus, i. 27. 
 
36 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Egypt permitted marriage with sisters without any restric- 
 tion as to blood or as to relative age.' We have, further, 
 a practical proof in the history of the Ptolemys : for so 
 politic and conciliating a king as Ptolemy Soter, the first 
 of a new dynasty of stranger kings, with a by no means 
 undisputed title, and in a nation peculiarly intolerant of 
 foreigners and of foreign customs, would hardly have dared 
 to marry his daughter Arsinoe to her uterine brother 
 Philadelphus ; nor would Philadelphus have been able to 
 deprive his elder brothers of the kingdom, or have been 
 so powerful and popular, if his marriage had in any way 
 "hocked the ideas of his Egyptian subjects as to what was 
 right and proper. 
 
 It is impossible to give an idea of the extent to which the 
 Ptolemys practised incest without a genealogical table, for 
 the more unions of that kind there are, the more difficult is 
 it to follow such complicated relationships. In the annexed 
 table it will be seen how they habitually married their sisters, 
 their nieces, their cousins ; indeed, in all degrees excepting 
 those of the direct ascending and descending line. And with 
 what result ? Niebuhr assures us that a visible curse rested 
 on the dynasty of the Ptolemys,^ a conclusion he seems to 
 have come to from that preconceived notion which so many 
 people have ; for he tells us that several physiologists assert 
 that such marriages lead to scrofula, idiocy, etc., and that 
 their evil results are clearly seen in those villages where the 
 peasantry intermarry among themselves.^ This assumption 
 I have considered below ; but that the Ptolemys were under 
 a manifest curse is most certainly an unwarrantable assertion. 
 In their genealogical table it may be seen that they were 
 neither sterile '' nor particularly short-lived. That they were 
 
 ' Cited by Adam, Fortnightly Revictv, 1865, ii. 714. 
 
 ' Niebuhr, Vortrdge iibsr alle Gesch. iii. 570. 
 
 > Ibid. 
 
 ' Mr. Galton, 'm\\is Hereditary Genius,^. 152, says: 'The result of Ptolemaic 
 experience was distinctly to show that intermarriages are followed by sterility." 
 He seems to base this assumption on the fact that the last queen, Cleopatra, was 
 only an illegitimate ik':^n iiM;ini oi i'l.ilcmy I. The following table will show the 
 facts more clearly. I!v ilii- mIi. n "ill be seen that the I'tolcmys had as many 
 children when they main .1 ih. n 11 .msi relatives as when they married strangers. 
 It is true that appaixiuly they li.i I few children, but we must bear in mind that 
 
Ptolei 
 i.r. 323—285. I 
 'hilip of Macedonf. 
 ihoni he aflcrwaif 
 -agus. Ptolemy n 
 ounger son Plolen 
 
 Ptolemy, or C 
 Unjustly deprived 
 dom for his younj 
 Ptolemy Philcuielph 
 liecl his half-sistrt , 
 l)iit was put to deatl 
 by the Gauls. 
 
 im.ii' 
 
 Aniyntas, the 
 in, and first 
 f Berenice. 
 
 [Ptolemy I, ofTered his hand to, and was accepted 
 by, Cleopatra, the daughter of Philip of Macedon ; 
 and if his reported parentage is true, his half-sister. 
 She was killed by the jealous Antigonus before his 
 marriage could take place. She had been previously 
 married to her paternal uncle.] 
 
 Lysimachus ( I ) [ = NlC^EA. 
 
 Married first Nicsea, then Amas- 
 tris, afterwards Arsinoe ( I ). [ = Am astris. 
 
 I 
 
 [= ARSINOk(2) = 
 
 First married Ptolemy II., Philadel- 
 plius, and then, as Niebuhr conjec- 
 tures, Magas ; and if this is cor- 
 rect, afterwards Demetrius, son of 
 Ptolemai's, and the betrothed of 
 
 Magas (i) 
 Son of Berenice ( I ) and Philip. 
 Hence uncle by marriage of his 
 wife Arsinoe (2). He died suffo- 
 cated by his own fat. 
 
 Fall of the 
 
 Jimptre, i. 286, note. London, 
 

 ana daugntei 
 Lagus, the 
 her husband. 
 
 Ptolemy I., Soter^ 
 ■ of Antigone and 
 reputed father of 
 
 Son of Amyntas, the 
 Macedonian, and first 
 husband of Berenice. 
 
 [Ptolemy I. offercU his hand to, and was accepted 
 by, Cleopatra, the daughter of Philip of Macedon ; 
 and if his reported parentage is true, his half-sister. 
 She was killed by the jealous Antigonus before his 
 marriage could take place. She had been previously 
 married to her paternal uncle.] 
 
 Ptolemy, or Ceraunus 
 Unjustly deprived of his king- 
 dom for his younger brother, 
 Ptolemy P/iiladeiphus. He mar- 
 ried his half-sista- Arsinoe (i), 
 but was put to death soon after 
 by the Gauls. 
 
 Married first Alex- 
 ander, son of Cas- 
 Sander, King of Ma- 
 cedon ; and after his 
 death, Agathokles, 
 a son of Lysima* 
 
 Laodice (i) 
 Daughter 
 
 of Achssus 
 
 Ptolemais 
 Fourth wife 
 ofDemetrius, 
 by whom she 
 
 First marrie 
 afterwards her 
 
 by whom he had 
 J a daughter. By 
 irriage with his 
 
 ed Lysimachus, 
 ;r brother Ptolemy 
 passing marriage 
 f- brother Ptolemy 
 
 Lysimachus (i) [ = > 
 
 Married first Nicsea, then Amas- 
 tris, afterwards Arsinoe { i ). [ = / 
 
 [= ARSINOii(2) 
 
 First married Ptolemy II., Philadet- 
 phus, and then, as Niebuhr conjec- 
 tures, Magas ; and if this is cor- 
 rect, afterwards Demetrius, son of 
 Ptolemais, and the betrothed of 
 
 e(2} 
 
 Son of Berenice (i) an 
 Hence uncle by marria 
 wife Arsinoe (2). Hed 
 
 Antiochus II. = Berenice (3) 
 
 King of Syria. Second wife of Antiochus 
 
 First married Lao- II. She was murdered 
 
 his former wife Lao- 
 
 Lysimachus 
 .Survived Ptolemy III., 
 but was murdered by 
 Ptolemy IV. 
 
 Ptolemy III. 
 
 Reigned B.C. 247 — 222. 
 His reign was brilliant, 
 and his conquests were 
 
 brother t 
 
 He\ 
 
 ; Bere- 
 
 Berenice (2) 
 Grand-daughter of Berenice (i). 
 Cousin and sister to her husband 
 Ptolemy III. Married about B.C. 
 247, Survived her husband, but 
 was murdered by her son Ptolemy 
 IV., or Philopator. 
 
 Ptolemy IV., or Philopator 
 Reigned B.C. 222— 205. Hegave 
 himself up to every vice and de- 
 bauchery, thus shortening his life. 
 
 Afterwards put todeath 
 by her husband and 
 brother, Ptolemy IV., 
 Philopator. 
 
 Magas (2) 
 Murdered by his 
 brother Ptolemy 
 
 NTiocHUs = Laodice {4) = Seleucus IV, 
 t husband. Married her 2nd husband. 
 
 Cleopatra (i) 
 Married B.C. 193. Survived 
 her husband, and acted as 
 regent for her son till her 
 death, b.c. 173- 
 
 Ptolemy V., or Epiphams 
 He was a child four or five years old at 
 his father's death, and his reign lasted from 
 B.C. 205 to 181, when he was poisoned at 
 the age of 29. 
 
 Ptolemy VI., or Philometor 
 A mere child at the death of his father. He 
 reigned B.C. iSl— 146, and was mild, wise, and 
 humane. A part of his reign was in conjunc- 
 tion with his brother. 
 
 Cleopatra (2) 
 Married first her brother Philometor^ ar 
 after his death her other brother Physcot 
 but was soon divorced. 
 
 Ptolemy VII., or Physcon 
 Married first his sister and brother's widow, 
 Cleopatra (2), and then his niece Cleopatra (4), 
 the daughter of his brother and his sister. He 
 was bloated and unwieldy. Reigned alone B.c. 
 146-117. 
 
 Demetrius IL 
 
 2nd husband. 
 
 Antiochus VHI. 
 Married his first-cousi 
 Tryphaena (4), daughte 
 of Ptolemy Physcon, an 
 
 Married his aunt 
 Selene, the former 
 wife of Ptolemy 
 
 Cleopatra (3) 
 Thrice married. First to Alex. Balas ; 
 second to Demetrius ; third to Antio- 
 
 Ptolemy, or Eupator 
 Murdered by his uncle 
 Ptolemy VII., Physcon. 
 
 Cleopatra (4) 
 I ambitious and clever woman. Mar- 
 ried her uncle Ptolemy VII., Physcon, 
 ■ • .89. 
 
 Antiochus IX. 
 
 Married his first- 
 cousin Cleopatra 
 (5), former wife 
 of her brother 
 Ptolemy VIIL 
 
 Ptolemy VHI., then her first- 
 ■ ■ ' ■ , IX. Mur- 
 r TryphDena. 
 
 Ptolemy VIIL, or .^('/rfr//. 
 Calle<l Lathyrtts also. The son of 
 Ptolemy Physcon, by his niece. He 
 was of full age on his father's death, 
 and reigned B.C. I17-S1. He first 
 married his sister Cleopatra (5), but 
 was compelled to abandon her by his 
 mother, though he loved her tenderly, 
 and marry his other sister Selene. He 
 was mild, even too mild, but free 
 from vice. Besides his daughter 
 Berenice by Cleopatra (5), he had two 
 illegitimate sons. 
 
 Second wife of Ptolemy VHI. 
 Then wife of her nephew, 
 Antiochus XL, and then her 
 other nephew, Antiochus X. 
 
 Ptolemy IX., 
 
 Cleopatra {4). He 
 
 Ptolemy XL, or Anktes 
 Illegitimate son of Ptolemy VIIL, 
 Reigned u.c. 80—58. Was de- 
 throned, but reigned again B.C. 
 55—51. A man devoted to vice 
 and debauchery. 
 
 Berenice (4) 
 Married her uncle Ptolemy IX., or Alexander. 
 She had no children by him, but was left queen 
 by his death. After a short reign she married 
 her former husband's son, Ptolemy X., who mur- 
 dered her nineteen days after marriage. 
 
 Ptolemy X. 
 or, Alexander II. 
 Married his first-cousin 
 and father's widow, 
 Berenice (4), to gel 
 the kingdom, and t" 
 
 murdered her. 
 
 which time he 
 
 Cleopatra (6) 
 Ruled Egypt, first in conjunction with 
 her brother and nominal husband, 
 Ptolemy XII., and after his death 
 with her other bn.ther. I'toleniy XIII. , 
 
 her husband after her brother's death 
 till poisoned by her. Cleopatra was 
 born B.C. 69, and committed suicide 
 B.C. 30, when aged 38. She was am- 
 bitious, l)eautiful, clever, learned, and 
 
 Ptolemy XIIL 
 The younger brother, an< 
 second husband of Cleopatn 
 (6). He was made king afte 
 his brother's death, in conjunc 
 tion with his sister. She tool 
 him to Rome, u.c. 45, and poi 
 soncd him in the same year. 
 
 ArsinoK (4) 
 murdered by her elder 
 , Cleopatra (6). 
 
 Berenice (4) 
 Was put on the throne when 
 her father was expelled, and 
 consequently murdered on his 
 
THE LINE OF THE PTOLEMVS 
 
 not more subject to disease than would be expected from 
 their kixurious habits, or stupider than the generality of 
 people, we gather from history : nay, some of them were 
 singularly sharp-witted ; Cleopatra, the daughter of a brother 
 and sister, grcat-grand-daughter of another brother and 
 sister, and a great-great-grand-daughter of Berenice, who was 
 both cousin and sister to her husband, might with advantage 
 compare in astuteness to Catherine de Medicis of France. 
 While as for that hardness of heart and utter carelessness of 
 human life on which Niebuhr lays so much stress, as a clear 
 manifestation of the curse under which they laboured, it was 
 not peculiar to the Ptolemys, nor even to other barbarous 
 civilisations of that time, but may be seen in the history of 
 any despotism that has ever been written. No one will deny 
 
 their fertility cannot be compared to the present fertility of Europe ; they had 
 hareems Uke other Eastern nations, and we should compare their fertility there- 
 fore to that of other great Eastern potentates. There were besides many other 
 
 
 Relationship to 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name. 
 
 
 
 Children by 
 
 Children by 
 
 
 
 
 First Wife. 
 
 Second Wife. 
 
 First W,fe: 
 
 Second. 
 
 Ptolemy 11. 
 
 No blood relative. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 4 
 
 O 
 
 „ III. 
 
 Cousin and sister. 
 
 , 
 
 4 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Scarcely connected. 
 
 ' 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Niece, the 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 daughter of 
 
 
 
 
 
 his sister <jHrf 
 
 
 
 
 
 his brother. 
 
 
 
 „ VIII. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 „ I.\. 
 
 
 Niece, the 
 daughter of 
 a brother 
 and sister. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 First-cousin. 
 
 
 ° 
 
 - 
 
 causes for their apparent sterility; thus the sister of Ptolemy II. had only one 
 child by her former husband, who was no relation to her, and she was besides 
 itiuch her brother's elder ; the wife of Ptolemy IV. was murdered ; Ptolemy VII. 
 divorceil his first wife soon after marriage ; Ptolemy VIII. also soon divorced his 
 first wife, .and he was forced to abandon his second ; Ptolemy IX. was killed in 
 battle ; while Ptolemy X. murdered his wife nineteen days after marriage. It is 
 hardly to be expected, when we consider all these little circumstances, that they 
 should have had many children. Though the Cajsars did nut u^sually marry 
 relatives we may note that their unions were even more infertile than those of the 
 Ptolemys : ' There had been no example of three successive generations on the 
 throne,' says Gibbon ; ' the marriages of the Caesars (notwithstanding the permis- 
 sion and the frequent practice of divorces) were generally unfruitful' {Deilimand 
 Fall of the Roman Empire, i. 286, note. London, 1838.) 
 
that apparcnlly they liai.1 few childr 
 
THE LINE OF THE PTOLEMYS 
 
 37 
 
 not more subject to disease than would be expected from 
 their kixurious habits, or stupider than the generality of 
 people, we gather from history : nay, some of them were 
 singularly sharp-witted ; Cleopatra, the daughter of a brother 
 and sister, great-grand-daughter of another brother and 
 sister, and a great-grcat-grand-daughter of Berenice, who was 
 both cousin and sister to her husband, might with advantage 
 compare in astuteness to Catherine de Medicis of France. 
 While as for that hardness of heart and utter carelessness of 
 human life on which Niebuhr lays so much stress, as a clear 
 manifestation of the curse under which they laboured, it was 
 not peculiar to the Ptolemys, nor even to other barbarous 
 civilisations of that time, but may be seen in the history of 
 any despotism that has ever been written. No one will deny 
 
 their fertility cannot be compared to the present fertility of Europe ; they had 
 hareems like other Eastern nations, and we should compare their fertility there- 
 fore to that of other great Eastern potentates. There were besides many other 
 
 
 Nam.. 
 
 Relationship to 
 
 cZvx 
 
 No. of 
 Children by 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 First Wife. 
 
 Second Wife. 
 
 First W.fe' 
 
 
 Pto 
 
 emy 11. 
 
 No blood relative. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 4 
 
 O 
 
 
 , III. 
 
 Cousin and sister. 
 
 , 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 IV. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y. 
 
 Scarcely connected. 
 
 ' 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 , YI. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 _ 
 
 
 YII. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Niece, the 
 daughter of 
 his sister and 
 his brother. 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 , VIII. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 Sister. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 , IX. 
 
 
 Niece, the 
 daughter of 
 a brother 
 and sister. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 First-cousin. 
 
 
 O 
 
 - 
 
 causes for their apparent sterility ; thus the sister of Ptolemy II, had only one 
 child by her former husband, who was no relation to her, and she was besides 
 much her brother's elder ; the wife of Ptolemy IV. was murdered ; Ptolemy VI f. 
 divorced his first wife soon after marriage ; Ptolemy VIII. also soon divorced his 
 first wife, and he was forced to abandon his second ; Ptolemy IX. was killed in 
 battle ; while Ptolemy X. murdered his wife nineteen days after marri.ige. It is 
 hardly to be expected, when we consider all these little circumstances, that they 
 should have had many children. Though the CcSsars did not usually marry 
 relatives we may note that their unions were even more infertile than those of the 
 Ptolemys : ' There had been no example of three successive generations on the 
 throne,' says Gibbon ; ' the marriages of the Ca;sars (notwithstanding the permis- 
 sion and the frequent practice of divorces) were generally unfruitful ' {Declintand 
 Fatloflhi Roman Empire, i. 286, note. London, 183S.) 
 
38 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 that the Egyptians decayed in wealth and power almost 
 from the accession of the Ptolemys ; but the theory is unten- 
 able that this was due to their consanguineous marriages. 
 When we consider that they did not introduce this custom, 
 but followed it, and that it must have been customary for 
 centuries before, we see at once how absurd such a theory 
 must be.' The Egyptians began to decline when they ceased 
 to be that exclusive people they formerly had been ; ^ not 
 probably from the admixture of fresh blood, of which there 
 could be but little, but rather from the increase of vice and 
 the general decay which always accompanies disregard of the 
 marriage tie. For when Plato visited them not long before 
 their conquest by Alexander, although they had been open 
 to Greek intercourse for centuries, he was greatly struck by 
 their strong conservatism,* a conservatism which was lost in 
 its most important part under the vicious example of their 
 foreign conquerors, spoiled as they were by Asiatic luxury. 
 
 The earliest glimpse afforded to us of the relations between 
 the sexes among the ancient Greeks is from Homer. Here 
 the late Mr. McLennan is successful in showing how traces 
 linger of the time when, though the wife followed the 
 husband, her children still belonged to her tribe, and were not 
 related to their father. Thus Lykaon begs Achilles to spare 
 
 his life :— 
 
 ' since not from the same womb 
 
 Am I as Hector is, who killed thy friend,' 
 
 although Priam was the father of both." But that there is 
 some relationship through the father is shown by Achilles' 
 reply that every Trojan shall die, and 
 
 ' The offspring, most of all, of Priam's race.'''' 
 In the legend of Meleager, his maternal uncles disputed his 
 right to give away the spoil of the boar to anyone but them- 
 selves." Mr. McLennan also gives a few more instances of 
 
 ' Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, first series, ii. 63. 
 
 = Sharpe, History of Egypt, i. 224. ' I^ui. 1. 231. 
 
 < McLennan, Fortnightly Reviav, 1S66, p. 572. 
 
 » n€>l I' ail, Upiiiiot6 -/f iraliaiv. Iliad, xxi. 1 05. 
 
 • McLennan, ut sup. p. 587. 
 
ANCIENT GREEK MARRIAGE LAW 39 
 
 the superiority of relationship through the mother. Thus, 
 Laothoe, mother of Lykaon, the daughter of Altes, king of 
 the Leleges, evidently still belonged to her father's kin, as 
 well as her child, because Priam refers to her power to ransom 
 her son through her father's riches ; ' but Helen, as a captive 
 wife, stood on a different footing : she was the property of her 
 captors, and, as such, her husband's brothers, after Paris was 
 slain, disputed her hand as his heirs. 
 
 This state of civilisation was therefore a transition state, 
 when male kinship was beginning to be recognised ; but the 
 prohibited degrees were still undefined. In the wanderings 
 of Ulysses he relates : — ^ 
 
 ' At the floating isle /Eolia we landed, 
 Where /Eolus the son of Hippotas 
 Beloved of the immortal gods commanded. 
 His house was walled about with brass. 
 Th' ascent unto it was all one smooth stone. 
 Twelve were his children, six sons and six daughters ; 
 In wedlock he had joined them one to one.' 
 
 Nor does it seem quite clear that Homer reprobates CEdipus 
 so much for marrying his mother as for killing his father : 
 
 ' Mother of CEdipus, Jocasta bright, 
 Who blindly did a horrid act by fate ; 
 Not knowing him, she married her own son ; 
 Not knowing him, he his own father slew.' * 
 
 Alkinous and Arete, again, are uncle and niece ; but, since 
 she was the daughter of Alkinous' brother Roxenor, she 
 would not be related to him if no relationship were recog- 
 nised through males."* Occanus is made to marry his sister ; 
 and, if we are to believe that from this union sprang three 
 thousand rivers, as many Oceanides, and a sprinkling of 
 daughters, the marriage cannot be considered as unfruitful ; 
 or, what is the important point to mark, the ancient Greeks 
 had no idea that such marriages might be unfruitful. Hype- 
 rion, a brother of Oceanus, also married his sister, and likc- 
 
 ' McLennan, h/jh/. p. 573. » Homer, Odyssey, book x. I-7. 
 
 ' Ibid. xi. 270. ' Ibid. vii. 53-68. 
 
40 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 wise had a very numerous family ; and here the lady is 
 described as own sister.' Homer and Hesiod both make 
 Zeus the brother of his wife Hera, the offspring of Heaven 
 and Earth. Iphidamus, too, is described as marrying his 
 mother's father's daughter, probably by another wife, who, 
 therefore, would be considered to be no relation to him.'* 
 Mr. Morgan thinks that we have direct evidence in Plato of 
 tradition of those times when there was communal hetairism ' 
 and all children were common to the tribe, and that this 
 tradition of the good old times induced him to recommend a 
 similar condition for his ideal republic* 
 
 The Athenians attributed the transition from female to 
 male kinship to the time of Kekrops, as a punishment to 
 the women for having outvoted the men in the dispute 
 between Poseidon and Athenae ; ^ but there is no doubt that 
 relationship was not agnatic at a very much later period than 
 this legend supposes. Thus Mnesiptolema, the daughter of 
 Themistokles' second wife, was married to her half-brother 
 Archeptolis. Kimon, also, married his half-sister Elpinike 
 because she was too poor to obtain a husband suitable to 
 her birth ; after which Kallias, a rich Athenian, fell in love 
 with and married her, while Kimon married Isodike. Nepos 
 says such marriages were both" customary and lawful.^ 
 Marriage with a uterine sister was not lawful, however, 
 
 ' Homer, Hymns, Eis "HMoi/, 4, 5 :— 
 
 Vy\}i.^ yap Eypucpaetrirar ayaKAeirV 'XTrfp'.wv, 
 hvroKaaiytfr^TriV, % ol TtKe KaWifi-a riKva. 
 
 ■' Homer, Iliad, xi. 221-226 :— 
 
 'I<^i5a|Uas 'AyTTji-op-STis, rjus re, fi-iyas rt. 
 hs Tpdip-n Iv &pr,Kri epL$<i\aKi, firiTdpi ^-qhav 
 KiiTiT^r Tiiv 7' lepEil/f 5if/iois ivi -rvrdhv Urra 
 fi-qTpoTrdrwp, Sstiktc 0€arw KaWiirdpriov. 
 avrap eVei ^' ij/Sris ipiKvSeos iksto /xi-rpov, 
 ahrov fiiv KartpvKf, SlSoy 5' Hye Bvyarepa tJi". 
 
 ' No. 3 in the table, p. 33. 
 
 < Plato, Timaus. Morgan, -^mhVh/ .Soi/cO', p. 4'7- 
 
 > Varro, quoted by St. Augustine, De Civilate Dei, vni. 9. Cited by 
 Bachofen, Das Muttarechi, p. 41. 
 
 ' Nepos, Praf. and Kimon, chap. i. It is true that Athenaeus says : K!^»yos 
 8' "E\TrwlKTi tJ iSeXip^ Trapavi/icis avvivTos, (Iff SaTfpov iKMSflavs Ko\\(o ica! 
 <pvyaS(ve4^Tos'. ixicrebw' l\a$e t^s KoBiiSoi/ outoS 6 OfpiK^vs t6 T5 'EXiriv/Kp m'X" 
 e?ivat{book xiii.) And Andokides tells us he was ostracised for this: OVtims 
 ^waTpaKKTav K(fiu'^a !ia ■n-apafofj.iai' 8ti tJ) aS€K<p\) rp iauToO trvvaKnaf {In Oral. 
 
ORESTES AND THE ERINNYES 41 
 
 neither was marriage in the direct ascending or descending 
 line.' Hence we see that at the time Solon made his laws, 
 relationship on the male side was still slight, but begin- 
 ning to be recognised. Bachofen was the first to point out 
 that we have clear literary evidence of this change of 
 opinion about fifty years after Solon in the ' Eumenides ' 
 of yEschj-lus. The Erinnyes were the avengers of crimes 
 committed within the kin, or group of the same blood, 
 and they figure in this play as the accusers of Orestes 
 before the gods for the murder of his mother. ' I slew her,' 
 replies Orestes ; ' of this there is no denial ; * * * she slew her 
 husband, my father.' ' Why,' continues Orestes, ' did you not 
 punish her for that deed and relieve me of the necessity ? ' 
 ' She was not the kindred of the man she slew,' answer the 
 Erinnyes. ' But,' argues Orestes, ' am / allied by blood to my 
 mother ? ' ' Yes,' say the Erinnyes, ' for did she not nourish 
 you within her zone .? ' ' No,' says Apollo, ' she is not the 
 genitrix, who is called the bringer-forth of the child,-* but 
 nurse to the newly sown offspring. The male is the producer, 
 and she like a stranger preserves the plant for a stranger.' ' I 
 give my vote for Orestes,' says Athense, ' for no mother pro- 
 duced me.' The votes are counted and found equal, and 
 hence Orestes is saved ; but the Erinnyes lament that the 
 ' youthful gods ' have overridden the ' ancient laws.' They 
 will curse the land in the way that they, as the daughters of 
 Mother Earth, have peculiarly the power ; children and vegeta- 
 tion shall be blighted. 'You are older, and wiser than I,' says 
 
 contra Alkibiadem.) But Demosthenes says that Kimon was punished because he 
 tried to usurp the government (W(foc?-J. Aristocrat.) ; and, .is li.iyle points out 
 {Diet. ' Cimon'), Athenceus does not say that Kimon was banished l>ccause he married 
 his sister. Tlutarch says he was banished because the people were piqued at an 
 insult the Athenian troops had received from the Lacedemonians, with whom 
 Kimon was supposed to have close relations. Andokides is the earliest author 
 (circa B.C. 390) who attacked Kimon's reputation on the score that this act was irapa- 
 V01J.0S. He wrote about a hundred years after, and was then merely attempting to 
 show, without very much regard for truth, that in the good old times all offences 
 against morality were severely punished. He even accused Alkibiades of incest 
 with his mother, daughter, and sister (book v. chap, xx.) Alhenaeuswas a gossip 
 who wrote more than a hundred years after Andokides. 
 
 ' Xenophon, Memorabilia, book iv. chap. iv. 20. Ovkow koI yovtas rt/j-Si/ 
 TrauTCLxoi voniCfrai ; Kol toCto, itprj. OvKovf (Col /jtrtre yovias toktI li-tyvvirem unrf 
 
42 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 AthenjE ; ' but to me also Zeus has given no small share of 
 wisdom.' She assures them that they have not been dis- 
 honoured ; that in future, despite the change in the ancient 
 laws, they will continue to be held in honour, and finally suc- 
 ceeds in soothing them. 
 
 This may have represented the opinion at the time of 
 ^schylus, and according to Euripides it did.' The idea 
 was common to several peoples, as we shall see below ; and 
 Sir H. Maine points out that Hippokrates ' in energetically 
 combating this opinion, and contending that the child de- 
 scended from both parents, seems to admit that it was a 
 prevalent heresy.' '^ But it could not have lasted very long, for 
 scarcely a hundred years later Aristotle makes no mention of 
 it, and talks of children resembling sometimes one parent and 
 .sometimes the other. In the tenth book, falsely attributed to 
 him indeed, but probably dating from about the same period, 
 both parents are clearly stated to have an equal share in the 
 offspring.' 
 
 McLennan cites the celebrated suit about the succes- 
 sion of Hagnia, the property being first claimed by his 
 mother, as the sister of his cousin ; and when that claim was 
 disallowed, as the mother of Hagnia. But on that ground 
 she also failed, because, as Isseus states, the mother had no 
 affinity carrying legal rights. Now, Solon had already 
 altered the law which forbade a man to leave his property 
 away from his relations, and permitted property to be left as 
 the testator pleased, so long as there were no legitimate sons} 
 Athene, also, gives as her reason for siding with Orestes that 
 she considers the male to be the lord of the house.'' It 
 is plain, therefore, that the law of relationship as regards pro- 
 perty had changed from a fundamental change in the theory 
 of relationship ; but it is equally plain that the conservative 
 tendency always observable as regards marriage had hindered 
 the development of this idea in the law of the prohibited 
 
 ' Stobtci Florileghim, Oxoii. 1823, iii. III (p. 455. l-^^vii.) CilcJ by Sir II. 
 Maine. 
 
 '-' M.iine, Dissertation on Early Law, 1883, p. 203. 
 
 ' Aristotle, book vii. chap. vi. 4, 5 ; book x. chaps, v. vi. 
 
 ' Plutarch, Solon. > /Eschylus, Eummidcs. 
 
CHANGE TO MALE RELATIONSHIP 43 
 
 degrees. Thus, the Hetairie were not regarded as practising 
 a dishonourable profession, while respectable women were 
 treated as inferior beings ; a remainder from the time when 
 married women were captive strangers ; the Hctairae were kith 
 and kin.' Though marriage in the direct line was forbidden, 
 we have seen that marriage with a non-uterine sister was 
 permitted ; a remainder from the time when there was no 
 relationship through males. But where property was in 
 question the old law was forgotten. Before Solon, even, a 
 man could sell his sister or daughter ; a power which Solon 
 limited to cases where she had dishonoured her family.^ An 
 heiress was bound to marry her nearest relation in the 
 time of IsjEUS ; and even when she was married, if another 
 claimant appeared with a better title, her husband was obliged 
 to give her up. If a man left a portionless daughter her 
 nearest relative was bound to marry her, or to give her a 
 suitable portion.' At first sight the Iketides of ^Eschylus 
 seems rather difficult to reconcile with this. The daughters 
 of Danaus are fleeing from their first-cousins, the sons of 
 .(Egyptus ; they hate the proposed impious nuptials, as they 
 call them.'' Let them perish before they consummate this 
 marriage forbidden by the law.'' ' Why will you not many 
 them .' ' inquires the Argivc king to whom they appeal for 
 refuge. 'That we may not become the handmaidens of the 
 race of JEgyptus.' ' Do you mean that you dislike them, or 
 that such a marriage is unlawful ? Who would reject their 
 kindred as their lords .' ' « A reply far from clear, since the 
 king continues : ' If the sons of ^Egyptus have power over 
 you by the law of your state, saying that they are nearest of 
 kin, who would wish to oppose them .' You must therefore 
 prove that according to the laws of your home they have 
 no authority over you.' The daughters of Danaus do not. 
 
 Sir J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 127. ' riut.irch, Solon. 
 
 Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Koinan Antu]uities,^ art._ 'Epiclerus.' 
 'AW' abrT07€>'^ Tiv <pvi,avofa. •^a.fi.ov Alyinrrou ira Sal/ OffC/SJi t' avoTa^dfi.fi'ai. 
 Xlp.v TVOTf KiKTpav, uv ei/iis (tpya, mfieTefiiJa/ifi'o;' TrarpaSeKfiav t)>5' 
 
 nuTfpo kot' fx^P'^"' *f '^^ f') Be/xi! \iyfis : Ti's 5' ii/ (piKovs uraiTo TOi>$ 
 
44 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 however, do so ; indeed the play is one of the most imperfect 
 that has come down to us, and was perhaps originally some- 
 what clearer. But the key seems to be the unwillingness of 
 the maidens to marry their brethren ; they have not got the 
 law on their side ; no law would reject kindred as the natural 
 husbands, but they are unwilling to become the handmaidens 
 of these men. During their father's lifetime he has the dis- 
 posal of their hands. ' How can a bird that devours a bird 
 be pure ? and how could he who marries an unwilling maid 
 from an unwilling father be undefiled .' It seems to be an- 
 other case of the transition from the law previous to Solon 
 and the law after him. Terence's play of ' Phormio ' hinges 
 entirely on the right kinsmen have to heiresses.' 
 
 The same law was common to Sparta. Thus Leonidas 
 married Gorgo, the heiress of Kleomenes, his half-brother, as 
 he was her nearest relative ; and Anaxandrides, the father of 
 Leonidas and Kleomines, married his own sister's daughter. 
 Should a father fail to decide on whom he would bestow his 
 daughter's hand, the king decided who among the kinsmen 
 should be the lucky man.'- 
 
 The Greeks were essentially an endogamous race, as were 
 most ancient civilisations surrounded by barbarians.^ The 
 Greek colonies owe their existence even to the law that the 
 children of a mixed marriage had no right of citizenship ; 
 these were forced to emigrate, for they were no true sons of 
 Hellas. Athenian law prohibited, under very severe penalties, 
 
 ' ' Lex est, ut orbse, qui sunt genere proxumi, 
 
 Eis nubant : et illos duccre eadem hcec lex jubet. 
 Ego te cognatum dicam, et tibi scribam dicam : 
 Paternum amicum me adsimulabo viiginis : 
 Ad judices veniemus : qui fueiit pater, 
 Quae mater, qui cogiiata tibi sit ; omnia hrec 
 Confingam : quod erit mihi bonum alque commodum, 
 Cum tu horum nihil lefcllcs, vincam scilicet.' 
 
 Phormio, Act i. sc. ii. 
 And again in the Adtiphi : 
 
 ' Ha-c virgo orba est patre : 
 Hie meus amicus illi genere est proxumus : 
 Iluic leges cogunt nubere banc' 
 
 Adilphi, Act iv. sc v. 
 ' Smith's Dictionary of Antiqxiities, art. ' Matrimonium.' 
 ' In Persia a marriage was not considered legitiniate unless both of the con- 
 tracting parlies were Persians. Hence the surname Nolhus, which some of the 
 Persian kings bore. — Niebuhr, Alle Gcscltichle, ii. 219. 
 
SPARTAN MARRIAGE LAW 45 
 
 the marriage of a citizen with a foreigner.' ' No Spartan,' 
 says Grote, ' could go abroad without leave, nor were strangers 
 permitted to stay at Sparta ; they came thither, it seems, by 
 a sort of sufferance, but the uncourteous process called xenclasy 
 was always available to remove them, nor could there arise in 
 Sparta that class of resident metics or aliens who constituted 
 a large part of the population of Athens, and seem to have 
 been found in most other Grecian towns.' '^ The old law 
 which forbade a Herakleid to marry a foreigner was revived 
 by Lysander to turn out Leonidas II., who had married an 
 Asiatic wife. In the same way Thcmistokles was not a citi- 
 zen because his mother was a foreign woman ; and it was a 
 charge of .^schines in his attack on Demosthenes, the orator, 
 that his was no true Greek descent.' Perikles himself was no 
 real citizen, because his parents were not both Greeks ; but 
 the son of Perikles by his Greek wife was a true Athenian 
 citizen. The numerous class of aliens which thus arose in 
 nearly every Grecian town formed a real danger ; for they 
 could not be expected to remain content without that 
 franchise which the lowest man of the populace possessed. 
 They had, therefore, every now and then to be driven forth, 
 with directions to found a colony, by which expedient they 
 remained loyal to the mother country while they extended 
 her power."* 
 
 According to Philo, the Spartans were allowed to marry 
 a sister-uterine, but not a sister-german. But this, observes 
 Mr. McLennan, is probably untrue, and is discordant with 
 the habits of the Lacedemonians.' A Spartan husband was 
 forbidden the luxury of jealousy ; husband and wife were 
 brought together utterly regardless of likes or dislikes ; and 
 those were married together who were the finest physically.'" 
 Xenophon asserts that mother and daughter were sometimes 
 married to the same individual ; ' but Grote says that though 
 
 ' Art. ' Matrimonium ' in Smith's Dictionary of Antiquitiis., etc. 
 
 2 Grote, History of Greece, ii. 515. 
 
 ' Arts. ' Leonidas IL' and ' Theniistocles,' in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Biography ; and Perier, Mem. de la Soc. d'Antltrop. de Paris, 1S70, 
 iii. 215. ■■ Niebuhr, Alte Geschichte, i. 305, 306. 
 
 * McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 221, 222. 
 
 • Grote, History of Greece, ii. 511. ' McLennan, Prim. Mar. p. 298. 
 
46 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 some women were the recognised mistresses of two hearths, 
 yet this sort of bigamy was strictly forbidden to the men, 
 and never perhaps permitted, except in the extraordinary 
 case of King Anaxandrides, when the royal Herakleidan line 
 was in danger of becoming extinct. Polybius also states that 
 three or four Spartan brothers sometimes had only one wife 
 between them.' 
 
 To this state of the marriage law Grote partially ascribes 
 the fall of Sparta, on the general ground that ' it has been ob- 
 served often as a statistical fact, that a close corporation of 
 citizens, or any small number of families, intermarrying 
 habitually among one another, and not reinforced from with- 
 out, have usually a tendency to diminish.' ^ But I have pro- 
 tested, and must protest, against an assumption on such vague 
 grounds, when there are so many other facts to account for 
 the same thing. We find Xenophon pointing with ' pride to 
 the tall and vigorous breed of citizens which the Lykurgic in- 
 stitutions had produced. The beauty of the Lacedsemonian 
 women was notorious throughout Greece, and Lampito, the 
 Lacedsemonian woman introduced in the Lysistrata of Aris- 
 tophanes, is made to receive from the Athenian women the 
 loudest compliments upon her fine shape and masculine 
 vigour.'^ Now this 'beauty and masculine vigour ' is just 
 what the offspring of consanguineous marriages are said not 
 to have ; moreover, the old prohibition against the naturalisa- 
 tion of strangers was no longer in force when Sparta began 
 to decline.'' Hence we find that at a time w-hen marriages 
 between near kin were frequent, and human beings were 
 treated as a modern breeder would treat his cattle, the people 
 were handsome and healthy, and there was no sign of de- 
 generation. But at the same time we cannot be astonished 
 that an institution like that of Lykurgus, the foundation of 
 which was so utterly contrary to all human nature, should 
 ultimately sink under the waves of a reform more gracious to 
 human sympathies and more tender to its passions. Nor 
 
 ' Grote, History of Greece, ii. 511, 512. 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 526, 527. 
 
 » Ibid. pp. 513, 514. • IbiJ. p. 527. 
 
MARRIAGE LAW OF THE JEWS 47 
 
 should we wonder that that reform should involve disturbance 
 and even anarchy. 
 
 The development of Jewish marriage law was no excep- 
 tion to the general rule. The earliest recorded form is a 
 transition from the third to the fourth stages.' Female kin- 
 ship is still the only recognised blood relationship, but the 
 real heads of families are beginning, by a sort of adoption, to 
 
 Isa.ic = Rebecca 
 
 I 
 
 Bethuel 
 
 I 
 
 I I 
 
 Jacob = Leah 
 
 Daughte 
 
 Rachel Moab 
 
 Daughter 
 
 Levi 
 
 I I 
 
 Jochebed Kohath 
 
 Amram 
 
 I 
 Reuben 
 Simeon 
 
 Issachar 
 Zebulon 
 Dinah 
 
 Mo 
 
 Mil 
 
 consider their children as their own. Thus Abraham married 
 Sarah, his half-sister on the paternal side ; ^ Nahor married 
 
 ' Unless we look upon the incest of Lot as a return to the earlier form of the 
 third stage. But the story is only valuable in showing that the Jews were not 
 very much shocked at the idea. 
 
 * Josephus makes her his niece. See Jewish Antiquilics, book i. chap. vii. 
 sec. I. But this is only the common tr.idition, taken for granted by Josephus and 
 by Jerome, who supposed Sarah to be identical with Iscah, the daughter of 
 Haran, and sister of Lot, called the ' brother ' of Abraham (Genesis xiv. 14, 16 
 
48 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Milcah, his brother's daughter ; ' Amram, the father of Moses, 
 married his paternal aunt, Jochebed ; ^ Othniel married Ach- 
 sah, his niece, the daughter of his brother Caleb ; ' Amnon 
 might have married his sister on the father's side, Tamar, if he 
 had taken the trouble to get his father's consent.^ A passage 
 in Ezekiel, where the prophet enumerates the sins of Jerusa- 
 lem, is confirmatory of this ; for in saying another ' hath 
 humbled his sister, his father's daughter,' ^ he shows that, not- 
 withstanding the prohibitions in Leviticus, there was still a 
 tradition that a sister, a father's (but not a mother's) daughter, 
 might legitimately marry her brother. 
 
 By the prohibitions in Leviticus a man is forbidden to 
 marry a mother, a step-mother, sister, half-sister (whether 
 legitimate or not), grand-daughter, aunt (whether by con- 
 sanguinity on either side or marriage on the paternal side), 
 daughter-in law, brother's wife (except when she came under 
 the provisions of the levirate law), step-daughter, wife's 
 mother, step-grand-daughter, or wife's sister during the wife's 
 life. To these degrees the Talmudists added grandmother, 
 great-grandmother, great-grandchild, etc. But these pro- 
 hibitions must date from a period much later than is usually 
 
 See Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, arts. ' Sarah ' and ' Iscah'). Abraham himself 
 speaks of her as the daughter of the same father, but of a different mother (Genesis 
 
 XX. 12). 
 
 • Genesis xi. 26-29, and xx. 12. ' Exodus vi. 20. 
 
 ^ Joshua XV. 17. 
 
 ' Tamar, indeed, says : ' No such thing ought to be done in Israel ' ; liut this 
 means no such outrage to propriety, for she adds : ' Speak unto the King, for he 
 will not withhold me from thee' (2 Samuel xiii. 13). Absolom, her brother- 
 german, takes upon himself to avenge the outrage, which effectually disposes of 
 the commentators who sought to explain the permission expected from the King 
 by the fact that the Jews were forbidden to marry a foreign wife. See Exodus 
 xxxiv. 16 ; Deuteronomy vii. 3 ; Ezra x. 2 ; Nehemiah xiii. 27. Only the 
 tribe of Benjamin was permitted, on an exceptional occasion, when they had 
 been nearly exterminated (see Judges xxi.) A soldier, however, might at once 
 prostitute a woman taken in war, after which she was entitled to a month's 
 mourning, and then he might marry her after naturalisation (Deuteronomy xxi. 
 13). Now, say the commentators, Tamar's mother, Maachar, was a prisoner of 
 war, Tamar was the offspring of the first intercourse, before her mother was 
 naturalised or had become a wife of David ; hence she was nobody's child, no 
 relation to Amnon, and even no relation to her uterine brother Absalom. See 
 Turieu, Critical History of the Doctrines, etc. of the Church: Trans. 1705, i. 
 208, 209. 
 
 5 Ezekiel xxii. II : 'And one hath committed abomination with his neigh- 
 bour's wife ; and another hath lewdly defiled his daughter-in-law ; and another in 
 thee hath humbled his sister, his father's daughter.' 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 49 
 
 attributed to them, since relationsliip is fully recognised on 
 both sides, and marriages are prohibited by them which com- 
 monly took place, at least until after the reign of Solomon. 
 
 McLennan points out that in Genesis,' when a man mar- 
 ries he shall ' leave his father and mother, and shall cleave 
 unto his wife ' ; which is just what actually happens in the 
 case of Beenah marriages, and was the case when Jacob 
 married Laban's daughters. That is, that in place of pur- 
 chasing a wife, as Rcbekah was purchased for Isaac,^ he served 
 for a wife, he left his family and entered that of Laban ; his 
 children were not his father's descendants, but Laban's 
 descendants.* When he steals away with them the marriage 
 becomes Sadica, upon condition that Jacob takes no other 
 wives.'' Professor Robertson Smith also points out that when 
 Samson married a Philistine wife she remained with her 
 people, as in mota marriages.'' In times a little later we see 
 signs of Ba'al marriage in the custom of inheriting a father's 
 wives. There is Ishbosheth, for instance, jealous and fearful, 
 like all weak Oriental potentates, of his famous general Abner ; 
 and why? Because he has married one of Saul's wives, 
 which is the right of his successor.'" So Absolom is advised 
 by the wise Ahitophel that his usurpation will not be complete 
 unless he takes his father's concubines." So again Solomon 
 slays Adonijah, since he looks upon his request that Abishag 
 may be his wife as a sign of rebellion." In the same way, an 
 heiress was bound to marry her nearest kinsman. This law, 
 it is said,^ was enacted on the death of Zelophehad. He had 
 five daughters and no sons, and they, on his death, claimed 
 their inheritance in the tribe of Manasseh, which was allowed 
 on condition that they married ' their father's brother's sons.' '" 
 So Ruth claimed Boaz as her kinsman, and therefore as 
 bound to marry her ; but he told her there was another more 
 nearly related, who had the priority." Again, we read that 
 
 ' Genesis ii. 24. 
 
 = Genesis xxiv. 53. » Genesis xxnI. 43. 
 
 ' Genesis xxxi. 50. See McLennan, Patriarchal Theory, pp. 41, 44. 
 ' Judges XV. Smith, Kinship aiid Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 176. 
 " 2 Samuel iii. 7. ' 2 Samuel xvi. 21. 
 
 " 1 Kings ii. 22. ' Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, art. 'Zelophehad.' 
 
 "■ Numbers xxvii. I-II ; xxxvi. I-12. " Ruth iii. 12, 13. 
 
 E 
 
so THE MARKIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 the sons of Mahli were Eleazar and Kish, ' and Eleazar died, 
 and had no sons, but daughters : and their brethren the sons 
 of Kish took them.''' St. Joseph and the Virgin Mary are 
 reputed to have been first-cousins : thus : — 
 
 Matthan or Matthat. 
 
 1 I 
 
 Jacob Heli = Anna 
 
 I (or Jehoiakim, I 
 
 or Joachim. ) 
 
 Joseph = Mary 
 
 It is extremely doubtful whether Mary was the daughter 
 of Heli or of Jacob. If the genealogy given by St. Luke 
 refers to Mary, her father was Heli ; if again Joseph was the 
 son of the younger brother, and married his cousin, the 
 daughter of his elder brother, she was the daughter of Jacob.^ 
 But, as Michaelis points out, the Virgin Mary must have been 
 an heiress, since she had to travel to Bethlehem, where the 
 property probably was, to be registered. And since she was 
 an heiress, and no heiress durst marry out of her tribe — seldom, 
 even, out of her family — it follows that, in all probability, 
 Joseph was nearly related to her.^ 
 
 Not only heiresses, but as a rule near kin intermarried, 
 and marriages with foreigners were forbidden.^ Thus Abra- 
 ham makes his servant swear not to let his son marry a 
 'daughter of the Canaanites.'^ So Isaac charged Jacob.'' 
 Esau had married two wives ' of the daughters of Heth,' 
 greatly to the anger of his parents ; and so, to please them, 
 he added his cousin ' Mahalath, the daughter of Ishmael, 
 Abraham's son ' to his domestic establishment.' The modern 
 Jews still adhere to the custom of marrying cousins and even 
 nieces. 
 
 The Herods, Greeks in their sympathies, and Jews onh- 
 by policy, seem to have regarded no Jewish prohibitions. In 
 
 ' I Chronicles xxiii. 21, 22. 
 
 ' She was connected by niarri.ige with the trilje of Levi ; hence it has been 
 argued that she was not Joseph's cou.sin ; but apparently on no sufficient grounds. 
 See Smith's Dictionary of the Bihle^ art. ' Mary the Virgin.' 
 
 ' Michselis, Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 1814, i. 422, 423. 
 
 ' See note 4, p. 48, supra. ' Genesis x.\iv. 3, 4. 
 
 ' Genesis xxviii. 1,2. ' Genesis xxviii. q. 
 
Herod (I) 
 CaUed the Great. 
 d. B.C. 4, aged 70. 
 Married ten wives. 
 
 called Anti- 
 pater : justly 
 killed by his 
 
 Cleopatra 
 of Jerusalem. She 
 had a son, Herod 
 
 mentioned. One 
 
 They were both 
 childless. 
 
 PlIASAEL (3) 
 = his first-cousin Sa- 
 lampsio. He had four 
 sons and one daughter. 
 
 first-cousin, the daugh- 
 ter of Salome. Hewas 
 put to death by his 
 
 Alexander (1) 
 = Glaphyra, the daughter 
 of Archelaus (i) king of 
 Cappadocia. Was put to 
 death by his father. He 
 had two sons: I, Alexan- 
 
 Cypros (2) 
 herfirircousin.' 
 
 « Phil 
 
 = Herodias, his half- 
 wards left him and 
 married his half- 
 brother Antipas. He 
 had no sons, 
 d. A.D. r.. 
 
 = the daughter of the 
 King of Aretas. He 
 afterwards, and during 
 the lifetime of his first 
 wife, fell in love with 
 and married Herodias, 
 
 
 = Glaphyra, the 
 widow of his half- 
 brother Alexander 
 (i), although she 
 had had children 
 by her first mar- 
 riage. 
 
 Olympias 
 = Joseph (2) 
 her first-cou- 
 
 = Her first -cousin 
 
 her first-cousin, and 
 
 the palemat side. She died 
 
 = Jotape, or Is 
 tapa, a daughte 
 of the King o 
 
 the daughter of 
 
 the children of fin 
 
 = Herod Philip, her 
 half-uncle. She left 
 him and then married 
 Herod Antipas, also 
 her half-uncle, and 
 her former husband's 
 half-brother, although 
 he was living, and she 
 had had children by 
 that marriage. 
 
 Salome {3) 
 = Philip, her half- 
 uncle. On his death 
 she married Aristo- 
 bulus (3), the son of 
 her cousins. 
 
 = Salome (3) the widow 
 of his grandfather's half- 
 brother Philip, and his 
 
 Berenice (2) 
 = Her uncle Herod (5); 
 and afterwards she mar- 
 ried Polemon, king of 
 
 her father's side. 
 
 Drusus 
 Died before the 
 age of puberty. 
 
ROMAN MAURI. •\(;K LAW 5 I 
 
 the annexed genealogical table it will be scon that they took 
 their brother's wives in the lifetime of the brother, and even 
 though there were children of the first marriage. The table 
 is otherwise instructive ; for they frequently married their 
 nieces, and still more frequently their first-cousins, while they 
 laboured under no ' visible curse,' as Niebuhr says the Ptolemys 
 did, for doing the same thing.' 
 
 Of all nations the early law as to the prohibited degrees 
 among the Romans is the most difficult to trace. Sir H. 
 Maine relies upon this great nation for his theory of primitive 
 marriage law as patriarchal ; ^ and, indeed, so far as Latin 
 records go, the system of male relationship and the power of 
 the oldest male relative was carried to a higher degree than 
 among any other people. 
 
 The /rt/^yrtw/Z/rtj was the grand centre around which all 
 relationship was grouped. His power over his children was 
 as the power of a master over his slaves ; so long as he was 
 alive, and did not choose to manumit or free them, so long 
 were they absolutely subject to his commands. Marriage 
 without manumission did not free any child from allegiance 
 to his father ; hence a husband was not even master over his 
 own wife, unless part of the marriage ceremony had been 
 manumission. As the character of this relationship was so 
 essentially dependent on the father, an emancipated son or 
 daughter was, until the time of Justinian, no longer any relation 
 to him. The one had become the head of a new family ; the 
 other, by marriage afteremancipation, had entered into another 
 family ; and neither would be entitled to any inheritance 
 from their father ; while an unemancipated son, or a daughter 
 married sine convcntione in inatiiiin, since they still belonged 
 to their father's family, would both be entitled to inherit after 
 his death. Should there be no unemancipated children, or 
 adopted child, the inheritance passed to the consangiiinei, or 
 brothers and sisters of the paterfamilias, to the exclusion of 
 the female side ; and should there be no consangidnei the 
 
 ' See iupia, p. 36. 
 
 - Maine, Ancient Lav, 1S85, chap. v. ; and Early La-u; 18S3, cliap. vii. 
 
1 
 
 Herod (i) 
 Called the Great. 
 d. B.C. 4, aged 70. 
 Married ten wives, 
 who were all alive 
 at the same time, 
 except perhaps 
 Mariamne ( 1 ). 
 
 Doris 
 Had a son 
 called Anti- 
 pater : justly 
 killed by his 
 father. 
 
 Mariamne (i) 
 Grand-daughter 
 of Hyrcanus \\. 
 She was put to 
 death by her jea- 
 lous husband. 
 
 = MARIAitv 
 
 Daughter . -^^ 
 "°"' jyl^^and 
 by Herod. 
 
 Phasael (3) 
 = his first-cousin Sa- 
 lampsio. He had four 
 sons and one daughter. 
 
 CYI'ROS (3) 
 = Herod Agrippa ( I ), 
 her first-cousin, and 
 the son of first-cousins, 
 as she herself was. 
 
 Aristobulus (1) 
 = Berenice ( I ), his 
 first-cousin, the daugh- 
 ter of Salome. He was 
 put to death by his 
 father. 
 
 I 
 Alexander (i) 
 = Glaphyra, the daughter 
 of Archelaus (I) king of 
 Cappadocia. Was put to 
 death by his father. He 
 had two sons: I, Alexan- 
 der ; 2, Tigranes. 
 
 Salampsio , 
 = Phasael (3), li 
 
 Herod (5) 
 = Mariamne (3), his first- 
 cousin on the maternal side, 
 and his second-cousin on 
 the paternal side. She died 
 
 A.D. 48. Hethen took for his second wife Berenice (2), 
 his niece, and the daughter 
 of first-cousins, themselves 
 the children of first-cousins. 
 
 I 
 Aristobulus (3) 
 = Salome (3) the widow 
 of his grandfather's half- 
 brother Philip, and his 
 father's first-cousin. 
 
 Berenicianus 
 
 Arist 
 = Jota 
 tapa, 
 
ROMAN marriai;k i,a\v 51 
 
 the annexed genealogical table it will be seen that they took 
 their brother's wives in the lifetime of the brother, and even 
 though there were children of the first marriage. The table 
 is otherwise instructive ; for they frequently married their 
 nieces, and still more frequently their first-cousins, while they 
 laboured under no ' visible curse,' as Niebuhr says the Ptolemys 
 did, for doing the same thing.' 
 
 Of all nations the early law as to the prohibited degrees 
 among the Romans is the most difficult to trace. Sir H. 
 Maine relies upon this great nation for his theory of primitive 
 marriage law as patriarchal ;- and, indeed, so far as Latin 
 records go, the system of male relationship and the power of 
 the oldest male relative was carried to a higher degree than 
 among any other people. 
 
 The /rt/tvyaw/Z/rti' was the grand centre around which all 
 relationship was grouped. His power over his children was 
 as the power of a master over his slaves ; so long as he was 
 alive, and did not choose to manumit or free them, so long 
 were they absolutely subject to his commands. Marriage 
 without manumission did not free any child from allegiance 
 to his father ; hence a husband was not even master over his 
 own wife, unless part of the marriage ceremony had been 
 manumission. As the character of this relationship was so 
 essentially dependent on the father, an emancipated son or 
 daughter was, until the time of Justinian, no longer anj- relation 
 to him. The one had become the head of a new family ; the 
 other, by marriage after emancipation, had entered into another 
 family ; and neither would be entitled to any inheritance 
 from their father ; while an unemancipated son, or a daughter 
 married sine conventione in nianuni, since they still belonged 
 to their father's family, would both be entitled to inherit after 
 his death. Should there be no unemancipated children, or 
 adopted child, the inheritance passed to the consangjiinei, or 
 brothers and sisters of the paterfamilias, to the exclusion of 
 the female side ; and should there be no coitsaii^uinei the 
 
 ' See supra, p. 36. 
 
 - Maine, Attcienl Law, 1885, ch,ip. v. ; and Ear/y La-.v, 1SS3, cliap. vii. 
 
52 THK MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 inheritance went to the agnati, or male descendants of a 
 common ancestor. 
 
 Marriage could be contracted in several ways, according 
 to the position the wife was to occupy in her husband's house. 
 A marriage sijie conventione in nianum did not free the wife 
 from her father's control, or give her into her husband's power. 
 She was still in the position of servitude to her father, still 
 belonged to his family, and her property was not made over 
 to her husband. On the contrary, she could even lend him 
 money at interest, and send her slave to demand repayment, 
 just as if he were a perfect stranger ; while he, on his side, 
 could bring an action against his wife for the recovery of any 
 jewels he might have lent her. Indeed, so separate was the 
 property of man and wife married sine conventione that a law 
 was passed which forbade either to give anything to the other, 
 to the end that the richer of the two should be protected 
 against the constant worry of the poorer.' A woman who 
 contracted a marriage cum conventione went over to her 
 husband's family, and was entirely in her husband's power. 
 She still occupied the position she had formerly occupied in 
 the eye of the law, but she had changed her allegiance. 
 Though she was styled niaterfaviilias, she occupied the same 
 position as her own children, for no one could divide the 
 authority with Vi paterfamilias. In both this and the former 
 kind of marriage the husband was paterfamilias to, and hence 
 absolute master over, his own offspring ; they only differed 
 from each other in respect to the relation of the wife to her 
 husband and her family. 
 
 Consent or cohabitation alone was sufficient to establish a 
 marriage cum conventione, just as in Scotch marriages at the 
 present time ; but if the wife did not wish to enter into her 
 husband's family, she could break the usus by absenting her- 
 self for three days in every year. This usus, which converted 
 a marriage sine conventione into a marriage cum conventione, 
 was, however, abandoned at a later period of their legal 
 history.'' There was, in addition to these forms, a sort of 
 
 ' Laboulaye, Cond. dcs Femmes, pp. 23, 26, 33, 35, 37 ; and Smilli, Diction- 
 ary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, ail. ' Matiinionium.' 
 - Smith, /'/iV. ul Slip. 
 
nKVEI.OPMENT OF KONrAN MAKKIACK LAW 53 
 
 morganatic marriage, known as conaib hiatus, in which the 
 parties were not legally married, and the children belonged 
 to the mother. Neither mother nor children had any claim 
 on the father, but in contracting such a marriage a man was 
 not allowed to transgress the prohibited degrees ; nor, after 
 he had contracted a marriage of this sort, could he enter into 
 another of the same kind during the existence of the first. If 
 he did so the connection was called stupnim, and the offspring 
 could not subsequently be made legitimate, as was allowed by 
 Justinian in other cases.' 
 
 Did we put upon these laws the interpretations they 
 apparently should have, as Sir H. Maine has done, we are 
 immediately met by a number of difficulties. In the first 
 place we have to explain how the Romans alone of all nations 
 began with a stage of marriage law, which we find among 
 other peoples where there is any law at all resembling it, only 
 as a development from a more primitive law. Then we have to 
 account for the semblance of capture in their marriage rights ; 
 the form of marriage sine conventione, which is so like Sadtca 
 marriage ; and the curious one-sidedness of relationship, which 
 nevertheless recognised the nearest female relations as con- 
 sanguinci, which is so like the state of Greek thought already 
 discussed,- where female relationship has just begun to be 
 denied altogether. 
 
 The Messrs. McLennan ^ account for the Roman law of 
 relationship on this latter ground. Ignoring the patricB 
 potestas upon which Sir H. Maine lays every argument,^ and 
 which even Sir John Lubbock ' considers to be the foundation 
 of the Roman law, they point out that it is precisely the same 
 state of things mutatis mutandis as relationship only through 
 females, where all male relationship is disregarded and ig- 
 nored. They therefore in imagination pass back to a period 
 when the Romans were in the fourth stage of our table, the 
 eleventh example, where a woman is captured or brought into 
 her husband's power, and her own kin cut off. If, for example, 
 
 ' Smith, Diet, ut sup. art. 'Concubina'; and Sandars' Iiisl. of Just. pp. Ill, 
 113. '' See pp. 41, 42 of this work, 
 
 s McLennan, The Patriarchal Theory, chap. xiii. 
 * Maine, ut sup. ' Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 159. 
 
54 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 she belonged to the Cat totem, and married into the Wolf 
 totem, her children, in place of being Cats, would become by 
 adoption Wolves. This is all on the ordinary road of develop- 
 ment, as exemplified in other nations ; and when this is once 
 established as customary we have only to suppose that the 
 Romans for a time adopted theories like those of Orestes to 
 invert the former law of relationship altogether from a matri- 
 archal to a patriarchal form. To this !_, may add that the 
 potestas of the Roman ' heavy-father ' may be explained by 
 the same theory. For were the Cats, to take our former 
 example, the equals in caste of the Wolves, we can hardly 
 suppose the wife's kin would consent to a Ba'al marriage for 
 her. She must therefore be either inferior in caste or a 
 captive, and in either case practically her husband's slave. 
 This, no doubt, was the case among all nations where Ba'al 
 marriage first became customary. But among the Romans 
 we find a peculiarly arrogant class of patricians, whose proto- 
 types may and probably did regard any marriage with a 
 woman not one of themselves as contubernium ; her sons, 
 who in an equal marriage would have belonged to her kin, but 
 in this case did not, would scarcely be regarded as equals of 
 freebom patrician boys, and would therefore fall as entirely 
 into their father's power as were his slaves, which is precisely 
 the position of an unemancipated son in Roman law. 
 
 The above is not an impossible explanation, nor even im- 
 probable. It accounts for the difficulties ignored by Sir H. 
 Maine, and for the traces of female relation.ship in the pro- 
 hibited degrees, which would otherwise in the face of agnation 
 be unaccountable. Moreover, it is confirmed by various traces 
 of forms of marriage, such as we find in other communities. 
 Thus Theopompus ' declares that the Etruscans were in the 
 second stage only of our table, the third form, having a com- 
 munity of wives. The rape of the Sabincs, according to the 
 Roman tradition, was also in strict agreement with a similar 
 stage, say number four of the third stage. The next piece of 
 
 ' In Athensus 
 
 XII. ii 
 
 i. 14. 
 
 NrfMO^ 
 
 thai .^7„t1 
 
 wapa ToTs 
 
 wopx"" TOS 7i/rorKos * * • 
 
 Tp.'(()€.; 
 
 V Si TOVS 
 
 Tv^l,r„ov, 
 
 rrdvra to 
 
 ii'K (iadras 8toi> vw 
 
 rpoj ioi. 
 
 ic 'iKavtov. 
 
 
 
ROMAN PROHIBITED DEGREES 55 
 
 evidence is the marriages of the Tarquins. From the traditions 
 the two sons of L. Tarquinius Priscus married the two daughters 
 of theirsistcr, or the two nephews of Tarquinius married his two 
 grand-daughters ; ' it is uncertain what relationship of the two 
 was the true one. If the former, the marriage would belong to 
 the second stage, form three, which is unlikely in view of the 
 surrounding traditions. If the marriage was between cousins, 
 it would come under the third stage, form seven, which is 
 much more consonant with what we might expect. Another 
 remarkable instance is that when Claudius Nero married 
 Agrippina, his brother's daughter, an obsequious senate 
 declared that, though such marriages were not customary, yet 
 they were customary in other nations, nor did any law forbid 
 it' Here we see a struggle between the old ideas and the 
 new, for marriage with a sister's daughter was still forbidden,* 
 and yet the sentiment of the Roman people was against such 
 marriages. Suetonius says no one but an obscure libertine 
 followed Claudius' example.'' Constantius and Constantine 
 forbade the marriage of uncle and niece on either side under 
 penalty of death,^ a prohibition which again appears in Jus- 
 tinian's ' Institutes.' '' According to Plutarch, even the mar- 
 riages of first-cousins was prohibited among the early Romans, 
 until permission was given to a popular favourite to marry an 
 heiress, his first-cousin,' from which I suspect that there may 
 
 ' ' Hie L. Tarquinius, Prisci Tarquinii regis filius neposne fuerit, parum 
 liquet : pluribus tamen auctoribus filium ediderim. Fratrem habuerat Aruntem 
 Tarquinium, mitis ingenii juvenem. His duobus, ut ante dictum est, duse Tulliae 
 regis filise nupserant.' (Livy, i. 46.) 
 
 ' ' Nullo exemplo deducts in domum patnii fratris filiae. » * * Nova nobis in 
 fratrum filias conjugia : .sed aliis gentibus soUemnia, neque lege ulla prohibita ' 
 {Tacit, book xii. 5, 6). ' Subornavit proximo senatu qui censerent, cogendum se 
 ad ducendum earn uxorem » * * dandamque ceteris veniam talium conjugiorum ' 
 (.Sueton. book v. 26). 
 
 ' Gaius, i. 62 ; Ulpian, v. 6. Gothofredus in his notes to the Codex Jusliti. 
 says : 'Quod Dion scribit Nervani vetuisse ne quis h.li\<^iliriv duceret, de sororis 
 nonde fratris filia intelligit.' 
 
 ' Suetonius, In Claud, v. 26. ' Cod. Tlicod. book iii. ///. 12. 
 
 « Sandars' Inst, of Just. p. 107. 
 
 ' Up6repov yap ovk fyd^ovv ras a(p* alfiaros, &(rnfp ou5f vvy T(T0i5oy, ovS'f 
 aS€\<pa.s ya^ovffiv, aAA' o^€ avfix^PV'^av d.i'fi^ta7s (TvpoiKflif iK TOtauTTjy aiVias. 
 'kv^p xpwoTtty ivSf^s, TO 6« i.\\a xp^ffris. ra! Top' ivTivaovv ^ <} Biificf rOiv TtoKnfvo- 
 flivwv apicTKOiV, i'iriii\7)pov avti^iav «x^**' *5n^€, Ka\ itKovTuv ott" ainriv M Tovrcp 
 Si yfi/ofjievri! outoC KaTriyopias, <S SiJiMOS iupeU T7V oiVfa;' iXiyx^i", i\t"r( rh 
 fyK\rifia. yinj<ptird/jiei'Os -iracriv ^{eivai yaixfTv &XP'' iveifiLuiv, ra Sf ayaTtpu 
 K(Ka\v<r6ai. (Plutarch, Qu^st. A'om, 6.) 
 
56 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 have been a prohibition against marriage between first-cousins 
 on the female side in ancient times, which afterwards led to 
 some confusion when agnatic relationship came in. However 
 this may be, the reason given by Plutarch is undoubtedly 
 wrong ; for the Roman like the Greek law compelled an heiress 
 to marry her nearest kinsman.' In later times, cousins un- 
 doubtedly married without let or hindrance. Cicero, for in- 
 stance, says that Cluentius' sister married her paternal cousin, 
 Aulus Aurius Melinus.^ In Liv)-'s oration of Sp. Ligustinus 
 there is this clause, ' My father gave me to wife his brother's 
 daughter.'^ M. J. Brutus married the daughter of his mother's 
 half-brother.^ Quintilian, mourning for the death of his son, 
 says he had intended to marry him to his maternal uncle's 
 daughter.'^ By the annexed genealogical table, it will be seen 
 that Augustus Cassar gave his daughter to his sister's son, 
 Marcellus. Drusus, the son of Augustus, also married his 
 cousin Antonia, the daughter of Octavia. Levilla and Claudius, 
 children of Drusus, married their cousins Caius Csesar and 
 Agrippina, children of Drusus' half-sister on the paternal side. 
 And there are two instances of the children of sisters marrying: 
 namely, Valerius Messala, who married Domitia, the daughter of 
 his mother's half-sisterby the same mother, andM. Aim. Lepi- 
 dus.who married Drusilla, the daughter of his mother's sister, 
 Agrippina. Tacitus '' confirms Plutarch in saying that in the 
 early days marriages between first-cousins were unknown, 
 which would be true if marriages between maternal cousins were 
 forbidden, and if no relationship were recognised on the male 
 side. He adds that as time went on cousin marriages increased 
 in number ; but when Gibbon ' remarks that ' the repeal of the 
 ancient law and the practice of five hundred j-cars were in- 
 
 ' Jirrmv Tiivl'^r, nuct. Dubil. book ii. chap. ii. rule iii. sec. 53, says: 'One 
 Ca.iL: \', I 1. 1 !i i in/ierelrix upon condition, Si comohrino niipsisset.'' He refers 
 to 1. J. ' . '/ subst. ; and Papinian, ' Conditionem illam, si consobrinam 
 
 (luxiii . I1M..I111U, institutioni utiliter adjici posse,' I. 23 et 24, D. de ritu 
 mtfliaruiii. 
 
 ■ Cicero, Orat. pro Cluent. ' Li\7, book xlii. chap, xxxiv. 
 
 ' Smith, Dictionary of Creek and Roman Biography, arts. ' Cato Uticensis' 
 and 'Portia.' 
 
 » Quintilian, Imt. Orat. book vi. Procem. 
 
 " Tacitus, Annal. book xii. 6: Conjugia 'sobrinaruni diu ignorata, tempore 
 addito percrebuisse.' 
 
 ' Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, iii. 128, note 51. 
 
I 
 
 Marcella 
 {the Elder) 
 
 = ist, Sextus Apu- 
 
 leius. 
 
 = 2nd, Julus Anto- 
 
 nius, her step-brother. 
 
 Mar 
 {the y 
 = M. V 
 Agrippa, 
 vorced h' 
 cousin Jul, 
 
 A (3) 
 ;miliu< 
 
 h 
 
 
 srfs<«. 
 
 Three 
 others 
 
 Drusili.a 
 = 1st, Lucii 
 Cassius Long 
 
 = 2nd, M. R. 
 Lepidus. Sf 
 was also accusd 
 ofincest withhi 
 brother Caligul 
 
Caius Julius C/esar 
 
 2nd wife of Caius Octavius. 
 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero (i, 
 
 = 1st, Tiberius, who was forced 
 by Augustus to divorce her. 
 = 2nd, Augustus. 
 
 Marcellus /Eserninus. 
 
 Marcus Antosius 
 = 2iid, Octavia. 
 
 Tiberius Claudius Nero (2 
 Adopted son of Augustus, and a 
 
 -=ist, Vipsania Agrippa, who \ 
 divorced for 
 
 = 2nd, Julia (2), her husband's 
 by adoption, and who 
 
 former wife's father. 
 She had a child, who died young. 
 
 :iMus Drusus Nero Ge 
 
 of Augustus and Livia before hei 
 )rce from Tiberius, died aged 29. 
 
 = ist. 
 
 .(2) 
 
 of her father, M. Claudius Mar- 
 
 - = 2nd, M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who 
 had been married to her first hus- 
 
 = 3rd, Tiberius Claudius Nero (2), 
 her father's son by adoption, and step- 
 son by marriage ; and 
 husband's step-son. 
 
 = Marcus Claudius 
 
 Adopted son of Au- 
 gustus, d. aged iS. 
 = his sister by adop- 
 
 
 = heT first-cou- 
 
 Agrippa, who 
 vorced her for 
 cousin Julia (2}. 
 
 Marcella%>4^ 
 
 Elder. 
 
 divorced for 
 
 = 3rd, Julia (2), his 
 
 second wife's cousin. 
 
 Tiberius Drusus Claudius 
 
 Nero Germanicus (4) 
 (Afterwards Britannicus). Be- 
 trothed to his cousin .Emilia 
 
 = 1st, Plautia Urgulanilla. 
 
 = 2nd,vEliaPetina.— 
 
 = 3rd, Valeria Messalina.- 
 
 = 4th, Agrippina {2) his niece. 
 
 Caius Caesar 
 
 Claudius Nero (3). 
 After his death she 
 lived with her nephew, 
 C. Asinius Callus. 
 
 Cn. Domi- 
 = Agrippina (2 
 
 DoMiTiA Lepii 
 Accused of incest V 
 her brother. 
 
 Tiberius N. Gemel- 
 
 TULIA 
 
 Drusus 
 
 Gemellos lus 
 
 = lst, Nero (5) 
 
 
 tilled at the d. aged 4. 
 
 her first-cousin: 
 
 
 s^^-- 
 
 = 2nd,C.Rubel- 
 lius Blandus. 
 
 young. 
 
 Claudia Antonia Tiberius Octavi. 
 
 = Ist,Cn.PompeiusMagniis. Claudius Nero Betrothed t 
 
 = 2nd, Faustus Cornelius Germanicus (4). Junius Silvanus. 
 
 Sulla. She was afterwards Was poisoned by = Nero (6), 
 
 killed because she refused to Nero (6), half step 
 
 marry her half-brother by ther, who : 
 
 marriage, Nero (6). wards killed 
 
 Agrippina (2) 
 = Ist.Cn. Domi- 
 
 barbus. 
 
 = 2nd, Crispus 
 
 Passienus. 
 
 = jrd Claudius 
 
 committed in- 
 cest with his 
 three sisters. 
 
 with her bro 
 ther Caligula, 
 
 Olho, an i 
 
 DrusiLI.A 
 Cassius Longi- 
 
 
 Emilia 
 
 
 DoMiTius Nero (6) 
 
 
 Lepida 
 
 
 = lst, Octaria, his 
 
 1^ 
 
 etrolhed to 
 
 ler 
 
 half-step-sister. 
 
 
 ncle Luc 
 
 
 = 2nd, Popprea Sa- 
 
 
 T-sar: also 
 
 
 bina, a prostitute. 
 
 Claudius (4). 
 
 
 ..Statilia -Messalina. 
 
 
 Appius Jur 
 
 lUS 
 
 
 Mess-alina 
 
 Cues 
 
 
 = Tiberius Drusus 
 
 Asisius 
 
 G-AU-fs Ci^ 
 
 Claudius Nero (4), 
 
 Saloxi-nus 
 
 
 who afterwards 
 
 Betrothed 
 
 
 married her uncle's 
 
 
 
 wife Agrippina (2). 
 
 
 
 Lucius Junius 
 Silanus 
 Said to have com- 
 mitted incest with his 
 sister Julia. 
 Committed suicide. 
 
 us Junius 
 ; jwisoned. 
 
T. AURELIUS FULVl 
 
 RupiLius Bonus 
 
 Annius Verus (I) 
 
 AURELIUS FULVOS 
 
 RupiLiA Faustina 
 
 DOMITIA Calvill 
 
 Antoninus 
 
 Gcviinus 
 
 rwin to Commo- 
 
 CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS 
 
 CONSTANTINUS MAGNUS 
 
 CONSTANTINUS 
 
 CONSTANTIUS I. 
 
 STANTINUS II. CONSTANTIUS II. CONSTANS 
 
 ; married. No Thrice married. Had Married once, 
 known. a daughter by the No issue known. 
 
 Dalmatius, T. J. Hannibal 
 Murdered. No is- King c 
 
 sue known. = Constant 
 
 Gai.lus, F. C. 
 Married Constan- 
 tia, his first-coH- 
 
 = HeIena(2), 
 first-cousin. 1 
 was killed in w 
 
THE ROMANS ENDOGAMOUS 57 
 
 sufficient to eradicate the prejudices of the Romans, who still 
 considered the marriages of cousins-gcrman as a species of 
 imperfect incest,' on an obscure allusion of the Emperor 
 Julian,' he forgets that Julian himself married his first-cousin 
 Helena, and that the interpretation usually given is therefore 
 extremely doubtful. 
 
 Like other proud races, the Romans were unfavourable to 
 intermarriage with foreigners. In the earlier period there was 
 no connubium, or permission to contract a lawful marriage, 
 even between a patrician and a plebeian ; while after the Lex 
 Canulcia, which abolished this prohibition, there was yet no 
 connubium between Romans and Latini and Peregrini, up to 
 the time of Justinian ; or between Romans and freedmen until 
 the Lex Julia et Papia Poppcea, after which only senators were 
 forbidden such marriages, while freeborn citizens were allowed 
 to intermarry with the freedmen class, provided that the 
 latter were not women of bad character, an exception which 
 Constantine extended to women of the lowest classes.^ The 
 connection of Antony and Cleopatra,^ and afterwards of Titus 
 and Berenice, was looked upon with disgust by the Romans ; ^ 
 and they utterly refused to recognise the politic marriage of 
 Gallienus with Pipa, daughter of the king of the Marcomanni.'* 
 
 Even so late as the tenth century after Christ, Constantine 
 Porphyrogenitus, in his instructions to his son, tells him how 
 most decently to refuse intermarriage with foreign families. 
 ' Every animal,' says the discreet emperor, ' is prompted by 
 nature to seek a mate among the animals of his own species ; 
 and the human species is divided into various tribes by the dis- 
 tinction of language, religion, and manners. A just regard to 
 the purity of descent preserves the harmony of public and 
 private life : but the mixture of foreign blood is a fruitful source 
 of disorder and discord.' How deeply the son Romanus was 
 
 ' Julian talks of yo/iiov t€ ou liyniv in his Oratio I'll. Hfpl toC irus 
 Kvviareoy, among other scandals of the day. Sec his O/^era qua siipersunt. 
 LipsijE, fol. 1696, p. 228. 
 
 ■^ Smith, ut sup. arts. ' Matrimonium ' and ' Leges Julia; ' ; and Bandars' 
 Instittdes of Justinian, ut sup. 
 
 ' Virgil, Aineid, viii. 688. ' Sequiturque, nefas ! /Egyptia conjux. 
 
 ' Suetonius, In Tito., chap. vii. 
 
 » Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, i. 442. 
 
T. AURELIUS FULVUS 
 
 AURELIUS FuLVUS 
 
 Antoninus Pius 
 
 Galerius Antoninus 
 Died young. 
 
 AURELIUS 
 
 FULVUS 
 
 Died young. 
 
 I 
 Annius Vekus 
 1). 163. d. 170. 
 
 AURELIUS AeLK 
 
 Antoninus AurelI 
 
 Died young. Died yoi 
 
 CONSTANTINUS MaGN 
 
 I 
 
 Crispus 
 Murdered. 
 No issue 
 known. 
 
 CONSTANTINUS II. 
 Twice married. No 
 issue known. 
 
 CONSTANTIUS II. 
 Thrice married. Had 
 a dauglUer by the 
 third wife. 
 
 CONSTANS 
 Married once. 
 No issue known. 
 
 A Daughter 
 = IIer first-cou- 
 sin, the Emperor 
 Constantinus II. 
 
THE ROMANS ENDOGAMOUS 57 
 
 sufficient to eradicate the prejudices of the Romans, who still 
 considered the marriages of cousins-german as a species of 
 imperfect incest,' on an obscure allusion of the Emperor 
 Julian,' he forgets that Julian himself married his first-cousin 
 Helena, and that the interpretation usually given is therefore 
 extremely doubtful. 
 
 Like other proud races, the Romans were unfavourable to 
 intermarriage with foreigners. In the earlier period there was 
 no connubiuin, or permission to contract a lawful marriage, 
 even between a patrician and a plebeian ; while after the Lex 
 Canuleia, which abolished this prohibition, there was yet no 
 coiDmbium between Romans and Latini and Peregrini, up to 
 the time of Justinian ; or between Romans and freedmen until 
 the Lex Julia et Papia Poppcea, after which only senators were 
 forbidden such marriages, while freeborn citizens were allowed 
 to intermarry with the freedmen class, provided that the 
 latter were not women of bad character, an exception which 
 Constantine extended to women of the lowest classes.- The 
 connection of Antony and Cleopatra,^ and afterwards of Titus 
 and Berenice, was looked upon with disgust by the Romans ; ■* 
 and they utterly refused to recognise the politic marriage of 
 Gallienus with Pipa, daughter of the king of the Marcomanni.'^ 
 
 Even so late as the tenth century after Christ, Constantine 
 Porphyrogenitus, in his instructions to his son, tells him how 
 most decently to refuse intermarriage with foreign families. 
 'Every animal,' says the discreet emperor,' is prompted by 
 nature to seek a mate among the animals of his own species ; 
 and the human species is divided into various tribes by the dis- 
 tinction of language, religion, and manners. A just regard to 
 the purity of descent preserves the harmony of public and 
 private life : but the mixture of foreign blood is a fruitful source 
 of disorder and discord.' How deeply the son Romanus was 
 
 ' Julian talks of 70/1011/ t€ ou -laixaiv in his Oratio VI!. Oep! toC irois 
 Kwia-riov, among other scandals of the day. See his Opera qua siipeisunt. 
 LipsiK, fol. 1696, p. 228. 
 
 ■•' Smith, III Slip. arts. ' Matrimonium ' and ' Leges Julia; ' ; and Bandars' 
 Institutes of Justinian, lit sup. 
 
 ' Virgil, ^Eneid, viii. 688. ' Sequiturque, nefas ! /Egyptia conju.x. 
 
 < Suetonius, In Tito, chap. vii. 
 
 > Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, i. 442. 
 
58 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 affected by this advice is seen in liis marriage with Bertha, 
 daughter of King Hugo of Italy.' 
 
 If we are to believe the general voice of authors of anti- 
 quity, most nations had few or no prohibited degrees. Thus 
 Euripides in 'Andromache ' makes the jealous Hermione cry, 
 ' Such is the whole race of barbarians ; a father marries his 
 daughter, a son his mother, and a maid her brother, * * * and 
 the law prevents none of these things.' ^ Ptolemy says that 
 the inhabitants of Northern Africa, namely, those of Cyre- 
 naica, Marmarica, ^gyptus, Thebais, Oasis, Troglodytica, 
 Arabia, Azania, and Ethiopia Media might intermarr>' with 
 their sisters.^ Herodotus says the Machlyes and Auses knew 
 no marriage or relationship. Plato, Lactantius, Aristotle, and 
 Solinus say the same of the Garamantes.'' Priscus says the 
 Scythians knew no marriage prohibitions, that they married 
 their daughters and sisters.' The Canaanites seem also to 
 have married their near relations ; for the Jews are commanded 
 ' After the doings of the land of Egypt, wherein ye dwelt, 
 shall ye not do : and after the doings of the land of Canaan, 
 whither I bring you, shall ye not do : neither shall ye walk in 
 their ordinances.' And then, further, after enumerating the 
 forbidden degrees : ' Therefore shall ye keep Mine ordinance, 
 that ye commit not any one of these abominable customs, 
 which were committed before you.' '' 
 
 A law of Constantius II., given at Antioch, and addres.sed 
 to the Phoenicians, A.D. 339, prohibits marriage with a niece, 
 whether a brother's or sister's daughter, under pain of death.' 
 But this must have been a dead letter, for King Tabnith 
 married his father's daughter Am'ashtoreth ; and at T)re 
 
 I Gibbon, 11/ sup. x. 123, 124. 
 
 - rotovTO Ttav rb ^dp^apov yfvos' 
 
 iraTTjp Tc dvyarpl ttois t6 ixT)Tp\ filyvvrat 
 
 Kdprj t' d5€A(J)(f), 5io <p6vov S' ot ^lArarot 
 
 ^upovffi, Kal Twyb' ovb^y d^fipya y6fj.Qi. 
 
 Aiidrom. v. 173. 
 ' Adam, Fortnightly Reviciu, 1865, p. 713. 
 * Loe. cit. Freinsch's edition of Q. Curtius, ii. 578, note. 
 > Cited by Perier, Mhn. de la Soc. d Anthrop. 1863, i. 197. 
 " Leviticus, xviii. 3, 30 ; xx. 23. 
 ' Devay, Du Danger des Mariages entre Cons. p. 70. 
 
DRITONS, GERMANS, DANES, ARAUS 59 
 
 such marriages occurred down to the time of Acliillcs Tatius 
 {circa A.D. 500).' 
 
 In the time of Caesar the ancient Britons practised 
 group marriage ; nor, if Caesar's observation is correct, did they 
 pay any regard to consanguinity.'^ Fuller, who quotes from 
 Nennius, a somewhat doubtful authority, says Germanus called 
 a synod, who condemned, among other things, ' the incestuous 
 marriageofVortiger, king of Britain, * * * who had taken his 
 own daughter to wife,' from which union, nevertheless, ' a pious 
 son, St. Faustus, was born.' ' 
 
 The ancient Danes were probably in the habit of marrying 
 their sisters;^ and in the Icelandic story of the Volsungs 
 and Niblungs' Signy by a stratagem makes her brother 
 Sigmund father of her son Sinfjotli, and exults that he is 
 both the son of Volsung's son and Volsung's daughter. 
 
 Heinneccius says it was customary among the ancient 
 Germans to marry their sisters,*' and perhaps mothers, or 
 rather step-mothers, as appears from a little story cited by 
 Gibbon : A princess of the Angles had been betrothed to 
 Radiger, king of the Varni, a German tribe. The lover, how- 
 ever, from political motives, preferred his father's widow, the 
 sister of Thcodebert, king of the Franks. The British heroine 
 was not to be defrauded of her husband. She gathered a 
 fleet and army, landed at the mouth of the Rhine, vanquished 
 Radiger, dismissed her rival, and married her captive.' 
 
 Much attention has lately been devoted to the develop- 
 ment of marriage prohibitions among the Arabs. We have 
 no record of the first stage, but Professor Robertson Smith 
 shows that the ancient Arabs were neither exogamous nor 
 endogamous, kinship was entirely through females, and that 
 paternity of children was a matter of indifference, since they 
 belonged to the tribe. Strangers were therefore allowed to 
 form marriages more or less temporary and more or less secret, 
 
 ' Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, p. 163. -' C'sesar, v. 14. 
 
 ' Fuller, r/ie Chunk History oj Britain, 1 655, p. 31. 
 
 ' Boudin, Mhn. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 552. 
 
 * Translation by MagniisSon and Morris, pp. 17, 18, 25. 
 
 « Boudin, Mim. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 552. 
 
 " Gibbon, Dedineand Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vi. 3S0. 
 
6o THE .MARRIAGE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 but the woman was not allowed to leave the tribe.' Subse- 
 quently as individual marriages through capture of wives 
 became more common, men were willing to make an arrange- 
 ment by which their wife by purchase practically renounced 
 her tribe, and her children therefore belonged to her husband's 
 tribe ; until ultimately relationship through males became 
 recognised.^ The various stages of development frequently 
 coexisted and are ably traced out by Professor Robertson 
 Smith, whose evidence can scarcely be condensed ; nor is the 
 subject, unless generally, within the scope of this work ; the 
 prohibitions naturally followed the change in the recognition 
 of paternity. In the early times there was no bar to marriage 
 on the male side, excepting perhaps that a man could not 
 marry his daughter, supposing he knew her as such. On the 
 female side marriage was forbidden with a mother, a uterine 
 sister, a maternal aunt, and possibly with a first-cousin on the 
 maternal side.^ 
 
 Up to Mohammed's time the strong conservatism of 
 marriage customs had apparently resisted the change which 
 acknowledged kinship through males, but it was impossible 
 that its stronghold in the minds of the people should remain 
 unbreached. Mohammed therefore only made legal in the 
 Koran prohibitions which were already recognised, and to 
 announce as he did that prohibitions of marriage which were 
 illegal on the female side were equally illegal on the male 
 was only putting into the law what was already recognised 
 as proper by the people. Henceforward all marriages were 
 forbidden between persons more nearly related than first- 
 cousins, and to the old prohibitions of affinity, which forbade 
 marriage with a wife's mother or a wife's daughter if she were 
 under the guardianship of her mother's husband, were added 
 step-mother and son's wife if the son was not merely a son by 
 adoption, as well as the old Jewish law, which forbade marriage 
 with two sisters at the same time.'' 
 
 Though relationship on the male side was thus, as it were, 
 officially recognised, it was not by any means lessened on the 
 
 ' .Sniilh, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, pp. 69 72. 
 "■ Ibid. pp. 73-76. ' ////,/. pp. 86-88, 163- 165. 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 163 1 66. 
 
AkAi: MARRIAC.I-: rROimilTIONS Ci 
 
 female side, as was the case in some other peoples, notably 
 the Romans. The maternal uncle was still recognised as the 
 nearest relation ; ' the mother's tribe still took a paternal 
 interest in her children, and hence we see that though a woman 
 was usually contracted by marriage into her husband's tribe 
 she preferred an endogamous marriage, so that her kin might 
 still be near to protect her.'-' The traces of relationship 
 through females alone, and the custom of obtaining wives by 
 capture, is also seen in the right of males to their paternal 
 cousins. This custom, which was and is very widely spread 
 in Arabia, is explained on the simple principle of inheritance 
 the moment women are recognised as chattels. A man's 
 nearest relatives are his sister and his sister's children. Under 
 a system of female kinship first-cousins, the children of sisters, 
 are regarded as brothers and sisters. But when women are 
 captured, and their relationship with their own tribe severed 
 and disregarded, the children belong to the husband, and are 
 of his tribe ; and hence the children of a brother and sister, 
 provided the sister is not a captured wife and the brother's 
 wife is a captured wife, are regarded as brothers and sisters, 
 or nearly so. Were savages logical, the children of two 
 brothers whose wives were captured should also be regarded 
 as brothers and sisters ; but strongly ingrained ideas are not 
 so easily got rid of, and hence the children are simply the 
 nearest kin or cousins. The same is the case when the 
 marriages simulate capture, and a wife is taken in luanu, or 
 in the case of Ba'al marriages, where it is easy to see that 
 since relationship is reckoned both on the male and female 
 side the relationship should be stronger in that side on which 
 relationship has always been recognised. This would also 
 explain the hesitation sometimes shown on the face of this 
 well-established right of a paternal cousin to his cousin's hand, 
 as to the advisability of such marriages. A paternal cousin 
 is his uncle's nearest heir to the daughter's person ; but the 
 stronger male relationship becomes while ideas as to the quasi- 
 fraternal nature of the relationship between first-cousins arc 
 still held, the greater are the doubts and confusion as to the 
 
 ' Wilken, Das Matriarchal, pp. 44-47- " Smith, iit su{>. pp. 102, 156. 
 
62 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 propriety of marriage between them, which is well illustrated 
 in a story given by Lane,' how a man saw two lovers embrace 
 each other and fall dead. ' So I inquired of the old man re- 
 specting them ; and he answered me, This was my daughter, 
 and this was the son of my brother. Their love hath brought 
 them to the issue which thou beheldest. I said to him, May 
 God give thee reparation ! Didst thou not marry them to 
 each other .' He answered, I feared reproach and disgrace, 
 and now I have fallen into both ! ' 
 
 The legality of these marriages is undoubted : the ' Thou- 
 sand and One Nights' teems with stories showing the right 
 of a man to the hand of the 'daughter of his uncle.' ^ The 
 modern Arabs look upon it as so natural that when Lady Duff 
 Gordon told the people of Thebes that ' the son of her uncle ' 
 was coming, they took for granted he must be her husband.^ 
 A cousin has not to pay so much for his wife, rather to the dis- 
 gust of fathers of pretty girls, who sometimes try to take a 
 mean advantage of their dear nephews by suddenly demanding 
 the marriage price during his absence. A cautious man will 
 therefore always take care to leave four trustees in charge of 
 the money whenever he may have occasion to go on a 
 journey.' 
 
 Nevertheless, during the transition period, considerable 
 doubt existed on the subject. Mr. Goldziher = cites the poet 
 'Amr. b. Kolthum, who recommends his children not to 
 marry in their own family, for domestic enmity arises there- 
 from.' Al-Meidani cites a proverb, 'Marry strangers, that 
 your children may be strong.' Badjuri expresses the same 
 idea on the ground that men only feel slightly drawn to 
 
 ' Lane, Thousand ami One A'if^lils, edition 1839, ii. 601. 
 
 ' E.?. : Payne's TlimisaiiJ and One Nights, i. 14, 20, 58, 100, 169, 174, 
 178, 267 ; ii. 223, 243, 323 ; iii. 223, 268 ; iv. 166, 188 ; v. 31, 260, 278 ; vi. 
 189, 212. Payne, Tales from the Arabic, i. 150, 185, 200, 253 ; ii. 61, 66. Mrs. 
 Godfrey Clerk, Ihhn-en-Nih, pp. 161, 207. 
 
 ' Lady DuffClordon, Last Letters from Egypt, 1875, p. 273. She also says 
 she visited, at Cairo, Mustafa Bey Soobky and saw 'his wife, a Georgian slave 
 whom he had married— his daughter by a former wife whom he had married 
 when he was fourteen.' Ibid. p. 49. In all probability this was a marriage with 
 a stepdaughter, which in some cases was permitted (see Professor R. Smith, ut sup. 
 p. 290). 
 
 ' Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, pp. 113, 272. 
 
 » In the Academy, xviii. 26, No. 427, for July 10, 1880. 
 
THE DRUSES AND CIRCASSIANS 63 
 
 near relatives. Al-Meidaiii also describes a hero as ' no 
 weakling son of paternal cousins ' ; and it is related of Omar 
 that, having once asked why the Koreysh were so short, he 
 was told, ' Because of their frequent marriages with paternal 
 cousins.' ' Sayings of this sort in regard to marriages with 
 relatives are not common, but they are very natural upon any 
 infraction of old social custom, and have been already con- 
 sidered in the previous chapter,^ together with their bearing 
 upon the subject of this work. The levirate is general. 
 Lady Duff Gordon relates that her cook's brother died 
 leaving ' a termagant widow and four children, and poor Abd- 
 el-Kadir felt it his duty to bend his neck to the yoke, married 
 her and has two more children.' ' Hassan, the janizary of the 
 American Consulate, also married his brother's widow. ' She 
 is neither young nor handsome, but he considered it his duty 
 to provide for her and the children, and not let her marry 
 a stranger.' * 
 
 Volney asserts that the Druses follow a religion taught by 
 a mad Egyptian Khalif, who, with an impostor, one Moham- 
 med-ben-Ismael, acted entirely contrary to the Koran, for- 
 bidding pilgrimages and circumcision, and permitting the 
 eating of pork and drinking of wine, and marriage with sisters 
 and daughters.'* De Sacy and Wolff say they are forbidden 
 to marry a mother, sister, or aunt, whether on the paternal or 
 maternal side, or any one not a Druse. Marriage with a 
 paternal cousin is allowed, which seems to be much more 
 probable than Volney 's account.'' 
 
 The Circassians believe themselves all to have sprung 
 from a common stock. Formerly they were divided into 
 ' fraternities,' all equal in social standing. No one was allowed 
 to marry within his own fraternity ; and where, as sometimes 
 happened, several fraternities joined, all the members in- 
 cluded in these fraternities, even though they might number 
 several thousands, were considered too nearly related to inter- 
 
 ' Goldziher, xi sup. ; and Wilken, Das Matrianhat, pp. 58, 59. 
 ^ Ante, p. 21. ' Lady Duff Cordon, ul sup. p. 36. 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 139, 140. 
 
 s Volney, Koj'<2.f?f«5)';7V, Paris, 1737, ii. 35. 
 
 * Reich, Ehe, p. 57. An instance of marriage with a cousin is given in Black- 
 wood's Magazine, ' Life in a Druse Village,' p. 236, No. 832, for Februar)- 1885. 
 
64 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 marry. Marriage between two members of the same fraternity 
 used to be punished with death ; but owing to the unnatural 
 arrangement that all these individuals were considered rela- 
 tives, and that therefore both sexes might visit each other 
 without scandal, unions which were considered incestuous 
 became too common to punish in this way, and the punish- 
 ment of death was commuted into a fine of two hundred 
 oxen, and the restitution of the girl to her parents. They 
 imposed the same laws upon their serfs. Family pride is 
 very great ; hence a chief always marries the daughter of 
 another chief, and marriages with inferiors arc extremely 
 rare. Many of the Circassians are now Mohammedans, and 
 consequently marry according to the precepts of the Koran.' 
 
 All writers of antiquity accuse the Persians of habitually 
 marrying their nearest relatives, even in the direct ascending 
 and descending line. The oldest of these is Xanthus, who 
 said that the Magians married mothers, daughters, and sisters ; 
 while even the common people married their sisters. 
 Herodotus, on the other hand, says that marriage with a 
 sister was not customary until the time of Cambyses, who 
 upon his return from Egypt set the example. But this is a 
 legend, possibly learnt from the Egyptians during his stay 
 at Heliopolis ; for Cambyses died over fifty years before- 
 Herodotus was born. Ctesias, almost a contemporary of 
 Herodotus, says that the Persians in general married their 
 mothers ; and from the accusation of Alkibiades by Antis- 
 thenes, this certainly appears to have been the common belief 
 in Greece. Quintus Curtius relates that in the time of 
 Alexander the Great the Persian satrap Sysimithres was 
 married to his mother, by whom he had two sons. Strabo, 
 alluding to the Magians only, confirms the custom and legality 
 of such marriages. Lucan also accuses the Parthians of this ; 
 and Plutarch says that Artaxerxes married two of his own 
 daughters ; but, on the other hand, he says it was not law- 
 ful for the king to marry his mother. Josephus refers to 
 
 ' Reich, Elu:, etc. pp. 261, 263 ; ami McLennan, Primitive Afarriagc, pp. 
 lOI, 102. 
 
ANCIENT PERSIAN MARRIAGE LAW 65 
 
 the incest of Phraataces with his mother, and adds that his 
 subjects considered this as bad as his parricide ; but that was 
 no doubt because it occurred during his father's lifetime. 
 Tatian says that marriage with a mother was considered the 
 proper thing among the Persian Magians ; and Philo Juda-us 
 testifies to the same, the children of such unions being con- 
 sidered of noble birth. According to Clemens Alexandrinus, 
 the Persians usually married mothers and sisters, and this 
 statement is confirmed by Origen and by Minutius Felix. 
 Diogenes Laertius says that they married their daughters, 
 and adds from Sotion that the Magians also married their 
 mothers. The evidence of the emperor Julian is similar : he 
 says the Persians generally married mother, daughter, or 
 sister ; and two hundred years later Agathias asserts that at 
 the time he wrote such marriages were both permitted and 
 customary.' 
 
 With the single exception of Herodotus, therefore, all the 
 authorities agree that the upper classes, at least, were accus- 
 tomed to marry their sisters ; and even Herodotus allows 
 that this was so after the time of Cambyses. Most of them 
 also agree that marriage in the direct ascending and descend- 
 ing line was also permitted and customary, but we should 
 hesitate to accept this as a fact did we not possess other cor- 
 roborative evidence. 
 
 From the table in the last chapter it will be seen that 
 incest with the nearest relatives is only permitted in two 
 phases of society — in the very earliest phase, where man 
 hardly differs from any other beast, and again in one of the 
 highest stages of civilisation compatible with a completely 
 despotic government, where the rulers, and ultimately the 
 ruling class, become too aristocratic to sully their blood by 
 alliances with anyone outside their class. The Persians, un- 
 doubtedly, belonged to this latter stage, although, like all 
 conquering races, they had no objection to the presence of 
 foreign concubines in their hareems. But besides the Persians 
 it is extremely doubtful whether any comparatively civilised 
 
 ' For most of the rihove I .im indebted tn Mr. .Xd.iin, Foi-liui;htly JVcz'ir.c, 
 1865, pp. 715-718. 
 
66 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 nations permitted marriage in the direct ascending and 
 descending line ; and it is probable that, being a conservative 
 nation with a peculiar religion, the habits of a more primitive 
 age became crystallised, and, as in most Eastern nations, what 
 was at first a custom became incorporated in their religion. 
 Even in Herodotus' time we see they still retained in Babylon 
 a custom which, according to our table, is a stage on the road 
 from hetairism to individual marriage ; ' it is therefore the 
 less improbable that a form of marriage with their own people 
 should have continued to be thought more honourable than 
 marriages with strangers who were originally captives. 
 
 Zarathushtra wished to retain the primitive habits of 
 hetairism, already disappearing in his time in favour of indi- 
 vidual unions with captives ; and the very fact that Alexander 
 and the Greeks, and afterwards the Arabs, discouraged these 
 practices made the more pious among the Persians cling 
 with all the more tenacity to their persecuted customs. 
 Although the Parsees of the present day repudiate these 
 assertions, they are confirmed beyond a doubt by v.'hat is 
 extant even of their ancient sacred books. Of these twenty- 
 one books only the Vendidad is preserved entire, with a few 
 fragments of the tenth and twentieth books. The Dubasrujd, 
 one of the lost books, treated Khvetuk-das, or marriage of 
 near kin, in sixty-five chapters, and from the few remarks in 
 the Avesta,- from traditions, and from the later sacred books 
 which have followed those destroyed under the Arab Govern- 
 ment, we may judge of the teachings of the Dubasrujd. 
 Thus in the book of Arrt'a-Viraf, which dates before the end 
 of the sixth century, the saintly hero is made to marry his 
 seven sisters. The Da^istan-i-Dinik (circa A.D. 88 1) explains 
 the origin of Khvetuk-das in the union of Mashyaih and 
 Mashyayoih, the first people, who were brother and sister. 
 In the Dinkara', written over one thousand years ago, there is 
 an allusion to the marriage of brother and sister from tlie 
 eighteenth fargard of the Varastmansar Nask, and a clear 
 allusion to the marriage of father and daughter from the 
 
 ' Herodotus, book i. c. 199. 
 
 -■ Vispci-eU iii. v. iS; and Kliordcli-Avcsln, I'alet Adcil>cl, kS, 
 
TERSIANS, PARSEES, AND MINGRELESE 67 
 
 twenty-first fargard of the Bako Nask. The pressure of their 
 foreign conquerors was beginning to tell, however, upon them, 
 for the third book of the Dinkar^ contains a long defence of 
 Khvetuk-das, or marriage of near kin, that is, father and 
 daughter, mother and son, and brother and sister ; and argues, 
 among other things, that these marriages prevent the risk of 
 perversion of religion, keep the family undivided by con- 
 flicting ties, and produce greater love for the offspring. In 
 the seventeenth century these incestuous marriages were 
 forgotten, and only the tradition of the virtue of marriages 
 between relations remained, for the Persian Rivayats, copied 
 about that time, only advocate marriages between first- 
 cousins, nearer unions being only vaguely alluded to as long 
 extinct.' 
 
 The Parsees and Guebres keep their blood so pure that 
 they still resemble in beauty the ancient Assyrian sculptures.^ 
 They never marry except among themselves, polygamy is 
 forbidden, and divorce only allowed after seven years' 
 barrenness. Of late years, as I have already remarked, 
 marriages between very near kindred have been discouraged, 
 and they have conformed to the marriage customs of 
 the people amidst whom they dwell. In Bombay the pro- 
 hibited degrees settled in 1865 are the same as the present 
 English prohibited degrees, with the exceptions that mar- 
 riage with a sister-in-law is permitted and marriage with 
 a son's wife's mother forbidden.' 
 
 Chardin says of the Mingrelese, a tribe living on the east 
 coast of the Black Sea, that they marry without scruple aunt 
 or niece, or both at the same time. Marriage within nearer 
 degrees is by no means rare ; yet he says the Mingrelese are 
 marvellously well made, have an admirably beautiful visage 
 and form, a majestic air, and plenty of spirit and subtilty.^ 
 
 ' See The Sacred Books oj the East, edited by F. Max Miiller, vol. xviii. 
 Translated by E. W. West. Appendix III. 8vo. Oxford, 1882. 
 
 ■- J. A. N. Perier, Mc'm de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1S63, i. 73, 80. 
 
 ' Dosabhai Franiji Karaka, History 0/ the Parsis, etc. ii. 313, 314. London, 
 
 * Cited by St. Lager, Dti Cretinism, etc. p. 115. 
 
68 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 The Afghans are divided into a great number of tribes, 
 excessively proud of their lineage. They will hardly acknow- 
 ledge anyone a member of their tribe who cannot prove his 
 pedigree for six or seven generations. No male, with rare 
 exceptions, marries out of his tribe ; but no Afghan female 
 will condescend to marry with a foreigner. Physically they 
 are a hardy and robust race.' 
 
 The people of Beloochistan have much the same customs 
 as their Afghan neighbours. The Kumburani males may 
 marry foreigners, but the females are never permitted thus to 
 defile their blood. The Brahoos are even more severe, and 
 oblige both sexes always to marry within the tribe. The 
 Gypsies of Beloochistan, called Luri, are still in the second 
 stage (No. 3). They practise hetairism ; the children belong 
 to the tribe, not to individuals ; and the stealing of women is 
 usual. ^ 
 
 The Hindoos of India are divided into numberless castes, 
 most of them with several subdivisions, and derived, according 
 to tradition, from four original castes of the Brahmin, Kshutriy, 
 Wys, and Soodru. At first these four castes were allowed to 
 intermarry under certain conditions ; and it is certain that 
 the original castes did occasionally intermarry, sometimes 
 lawfully and sometimes not, the offspring of which unions 
 have greatly multiplied the number of the castes.^ The 
 Brahmins are now divided into ten distinct nations, sub- 
 divided into 1,886 tribes; the Kshutriy into 590 separate 
 tribes. Altogether the castes, which have separate names 
 and cannot intermarry, number at least 3,000.'' The higher 
 castes reckon relationship first from the same ancient sage or 
 Rishee ; and, secondly, from the same Gotr, or family stock 
 within seven generations. Nearly all the Indian castes are 
 now divided into nations, which are not allowed to inter- 
 marry ; the nations are divided into sects, some of which do 
 not intermarry ; and no caste may now intermarry with 
 
 ' Reich, Ehe, etc. pp. 240, 241 ; M'CuUoch, Geografhical Dictionary. 
 
 ' Reich, Elte, etc. pp. 240, 249. 
 
 • Steele, Hindoo Castes of the Dekhun, pp. xii, xiii. 
 
 * Hunter, A Btief History of the Indian People, pp. 85, 86. 
 
HINDOO MARKIAGK rKOIIiniTIONS 69 
 
 another. Persons who wish to marry may not, however, 
 be of the same Golr, that is, direct male descent from a 
 common ancestor, or Rishee, within seven generations ; and 
 Brahmins of the same Rishee, or descendants of the Rishee's 
 brothers and connections within three or four degrees, may 
 not intermarry. Mayhew gives an instance of two Rajpoot 
 families who were not allowed to intermarry, though their 
 common ancestor dated from eight hundred years before. 
 Marriage with a mother, sister, or daughter is absolutely pro- 
 hibited, and also with a father's sister's daughter, a mother's 
 brother's or sister's daughter, or a sister's daughter ; but these 
 latter prohibitions are sometimes broken through poverty. 
 In the Wys caste all cousins may intermarry ; and the 
 Komtees even permit the marriage of nephews and nieces 
 with aunts and uncles. The Brahmunjaec, and R. Josee 
 marry a mother's brother's daughter, and the Kykaree marry 
 the same, but they are not allowed to marry the daughter 
 of a mother's sister. The wife belongs to her husband's 
 stock, and hence marriage is not prohibited between two 
 families who are already connected by marriage ; indeed 
 marriages of this sort are preferred. An adopted son is 
 forbidden to marry within the prohibited degrees of either 
 his real or adopted family ; and should he be re-adopted 
 into his own family, he must not .intermarry with the last, 
 nor may his descendants for three generations.' 
 
 On the death of the husband, his nearest kinsman has 
 authority over the widow if she have no son, for, like the 
 Romans, they consider that a woman should be under perpe- 
 tual tutelage. If she be not of high caste, and consequently 
 obliged cither to burn herself or lead a devotee's life, the 
 levirate law comes into play. As soon, however, as a son is 
 born to the family of the deceased, the kinsman must live 
 with her as father and daughter-in law.^ 
 
 ' In some castes of Poona intermarriage is forbidden between all cousins, and 
 with a nephew or niece on both sides. .Steele, Hindoo Castes, etc. pp. 26, 27, 
 47, 80, 163, 346, 347 ; McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 105, 106, note ; 
 Mayhew, London Labour, etc. ii. book iii. 119 ; Tylor, Researches into the Early 
 History of Mankind, etc. p. 282. 
 
 ' Steele, Hindoo Castes, etc. pp. 30, 31 ; Colebrooke, Digest of Hindu Law, 
 book iv. sees. xiii. cxlvi.-cl. clvi. clvii. 
 
70 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 The Gosawecs, a devotee sect, do not marry, though 
 females belong to the sect ; but a degenerate branch of 
 them, the Ghurbaree Gosawee, do. These have essentially 
 the same laws of marriage as the other Hindoos, and, though 
 their castes permit disciples to join them, a Gosawee may 
 only marry a woman belonging by birth to his caste, and 
 female disciples, not by birth Gosawees, are forbidden to 
 marry. The Gosawees are further divided into ten sects, one 
 of which, the Geeree, are not allowed to marr>' among them- 
 selves.' 
 
 The Moondahs and Oraons of Kootea Nagpore live 
 together, but do not intermarry. The latter are a small yet 
 well-made race, and number in this district about 363,000. 
 They are divided into at least ten totems, and marriage is 
 forbidden in the same totem ; indeed, it is considered the 
 proper thing to take a wife from another village, and their 
 marriage ceremony shows traces of marriage by capture. If, 
 on the other hand, a girl takes up with a stranger, she has her 
 head shaved, and her parents have to pay a fine, or else she 
 is altogether turned out of the village. The Moondahs are 
 divided in the same way, and have the same prohibitions.- 
 The Ho are divided into over eighteen Kills, within which 
 intermarriage is not permitted, though they have an annual 
 saturnalia, in which the chastity of no one is respected ; but 
 the girls are careful not to commit themselves with anyone 
 not of their tribe. No marriage is permitted out of the tribe.'' 
 The Manipurees, which term includes many tribes of Assam, 
 the Koupiii, Lahupa, Mow, and Muram, are all Nagas and 
 Kukis, and, though generally at war with each other, yet inter- 
 marry. They are divided into families, and marriage is for- 
 bidden within the same family.^ The Kasias have inheritance 
 in the female line, and have ' maintained their ph>'sical charac- 
 teristics better than any other race ' ; they do not intermarry 
 n the same tribe.'' The Garo, who inhabit the extreme 
 
 ' .Steele, ul sii/'. pji. 444, 445. 
 
 ■•' Palton, Ethnohi^y of Bengal, pp. 245, 24S, 254 ; Watson and Kayc, Pfopk 
 of hhlia, vol. i. No. 15. » Dalton, lit sup. pp. 185, 1S9, 197, 205. 
 
 ' //'/</. pp. 48, 53; Sir J. Lubbock, On'ght of Civilisalioii, p. 133. 
 » Dalton, III sup. pp. 54, 56. 
 
INDIAN IIILI. TRIBES T' 
 
 north-western part of the mountainous tract that h'es between 
 Cape Negrais and the Bramaputra, are divided into clans 
 which are subdivided into totems, within which intermarriage 
 is prohibited. Among the higher classes it is the rule for two 
 particular clans to intermarry continually, and since rela- 
 tionship is only recognised through females, the closest inter- 
 marriage is customary. Marriage out of the tribe, even with 
 a slave, is prohibited.' The Kaeharis, which include the 
 Bodo, Mech, and Dhimal tribes of the eastern frontier, have 
 symbols of marriage by capture. The Dhimals and Bodo, 
 though few in number, and living in the same districts, do not 
 intermarry.2 The Pani-Koch, closely allied to the Mech, 
 now number about 1,000,000. Inheritance is through females, 
 and marriage is of the Mota class.* The Parheyas and Boyas 
 neither intermarry nor eat together.^ The Bhiiiyas, a tribe 
 scattered over Bengal, but chiefly in the district of Singbhum, 
 do not usually marry in their own village, but slips in 
 morality by the girls are not thought much of, provided they 
 occur in their native village.'^ The Juangs are divided into 
 tribes, which are exogamous.'' The Korwas, originally a 
 mixed tribe, allied to the Moondahs and Oraons, lead a 
 savage and nomadic life in ths hills, which is not favourable 
 to the increase of population. They marry among them- 
 selves, though they number but some hundred and twenty 
 families. Two of these families — the two most prosperous — 
 refuse to intermarry with any others, and have continued 
 interbreeding for many generations. There are no tribal 
 divisions restricting marriage between near relations.' All 
 that is known of marriage restrictions among the Malers, 
 Hill-men of Rajmahal, is that 'near relations' are forbidden 
 to intermarry. They formerly were accustomed to capture 
 wives from the plains, but do not seem to acknowledge rela- 
 tionship through women, for sisters' children take no share 
 in an inheritance.' The Kandhs, or Khonds, live chiefly in 
 Orissa and have, with the exception of the Boad Kandhs, 
 always intermarried with strangers. They are divided into 
 
 Dalton, lit sup. pp. 58, 63. 
 
 = Ihid. pp. 86, 87. 
 
 Ihid. pp. 91, 92. ■■ Ihid. p. 134. 
 
 » Ihid. pp. 142, 143. 
 
 Ibid. p. 158. ' Ihid. pp. 22 1 -224, 229. 
 
 » Ihid. pp. 273, 274. 
 
72 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 two sects, those who worship Biira and those who worship 
 Tari, and, until interfered with by the Enghsh, the worshippers 
 of the latter used to propitiate her with human sacrifices, often 
 people of their own tribe bought as children from their 
 parents, but oftener kidnapped strangers, adults or children, 
 who were kindly treated until sacrificed. If one of these had 
 intercourse with the daughter of a Kandh it was considered a 
 distinction. The daughter of a Kandh was, however, an 
 e.Kpensive article as a wife, which was partly caused by the 
 great prevalence of female infanticide, and partly caused the 
 infanticide, because the male relatives of a girl are bound 
 to compensate her husband if she behaves badly — and as a 
 rule, owing to the scarcity of women, she does behave badly. 
 In all probability, the Kandhs were formerly divided into 
 exogamous tribes living in different villages, and even now 
 that they are all mixed up together, and though a girl of a 
 different tribe may live in the same street, it is still considered 
 ' more dignified to go to a distance for a wife.' Chastity 
 before marriage is not rigidly enforced, and we seem to have 
 here the traces of communal marriage with individual marriage 
 with captives.' The Boad Kandhs will not intermarry with 
 other races, do not practise infanticide, and hence there is 
 little difficulty in obtaining a wife.^ The Padam Abors, 
 probably nearly allied to the Tibetans, 'view with abhorrence 
 the idea of their girls marrying out of their own clan, and I 
 was gravely assured,' says Dalton, 'that when one of the 
 daughters of Padam so demeans herself, the sun and the moon 
 refuse to shine, and there is such a strife in the elements that 
 all labour is necessarily suspended, till by sacrifice and oblation 
 the stain is washed away.'^ Among the Miris, nearly allied 
 to the Abors, polygamy exists among the rich and polyandry 
 among the poor. Brides are bought, but there is an annual 
 saturnalia in every village, with unlimited licence, during which 
 apparently no relationship is respected, and if couples suit 
 each other they pair off and marry.** The Sonthals have the 
 same custom.'' The Boksas of the Terai only marry within 
 
 ' Pulton, ut sup. pp. 285-295 ; Brown, Indian Infanticide., p. 212. 
 
 = Ibid. pp. 299, 300. ' Ihid. p. 28. 
 
 * IhUi. pp. 29, 33. ' Watson and Kayc, Peofk of India, vol i. No. i 
 
THE PEOl'Li: or CEYLON 73 
 
 their own tribe, but have no other restrictions." The Gonds 
 and Bygars of the Sathpuras have a right to their cousin's 
 hand, as among the Bedouins, especially when the brother's 
 child is a daughter, and the sister's a son. But a girl may 
 choose any one of her cousins, either by anointing his head 
 with turmeric or sitting down in his house, in which case any 
 one of her male cousins has the right to carry her off if he 
 can.- The same is the case with the Yerkala of Southern 
 India. A cousin pays less than any other suitor, or gets 
 part of the dowry if he foregoes his claim.^ The Moplahs, 
 a people who live on the Beypore River, and originally 
 descended from Arab-Indian half-castes, now always inter- 
 marry among themselves. They are described as active, 
 keen in trade, industrious agriculturists, and so brave that 
 no Sepoy troops will face them.' The Nuts, a tribe of Gipsy 
 thieves, acrobats, and dancers, like all Gipsies, only marry 
 among themselves.'* Even many of the Mohammedans 
 follow the general tendency to form exclusive communities. 
 The Mulliks of Behar, the Pathans of Bareilly, and the 
 Soonee snake-charmers form castes apart, and only intermarry 
 among themselves.'^ 
 
 In Ceylon the ruling tribes peremptorily forbade marriage 
 into a lower caste, as among the Hindoos. It is said that 
 under the native kings first-cousins were forbidden to inter- 
 marry ; but this was probably only on one side, for they 
 see no harm in incest.' The aboriginal population, the 
 Weddas, are the lowest race still existing in the country, 
 and now number only some four hundred jungle Weddas, 
 besides the semi-civilised ones, who have mixed a good deal 
 with their neighbours. They are neither polygamous nor 
 polyandrous, women are quite subject to their husbands, 
 and hence relationship may be through males. Marriage 
 is allowed with daughters and sisters, but not with elder 
 
 ' Watson and Kaye, vol. ii. No. loS. 
 
 - Fison and Hewitt, Kamilani, p. 154. 
 
 ' Lubbock, Ori^nqf Civilisation, p. 143. 
 
 < The Tiint-s, December 28, 1875. 
 
 > Watson and Kaye, ut sup. vol. ii. Nos. 105, no. 
 
 ' /bid. vol. i. No. 4; ii. I04n; iii. 121. 
 
 ' Mayhew, io;/(/tf« Labour, etc. vol. ii. book iii. pp. 126, 127 
 
74 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 sisters. Nevertheless they rejoice in a perfectly Arcadian 
 morality : ' They think it perfectly inconceivable that any 
 person should ever take that which docs not belong to him, 
 or strike his fellow, or sa>' anything that is untrue.' ' 
 
 ' The king of Burmah,' sa}^s a correspondent of the ' Times,' ^ 
 ' always marries at least one of his half-sisters, although such 
 marriages are forbidden among his subjects,' to secure the 
 purity of the royal blood. Nevertheless, since the king is not 
 restricted to his half-sisters, the royal blood is not kept pure. 
 Theebaw, the last king, was the son of the seventh in rank of 
 his father's wives, a half-breed of one of the wild Shan tribes 
 on whom the Burmese have constantly raided for wives. 
 Theebaw himself intended to marry two of his half-sisters, 
 both daughters of one mother, but the elder refused him, and 
 escaped to a monastery ; the younger married him, governed 
 him, and prevented him from having any more wives. 
 
 Bowring asserts that marriage is not permitted within the 
 seventh degree (nearer than third-cousins) of blood relation- 
 ship among the commoners of Siam, but that the king may 
 marry his sister or his daughter.' Loubere narrates the facts 
 more clearly ; he says that in his time the king of Siam 
 married his sister, and then his daughter, the issue of that 
 marriage.'' Yet Dr. Campbell tells us of the Siamese that ' B 
 dying, a few of his widows might be asked to join the hareem 
 of A ; and on A's death his heir might retain a few of the 
 widows of A and B. A son in this way may espouse his step- 
 mother or step-aunt, or his niece.''' They have no prejudice 
 against consanguineous marriages, nor do thej' believe that 
 the offspring suffer from them. 
 
 Martinus Martinius tells us that up to the time of Fu-hi, 
 E.G. 2952,''' the Chinese had no idea of incest, and practised 
 
 ' Hartshorne, 'The Weddas,' in the Fortrnglitly Kcfkw, new series, .\ix. 
 406-417. 
 
 "■ The Times, November 18, 1878, and December 19, 1885. 
 
 ' Tylor, Kfseairlies into the Early History of MaiikiiiJ, p. 283. 
 
 < Perier, Mt'rn. de la Soc. (TAiithrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 218. 
 
 ' Dr. J- Campbell, in <\\t: Journal of Aiithrop. London, Oct. 1S70, p. 196. 
 
 ' Reich, jT/;c, etc. p. 1S9. Mr. Tylor gives this dale a.<; B.C. 2207 {Researches 
 into the Early History of Mankind, p. 2S2). 
 
CHINESE MARRIAOK I'KOIIIBITIONS 75 
 
 promiscuosity. Fu-hi first separated the sexes, instituted 
 marriage and marriage laws, and prohibited marriage between 
 persons bearing the same family name. The number of their 
 family names, according to Davis, is not more than 100, but 
 others say 300, or even 1,000. Fu-hi himself is said to have 
 divided them into 100 clans, giving each a name.' Marriages 
 between persons of the same family name are not only null 
 and void, but punishable by death. Blood relationship is 
 reckoned through females. A man may not marry his cousin 
 on the mother's side ; nor his aunt, the sister of his mother : but 
 folk-stories (the best test of popular sentiment) do not bear out 
 the assertion that marriages between first-cousins on the ma- 
 ternal side are absolutely prohibited in these times,^ although 
 there appears to be still a sentiment against it. This may indi- 
 cate a transition stage between the matriarchal and patriarchal 
 forms. A man may marry an adopted daughter, but she must 
 first be adopted, as a sort of legal fiction, by a family of a 
 different name. Marriage with a step-daughter is forbidden.' 
 There seems, however, to be no foster relationship,^ or relation- 
 ship by marriage, for the late emperor of China married his 
 wife's aunt.'^ Play-actors, police, boatmen, and slaves, each 
 form castes which may not by law marry outside their caste ; '"' 
 }-et the boat-population increases rapidly, and the females are 
 vastly superior physically to their sisters who live on land.'' 
 
 Kojiki, or the ' Records of Ancient Matters,' * shows us that 
 the ancient Japanese practised hetairism, and that unions took 
 place with half-sisters, step-mothers, and aunts. Polygamy 
 was practised, but the chief wife was superior to the others and 
 bore the significant title of ' younger sister.' Endogamy was 
 
 ' Tylor, ut sup. pp- 282, 283. 
 
 ■ See H. A. Giles, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, stories Nos. xv. and 
 xcv. i. 106 ; ii. 158. 
 
 • Giles, ut sup. ii. 156, note 6 ; J. IT. Gray, China, i. 1S6. 
 « Gr.iy, China, i. 154, 155. 
 
 * One of his wives was the sister of another wife's father. See the Times, 
 May 16, 1872. 
 
 " Gray, China, i. 1S7. 
 
 ' Ibid. ii. 282, 2S3 ; and C. F. Gordon-Cumming, Wanderings in China, 
 i. 82. 
 
 » Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 18S3, vol. x. supplement. By 
 Basil Hall Chamberlain. 
 
^6 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 strictly practised, nor could the different classes intermarry 
 until lately. Subsequently Chinese marriage law was intro- 
 duced with Chinese civilisation and letters.' 
 
 In Cambodia, according to Dr. Mondicres, the higher 
 classes marry their sisters, as among the ancient Egyptians and 
 Persians. A missionary also informed him that among the 
 Annamites marriages between father and daughter, and even 
 between mother and son, are far from rare. A Cambodian 
 will marry an Annamese woman, but the converse never 
 occurs, since the former consider themselves to be the superior 
 race.^ In Chinese Turkestan every marriage is permitted, 
 save in the direct ascending or descending line.' 
 
 Among the Mongols, according to the Russian monk 
 Hyacinth, marriage with a woman related on the paternal 
 side is considered incestuous ; but there is no relationship 
 through the female side. A man may marry three sisters 
 at once, and two families may intermarry for centuries.-" 
 
 The Mantchu Tartars have just the opposite regulations 
 as the Chinese. Marriage is forbidden between persons of 
 different family name.* 
 
 The Tunguz, according to Mr. Tylor, prohibit marriage 
 between second-cousins ; but he says no more about them." 
 
 The Jakuts are not allowed to take a wife from their own 
 clan ; ' and the Ostyaks are forbidden marriage either in the 
 ascending or descending line of their wife's relations, or even 
 with a brother's widow ; but it is considered an honourable 
 thing to marry several sisters at once, and, as among other 
 peoples, a woman is sold to her brother-in-law at a cheaper 
 rate. The wife takes her husband's name, and no one may 
 marry a woman of the same family name as himself. Hence 
 a man may marry his sister's daughter ; and every union is 
 
 ' Griffiths, 'f/u- Mikmlos Empire, pp. 93, 552. 
 
 2 Mondii^res, ' Renseignemenls sur la Cochin-Chine,' in llic Bullet, tie la Soc. 
 dAnthrop. de Paris, second series, 1875, "• "8. 
 
 ' St. Lager, Etudes sur les Causes du CrJtiit, etc. p. 115. 
 
 * Reich, E/ie, etc. p. 245 . 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, p. 146. 
 
 <• Tylor, Early History, etc. pp. 283, 284. 
 
 » Sir John Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 135. 
 
TARTARS, LAPPS, AND MALAVS IJ 
 
 lawful, provided the father or deceased husband of the woman 
 had a different name from the person who wishes to marry her.' 
 
 The whole of the Samoyed nation is divided into three 
 tribes, and intermarriage in the same tribe is forbidden. 
 Since these tribes live general!)- in parts of the countr}' far 
 remote from each other, young men have to go great distances 
 in search of a wife.'^ 
 
 The Kalmucks have a great abhorrence of marriage be- 
 tween near kin, and their wives must always be three or four 
 degrees removed. Nobles must marry the daughters of 
 nobles of a different stock ; and, though a proverb of theirs 
 says that ' great folks and dogs know no relationship,' it is 
 only in consequence of the occasional marriage of a noble 
 with his sister-in-law.' The Kalmuck population is now 
 diminishing ; the number of women especially is very dispro- 
 portionate to the men, there being only 51,000 women to 
 68,000 men. That they diminish, is attributable to the great 
 mortality among the children ; for though very few Kalmucks 
 remain unmarried, and every mother has on the average four 
 children, only two as a rule reach maturity ; partly because 
 in some places the people feed on fish, and have neither 
 pastures nor herds, and partly because of female infanticide.'' 
 Like most of the Tartar races, the Kirghiz and Nogais 
 may not marry in their own clan."" 
 
 The Lapps never marry a girl descended from the same 
 common parent as themselves, however distant the relation- 
 ship may be.'" 
 
 The Malays have no relationship excepting through 
 females. When a man marries, he follows his wife : she 
 
 ' Sir John Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation ; and Mayhew, London Labour, 
 etc. vol. ii. book iii. pp. 168, 170. 
 
 ^ McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 102, 103 ; Tylor, Researches into the 
 Early History of Mankind, p. 284 ; Sir J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, etc. 
 p. 135. ' McLennan, ibid. pp. 98, 99. 
 
 * Pail Mall Gazette, May 29, 1874 ; and J. Deniker, in the Rez^iie d'Anthrop. 
 vii. 288, 289, 291, 292. Paris, 1884. 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, p. 103. Du Perron, talking of the mar- 
 riage of cousins being considered by the Parsees as 'I'alliance la phis rccom- 
 mandee,' adds in a note, ' Le meme usage a lieu chez les Tartares' ; but he does 
 not say which. See his Trans, of the Zendavesta, ii. 556, note 3. 
 
 " Tylor, Early History of Mankind, p. 284 ; Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 2S1. 
 
78 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Still belongs to her own family, and so do all her children. 
 The children acknowledge some relationship on the father's 
 side, but not beyond the third degree, and that only in the 
 direct ascending and descending line. No one is allowed 
 to marry into his own family ; ' hence a man may not marry 
 any relative on his mother's side, but he is allowed to marry 
 his half-sister, his niece, his aunt, or more distant relatives on 
 the paternal side. 
 
 The people of Benkulen, the Palembang, and Lampong 
 have much the same marriage customs as the Malays proper ; 
 but the Batta have relationship through males. Hence, 
 though they may not marry into their father's family, they 
 marry into their mother's family in the same close degrees. 
 If a wife does not bear male children, her husband may send 
 her back and demand her sister instead ; yet infanticide is 
 not practised. - 
 
 The Kalang of Java never marry a daughter to anyone 
 who cannot prove his descent from her particular stock.* 
 
 In the island of Bali the Hindoo religion exists in great 
 purity, with division into castes, as in India."* From which I 
 presume that they have the same marriage prohibitions as the 
 Hindoos of India. 
 
 In Sumatra marriage with cousins is permitted. Incest 
 is held to be an offence ; but unless it occurs in the first 
 degree it is considered to be rather an infraction of a conven- 
 tional rule than of natural law. Sometimes it is punished by 
 a fine, and sometimes the parties remain together.' 
 
 Among the Dyaks of Borneo much immorality prevails, 
 as is the case in nearly all the large islands by the sea ; yet 
 Dyak girls seldom intermarry with foreigners, or even Malays. 
 The Hill Dyaks are still more strict. Even the marriage of 
 first-cousins is prohibited, and second-cousins may only marry 
 on payment of a jar, a severe fine for them. Ruin and dark- 
 ness had descended on the land, said they, when one of them 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologk, vol. v. pait i. pp. 141, 142. 
 
 2 Ibid. pp. 147-150, 186, 187, 190, 191. 
 
 " Sir J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilhation, p. 144. 
 
 * Waitz, Anihrofologie, vol. v. part i. p. 40. 
 
 » Mayhew, London Labour, etc. vol. ii. book iii. |ip. lOi, 102. 
 
MARRIAGE IN rOLVNKSIA 79 
 
 married his tjrand-daughtcr ; and it had remained so ever 
 since. Vet they ahvays marry in tlicir own tribe, and arc 
 therefore all blood relations. ' 
 
 The State of Wajo is perhaps the most advanced on the 
 Celebes, and here a high spirit of caste prevails. As usual 
 in these cases, women alone do not dare to marry into a lower 
 caste, while the men may.'- 
 
 Arago asserts that on the Caroline Isles it is customary 
 for brothers to marry their sisters. Garland, however, is in- 
 clined to doubt this, on the authority of Chamisso, who says 
 that the marriage customs on the Carolines are the same as 
 on Ponape,-' where first-cousins are forbidden to intermarry. 
 It is customary for widowers to marry their deceased wives' 
 sisters, and widows to ma;ry their deceased husbands' brothers. 
 Rank was always inherited through the mother. The people 
 of the Eastern Carolines were divided into classes, which were 
 not allowed to intermarry ; and, as in other islands, the chiefs 
 were all members of that society known elsewhere as the 
 Areoi, who alone were permitted to practise incest.^ 
 
 On the Marianne (or Ladrone) Islands the people are 
 divided into three classes, the Matuas, Atshaots, and the 
 Mangatshangs ; or nobles, gentlemen, and common people. 
 Besides other disabilities, the lowest class never intermarry 
 with the nobles, nor was there any intermixture of blood 
 between them. The latter were a far superior race to the 
 former, who were liars, faithless, and inhospitable. A wife 
 here had extraordinary power. All her children, even those 
 which were not her husband's, were considered legitimate ; all 
 relationship was on the female side ; but the relationship to 
 a female was nearest on the male side, or relatives would be 
 near in the following order : paternal aunt, maternal aunt, 
 maternal uncle, paternal uncle. No marriage could take 
 place between very near relatives on the female side, but, 
 as in all the Micronese Isles, the chiefs belonged to the 
 
 ' Mayhew, London Labour, etc. vol. ii. book iii. p. 103 ; Tyler, Early 
 History of Mankind, p. 283. - Mayhew, «/ sup. p. 107. 
 
 ' Ascension Island, or Seniavin. Some day, perhaps, these islands in the 
 Pacific will have dropped a few of their superfluous names. 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologic, vol. v. part ii. pp. 106, loS, I2i. 
 
80 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 society of Arcoi, called here Ulitaos.and could practise incest 
 without hindrance.' 
 
 The inhabitants of the Radack and Rallck chains, forming 
 the Marshall Islands, are divided into several clans. Here 
 also relationship is through females only. Their customs are 
 much the same as on the other groups.'^ 
 
 The Polynesians count relationship through the female 
 line, the husband taking the wife's name. In most cases 
 girls lived a free life before marriage, and polygamy was 
 everywhere common. Throughout Polynesia existed a sort 
 of spiritual relationship, a custom of exchanging names with 
 a great friend, who thus became another self, and who shared 
 his wife with, and might not marry a blood relation of, his 
 friend. Wilson asserts that marriages with blood relatives 
 were everywhere avoided ; but they do occur from political 
 motives, nevertheless, among the chiefs and nobles. Thus 
 Tamehameha married a relation, while his son married a 
 sister, and, from love to his father, one of the latter's widows. 
 The wives of chiefs throughout Polynesia were the equals of 
 men, but all other women, except on certain occasions, were 
 noa, or common to all. They had a curious society called 
 the Areoi, which we have already had occasion to notice, who 
 were a fraternity of nobles, with branches in many of the 
 islands, living like beasts in promiscuous intercourse. All 
 the unmarried, widowed, or separated women belonging to 
 the society could have as many lovers as they liked ; and the 
 offspring of these unions, if females, were killed at birth ; if 
 males, the first-born alone were sacrificed, and the rest might 
 be saved. Besides in Tahiti, the Areoi were to be found in 
 Raratonga, Nukuhiva, Hawaii, in the Carolines, and in the 
 Mariannes. The mythology of the Polynesians makes the 
 year bear months by her own father. An old legend, again, 
 makes Taaroas take to wife his daughter, or by some accounts 
 his sister Hina ; their son married his mother or grandmother 
 Ilina, who became young again, and by her became the 
 father of Ouru and Fana, from whom mankind are descended. 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anlhropologii\ vnl. v. pail ii. [ip. 107, 111 113, i.jS. 
 » Ibiil. pp. 105, 106, III, 121, 122 
 
POLYNESIA 8 1 
 
 Infanticide is everywhere very prevalent. Indeed in Hawaii 
 owing to the practice of female infanticide, there are far more 
 males than females, but infanticide of both sexes is largely 
 practised.' 
 
 In Tahiti as many as two-thirds of all children born were 
 murdered, though chiefly females ; and all children of mixed 
 unions we"re killed, especially when the mother was of higher 
 rank than the father ; for the Polynesians consider that there 
 are two races of men, one of heavenly, the other of earthly 
 origin ; hence mixed unions were considered a defilement of 
 heavenly blood, and the children must not live. It is a rule 
 however, not to marry among kindred, from which I presume 
 they do not marry among relatives of their mother's, for 
 everywhere inheritance goes though the female line. The 
 great chiefs belonging to the Areoi alone were allowed to keep 
 their eldest son ; while the upper-class Areoi were obliged to 
 kill their eldest son and all their daughters ; and the rest of 
 the Areoi were obliged to kill all their children. In Tukopia, 
 on the other hand, boys are frequently killed from a fear that 
 the island may become overcrowded, while girls are some- 
 times saved because of the practice of polygamy.- 
 
 In the Markesas, as elsewhere in Polynesia, the succession 
 is through females, and the princesses were allowed to prac- 
 tise polyandry'. In Hawaii, Nukuhiva, and Tahiti it is cus- 
 tomary for the princes to marry a sister.^ 
 
 In Tonga marriages between relations were usual. Infanti- 
 cide was also largely practised, chiefly as a sacrifice during a 
 parent's illness, those being preferred who were born from 
 mixed marriages or from parents of different rank. Inherit- 
 ance went through females, and this was pushed to so 
 ridiculous an extreme that the eldest sister and the aunts of 
 the Tuitonga, together with their children, were considered 
 
 ' Waitz and (Jiei\!ind,A»//tro/>i>/o^ie, vol. v. part ii. p. iii ; vi. 122,222, 123, 
 127, 130, 131, 348, 366, 137, 138, 233, 234, 321, 322, 139, 140; Reich, £/,t; 
 etc. p. 353 ; J. A. N. Perier, M^m. de la Soc. (TAnlhrop. di Paris, 1860, 
 i. 218. 
 
 -' Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologie, vol. v. part ii. p. 191 ; vi. 113, 139 
 219 ; Gerland, Atisslerhen der Naturvolker, p. 55. 
 
 ' Gerland, WK.M/frfe« der Natuit'olkcf, p. 46; Waitz and Gerland. Aiilhra 
 fologie, vi. 215, 2l6. 
 
82 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 more holy than the Tuitonga himself ; while his daughter 
 was so holy that though she virtually practised polyandry 
 she could not enter into wedlock, and her daughter was even 
 more holy than she herself.' 
 
 In Samoa marriage between near relatives on the female 
 side is not allowed.^ In Vate, or Sandwich Island, they 
 seem generally to marry into a different family, though these 
 families arc usually hostile to each othcr.^ On the Nitendi 
 (or Santa Cruz) group, the Salomon Isles (including Bougain- 
 ville, Choiseul, Isabelle, and Malayta), Tanna, and the islands 
 of Torres Straits, the custom of exchange of names is uni- 
 versal. The populace of most of these isles is divided into 
 families, Avho are hostile and do hot intermarry. 
 
 In Fiji they are still in the matriarchal stage, the system 
 of marriage being in the form of communal hetairism, modified 
 by totem restrictions (Stage III. No. 7). But, though rank 
 descends through females still, relationship is in some parts 
 reckoned through males, and therefore the transition stage has 
 already begun. Formerly the chiefs had great power, and 
 every man whose mother was a member of some chieftain's 
 family might travel about from isle to isle, and take any 
 woman or property he liked, provided neither she nor it 
 belonged to any other member of this privileged class. But no 
 chief could be legitimate who was descended from a captive 
 wife, even though she were of superior rank to himself. The 
 chiefs are bigger than the common people, ' over six feet in 
 height, and superbly limbed.'^ 
 
 Great opposition is made in New Zealand to any one who 
 wishes to take a wife from another tribe unless it be for a 
 political purpose. Marriages are not usual between brother 
 and sister ; but a man may marry several sisters at the same 
 time, or he may marry first-cousins ; and altogether marriages 
 between near kin are far from uncommon. Mr. McLennan was, 
 h<nvcvcr, of opinion that at one time the people must ha\e 
 
 ' Waitz and Gciland, Aiilhropolo^ii:, vi. 131, 13S, 171, 177, 17S. 
 
 ■- //'/(/. p. 127. ' //'/(/. pp. 639, 657. 
 
 ' Jhiii. pp. 622, 657, 663; Fison and Ilowitt, Kamilaroi^ pp. 143. 145, 
 159; Cooper, Coral Lands, i. 1 18; ii. 18, 153; C. F. Gordon-Cmmiiint;, .// 
 Home ill Fiji, i. 281. 
 
HEALTH IN POLVNESrA 83 
 
 been exogamous, since in the 'Curse of Mania' there is an 
 instance of a child fleeing from the tribe of its birth to that 
 of its mother.' 
 
 The general state of heahh in all Polynesia and in New 
 Zealand was very good at the time they were first brought 
 under European notice. Dieffenbach found in the inner part 
 of New Zealand some cases of club-foot ; Hasenscharte saw 
 cases of hereditary polydactylism ; and Beechey saw the same 
 in Mangareva. Thompson even asserts that malformations 
 of this kind are as common in New Zealand as in England ; 
 but he refers only to the coast, where the health of the people 
 had suffered much. Malformations were most frequently 
 found on the Sandwich Isles, where King saw crooked 
 persons, a young man without feet or hands, many who 
 squinted, and a man who declared his blindness was con- 
 genital. They were rarest on the Markesas. Albinoes were 
 seen on all the islands, and madness was not unknown ; but 
 the chief epidemic diseases were first brought by Europeans. 
 Of all diseases that they were subject to before the arrival of 
 Europeans, those affecting the skin were the most common — 
 such as ichthyosis, elephantiasis, irruptions, and boils ; but in 
 New Zealand boils were not common, and most of the diseases 
 were cured simply by salt. Scrofulous glands and sores were 
 common in Tonga, and in both Tonga and Uevea the 
 children suffered much from malignant pustules — an affection 
 which disappears of itself at nine years of age. The Tongese 
 also had occasionally a mild inflammation of the eyes. 
 Nevertheless the people are healthy, as a rule ; disease is 
 uncommon, and nature's power for healing is here exception- 
 ally strong. There is one disease which is peculiar to the 
 nobles, who alone are allowed to drink an intoxicating liquor 
 called cava. Cava-drinkers suffer first from weakness and 
 torpor ; and if they continue the habit of drinking they grow 
 thin, their eyes inflame, they get an irruption, which is 
 marked at first by the appearance of a white scurf, then the 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anl/iropologie, vi. I ji, 138 ; McLennan, Primitive Mar- 
 riage, p. 125 ; Sir J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, p. 144; Mayhew, London 
 Labour, etc. vol. ii. book iii. p. 72; Ad.-im, Fortnightly Review, 1865, p. 720. 
 
84 THE iMARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 skin tightens and cracks, and leaves a large cicatrix on heal- 
 ing, which is looked upon as a mark of honour, because it is 
 a mark of nobility. Persons who have sufficient self-control 
 to break themselves of this pernicious habit speedily and 
 entirely recover.' 
 
 The Polynesian women are remarkably fruitful ; Cheevor 
 saw a woman in Hawaii who had twent}-five children ; 
 I'orster gives many examples of great fertility from Tahiti ; 
 and Dieffenbach tells us that in New Zealand all marriages 
 are fruitful, and twins are frequently born. It is the same in 
 Tonga, Tukopia, and Samoa. Nor is the general viability 
 lower than in Europe, while the old are free from that decay 
 which so often accompanies old age in civilised countries. 
 They are of medium height, well formed, but those who are 
 badly fed and have to work hard are not so fine a race as the 
 nobles, who are to the workers as giants to dw-arfs.'' Hale 
 describes the former as of colossal build, stout, proud, brave, 
 and impudent ; the latter, he says, are thin, poorly, timid, and 
 servile. In Niva, the usual way in which a chief disposes of 
 his captives is to break their backs across his knee. Indeed 
 everywhere the chiefs are both finer physically and better 
 taught than the common herd, and this is due to their 
 superior nourishment and immunity from labour, not, as we 
 might perhaps be led to believe, because the chiefs alone may 
 contract incestuous unions. For the same reasons, the women 
 do not generally grow up to be handsome ; but all writers 
 agree in the splendid build of most Polynesians, a build often 
 rivalling the finest statues of antiquity. It varies somewhat 
 on the different islands : on the higher ones the inhabitant.s 
 arc bigger, stronger, whiter, and better developed ; and tiie 
 opposite is the case under reversed circumstances.^ Now, 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologie, vi. 24, 25, 60. 
 
 ' We may perhaps trace a similar stale of things among the ancient Egyjitians, 
 who always distinguish their chiefs in their wall pictures by their superior.sizc. 
 Were the Polynesians to draw themselves they would infallibly distinguish their 
 nobles in the same way. 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologies vi. 2, 6, 25, 26, 203, 542, 544; v. 
 part ii. pp. 47, 49, 55, 56, 113, 171, 173, 174, 193. M. Chipault, indeed, talks 
 of disease in Isabelle Island, Guam, Amboyna, Tahiti, and Barabora, as resulting 
 from consanguineous marriage (AKi/if™r/«j1/<7rj. Cons. pp. 82, 83). The evidence 
 against this supposition, based as it is on very slight authnrily, is ovcrwliclining. 
 
AUSTRALIAN I'ROIl I lilTIONS 85 
 
 iiulccd, all is changed ; disease is common since intercourse 
 with Europe has been established, and the character of the 
 natives is much corrupted and debased.' 
 
 The prohibited degrees among most of the Australian 
 tribes are at first sight extremely complicated. Nevertheless, 
 owing to the careful study of a succession of workers, and 
 especially of Messrs. Fison and Howitt, they will be found to 
 fall easily into our table of the development of marriage law, 
 and to offer no exception to the general law of development. 
 Taken as a whole, they are in the third stage ; hetairism is 
 universal, but strictly modified by totem restrictions ; and, 
 what is chiefly remarkable, widely spread, and sometimes 
 hostile tribes acknowledge their common relationship and 
 common rights to wives. The simplest form of their pro- 
 hibited degrees may be exemplified in the Mount Gambler 
 tribe, who are divided into two classes or families, named 
 Kumite and Kroki respectively. No man may marry 
 within his own class, that is, a Kumite may not marry a 
 Kumitegor {gor being the feminine suffix), or a Kroki a 
 Krokigor ; but since relationship is only through females, a 
 brother and sister's children belong to different classes, and 
 may intermarry, while the children of sisters may not. Other 
 tribes divided into two classes are those of the Darling River 
 into Kilpara and Mukwara ; those of Banks Islands ; and 
 those of New Britain into Pikalaba and Muramura. 
 
 In the same way the Kamilaroi (which is a generic term, 
 including a great number of tribes ' who speak Kamil ') are 
 divided into two pairs of classes : — 
 
 Ipai and sister Ipatha ) may only 1 Kubi and sister Kubilha 
 Kunibu and sister Butha f marry with 1 Muri and sister Matha 
 
 Ipai marries Kubitha ; and Ipatha, Kubi ; Kumbu marries 
 Matha; and Butha, Muri. 
 
 The children, however, do not take the mother's name, but 
 the name of the others in the mother's pair, the children of 
 
 ' Wailz and Oeriand, Anthropohgie, vols. v. and vi. generally. 
 
86 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 a Kubitha mother being Muri and Matha, for instance ; with 
 the result, as before, that the children of a brother and sister 
 may marry. Thus : — 
 
 _'_ 1 ' 
 
 I '' I 
 
 Butha = Muri Matha = Kumbu 
 
 Ipatha 
 
 I I 
 
 Ipai = Kubitha 
 
 These classes are further subdivided into totems, children 
 always belonging to their mothers' totem. These are : — 
 
 Emu 1 totem or family ( Kangaroo 
 
 Bandicoot [ which may only I Opossum 
 Blacksnake J intermarry with ( Iguana 
 
 But this does not affect the marriage prohibitions ; for, 
 since the family name or totem always descends through 
 females, an Emu, to take an example, is always an Emu on 
 the female side ; each triplet of totems belongs to each pair 
 of classes, and hence every Ipai and Kumbu must be an Emu, 
 Bandicoot, or Blacksnake, while every Kubi or Muri must 
 be a Kangaroo, Opossum, or Iguana ; and no sort of further 
 restriction is put therefore upon intermarriage. Thus : 
 
 
 Ipai 
 (An Emu 
 say) 
 
 = Kubitha 
 
 (An Opossum 
 say) 
 
 
 Butha = 
 (Emu, or 
 Bandicoot, 
 or Black- 
 snake) 
 
 = Muri 
 (Opossum) 
 
 Matha = 
 (Opossum) 
 
 Kumbu 
 
 (Emu, or IJan- 
 dicoot, or Black 
 snake) 
 
 1 
 
 Ipatlia 
 
 (Emu or 
 
 etc.) 
 
 etc.) 
 
 Kubitha 
 (Opossum) 
 
 1 
 
 Kubi 
 
 (Opossum). 
 
 Other tribes have the same regulations. Thus, the Anta- 
 keringa tribe of Central Australia is divided into — 
 
 Bultara and sister Bultara i who may j Kuinura and sister Kumura 
 Parula and sister Parula I only marry 1 Panangka and sister Panangka 
 
AUSTRALIAN I>KOIIIHlTIONS S? 
 
 the children of a Hultara-Kumura marriage being Panangka, 
 and those of a Kumura-Bultara marriage, Parula, similar to 
 the Kamilaroi rule. The tribes of West Australia, also, 
 are divided into Paliali, Poronga, Kimera, and Banaka, the 
 feminine terms being the same. On the Herbert River the 
 Queensland natives are divided into Tarawang, Bunda, Bul- 
 gowang, and ]5arang, the feminine terms being the same, 
 with the suffix rt«.' 
 
 In all probability, all these tribes were originally only 
 divided into two classes, as the Kroki and Kumite, and the 
 original terms have been lost. In the case of the Kamilaroi 
 there is reason to believe they were the same as those now 
 found on the Darling River, namely, Kilpara and Mukwara ;^ 
 indeed, among the natives of Mackay, Queensland, there is 
 an instance of the retention of the class names with the sub- 
 divisions : — ^ 
 
 Vungani Wiitani 
 
 divided into 
 
 Giirjela . (with feminine suffix an) i Kuberu 
 
 Burbia ) may only marry with I Wungo 
 
 Variations in the Kamilaroi system occur in places ; thus, 
 among the Wonghi, an Ipai, for instance, marries a Matha, 
 not a Kubitha ; and his children are Kubi and Kubitha.^ 
 The Kurnai, too, show a special form, which the genius of Mr. 
 Fison shows maybe deduced from the Kamilaroi rule. These 
 people, one of the chief tribes of Gippsland, are divided into 
 two classes, called Yeerung and Djeetgun ; but instead of, 
 as elsewhere, these class names representing totems or tribes, 
 all males are Yeerung, and all females Djeetgun. Now Mr. 
 Fison supposes that originally there were two intermarrying 
 tribes of these names, in which case, since no Yeerung man 
 could marry a Yeerung woman, all the married males in one 
 tribe would be Yeerung, and all the married females Djeetgun, 
 while in the other tribe the reverse would be the case. Sup- 
 pose, however, that one of these two tribes became exter- 
 
 ' For the above I am indebted to l-"ison and Howitt's A'ami/aroi, pp. 33-4 J- 
 - Cameron, ' Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales,' in the Journal of 
 the Anlhropological Institute, xiv. 351, for May 1885. 
 
 ' Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi, p. 38. • Cameron, ut iti/>. p. 350. 
 
88 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 minated, or that one of them became isolated. At that 
 moment the surviving or the isolated tribe would be com- 
 posed of, say, Yeerung married males, and Djeetgun mar- 
 ried females, while all the children — since relationship is 
 through females — would also be Djeetgun. The consequence 
 would be that none of the children could marry, since all 
 bore the same name. What the Kurnai actually do is to 
 call all the males by one name, and all the females by the 
 other ; and, further, they adopt capture as the regular form of 
 marriage ; whereas actual capture or elopement is only usual 
 among the Kamilaroi in cases considered to be incestuous. 
 Mr. Fison therefore considers that this fiction and custom 
 were forced upon them by their circumstances, and he gives 
 many other arguments in support of his view.' In course of 
 time the Kurnai have become divided into many tribes, in- 
 habiting different districts, some of which intermarry and 
 some do not.'-* 
 
 The Gournditch-mara tribe of Western Victoria are 
 divided into four clans, named Jl'ntei; Mountain, S'tvantp, and 
 River. There are no restrictions on marriage between any of 
 the clans, and even in the same clan marriage is allowed. 
 Relationship here is through males.^ 
 
 The Turras of York Peninsula, South Australia, though 
 divided intoWiltu and Multa, and forbidding marriage within 
 the clan, exchanged wives at their corroborees.^ 
 
 The Macadamas of Cape York, North Australia, have 
 no idea of relationship whatever, according to a Frenchman 
 named Pelletier, who was wrecked there as a boy, and remained 
 amongst them for seventeen years. The word which means 
 woman also means sister or daughter. A modified promis- 
 cuity is practised, on the same system as the gorilla or lion, 
 each man taking what women he can.' 
 
 The Kulin of North-western Victoria have a sjstem very 
 like the Kurnai — a division into two classes which are merely 
 sexual, all the males belonging to one, and all the females to 
 
 ' Fison ancljiowiu, Kamilaroi, pp. 297 -305. 
 
 - Ibid. pp. 227-229. ' Ihid. pp. 275, 276. 
 
 * Il'id. pp. 2S4-2S6. ^ See the Timts for July 21, 1875. 
 
AUSTRALIAN rROIIIUITIONS 89 
 
 the other. There arc besides fourteen family names or totems, 
 any one of which may intermarry with the other. Much the 
 same arrangement is also found among the Narrinyeri tribe 
 of South Australia.' 
 
 The Ikula, of the southern part of the boundary between 
 West and South Australia, are divided into four classes— 
 Budera, Kura, Budu, and Wcnung. When the two first 
 intermarry, the males take the name of the father, and the 
 females that of the mother, as among the Kurnai ; and simi- 
 larly when the two last intermarry. But the two first seem 
 to be superior to the two last in rank, and though the Budera 
 male may marry a Wenung woman, girls as well as boys take 
 the father's name. In the same way a Kura male may marry 
 a Budu woman, and his children of both sexes take his name. 
 But neither a Budu nor Wenung male may marry into the 
 upper classes ; nor can a Budera marry a Budu woman, nor a 
 Kura marry a Wenung woman. ^ 
 
 The Kunandaburi, of Cooper's Creek, are divided into two 
 classes, the Mattara and Yungo, which intermarry. Marriage 
 is, however, forbidden between first-cousins or nearer relatives. 
 Like the Kurnai, Narrinyeri, and others, they still retain 
 traces of promiscuity at the ceremony of marriage, in which 
 neither class nor kinship is any bar.-' 
 
 These various systems are all explicable, as I have said, 
 by the system of capture, developed from a previous state in 
 which promiscuity was practised. Of the first the Macad- 
 amas of Cape York are an example. Of pure exogamy the 
 systems represented by the Kumite and Kroki, or Kilpara 
 and Mukwara, are examples. But an explanation of the com- 
 pound system of the Kamilaroi is not so easy. Mr. Howitt 
 gives one indeed which, though doubtfully advanced and sub- 
 sequently withdrawn,^ is very possible in itself, and consonant 
 
 ' Howitt, ' Notes on the Australian Class Systems,' in the Journal of the 
 Anthropological Institute, xii. 507. 
 
 2 Ibid. p. 509. 
 
 ' Fison and Howitt, ' Mother-right to Father-right,' in the Journal of the 
 Anthropological Institute, xii. 35, and note, pp. 36, 37. 
 
 • Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi, pp. 70 et seq. ; and Howitt, ' Notes on 
 .\iistralian Class Systems,' in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xii. 
 499-504. 
 
90 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 with analogy and the customs in other parts. His theory is 
 this : Given two original tribes, A and B, each divided into 
 two classes — 
 
 Ipai 
 
 A into ' ''^"' ^"'^ 'l""'^ (/) 
 A into , ,,.._, j^^^^ jj^jj^,^ ,^.j 
 
 KumlH, (,«) Butha (/) 
 Kul.i («) Kuhitha (/) 
 
 just as we actually find a tribe divided into Kumite {711), 
 Kumitegor (/), and Kroki (/«), Krokigor (/). Let them 
 also have relationship through females, also like Kumite and 
 Kroki. Then we have — 
 
 Ipai = 
 
 Malha 
 / 
 
 Muri 
 
 = Ipatha 
 
 1 / 
 1 
 
 Kuinhu 
 
 = Kuhitha Kuhi = Butha 
 1 ^' '" ^ 
 
 Malha 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 Ipatha 
 
 1 
 Kul.i 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 Kubitha Kumbu Butha 
 
 / "■ f 
 
 So far there is no theory. But now suppose the A and B 
 tribes, for some reason or other, unite, and, to cement their 
 friendship, exchange wives, as is not uncommon among other 
 savages, and as was the case with the Minyse and Lacedae- 
 monians, according to Herodotus.' We suppose, therefore, 
 that Ipai and Kumbu exchange wives ; that Muri and Kubi 
 do the same ; and, further, that their children retain the 
 former names. Then — 
 
 ipai = Kubitha Muri = Butha 
 '" \ f '" \ f 
 
 Muri Matha 
 / 
 
 Ipai Ipatha 
 
 Kumbu = Matha Kubi = Ipatha 
 
 III; 
 
 Kubi Kubillia Kumbu Butha 
 / m / 
 
 and if we compare this with tlie state of things among the 
 Kamilaroi, wc find that they are identical. Indeed, we actually 
 
 ' Herodotus, iv. 145. Mr. Cameron says that it is, and formerly was much 
 more, customary to exchange wives, in order to avert some great calamity, or 
 merely to cement a friendship, and that occasionally tribal brothers who have 
 quarrelled make a temporary exchange of wives. (' Notes on some Tribes of New 
 South Wales,' in \.\\<i Journal of the Anthropolo'kallnstituk, xiv. 353, No. 4, for 
 May 1885.) 
 
TASMANIA AND NEW GUINEA 9I 
 
 find that in the Turra tribe, who are divided into Wiltu (A) 
 and Multa (B),and again subdivided, where A can only marry 
 into B, and vice versa, the rule is relaxed at their grand cor- 
 robborees, and wives are temporarily exchanged between the 
 Wiltu and Multa ; and this although chastity is otherwise re- 
 spected, and a marriage in the same clan rigidly forbidden. 
 Now, if we suppose the Wiltu and Multa originally to have 
 married amongst themselves, this could be explained on the 
 supposition that the permanent exchange of wives was tem- 
 pered by an occasional return to the former state of things, 
 and perhaps to a former hetairism. 
 
 The Tasmanians were accustomed to seize their wives 
 from other clans whose language was different ; and, though 
 their wives were virtuous, promiscuosity was recognised. 
 Hombron stands alone in his assertion that the Tasmanians 
 were ill-favoured ; while on the other side Labilladiere, 
 Cook, Breton, Nixon, Jeffreys, Bibra, d'Urville, Peron, and 
 Holman combine in giving us an agreeable picture of them. 
 According to Dr. Gerland, they are probably of the same 
 race as the Australians, but not further connected w^ith 
 them.' 
 
 In New Guinea (or Papua) a woman on marriage enters 
 her husband's family, but relationship and inheritance go 
 through the female line. A widow is obliged to marry her 
 deceased husband's brother. 
 
 The inhabitants of Triton Bay were, according to Hombron, 
 a mixed race, between Makassas, Balinese, Timorese, and 
 Papuas ; and he accounts for their beauty on this score. To 
 this Dr. Gerland, however, well remarks that 'such cross- 
 breeds may possibly exist, but there must have been some 
 aboriginal population to give birth to them, of the beauty of 
 whom Hombron says nothing at all. It is besides impos- 
 sible that these strangers could ever have been numerous 
 enough for their offspring to form any important fraction 
 of the population. The fact is, he has here followed his 
 prejudices.' - 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anthropolo:^i , vi. 719, 720, 813, 815, 816. 
 - Ibid. pp. 536, 537, 634, 639, 661. 
 
92 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Tlie savayes of New Britain seem to have prohibitions 
 very like some of the Australian tribes. In exery tribe, sa\'s 
 Mr. Powell, there arc two distinct parties, between whom only 
 marriage is allowed, the men generally buying women from 
 foreign tribes.' 
 
 The folk-stories of the Greenland Eskimo show strong 
 traces that they have gone through the same phases of 
 marriage as other savage tribes. One of their most ancient 
 traditions'- seems to point to hetairism, with perhaps some 
 slight restriction in cases of very near relationship, for, though 
 a brother wishes to marry his sister, she refuses.^ Their 
 relationship was formerly entirely through females,^ but they 
 have now relationship through males.'' In their marriage 
 ceremonies they retain the form of capture.* Cranz says that 
 they seldom marry cousins or people with whom they have 
 been brought up, though a man will marry two sisters or 
 mother and daughter at the same time.' Yet a story ' of 
 Rink's collection shows that marriage with an adopted sister 
 living under the same roof was not unlawful. 
 
 The Eskimo of North-west America are generall}' in a far 
 more backward state ; hetairism is the rule ; even brothers and 
 sisters, parents and children, see no bar in their relationship. 
 Marriage, however, exists, and a woman once married is not 
 unfaithful without her husband's consent.-' 
 
 The North American Indians are divided into clans 
 varying in the several nations from three to ten, the members 
 of which are dispersed among the different nations. Every 
 clan has its distinguishing emblem, such as a bird, beast, fish, 
 &c. called a totem. The Algonquins never intermarry among 
 themselves, for they have all the same emblem or family name. 
 The Iroquese and the Delaware never marry into their own 
 
 ' Wilfred Powell, ' New Britain and the Adjacent Islands,' in the Journal 
 of the Society of Arts, xxxiii. 836, No. 1699, for June 12, 1885. 
 - Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, story number 35. 
 ' Ibid. pp. 236, 237. ' //'/(/. p. 25. 
 
 '" Cranz, Hist. v. Gronland, i. 247. " \\\\\V,ut sup. story numlier 17, i.a. 
 
 ' <Zx?s.m,ut si4p. i. 209. ■* Rink, ul sup. p. 291. 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologic, iii. 313, 314 : Bancroft, Native Rates, etc. i. 65, 
 81, 92. 
 
ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA 93 
 
 stock. The Canadian Indians do not many in the first 
 degrees of relationship, and greatly prefer sons to daughters, 
 for the former add to their fighting power. The Kenai, 
 Omaha, Atmah, and Kolosh choose their wives from another 
 stock, their offspring, as everywhere else among these 
 Indians, belonging to the mother's family. Now, however, 
 the Kenai no longer care to follow the old custom ; marriages 
 occur in the same tribe, and though consanguineous marriages 
 are no commoner in consequence than they were before, owing 
 to the one-sided idea of relationship, yet the old people assert 
 that the mortality has risen since this innovation was intro- 
 duced. The Nutka have a curious trade which looks as if they, 
 at least, did not pay much attention to forbidden degrees ; 
 for certain men make a trade of buying girls when six years 
 old and selling them again as brides when they are old 
 enough. Among the Tinneh, no man may marry a woman 
 of the same family name as himself ; if he does, he is said to 
 have married his sister, even though she be really no relation. 
 The Choctaw are divided into two great septs, each of which 
 is subdivided into four clans, and no man may marry into any 
 of the clans belonging to his sept. The restriction among the 
 Creeks, Natches, and Cherokees does not extend beyond the 
 clan to which the man belongs. A Cherokee may marry a 
 mother and daughter at once, but if he commits what they 
 consider to be incest he is burnt alive. The Ayowas consider 
 that every husband has the first right to his wife's younger 
 sisters, but he is allowed to hand them over to his friends if he 
 likes. Uncles and aunts are deemed the same as fathers and 
 mothers, and first-cousins consider themselves brothers and 
 sisters. In the north-easternmost portion of the United 
 States, in that part known formerly as New England, 
 marriage was allowed between brother and sister in a chief's 
 family when there was no one else of equal birth to marry ; 
 and in other parts chiefs sometimes arrogated to themselves 
 the right of marrying within degrees forbidden to the rest of 
 the tribe. But these were the exceptions, the general law 
 being everywhere the same, that persons of the same family 
 name were forbidden to intermarry. Relationship was every- 
 
94 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 where through the mother alone. Half-brothers and sisters 
 were therefore not related to each other, while maternal uncles 
 and aunts were styled father and mother, and maternal cousins 
 brother and sister.' 
 
 The whole nation of the Thlinkeets are divided into two 
 tribes, the Wolves and the Ravens. These are each sub- 
 divided into five clans, and they have social castes and an 
 hereditary nobility. Both war and marriage are prohibited 
 between members of the same tribe.- Of the Chipewyan 
 Ross says, ' I have heard among them of two sons keeping 
 their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to his 
 daughter, and of several married to their sisters.'^ The 
 Kutchins are divided into three clans, intermarriage within 
 the same clan being forbidden ; but since relationship is 
 reckoned only on the female side close intermarriage is not 
 prevented.'' The Haida seem to have no prohibited degrees.-^ 
 A Nootka child takes its mother's totem, although rank is 
 inherited on the male side. Nobles prefer to obtain their first 
 and chief wife at least from among the noble daughters of 
 neighbouring tribes, and commoners likewise marry in their 
 own rank. Persons of the same totem are not allowed to in- 
 termany ; and for this or some other reason it is not well- 
 bred to invite anyone of the same family totem as the host 
 to dinner." ' Among the Spokanes,' a division of the Salish, 
 ' a man marrying out of his own tribe joins that of his wife, 
 because she can work better in a country to which she is 
 accustomed.' Since a man could hardly do this were all his 
 wives from different parts of the country this may explain 
 the custom found here and in other parts of the world that 
 a husband has the right to his wife's younger sisters.' The 
 Flatheads, another tribe of the Salish, rarely marry out of the 
 tribe. The Nez Perces, a division of the Sahaptin, ' rarely 
 
 ' McLennan, Primitive Marriage, pp. 121, 122; Sir J. Lubbock, Origin of 
 Civilisation, etc. pp. 135, 136; Waitz, Anthropologic, iii. 106 109, 328,' 329, 
 333 ; Mayhcw, London Labour, etc. vol. ii. book iii. p. 86 ; Reich, Ehe, etc. 
 P- 378. -' Bancroft, Native Races of the Paeific States, i. 109. 
 
 = //',V. p. i:7,notei93. 
 
 ' Iliiii. p. 132. ■- IhiJ. p. 169, note 34. 
 
 « //'/(/. i. 195, p. 197, note 75, and p. 199, note 80. 
 
 ' Ihid. p. 277. 
 
ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA 95 
 
 marry cousins.' ' The mountain Indians of Northern California 
 ' seldom, if ever, intermarry with those on the coast. ' - Among 
 the Modocs there is hetairism until marriage, after which 
 adultery is very severely punished.' The Indians of Central 
 California are scattered over the country in innumerable 
 tribes whose customs are almost identical.'' They are mostly 
 polj'gamous and the chieftainship is hereditary in the male 
 line.' At Monterey, La Perouse says it was customary for a 
 man to marry all the sisters of a family. Near Fort Ross 
 marriage is forbidden in the first and second degrees, accord- 
 ing to Kostromitonow. At San Francisco parentage and 
 other relations of consanguinity are no obstacles to marriage, 
 and here also a man marries all his sisters-in-law, and fre- 
 quently his mother-in-law into the bargain." The Oleepa 
 have traces of marriage by capture ; and at Clear Lake there 
 is a form of capture, like that in Australia, where a party of 
 young men seize and carry off a girl, who afterwards becomes 
 the wife of one of them.' The Shoshones are a large tribe 
 composed of two groups, the Snakes and the Utahs. They 
 hold marriage with a woman of another nation to be a capital 
 offence, unless it is with the consent of the chief and council. 
 Should a girl who has been bought as a bride refuse to marry 
 her purchaser, she is seized by him and his friends, as among 
 the Indians of Clear Lake." Among the Apaches foreign 
 women and children are taken in war, and their own daughters 
 sold. They usually marry several sisters to secure domestic 
 peace." Among the Yuma, nearly allied to the Apaches, 
 ince.st sometimes occurs.'" The Pueblo Indians have a law 
 that no one may marry out of the town without permission of 
 the authorities ; and the custom that maidens, inverting the 
 ordinary custom among mankind, propose for the youths, 
 tends to make intermarriage between neighbouring villages 
 uncommon. Intermarriage in the same families is therefore 
 frequent, a ' fertile cause of their deterioration,' according to 
 
 ' Bancroft, ut sup. p. 278, note 1 78. ■ Ibid. p. 35°. ""'c 60. 
 
 2 Jbid. p. 351, and note 62. ' //""'. pp. 362, 360. 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 38s, 388. " Ibid. p. 3S8, note 121. 
 
 '■ Ibid. p. 3S9, and note 124. 
 
 " Ibid. pp. 436, 437, notes 206, 207. 
 
 » Ibid. pp. 511, 512, and note 120. "' Ibid. p. 515. 
 
96 THE jrARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Bancroft.' Yet he admits that they are good-looking,^ brave,' 
 suffer from few diseases, and those mostly chills and fevers,^ 
 while they are more civilised than any other tribe of North 
 American Indians ; ' a striking contrast to the neighbouring 
 mixed Apaches, who are ugly,*^ brutal,' and suffer from fever, 
 pneumonia, rheumatism, dysentcr)', ophthalmi;i, measles, small- 
 pox, and a peculiar skin disease.** 
 
 The Cochimis, Guaicuris, and Periciiis of Lower California 
 appear to have no marriage, no forbidden degrees, and to 
 practise promiscuity.' The Bauzarigames, Cabezas, Conto- 
 tores, and Tehuecos of New Mexico ' practise polygamy and 
 interfamily marriages, but these are forbidden by the Ceris, 
 Chinipas, Tiburones, and Tepocas.' The Acax^es and Tahus, 
 again, are 'notorious,' says Bancroft, for their ' incestuous con- 
 nections.' '" Grade of civilisation seems to have nothing to do 
 with this practice, for the Cochimis, Guaicuris, and Pericuis 
 are hardly so civilised as wild beasts ; the Acaxdes, brave, in- 
 telligent, and honest ; ' the Tepocas and Tiburones are fierce, 
 cruel, and treacherous, more warlike and courageous than 
 the Ceris of the mainland, who are singularly devoid of good 
 qualities.' " 
 
 The Moquis of Arizona, New Mexico, are divided into 
 totems, and members of the same totem may not intermarry. 
 Relationship, however, is entirely through females, marriage 
 is of the Beena class, a husband goes to his wife's abode, and 
 he may be divorced by her when she pleases. Property is 
 inherited by daughters to the exclusion of sons.'- 
 
 In Mexico, under the Chichemeks, and before the founda- 
 tion of the Mexican Empire, it appears that a man might only 
 marry one wife, who must not be a ' near relation.' This 
 custom seems to have persisted in the youth of the Mexican 
 Empire : marriages between persons related in the first degree, 
 or even between step-parents and their step-children, were 
 
 ' Bancroft, ;// sup. pp. 547. 548- "' ^l'''^- PP- 529. 53°- 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 543. 555. ' /*'■"'• P- 554- 
 
 ' y/'irf. pp. 52S-555. -^ //</,/. p. 47S. ' //W. pp. 49S, 511, 522. 
 
 » Ibid. p. 521. ' //"■'/. PP.56S. 566. 
 
 ■» Ibid. p. 585. " Jl'i'l- pp. 565. 590- 
 '2 Bourke, The Snake Dance of llu- Afoi/iiis of Ariuvm, c-lc. pp. 135, 136, 
 229, 230. London, ii)S4. 
 
AliORIGINES OF CENTRAL AMERICA 97 
 
 forbidden luulei- penalty of death. Abuiit the time (j( 
 Montezuma I. the nobles first became a caste a[)art and 
 privileged, and this class soon became better formed and 
 stronger than the common people, who also were divided into 
 castes, since their professions were hereditary. It was the 
 custom of the king and aristocracy to take their female rela- 
 tives of the third degree as concubines, at least in the time 
 of Montezuma II., and in all probability also before him.' 
 
 The old Spanish writers say that incest was habitual at 
 their first arrival among the wild tribes of Mexico, especially 
 in the districts of Vera Cruz, Tamaulipas, and Ouerctaro.'^ 
 
 Among the Misteks there does not seem to have been 
 any restriction on marriages between near kin ; it was even 
 customary for the ruler to marry a relative.^ Among the 
 Mayas of Yucatan marriage is forbidden between persons of 
 the same family name, which is inherited through males. 
 But in his description of the inhabitants of the village of 
 Schawill Mr. Stephens says : ' Every member must marry 
 within the rancho, and no such thing as a marriage out of it 
 had ever occurred. They said it was impossible ; it could not 
 happen. They were in the habit of going to the villages to 
 attend the festivals ; and when we suggested a supposable 
 case of a young man or woman falling in love with some 
 village Indian, they said it might happen ; there ^\■as no law 
 against it ; but none could marry out of the rancho. This 
 was a thing so little apprehended that the punishment for it 
 was not defined in their penal code ; but being questioned, 
 after some consultations, they said that the offender, whether 
 man or woman, would be expelled. We remarked that in 
 their small community constant intermarriages must make 
 them all relatives, which they said was the case since the 
 reduction of their numbers by the cholera. They were in fact 
 all kinsfolk, but it was allowable for kinsfolk to marry, except 
 in the relationship of brothers and sisters.' ' The aborigenes 
 of Guatemala also marry as a rule within the tribe ; but 
 
 Wailz, Anthropologic, iv. 27, 130, 4;, 71, 64,81, loj, 146. 89. 
 Bancroft, ut sup. i. 635. ' W.nitz, iil sup. p. i 
 
 Bancroft, nt sup. i. 663. 
 
98 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 several tribes are so strictly opposed to exogamous marriage 
 that any progeny left by a stranger is destroyed.' In Hon- 
 duras, ' relationship was no impediment to marriage.' ^ 
 
 Relationship outside the first degree is no hindrance to 
 marriage in Nicaragua, but rather a recommendation.' 
 
 In Panama ' marriage was not contracted with strangers 
 or people speaking a different language, and the tiba and lords 
 only married with the daughters of noble blood.' Herrera 
 says they married with the daughters of their sisters. Navarrete 
 says they considered it wrong to marry a father's chief wife, 
 a sister, or a daughter, which are probably the relationships 
 referred to by Peter Martyr, when he says they may have any 
 number of wives they please excepting their ' kindred and 
 allies.' ■• 
 
 The Indians of Darien marry a woman first for a week to 
 her father, or nearest relative, before she is handed over to her 
 husband.-^ 
 
 The Panches of New Granada never marry a woman be- 
 longing to the same village as themselves."' 
 
 The Indians of the Orinoko district may marry their sister's 
 daughter, says Gili, but never a brother's. It is not at all un- 
 common for a man to inherit his step-mother on the death of 
 his father, or his sister-in-law on the death of his brother.^ 
 
 The Indians of Guiana may be divided into four or five 
 branches, the Carib, Wapisiana, Arawak, Warrau,and perhaps 
 the Tarumas and Maopityans. These are divided into tribes, 
 among which, says Mr. im Thurn, there was formerly no inter- 
 marriage except with war captives. There are traces of sub- 
 division of the tribes into families, but these subdivisions and 
 restrictions on marriage are now almost obliterated, and the 
 Arawak, who longest preserved their lines of familydescent, will 
 serve as a type of the marriage system of all. They are divided 
 into a number of families, about forty-seven, within which 
 marriage was prohibited ; but since relation.ship is only recog- 
 
 I Bancroft, Native Races, etc. i. 702, 703. » //'/</. ji. 730 
 
 « Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 406. 
 
 ' Bancroft, Native Races, etc. i. 772 antl 773, note. 
 
 » Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 40S. <■ Wailz, .■hithrofolo,c:ic. iv. 376. 
 
 ' Reich, Ehe, etc. jip. 418, 419- 
 
THE ANCIENT PERUVIANS 99 
 
 nised through females, tlus is no real prohibition. The iuisbaiul 
 lives with his wife's family. Close as this system permits 
 marriage between relations to be, there are traces of the old 
 Iroquois system of constant intermarriage between particular 
 families.' 
 
 The ancient Peruvians, according to Garcilasso dela Vega, 
 before the dynasty of the Incas, used to marry indifferently 
 whomsoever they chose — their mothers, their sisters, or even 
 their daughters. The children of the first Inca, Manco-Capac 
 (A.D. 949-1006) married among themselves, and ever after- 
 wards the Inca's chief wife was his sister, so that the blood 
 of the royal Peruvian line, the blood of the Sun, might always 
 be kept pure ; for they held that the Sun himself had married 
 his sister the Moon, and from that union they were descended. 
 According to Fernandez, the sister they married might not 
 be a uterine sister. No female of the royal line was allowed 
 to marry a vassal. The son of the Inca's sister was his heir, 
 or, failing a direct heir, probably the eldest male relative on 
 the female side was chosen. Trades and offices were generally 
 hereditary ; no one could change his domicile ; the members 
 of every community were forced to marry within that com- 
 munity ; nay, so paternal was the government that couples 
 were paired by regular officials whose business it was. Gomara 
 asserts that the soldiers customarily married their sisters after 
 the royal example ; and both he and Herrera say that the 
 Orejones were permitted by Huayna-Capac (A.D. 1475-1525) 
 to marry their female relatives on the paternal side. Hence, 
 since polygamy was only permitted to the high nobles, by far 
 the larger proportion of marriages in ancient Peru were between 
 near kin, for it is impossible that a community always marry- 
 ing among themselves, and never allowed to change their 
 domicile could have done otherwise. Far from being reduced 
 to either physical or mental decay by these laws, there resulted 
 a degree of skill in the arts apparently equal to any ancient 
 civilisation of that latitude ; while after the first surprise was 
 over the people resisted with such bravery the attack of the 
 
 ' 111! Thnrn, Amoii'^ /lie htdiaiis of Guiana, pp. i6j, 175-1S6. Lnndon, 
 18S3. 
 
lOO THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Spaniards that these were more than once reduced to very 
 unpleasant straits.' 
 
 The Brazihan races differ greatly from one another as to 
 their marriage regulations. In some of the very scattered 
 tribes, who live in small communities far removed from each 
 other, the nearest relatives intermarry. In more populous 
 districts, on the contrary, the tribes are divided into families, 
 and no one may marry into his own family.^ The Mandrucus 
 have the levirate law. . The brother of a widow is obliged to 
 marry his sister's daughter, if she is marriageable, and he can- 
 not find a substitute. An uncle on the paternal side is not 
 allowed to marry his niece. Lerius, who travelled towards 
 the end of the sixth century in Brazil, says, ' No one marries 
 his mother, sister, or daughter ; further consanguinity have 
 they none. A paternal uncle may marry his niece, and all 
 degrees outside this are open.'^* Freycinet asserts that it is 
 by no means rare that a Coroado is at once father, brother, 
 and even son-in-law to the same person.-* The Tupi only 
 consider marriage to be forbidden in the first degree and with 
 a maternal aunt or a uterine sister ; but an uncle has the prior 
 right to his niece's hand.^ 
 
 ' Long experience,' says Father Martin Dobrizhoffer, ' has 
 convinced me that the respect to consanguinity, by which 
 they are deterred from marrying into their own families, is 
 implanted by nature in the minds of most of the people of 
 Paraguay.' " But Dobrizhoffer studied chiefly the Abipones, 
 and therefore we must consider his remarks as applying only 
 to them. He says that since the women are obliged to suckle 
 their infants for three years, they often practise infanticide to 
 prevent their husbands seeking other wives in the meanwhile. 
 It is the boy who is generally sacrificed thus, for when a son 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 204; iv. 411, 415, 416, 412, 417, 461, 473-477. 
 478 et seq. ; J. A. N. P^rier, Mihii. de la So,: (TAnt/irop. de Paris, i860, i. 
 217. On the science of the ancient Peruvians see also Godron, De rEsphe et 
 des Races, ii. 238, 239. There seems to be a very great reseml)lancc between 
 the ancient Egyptian and Peruvian civilisations. 
 
 ■■^ SirT. Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, pp. 137, 138. 
 
 • Reich, Ehe, etc. pp. 434, 436- 
 
 ' I. A. N. P(irier, Mem. de la Soc. (TAnthrop. de Paris, i860, 1. 2lS. 
 
 » Waitz, Anthropologie, iii. 422. 
 
 " Cited by Tylor, Researelies into the Early History of Mankind, p. 2S7. 
 
grows up it is necessary to buy a wife for liim ; while a 
 grown-up daughter will always command her price. Rengger 
 tells us that many of the Indian races of Paraguay arc too 
 proud to intermarry with any race of a different colour, or 
 even of a different stock ; and in consequence these races are 
 free from syphilis. Azara says of another tribe, the Charruas, 
 a brother is never allowed to marry a sister ; from which I 
 presume that marriages outside the second degree are per- 
 mitted.' 
 
 In the Argentine Republic, says Mantegazza, con- 
 sanguineous marriages are frequent, ' with all their unhappy 
 consequences.' ^ 
 
 The Patagonians marry in every degree save the ' first.'' 
 The Caribs generally married their father's or mother's 
 sister's daughter, who, according to Cieza, were considered to 
 be the wives appointed by nature for them, and often married 
 several sisters at once. Relationship was through females 
 alone ; but the sons, says Herrera, generally inherited some- 
 thing from their father. According to Bancroft, any Carib 
 woman who formed a connection with a stranger was slowly 
 whipped to death.^ Yet Walker says, on the authority of 
 Dr. Hancock, ' the Caribes are the only American tribe who, 
 without restraint, take wives from the other tribes adjacent ; 
 and their superiority overall their neighbours is too well known 
 to require a word in illustration.' ^ Probably Dr. Hancock 
 refers to the Black Caribs, a mongrel stock. 
 
 Minutoli relates that the people of Lanzarota and Fucrte- 
 ventura formerly practised polyandry, a wife usually having 
 three husbands, who were but little more than her slaves. 
 In the isles of Palma and Gomera the king had the jus 
 primce iioctis, and the first-born were therefore considered 
 
 ' Reich, Eke, etc. pp. 455-458- , . , .j u- ^ „ 
 
 ' Cited by Reich, ihid. Signor Mantegazza has written, besides his Leilen 
 Mediche sitlla America Meridioiiale, a pamphlet entitled Studj siii Matrimoiioiij 
 Consangvinei, in which he does not mention anything about the unhappy conse- 
 quences here. I have not seen the former work. 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologie, iii. 505. 
 
 < Ibid. pp. 353, 383; Bancroft, Nnlivc Races, etc. i. 72S. 
 
 > Walker, On Intermarriage, p. 364. 
 
I02 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 nobles. Beauty in these islands is measured by the pound ; 
 yet the women were considered fruitful, though they had to 
 suckle their children by means of goats. No woman was 
 obliged to bring up more than two daughters, all the rest 
 might be killed.' 
 
 Du Chaillu asserts that in Western Equatorial Africa 
 the children belong to the mother's clan, and there is no 
 intermarriage in the same clan, however far removed the 
 relationship may be ; but there is no objection to taking a 
 brother's or a father's wife. He adds : ' I could not but be 
 struck with the healthful influence of such regulations 
 against blood marriages among them.' '■' Monrad says the 
 e.xact contrary. Blood relationship, according to him, is no 
 hindrance to marriage, except it be in the first or second 
 degrees.* The fact is that marriage is forbidden in the same 
 clan, but that the relationship is one-sided, so that the nearest 
 relatives on one side may marry, while intermarriage is 
 forbidden between the most distant relatives on the female 
 side. A Krooman inherits not only his father's wives, among 
 his other property, but even his own mother.^ The Fantis 
 leave their wives, with the rest of their property, to their 
 sister's son ; and on other parts of the coast the son inherits 
 all his father's wives, with the exception of his own and his 
 father's mother. He must wait a year, however, before he 
 may take possession. The Papcls, the people about Cape 
 Palmas, and the Bambarras have all a similar custom.' These 
 latter are divided into several castes, and no one may marry 
 out of his own caste, excepting the village chiefs, who are all 
 of royal blood." The Jolofs are also divided into castes, 
 which probably do not intermarry. The castes of the 
 Weavers and the Singers are considered so very low that 
 nobody ever marries into them.'' In Aquapim two families 
 who have the same fetish do not intermarry,* the fetish 
 doubtless being the same only for relatives on tiie female side. 
 
 ' Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 318. 
 
 - Sir J. Lul)l)Ock, Origin of Civilisation, ji. 133. 
 
 ' Reich, Elic, etc. p. 303. 
 
 * MayheW, London Labour, etc. vol. ii. book iii. p. 63. 
 
 » Waitz, Anthropologic, ii. 115. ' Jhid. pp. 134, 135. ' Ibid. p. :37. 
 
 • Tylor, Researches into the Early History of Mankind, p. 284. 
 
AFRICAN TRIBES I03 
 
 Albert! informs us that the Southern Kaffirs consider it 
 uuseemly that blood relations should be much together, and 
 do not allow marriage between them. Kay says they inter- 
 marry much with neighbouring peoples, the chiefs of the 
 Amakosa always marrying with Amatembu women, and the 
 Amapondo, though not always with neighbouring people, 
 yet never marry in their own village. Affinity seems no hin- 
 drance to marriage, for a man may marry two sisters at once. 
 A father's widow belongs to his son, and if there is no male 
 heir, she becomes the property of the community.' 
 
 The Zulu only permit marriage between the most distant 
 relations. A widow belongs to her brother-in-law.'^ 
 
 The Hottentots only marry outside the third degree, 
 punishing incest with death.^ 
 
 At Ponda, near Nsama's country, the people have no 
 family names. A man bears his mother's name till his 
 father's death, when he may assume his. Marriage is for- 
 bidden to the third degree, and first and second cousins are 
 called brothers and sisters."" 
 
 Of Kasongo, king of Urua, Commander Cameron says : 
 ' His principal wife and the four or five ranking next to her 
 are all of royal blood, being either his sisters or first-cousins, 
 and amongst his harem are to be found his .step-mothers, 
 aunts, sisters, nieces, and, still more horrible, his own children.' 
 Yet this chief, who was presumably born from an incestuous 
 marriage, ' was taller by nearly a head than anybody standing 
 near at his court reception.' ' A neighbouring ruler, Mata 
 Yafa, king of Ulunda, also had a sister as his principal wife.* 
 The Masai young men and unmarried women live apart 
 in special kraals in promiscuity ; every girl having several 
 lovers, and every man the same, though each for a time 
 has favourites.' When no longer capable of undergoing 
 the hardships of a fighting bachelor, the man retires to the 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologie, ii. 355, 390; Reich, Ehc, etc. p. 322. , ... , 
 
 = Waitz, ut sup. p. 390 ; Mayhew, London Labour, etc. vol. 11. book 111. 64. 
 ' Reich, ut Slip. p. 324. 
 ' Livingstone, Last Journals, i. 223. 
 
 » Cameron, Across Africa, ii. 70, 92. ' /-'""'. P- r41. 
 
 ' Thomson, Through Masai Land, etc. p. 43«- Nevertheless .i pregnant girl 
 is killed, since consummation is avoided, p. 5S0. 
 
I04 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 married man's kraal, and buys a wife or wives. But even after 
 marriage chastity is not respected.' 
 
 The Wa Teita, of the same region, have marriage by 
 capture, and there are traces of a former stage of hetairism 
 in the custom that the bride is at first common to the bride- 
 groom's companions. There are many more females than 
 males, yet the price of a wife is so high that ' not infrequently ' 
 men take their sisters to wife, though the practice is highly 
 reprobated. - 
 
 Of all tribes in Africa the Bogo seem to bear away the 
 palm for prohibited degrees. Persons related to the seventh 
 degree, says Munzinger, may not marrj-, whether the relation- 
 ship be on the paternal or maternal side. Affinity is not 
 held in such respect, for a widow falls, with the rest of her 
 husband's hareem, to his son or brother ; but she never 
 marries her own son.^ 
 
 The Somali frequently marry into foreign stocks, forbid 
 marriage between first-cousins, and in all nearer degrees of 
 relationship excepting that of uncle and niece. A widow is 
 generally married by her deceased husband's brother.^ 
 
 In Uganda, Speke saw King Mtesa at a levee, attended 
 by women who were at once his sisters and his wives.^ 
 
 The king of the Assubo-Galla always marries a relative ; 
 and the Seers, who constitute a separate caste, always marry 
 among themselves, considering themselves the only true 
 Gallas. Widows are inherited by the brother-in-law.'' 
 
 The Gypsies of Egypt marry exclusively among them- 
 selves. . According to Newbold, they are divided into three 
 stocks, called respectively the Helebi, the Ghagar, and the 
 Nuri, or Navver. The women of the Helebi are modest, 
 those of the Ghagar rather the reverse. The Helebi are most 
 strictly endogamous, not even marrying into other Gypsy 
 tribes ; but the Nuri intermarry with the Egyptian Fellahin. 
 Seetzen says that the Gypsies of Egypt always intermarry 
 among themselves ; nor do they allow their daughters to 
 
 ' Tliomson, zit sup. pp. 441, 442. = //'/,/. pp. 93, 94. 
 
 = Riich, E/ie, etc. pp. 333, 334. < Waitz, Anthropologic, ii. 522. 
 
 ^ Ai1r\iii, I-'ortnighlly Revieii', 1865, p. 721. 
 
 ' Wailz, Anthropologic, ii. 516, 518. 
 
NORTH Al-RICA AN'I) MADAfJASCAR I05 
 
 marry out of the tribe, unless among the Ghawazce." These 
 latter arc a distinct people, of a different cast of countenance 
 from the Arabs, who fancy themselves directly descended from 
 the Barmekees. They hardly ever marry out of their tribe, 
 the women perhaps never ; for they pride themselves on 
 perpetuating their race unminglcd. Lane considers them to 
 be the direct descendants of the ancient Egyptian dancers, 
 and says, ' Upon the whole, I think they arc the finest 
 women in Egypt.' '^ 
 
 The northern part of Africa is peopled chiefly by Moham- 
 medans, who marry according to their prophet's law, but 
 often restrict intermarriage with other tribes. The Moors of 
 Tunis are an instance of this ; and their dislike of inter- 
 marriage with the Arabs is heartily reciprocated.' The Hal 
 Ben Ali are also very proud of the purity of their blood, and 
 therefore never contract marriage out of their tribe, excei)t 
 perhaps with one of the fair Abd-cl-Noor females. The same 
 is the case with the Ouled Sidi Sheikh, renowned for their 
 beauty, who never give their daughters in marriage out of the 
 tribe, unless to some marabout of great family. The Tuarik 
 will not ally themselves even with the Arabs, but always 
 marry among themselves, and are said to be very handsome.' 
 
 Of the Berbers south of Algiers, M. Solleillet says that 
 the most heinous offence is marriage with foreign women.'* 
 
 The people of Madagascar have intermixed slightly on 
 the coast districts with Arabs, Europeans, and Indians ; but 
 the Hovas, who are the chief race, have mixed very little 
 with foreigners, although as a conquering race they have 
 perhaps mixed more with neighbouring tribes than have 
 these neighbouring tribes themselves. They are divided into 
 four classes, the Andrians, or nobles ; the Uova commoners ; 
 the Haza-Hova, or commoners reduced to slavery ; and the 
 Andevo, or slaves. These classes are all forbidden to inter- 
 
 ' Reich, £Ae, etc. pp. 24S, 249. 
 ^ Lane, Moiiern Egyptians, ii. 108, 109. 
 = Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 295. 
 
 " J. A. N. Perier, Mhn.dela Soc. d Aiilhivp. dc Fat is, 1S63, i. 191 ; Gu 
 Dc VEsphc et dcs Races, ii. 166, 167. 
 
 ^ See the Times, under ' France,' June 14, 1875. 
 
I06 THE MARKIACE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 marry unless with a slave if slie be freed first,' ' so that there 
 is a tendency from the habits of the people to keep the 
 original stock of any tribe free from inuch foreign admixture, 
 for tribes and families as a rule marry among themselves in 
 order to keep landed property together, as well as from strong 
 clannish feeling. The Andrians are further divided into six 
 clans, who rarely intermarry ; and the Hova commoners into 
 a great many clans, ' who very seldom intermarry, but keep 
 mostly to their own family.' ^ Relationship is through 
 females, and marriage is forbidden between the children of 
 uterine sisters down to fifth-cousins inclusive.' In all prob- 
 ability marriage is forbidden in the direct ascending and 
 descending line, though neither Ellis nor Sibree say so. 
 Brothers and sisters of the whole blood are also forbidden to 
 intermarry, which implies some slight recognition of relation- 
 ship through males ; and this is further shown in the rule that 
 half brothers and sisters, and first and second cousins of the 
 whole blood, have to observe ' a slight ceremony' when they 
 intermarry.'' The king, as a matter of course, marries a near 
 relative in order to preserve the succession in his own line. 
 Thus Radama's first wife was his sister, and another was his 
 cousin Ranavalou. As a rule, all a wife's younger sisters are 
 included in the husband's hareem.'' 
 
 Among the Sakalava, some of the clans of nobles may 
 intermarry, but only the highest ranks arc permitted to marry 
 a commoner. The commoners are also divided into clans, 
 which rarely intermarry, and, as among the Hovas, a free- 
 man can only marry a slave if she be first freed. Relation- 
 ship is through females ; and aunts, uncles, nephews, and nieces 
 arc considered to be nearly as closely related as parents and 
 children.'' 
 
 The diseases most prevalent are not those of the t}-pe 
 usually ascribed to consanguineous marriage : idiocy is rare 
 
 ' m\h, //is/orjf of Mculagmrar, i. 164; Sibree, Tlie Great African Island 
 pp. 108-rio. 
 
 ^ Sibree, lit siif. pp. 109, 182, 184, 1S5, 24S. 
 
 ' Ellis, ut sup. i. 165 ; Sibree, ill sup. pp. 1S5, 24S, 249. 
 
 < Ellis, ibid. ; Sibree, ibid. p. 24S. 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologie, ii. 432, 433, 446. 
 
 ' Sibree, ut sup. pp. 256, 247, 167. 
 
MADAGASCAR IO7 
 
 and insanity almost unknown. No cripples are to be seen, but 
 they may be destroyed at birth ; scrofulous and cutaneous 
 disease occurs, probably due to want of cleanliness.' 
 
 In the succeeding chapter we shall proceed to consider 
 the immediate derivation of modern European law on the 
 prohibited degrees. 
 
 ' Sibree, iit sttp. p. 24S ; Ellis, tit sup. pp. 219, 220. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN TROHIBITED 
 DEGREES OF MARRIAGE. 
 
 THE prohibited degrees now in force in Christian States 
 have their remote origin in the natural process of 
 development already described ; but they have been modified 
 first in the direction of greater severity by the asceticism 
 introduced into Europe from the East soon after the intro- 
 duction of Christianity, and secondly in the opposite direction 
 by the development of sound civilisation. 
 
 In all countries and at all times asceticism has arisen 
 spontaneously as the direct result of dissolute manners, 
 generally a protest of the better nature of man, and so a 
 moral protest against the emptiness of a merely sensual life. 
 Asceticism has also a physiological foundation in the protest 
 of the body against a sensual and inactive life. It is therefore 
 preached by Buddha and most of the great reformers ; it is 
 preached by the modern physician who sends his patients to 
 starve in a German bath ; it is practised by savages when they 
 wish to prepare for any great undertaking, and by our modern 
 athletes in similar circumstances. But in ever}' instance the 
 wise and discriminative commands of the reformers arc per- 
 verted by the ignorant, the faddist, and the fanaticist, the 
 weakly obstinate, and the narrow-minded. They carr_\' a 
 general rule of conduct to extremes ; they cannot sec wliy 
 there should be exccjitions ; and, above all, they can never 
 doubt. 
 
THE GOSPELS AND CELIHACY lOQ 
 
 In the gospels celibacy is not recommended except any- 
 one feels impeded by marriage in the duty he owes to God. 
 Christ puts that duty above all others, and next to it the duty 
 to cleave unto one's wife.' St. Paul, however, distinctly puts 
 the celibate state above the married, not because he considers 
 marriage to be sinful, but because it brought trouble to the 
 flesh, and was incompatible with entire devotion to God.^ 
 The author of the Revelation, moreover, saw a hundred and 
 forty and four thousand saints round the Lamb, which were 
 redeemed from earth because they had not defiled themselves 
 with marriage.-' Imbued as all reformers were at that time of 
 general demoralisation with ascetic ideas, it was difficult for 
 Christianity to escape asceticism. Fortified with these unfor- 
 tunate sayings, escape was impossible. Ascetic ideas gained 
 ground among the Christians with wonderful rapidity, pro- 
 duced incalculable mischief, and worked dreadful misery for 
 centuries. 
 
 Their effect upon the law of marriage, and altogether upon 
 the light in which marriage was regarded, was lamentable : 
 for, like all interference with liberty, it merely increased the 
 immorality it was expected to prevent, besides creating other 
 evils of its own. The history of heresies is full of the reaction 
 from austerity to immoral licence ; that of the Church, of 
 immorality fostered by asceticism, and more or less openly 
 acknowledged. Though, according to Southey, nothing in 
 ecclesiastical history is more certain than that no such 
 obligation as celibacy was imposed on the clergy during the 
 first three centuries,^ it was at all events considered a virtue 
 long before. Justin Martyr retorted on those who argued 
 that marriage could not be evil since God had created the sexes, 
 that God made some women naturally barren. Clemens of 
 Alexandria accused the Gnostic Basilides of not considering 
 the celibate state far superior to the married.'^ Athenagoras 
 and TertuUian both forbade second marriages;'' the former, 
 
 .\r.-itt. xix. 112, M Cor. vii. 2S, 29, ii, 34, 38. 
 
 Kev. iv. 1-4. ' 13ucklo's Common Place Book, Arl. Nn 
 
 Reich, Ehc, etc. pp. £3, 65. ' liucklc, «/ ,t/,/. .^rt. Xo. ji 
 
no THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 especially, looking upon marriage as a state which we had far 
 better avoid altogether. Origen, also, was against second 
 marriages, and Lactantius considered that if men could not be 
 prevented from entering into marriage, every effort should be 
 made to render them as platonic as possible.' St. Ambrose in 
 the fourth century, though he did not positively condemn 
 second marriages, yet condemned the tenets of Jovinian, that 
 marriage, and moderate living, was as pleasing to God as 
 asceticism, and considered celibacy absolutely necessary 
 for priests and deacons. Jerome only tolerates marriage 
 at all as the least objectionable means for the produc- 
 tion of monks and nuns ; and raised his voice against the 
 abominable doctrine of Jovinian, and the similar opinions of 
 Vigilantius and Helvidius — 'sacrilegious tenets,' as he calls 
 them —which he could not ' hear with patience, or without the 
 utmost grief.' ^ Saints Jude, Simon, and James, called the 
 brothers of Christ, were at first understood to be so. But the 
 Gnostics, and afterwards the orthodox Greeks, thinking any 
 reflection upon the perpetual chastity of the Virgin Mary 
 derogatory to her, gave Joseph a second wife. The Latins im- 
 proved on that hint, asserted the perpetual celibacy of Joseph, 
 and justified by many similar examples the new interpretation, 
 that Jude, as well as Simon and James, who are styled the 
 brothers of Jesus Christ, were only His first-cousins.' 
 Divorces sine causa sontica or bona gratia were rather 
 encouraged by the Christian emperors -on account of the 
 ascetic spirit prevalent, and, though Justinian discountenanced 
 them, his grandson Justin again encouraged the practice, 
 which probably was common up to the ninth or tenth cen- 
 tury."* Gregorius of Nyssa, Cyrill of Jerusalem, Cyprian, 
 and Epiphanius all praise the celibate state.'' Augustine, on 
 the other hand, allows second, and even third, marriages. 
 Eustathius prohibited marriage altogether ; and Ignatius 
 thought that no Christian ought to marry without the con- 
 
 ' Reich, Ehc, etr. pp. 64, 66. 
 
 - Buckle's Common Place Book, Arts. Nos. 70, 133. 
 
 ' Gibbon, Dedine and Fall of the Roman Empire, ii. 415, note 4S. 
 
 * John Taylor, Elements of Civil Law, p. 362. 
 
 > Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 66. 
 
sent of his bishop, to the end that these unions should conform 
 more to the spirit and less to the flesh.' 
 
 Mummy was a valuable medicine in the Middle Acjcs, but 
 the mummy of a virgin was by far the most efficacious.^ It 
 became part of the canon law that second and third marriages 
 should not be countenanced by the presence of the priest at 
 the marriage feast. 'What kind of presbyter would he be 
 who, for the sake of the dinner, countenanced such a union by 
 his presence ? ' cries Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 A.D. 668-690, in an outburst of indignation at the idea.' 
 Before the Reformation the honour of a garland was denied 
 a widow who married again ; and by the canon law if a man 
 married two virgins in succession, or if a man married a widow, 
 such offender was deemed guilty of bigamy, and even by the 
 law of the land incapable of benefit of clergy.'' The light 
 in which the Church looked upon marriage is shown more 
 plainly in other restrictions ; indeed, there is no doubt that, if 
 the clergy had had their way, they would have forbidden all 
 mankind, as they forbade themselves, ever to enter into the 
 bonds of matrimony.' 
 
 The marriage of Leo the Philosopher, in the tenth century, 
 raised quite a schism in the Greek Church, for he actually 
 
 ' Rcicl), ut sup. p. 67 ; Buckle, iil .<ii/>. Art. 70 ; Moshciiii, £tc/c-s. Hist. 
 p. 103. 
 
 ■•' Buckle, tit Slip. Art. 1092. 
 
 » Thorpe, Ancient Laws, etc. of England, etc. p. 283, Theodore, Pcen. xvu. 
 
 § lo- 
 
 ' Buckle's Common Place Book, Art. No. 70. The original meaning of the 
 word bigamy was marriage of this sort, not of two women at once. 
 
 ' ' Qui in matrimonio sunt, abstineant se in iii. xl""-, et in Dominica nocte, 
 et in Sabbato, et feria iiii. et vi. qu:e legitimae sunt, et iii. noctes abstineant se 
 antequam communicent, et i. postquam communicent, et in Pascha usque ad 
 octabas. * * * In primo conjugio presbyter debet missam agere, et benedicere 
 ambos, sicut in Libro Sacramentorum conlinetur, et postea abstineant se ab 
 a:cclesia xxx. diebus ; quibus peractis, poeniteant xl. dies et vacent orationi, et 
 postea communicent cum oblatione. * * * Si quis vir, aut si quae mulier, 
 Dominica die, vel in natale Sanctorum, panes Deo offerant, necnon et communi- 
 caverint, non debent sequenti nocte nubere. * » » Quod si propter ebrietatem ac- 
 ciderit, sine consuetudine, iiii. diespceniteant.' (p. 282, 7'/ieoilori Arch. Cant. Liber 
 Pcenitentialis, xvii.) 'Sancti libri docent quid cuique horaini fideli faciendum sit, 
 cum legitimam suam uxorem primum domum duxerit ; id est, juxta librorum doc- 
 trinam, ut, per spatium trium dierum et noctium, castitatem suam servare, et tunc 
 tertio die misss suae adesse, et ambo eucharistiam accipere debcant, et deinde 
 conjugium suum tenere coram Deo, et coram mundo, uti ipsis necesse erit. Kt 
 conjuges omnes oportet castitatem suam servare xl. dies et nodes ante sanctum 
 Pascha, et per totam hebdomadam paschalem, et semper node diei Dominici, et 
 
112 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 wished to bring in a law to legalise his own and other fourtli 
 marriages. So great was the opposition, however, to such a 
 horrible permission that, though Leo was able to tide it over 
 during his lifetime, yet his son, the very issue of that fourth 
 marriage, was obliged to convene an assembly of the clergy, 
 A.D. 920, which peremptorily forbade all fourth marriages, and 
 only, allowed third marriages under certain conditions.' The 
 Eastern Christians very nearly imposed celibacy on their 
 clergy in the fourth century.'^ Gregory the Great really did 
 impose it, though a doubtful authority ascribes it to Pope 
 Siricius, in the latter part of the fourth centur}-. In the 
 Council of Bourges, A.D. 1031, it was ordained that only the 
 inferior ministers of the Church should be allowed to have 
 wives or concubines. The Council of Rouen, A.T>. 1072, for- 
 bade any minister who married to receive or dispose of any 
 of the Church revenues ; and the Council of Rome, A.D. 1074, 
 ordered all those who were already married to divorce their 
 wives. In England, however, this brutal enactment coukl 
 not be enforced, for by a council held at Winchester, .\.i). 
 1076, the secular clergy who were married were formally 
 allowed to retain their wives.' 
 
 The injurious effects of this legislation soon became mani- 
 fest. Even Gregory is said to have revoked his edict.^ Laws 
 had to be enacted again and again forbidding priests to have 
 their mothers or sisters to keep house for them.'' A tax used 
 to be systematically levied by rulers for several centuries, 
 
 iliei Mercurii, et diei Veneris. ' (p. 37 1 , Paniteiitiale Eci;l>erti, Arch. Ebor. lib. ii. sec. 
 21.) 'Si quis conjugem suam, .si fieri potest, non cupidine voluntatis, sed 
 solummodo creandonmi liberorum gratia niiMu. 1 i< pi.|.,iM slxe de ingressu 
 secclesife, seu de sumendo Dominici cm,;, ^. . , , , ,urio, suo est 
 
 relinquendus judicio ; quia a nobis proliil> , ;\in prtefinitam 
 
 sententiam, etiam ecclesiam licuerit entran : \ . i;!;;: 1, ;i .^i;, 1 r i licita adnii,\tio 
 conjugis sine voluntate carnis fieri non potest, iileo ;ilii|u.iii.l.) a sacri loci ingressu 
 abstinendum est, quia voluntas ipsa esse sine culpa nullatenus potest.' (p. 335, 
 Excerp. Ecgberli Arch. Ebor. cxii.) See Thorpe, 11/ siif. It appears that, 
 at all events at a later period, as in the case of marriages between near kin, a 
 dispensation might be bought to cover these prohibitions. (See Buckle's Common 
 P/ace Book, Art. 109 1.) 
 
 ' Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History, i, 228. 
 
 = Ibid. p. III. 
 
 ' Buckle's Common Place Book, Arts. Nos. 75, 99, 130. 
 
 • /bid. Art. No. 1 30. 
 
 ' Lecky, History of European Aforals, ii. 351. 
 
CELIDACV 113 
 
 wliicli was simpl}- a licence to priests to keep concubines,' 
 and Henry III. of Castille, among other social enactments, 
 ordered that the concubines of priests should wear a piece of 
 scarlet cloth in their head-dress, in order that they might be 
 distinguishable from honest women.^ In the beginning of 
 the fifth century their concubines were legalised by the 
 Council of Toledo ; indeed, these women seem to have had 
 a special name, ' Focaria.' ^ A law of Charlemagne seems to 
 imply that priests sometimes practised even polygamy ;'' and 
 many of the heterodox sects were avowedly founded to 
 reform the orthodox priesthood. Even the throne of St. 
 Peter was reached by the prevailing immorality.'* ' It was 
 observed,' says Mr. Lecky, ' that when the priests actually took 
 wives, the knowledge that these connections were illegal was 
 peculiarly fatal to their fidelity, and bigamy and extreme 
 mobility of attachments were especially common among 
 them.' ^ The idea, so encouraged by the Church, that he who 
 giveth not his virgin in marriage doeth better led, as we 
 have seen, on the one side to the wildest orgies of licence, 
 and on the other to an equally immoral outburst of celibacy. 
 St. Nilus, St. Ammon, St. Melania, St. Abraham, and St. 
 Alexis were all married, and lived in continence. The 
 emperor Henry II., Edward the Confessor, and Alphonso II. 
 of Spain are all said to have been husbands but in namc.^ 
 
 The reaction of this ascetic feeling upon the prohibited 
 degrees was seen as soon as the Church had fairly established 
 her power. At the advent of Christianity marriage with a 
 niece was by Roman law forbidden, but forbidden with some 
 hesitation. It is not mentioned among the levitical prohibi- 
 
 ' Lecky, Hist, of European Morals, ii. 349. Compare also the following pages. 
 
 ' Biog. Univ. art. 'Henri III.' 
 
 ' Bucl<le's Common Place Book, Art. No. 65. 
 
 ^ ' Si sacerdotes plures uxores habuerint, sacerdotio priventiir ; quia srccularihus 
 cleteriores sunt ' (Capitul. A.D. 769). See Hallam's Middle Ages, ii. 7, note. 
 
 * Gibbon says of Pope John XXIII. of blessed memory : ' The most scandalous 
 charges were suppressed; the vicar of Christ was only accused of piracy, murder, 
 rape, sodomy, and incest' {Decline and Fall, etc. xii. 363) ; and D'Israeli, in his 
 Curiosities of Literature, i. 307, gives this pasquina<le on Pope Alexander \'I., 
 written on a certain lady's tomb : 
 
 ' Hoc tuniulo dormit Lucretia nomine, sed re 
 Thais; Alexandri filia, sponsa, nurus." 
 
 ' Lecky, History of European Morals, ii. 350, 351, ' ////,/. ii. 341, 342. 
 
114 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 tions, and such marriages were, as they still arc, common 
 among the Jews. The slightest hint, however, was quite 
 sufficient for these misguided fanatics. Some degrees of 
 kinship being forbidden, it must be virtuous to abstain from 
 marriage within more distant degrees. Thus the emperor 
 Theodosius I. (a.d. 379-395) was the first to bring in the 
 iniquitous law that no man might marry his first-cousin, 
 under penalty of death by burning, and confiscation of his 
 property. St. Augustine seems to think that even before 
 this law of Theodosius the marriage of cousins was discou- 
 raged by the Church, and that in consequence they were 
 but of rare occurrence. St. Ambrose takes for granted 
 that they were forbidden, though on what authority he 
 grounded this theory no one knows. He reasons that since 
 marriage with a first-cousin was forbidden, much more, there- 
 fore, is a marriage with a niece. The fact that some infatu- 
 ated individual (probably at the instigation of the devil) 
 actually dared to ask this redoubted saint whether it was 
 permitted to marry a niece, since such marriages were nowhere 
 prohibited in the Scriptures, seems to indicate that before 
 this enactment of Theodosius there was no settled law on the 
 subject, but only a general feeling that it was unseemly to 
 marry anyone near akin. It is supposed that Theodosius 
 was acting under the advice of St. Ambrose, and in spite of 
 the opinions of St. Athanasius and St. Augustine when he 
 made this law ; for these both declared that marriages 
 between first-cousins were neither against the law of God 
 nor of man.' Arcadius (A.D. 395-408), and Honorius (a.d 
 395-423), his sons who succeeded him, the former in the 
 Eastern Empire, the latter in the West, confirmed their 
 father's law, but mitigated the penalties. Arcadius soon 
 afterwards permitted these marriages again ; his brother, 
 however, still persisted in the prohibition, though he reserved 
 to himself the power of giving dispensations. Without a dis- 
 pensation the offspring were considered bastards, and the pro- 
 
 ' Tll)6aTay^a tov Kvpiov Kol vofiov, fS/jLifiav flvai ydfioy r^jv irph? avf^i/fftobs 
 <rv(vy!ay. And St. Augustine, tliough he does not approve of these m.iiri.Tges 
 for other reasons, s.iys : ' Nuptias has nee Divinani Lejjem et nonchnn humanam 
 prohihuissc' (citej by Samuel Dugard, V'/ie J/<im'a^vs 0/ Cousin Germans I'inJi- 
 <ated, jip. 87, SS). 
 
EARLY CHKISTIAN PROIIIIMTIONS I 15 
 
 perty of the parents was confiscated. Justinian (a.I). 527-565) 
 confirmed the freedom granted to cousins by Arcadius to 
 marry ; and also, as we have seen, confirmed the previous 
 decretals which prohibited marriage with a niece.' Heraclius 
 (A.D. 610-641) again repealed this prohibition when after the 
 death of his wife Eudocia he married his niece Martina. 
 Nicephorus indignantly styled this marriage ddsa/iov and 
 ads/Mo-Tov, and adds that the two sons born from it were both 
 the objects of the Divine wrath ; the elder having a stiff-neck, 
 and the younger being deaf. From the ordinary point of 
 view this seems to have been a little hard upon the youths, 
 seeing that they, at least, were innocent of their birth. The 
 popular voice, however, added that the disease of the emperor 
 was also due to the same cause. This seems again more 
 righteous ; but then we find that Constantine, the son of 
 Heraclius and Eudocia, who was not born in sin, and was born 
 even before his father's second sinful marriage, was so weakly 
 as to require a guardian — which negatives the whole doctrine 
 of Divine wrath. The ' populace ' of course ascribed his death 
 to poison administered by his step-mother, notwithstanding 
 that he had been an inxalid all his life.- Perhaps some 
 additional explanation of the indignation of the Church may 
 be found in the fact that Heraclius had been compelled to 
 make sacrilegious use of her treasures in the defence of his 
 empire against the inroads of the barbarians. 
 
 In the West the Ostrogoth kings (A.D. 493-553) not only 
 endured these prohibitions, but even added to them occasion- 
 ally, until marriage was forbidden in the fifth and even sixth 
 degrees.^ From the general isolation of the different parts of 
 
 ' Dr. Pusey, evidence before the Royal Com. on Mai: Lam, 1848, pp. 39. 
 44 ; -Sandars' Institutes of Justinian, p. 107 ; Taylor, Elem. of Civ. Law, pp. 
 331. 335. 336; Reich, Ehe, etc. p. 72. 
 
 - Gibbon, Decline anil Fall, etc. ix. 9 ; viii. 236, note 73. . 
 
 = Hallam, A fiddle Ages, i. 512. By civil law second- 
 cousins are related in the sixth degree ; since every generation is 
 counted between the two relatives, upwards from the one to the 
 first common ancestor, and then downivards to the other. liy 
 canon law only one line, and that the longest, is counted ; from 
 the first generation to the person in question. Thus : K is 
 related in the fifth degree to C, E, G, J, and L, hut in the sixth 
 degree to N. The Romans counted relationships in (lie same 
 way as we do now ; that is, according to the civil method (see 
 
 B b 
 
 p k 
 
 F G 
 
 I'l j 
 
 k I. 
 
 M X 
 
Il6 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Europe the prohibitions were not severe everywhere alike. 
 Bishops not only married, but married several times.' The 
 Colonna cardinals founded, endowed, and protected a convent 
 for ' the daughters of the family who embraced a monastic life, 
 and who, in the year 13 18, were twelve in number. The others 
 were allowed to marry with their kinsmen in the fourth degree, 
 and the dispensations were justified by the small number and 
 close alliances of the noble families of Rome.' ^ Such cases were 
 numerous. Robert Plot notices the number of intermarriages 
 between relatives of the same name in Staffordshire.' Mr. 
 Walter Rye shows that tenants could not intermarry outside 
 the manor without being fined, as Alice Cauncelor was, who 
 had to pay thirteen shillings and fourpence for this offence 
 {temp. Richard II.) In the history of the Thurgarton 
 Manor, Norfolk, only six instances occur from the time of 
 Richard II. to James I.'' Du Cange shows that this rule 
 was almost universal over Europe,' and, whether caused by 
 this or by the pride of isolation, there is no doubt that the 
 people themselves looked with considerable suspicion on any 
 'stranger' who wished to marry among them." 
 
 At a council held at Epaune, A.D. 517, under Sigismund, 
 
 Sandars' Inst, of Just. p. 107). Pope Gregory I. (A.D. 590-604), according to M. 
 Chipault, was the first to compute relationship by canon law (see Etudes stir les 
 Mar. Cons. p. 93). By this means the prohibited degrees were made insidiously 
 wider, just as a modern representative sought to increase his means by debasing 
 his coin. 
 
 ' Aldhun, the first Bishop of Durham (a.d. 990), gave his daughter some 
 lands on her marriage upon condition that if she were divorced he should have 
 his lands back, a contingency which actually occurred (Chalmers, Biographical 
 Dictionary). Cardinal Beaton had three sons, who were all legitimised during 
 his lifetime, and styled ' the natural sons of the Right Reverend,' etc. (Chalmers, 
 ibid.) Such examples could be very greatly extended. 
 
 2 Gibbon, Decline and Fall., etc. xii. 342, note 45. 
 
 ' Plot, History of Staffordshire, p. 313. 
 
 * Rye, Norfolk Antiquarian Miscell. vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 412. 
 
 • Du Cange, Gbss. Med. et Inf. Latin, art. ' Forismaritagium. ' 
 
 ' There are still several proverbs current in Italy showing the unwillingness of 
 peasants to marry out of their community : in the valley of Andorno they say, 
 ' Le piante forestiere lassu non fanno buon frulto ' ; and, ' AUe veglie ed ai balli 
 mai sotto il ponte della Balma,' the bridge in question being the boundary. In 
 Tuscany, again, a proverb runs : ' Moglie e buoi de' paesi tuoi ' ; and another — 
 ' Pampani e uva 
 
 E la mia mamma scniprc diceva 
 
 L' amor del 1 .:• : ■ i- i"»'i> dura,' 
 /)r«/«;-o nearly always meanin;;, T : 1 1 it a member of another parish. 
 
 (De Gubernatis, i/j« A''«j;a/», pp. 0, m \ i tlrr instance of the same feelirg, 
 
 which is doubtless still conmion 111 I hi-; < , 1 11 'Klrd by the village of L.tdis, in 
 
MEDI.EVAL rROHlBITIONS II7 
 
 king of Burgundy, marriage was prohibited in the fourth 
 civil degree, and this canon was confirmed by the Councils of 
 Clermoiit, A.D. 535 ; of Orleans, A.D. 538 ; and of Tours, A.D. 
 567. In the canons of these councils, as now extant, the 
 sixth degree is also forbidden ; but Dr. Pusey observes that 
 it has been omitted from the last edition of decretals, which 
 has been, however, badly edited. At the Council of Auxerre, 
 A.D. 578, marriage in the sixth civil degree, or between 
 second-cousins, was forbidden. A small Spanish council 
 which sat at Toledo, A.D. 531, went so far as to prohibit mar- 
 riage wherever any relationship at all could be traced between 
 the parties, whether by blood or affinity. But the Court of 
 Rome does not seem to have adopted so impossible a regula- 
 tion until the reign of Pope Zachar>% A.D. 741. St. Gregory 
 is said to have been the first to compute relationship by 
 generations from a common parent, instead of by the rational 
 method of counting the degrees between the parties in ques- 
 tion, as \Yas customary before him. lie probably fixed the 
 fourth canonical degree as the limit within which marriage 
 was forbidden, that is, marriage between third-cousins was not 
 permitted.' Pope Gregory III. (A.D. 731) prohibited marriage 
 within the seventh canonical degree, or between sixth-cousins, 
 equivalent to the fourteenth civil degree ; and Pope Zachary 
 (a.D. 741) informed Pepin of France that marriage was pro- 
 hibited wherever any relationship could be traced. Yet up to 
 the ninth century the prohibited degrees seem to have been 
 still unsettled; for by the first Council of Mentz, A.D. 813, 
 marriage was thenceforth prohibited within the sixth degree ; 
 in A.D. 847 the Bishop of Mentz recommends that marriage 
 should be allowed in the fifth degree ; but the council held 
 at Worms, A.D. 868, again confirmed the enactment of the 
 Council of Toledo, that marriage should not be permitted 
 
 the Tyrol, where for generations the girls have not been allowed to marry outside 
 their village. A very beautiful girl who violated this custom was lately lynched 
 by the youths of the place. (See the Times for September 7, 1886.) 
 
 ' St. Gregory has been accused of forbidding marriage within the seventh 
 degree, an accusation founded on an epistle from, and answer to, St. Felix, 
 Bishop of Syracuse. This is probably, as Dr. Pusey shows, a mistake, for these 
 epistles are now considered spurious (see Royal Com. on Alarriage La7v, 184S ; 
 Evidence of Dr. Fusey, p. 42, note). 
 
Il8 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 wherever any relationship was traceable. Again, at a council 
 held at Douzy, A.D. 874, marriage was only prohibited within 
 the seventh degree; and Pope Nicholas II. and a Roman 
 council, A.D. 1059, also prohibited marriage within the 
 seventh degree ; an enactment which was again confirmed by 
 Pope Alexander II. (A.D. 1062-1073)' 
 
 All these enactments make it evident that the people did 
 not acquiesce quietly in these prohibitions, and the absurd 
 length to which they were carried at a time when the Church 
 held asceticism and chastity in no very great estimation shows 
 that some other reason influenced them. This was the great 
 revenue obtained from the sale of dispensations, and it is easy 
 to see that the addition of every further degree to the list of 
 prohibited marriages would increase them in a vastly increasing 
 proportion. First the levitical degrees were magnified, then 
 the computation of relationship was altered, affinity regarded 
 as blood relationship, and, this not satisfying the greed of the 
 priesthood, godfathers and godmothers were regarded as 
 related to the child and its relations and each other ! Luther 
 and Henry VIII. both roundly accuse the Church of inventing 
 prohibitions ' for lucre's sake.' ^ Nor was this, powerful as it 
 was, the only incentive. Hallam points out that ' they served 
 a more important purpose by rendering it necessary for the 
 princes of Europe, who seldom could marry into one another's 
 houses without transgressing the canonical limits, to keep on 
 good terms with the Court of Rome, which in several instances 
 * * * fulminated its censures against sovereigns who lived 
 without permission in what was considered an incestuous 
 union.' Thus King Charibert was excommunicated because 
 
 ' Dr. Riisey, evidence before Uie Royal Com. on Mar. Law, 1S48, pp. 41, 
 42 ; Cliipault, Elti<ks sur Us A/ar. Cons. pp. 92-94. 
 
 ■•' Luther says, in regard to marriages of the fourth degree : ' Der Pabst aber 
 hat sie verboten aus lauter Heucheley, und um Geldes willen dispensiret er, und 
 msst's zu ' (cited by Reich, £/ie, etc. p. 135). In the preamble of Stat. 32, 
 Henry VIII. cap. 38, it says that these prohibitions are not ' God's law,' and that 
 they were ' for their lucre by that court [the Tope's] invented, the dispensations 
 whereof tliey always reserved to themselves • * » and all because they would 
 get iii"ii<\ I>\ i; ' ■:■]. I'i\, 7", ('.:■ .''' J.'.!' i/a!;v Imhiwn near Kindred, etc. 
 pp. 1;; 1,,, .' \ \' 1:, ] ilion of the Marriage of Cousin 
 
 Cera;. I! i : ; r Pope of gr.inting dispensations 
 
 form. hi; . .wliiliuMi I .•II. III. . il . [.lohibiled, for the sake of lucre 
 (//,/,/ p. Sol » U.ill.m., .)/,■,.■■,/.'.• .<,■,-<, ii. 9- 
 
saw his second wife, to 
 whom he had been mar- 
 ried by proxy, hut who 
 was stolen and married 
 by Charles VIII. of 
 
 1493-1519- 
 
 Daughter of Charles 
 the Bold, Duke of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 m. 1477. 
 
 OfBretagne. Mar- 
 ried by proxy, but 
 taken by Charles 
 VI 11. 
 
 Isabella 
 Daughter of John 
 II. of Castille, and 
 sister of Henry IV., 
 who was at one time 
 King of Navarre. 
 
 m. 1469. 
 
 married first 
 
 
 Philip = Johanna 
 
 John 
 
 C 
 
 ATHERINE 
 
 
 
 
 
 Married his sister's hits. 
 
 
 
 
 but sent back t.) Iiur fallier when Charles 
 
 d, 1506, 
 
 She became mad. 
 
 band's sister, Margaret. 
 
 
 
 f?a 
 
 stole Ann f...m him. She then married 
 
 
 1506, d, 1555, 
 
 He was killed by the 
 
 brother 
 
 She was divorced 
 
 
 John of Spam, 1497; but had no chil- 
 dren ; and on his death married again, 
 
 
 
 kick of ahorse, 1497. 
 
 on the 
 
 plea of afHnity, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1531- 
 
 
 
 PhDip II. of Savoy, 1499. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 = 1st, her uncle by 
 affinity, Emmanuel of 
 Portugal ; 2nd, Fran- 
 cis I. of France. 
 
 Ferdinand I. 
 Of Germany = Anne of 
 Bohemia, 1521. Hehad 
 nine daughters and two 
 
 Second wife of hei 
 brother-in-law, Em- 
 manuel of Portugal. 
 
 Of Portugal = Charles 
 v., her first-cousin, 
 and brother- and uncle- 
 
 Called the Fo. 
 tiate, king of 1 
 tugal. 
 
 1495— 1521 
 
 Eleanor 
 Third wife of Em- 
 manuel of Portugal ; 
 sister of Charles V., 
 
 Catherine 
 
 of Charles v., King 
 
 Spain. She was first- 
 
 by blood, and aunt 
 
 by marriage lo 
 
 JOHA 
 =John of 
 her first - 
 both sides. 
 
 ! also proposed to 
 zabeth of Eng- 
 
 Fourth wife of her 
 uncle Philip II. of 
 
 = Isabella of Spain, 
 
 Elizabeth 
 Daughter of Henry 
 II. of France. Grand- 
 daughter by affinity 
 to her husband's aunt, 
 m. 1559. d. 1568. 
 
 1 
 Isabella 
 
 PHiLir IV. = 
 Of Spain. Sister of L01 
 
 1665. of France. 
 
MEDI.EVAL PROHIBITIONS IIQ 
 
 he married two sisters. ' Celestine III. threw the kingdom 
 of Leon under an interdict, because Alfonso IX. married 
 Garsenda, princess of Castille, his cousin Alfonso's daughter, 
 and he was obliged to divorce her. Sancho IV. of Castille 
 was excommunicated because he married his second-cousin 
 Maria. The succession of his son Ferdinand IV. was conse- 
 quently disputed until he was legitimised by a papal bull. 
 Pedro the Cruel of Portugal was excommunicated for marry- 
 ing three wives in succession. Eleanor, heiress of Guienne and 
 Poitou, who despised her husband as more of a monk than 
 a man, got a divorce, with her husband's joyful assent, on the 
 plea of affinity, and then married the unfortunate Henry II. 
 of England.^ And yet much closer cases of intermarriage 
 were quietly permitted by the Popes. In a short period of 
 the royal Spanish line alone we find that Ferdinand V. married 
 his first-cousin ; John, his son, married his sister's husband's 
 sister, Margaret ; Maria, his daughter, married her deceased 
 sister's husband, Emmanuel the Fortunate, of Portugal, who, 
 after his second wife's death, married his niece-in-law. Cathe- 
 rine, daughter of Philip I., married John III., of Portugal, the 
 brother of her brother's wife, son of her sister's husband, and 
 her first-cousin by blood. Charles V. married his first-cousin, 
 who was also his sister-in-law. His daughter Mary married 
 her first-cousin, Maximilian II. His daughter Johanna mar- 
 ried John, son of John III. of Portugal, her first-cousin on 
 both sides. And his son Philip II. was not only married four 
 times, but the first marriage was with his first-cousin and 
 sister-in-law, Mary of Portugal ; the second was with Mary of 
 England, his father's first-cousin ; the third was the grand- 
 daughter of his aunt, though not by blood ; but his fourth 
 wife was his niece by blood, the daughter of Maximilian II. 
 His daughter by his third wife Isabella married Albert, son of 
 Maximilian II., who was her first-cousin by blood, uncle by 
 marriage, and otherwise related by various channels, any one 
 of which by strict canonical law should have been deemed 
 sufficient to prevent that union. 
 
 ' Evidence of Dr. Pusey before the Royal Commission on Marriage Laws, 
 1S4S, p. 45. ' Biog. Univ. 
 
Maximilian I. 
 Married thrice, but never 
 saw his second wife, to 
 whom he had been mar- 
 ried by proxy, but who 
 was stolen and married 
 by Charles VIII. of 
 France. 
 
 I493—I5I9- 
 
 Mary 
 
 
 Daughter of Charles 
 
 OfBretagne. 
 
 the Bold, Duke of 
 
 
 Burgundy. 
 
 taken by G 
 
 m. 1477. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 
 m. 149 
 
 I 
 
 Margaret 
 Betrothed to Charles VIH. of France, 
 but sent back to her father when Charles 
 stole Ann from him. She then married 
 John of Spain, 1497; but had no chil- 
 dren ; and on his death married again, 
 Philip II. of Savoy, 1499. 
 
 Philip 
 Archduke, 
 d. 1506. 
 
 Johanna 
 Married in 1496. 
 She became mac 
 1506. d. 1555. 
 
 Germaine 
 de Foix, niece of 
 Louis XII. of 
 France. She had 
 one son, who died 
 young. 
 
 Eleanor 
 Third wife of Em- 
 manuel of Portugal ; 
 sister of Charles V., 
 and niece-in-law to 
 her husband. She 
 had two children. 
 
 I 
 
 Catherine 
 
 =John III. of Portugal, 
 
 hei first-cousin. 
 
 m. 1525- 
 
 Eleanor Ferdinand I. Catherine 
 
 = lst, her uncle by Of Germany = Anne of Ister of Charles V., King 
 
 affinity, Emmanuel of Bohemia, 1521. Hehad ' Spain. She was first- 
 
 Portugal ; 2nd, Fran- nine daughters and two ™sin by blood, and aunt 
 
 cis I. of France. sons besides I<1 sister by marriage to 
 
 I :r husband. 
 
 Maximilian I 
 
 = His first-cous 
 
 Mary of Spain. 
 
 1564— 1576. 
 
 I 
 Mary 
 = Her first- 
 cousin, 
 m. 154S. 
 
 Johanna 
 =John of Portugal, 
 her first-cousin on 
 both sides. 
 
 Philip 
 Married forfs'- 
 He also pri 
 Elizabeth 
 land, his 
 wife's sister. 
 1558-1 
 
 Johanna 
 Daughter of 
 Charges V. of 
 Spain. 
 
 Maximilian Ernest 
 
 cl. 1620. Viceroy of the 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Rudolf II, 
 1576— 1602 
 
 Fourth 
 uncle I 
 Spain, 
 
 Mary Ann 
 Of Austria, daughl 
 of Ferdinand III. 
 
MEDI.EVAL PROHIBITIONS Up 
 
 he married two sisters. ' Celestine III. threw the kingdom 
 of Leon under an interdict, because Alfonso IX. married 
 Garsenda, princess of Castille, his cousin Alfonso's daughter, 
 and he was obliged to divorce her. Sancho IV. of Castille 
 was excommunicated because he married his second-cousin 
 Maria. The succession of his son Ferdinand IV. was conse- 
 quently disputed until he was legitimised by a papal bull. 
 Pedro the Cruel of Portugal was excommunicated for marry- 
 ing three wives in succession. Eleanor, heiress of Guienne and 
 Poitou, who despised her husband as more of a monk than 
 a man, got a divorce, with her husband's joyful assent, on the 
 plea of affinity, and then married the unfortunate Henry II. 
 of England.- And yet much closer cases of intermarriage 
 were quietly permitted by the Popes. In a short period of 
 the royal Spanish line alone we find that Ferdinand V. married 
 his first-cousin ; John, his son, married his sister's husband's 
 sister, Margaret ; Maria, his daughter, married her deceased 
 sister's husband, Emmanuel the Fortunate, of Portugal, who, 
 after his second wife's death, married his niece-in-law. Cathe- 
 rine, daughter of Philip I., married John III., of Portugal, the 
 brother of her brother's wife, son of her sister's husband, and 
 her first-cousin by blood. Charles V. married his first-cousin, 
 who was also his sister-in-law. His daughter Mary married 
 her first-cousin, Maximilian II. His daughter Johanna mar- 
 ried John, son of John III. of Portugal, her first-cousin on 
 both sides. And his son Philip II. was not only married four 
 times, but the first marriage was with his first-cousin and 
 sister-in-law, Mary of Portugal ; the second was with Mary of 
 England, his father's first-cousin ; the third was the grand- 
 daughter of his aunt, though not by blood ; but his fourth 
 wife was his niece by blood, the daughter of Maximilian II. 
 His daughter by his third wife Isabella married Albert, son of 
 Maximilian II., who was her first-cousin by blood, uncle by 
 marriage, and otherwise related by various channels, any one 
 of which by strict canonical law should have been deemed 
 sufficient to prevent that union. 
 
 ' Evidence of Dr. Puscy before the Royal Commission on Marriage Laws, 
 1S4S, p. 45. ' Biog. Univ. 
 
I20 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 In fact, the prohibited degrees were far too useful to 
 aboUsh. When Alfonso III. of Portugal divorced his wife for 
 sterility and married Beatrix de Guzman, the Pope made no 
 move ; but when the same monarch attempted to reform 
 some great abuses in the Church his kingdom was promptly 
 laid under an interdict on the score of that divorce.' We 
 see even now how Lord Lyndhurst's Act, which was in- 
 tended to prevent marriage with a deceased wife's sister, is 
 virtually evaded with impunity, its only effect being to put 
 power into the hands of the wicked to repudiate their wives 
 whenever they may choose to do so.' It may readily 
 be imagined to what abuses the canonical prohibitions led. 
 ' History,' says Hallam, ' is full of dissolutions of marriage, 
 obtained by fickle passion or cold-hearted ambition, to which 
 the Church has not scrupled to pander on some suggestion of 
 relationship.' ^ It was thus that Philip I. of France repu- 
 diated Bertha for Bertrade. It was on the plea of affinity that 
 Philip Augustus divorced Ingeburga of Denmark for Agnes 
 of Meran, though she was related to him only through eleven 
 degrees, of which two were mere affinity, as may be seen by 
 the accompanying genealogical table. It is true that in this 
 case, as in that of Henry VIII. of England, the Pope did not 
 lend himself to the project ; but the evil was done through 
 the edicts of the Church, nor could the Church soften the 
 bitter rage Ingeburga had to endure for six long years, or 
 prevent poor Agnes from dying of a broken heart. The 
 legend of Chilperic's marriage with Fredegonde is founded 
 on the same iniquitous prohibitions. Audouere, the first 
 wife of Chilperic, king of Soissons, had in her service a lady 
 named Fredegonde, who, by her talent and intrigues, first 
 became the confidant of her mistress, then the mistress of her 
 master, and finally aspired to be his wife. The divorce of 
 Audouere was brought about by the following ingenious plot : 
 Chilperic's queen gave birth to a child during his absence in 
 
 ' B/o-: Univ. 
 
 ■ .Sic Koval Commission on Marriage Law, 1S4S, Questions 317, 6«, loj/', 
 11S-120, 14'S, 180, 7S7, 818,819. 
 " Ilallam, Middle Ages, ii. 8. 
 
Sweyn 11. was distantly related to his wife Gytha, the 
 daughter of James Amund, King of Sweden. He was there- 
 fore compelled to divorce her by Adebert, Archbishop of 
 Brema, and consequently had many illegitimate children. 
 
 Louis VI. 
 1108— 1137. 
 
 Adelaide 
 Of Savoy. 
 
 Louis VIL 
 1137— iiSo. 
 
 Adelaide 
 Of Champagne. 
 Third wife of 
 Louis. 
 
 m. 1 160. 
 
 Feter 
 Courtenay. Eni- 
 eror of Constantinople, 
 irst-cousin to Philip 
 .ugustus. 
 
 Philip IL 
 Augustus 
 = 1st, to Isabella of Hain- 
 ault, daughter of Bald- 
 win V. 
 
 = 2nd, to Ingeburga, di- 
 vorced 1193, taken back 
 1200. 
 
 = 3rd, Agnes of Meran, 
 who was sent away again, 
 in order that Ingeburga 
 might be taken back. 
 
 1 180— 1223. 
 
 Mary 
 Daughter of Elea- 
 nor, the first wife 
 of Louis VII. She 
 
 Henry I. 
 
 Count of Champagne. 
 Brother of Adelaide, 
 his wife's stepmother. 
 
 Mary 
 Married Baldwin I 
 brother-i 
 uncle Philip Augui 
 tus 
 
 her 
 
THE RELATIONSHIP OF INGEEURGA TO PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 
 
 Sweyn 11. was distantly related to his wife Gytha, the 
 daughter of James Amund, King of Sweden. He was there- 
 fore compelled to divorce her by Adebert, Archbishop of 
 Brema, and consequently had many illegitimate children. 
 
 Canute 
 Duke of Sleswig, and 
 king of the Obotrites. 
 
 The Good. 
 d. childless. 
 
 Sybilla 
 Daughter of 
 Fulk, King of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Baldwin V. 
 Of Hainault, an 
 VIII. of Flanders. 
 
 Of Champagne. 
 Third \vife of 
 
 Maria 
 I Champagne, ni 
 r Philip Augustus. 
 
 Baldwin I. 
 Emperor of Consta 
 nople. Brother-in-lav 
 Philip Augustus, wh 
 
 Henry I. 
 Emperor of Con- 
 
 d. childless 1216. 
 
 I 
 
 Isabella 
 
 First wife of Philip 
 
 through her that he 
 traced his relationship 
 to Ingeburga. 
 
 Third wife of Peter of 
 
 peror of Constantinople. 
 First-cousin to Philip 
 
 vorced 1193, taken back 
 
 = 3rd, Agnes of M^ran, 
 who was sent away again, 
 in order that Ingeburga 
 might be taken back. 
 II 80— 1223. 
 
 Mary 
 Daughter of Elea- 
 nor, the first wife 
 of Louis VII. She 
 
 her husband. 
 
 Henry I. 
 Count of Champagne. 
 Brother of Adelaide, 
 his wife's stepmother. 
 
 Second wife of Philip Augustus. 
 Divorced 1193, on the plea of 
 affinity, through his first wife, 
 Isabella of Hainault, but 
 
 This table shows also how much nearer 
 were the relationships within which others of his 
 family married. 
 
 Mary 
 Married Baldwin I., 
 brother-in-law to her 
 uncle Philip Augus- 
 
SriKITUAL RELATIONSUIl' 121 
 
 a war against the Saxons. The ceremony for christening was 
 fully prepared, the company and the priest were waiting, but 
 the lady who was to have stood godmother, having been 
 gained over by Fredegonds, was absent. The queen could 
 not conceal her vexation at this untoward event. ' What 
 prevents j'ou holding the infant yourself? ' said the perfidious 
 Frcdegonde, 'and to its love for you as a mother it will add 
 the love of a godmother, which otherwise it would bestow on 
 a stranger.' Audoucre fell into the trap, ignorant of the 
 canon on which her rival had founded her plan, which decrees 
 that god-fathers and god-mothers contract with the parent of 
 the child an alliance which prohibits all others. Fredcgondc 
 hastened to inform the king, on his return, that he was free 
 to marry whom he pleased ; and Chilperic, as superstitious 
 as he was licentious, compelled his wife to enter a convent, 
 banished the bishop who had performed the ceremony, and 
 crowned the plot of Fredegonde by making her his queen.' 
 
 This monstrous canon first appeared under the auspices 
 of the first Nicene Council, A.D. 325, by which marriage was 
 prohibited with a wife's god-daughter, god-child, or brides- 
 maids ; or with the mother, sister, or daughter of a god-child.- 
 It appeared in the 'Institutes' of Justinian, A.D. 529, and by 
 the Council of Trullo, A.D. 692, marriage with a relation by 
 god-parentage was forbidden within the seventh degree, but 
 only in the right line descending. Hence, as the Greeks 
 reckon by the old Roman, or civil method 
 supposing a to be god-parent to B ; B, is a a 
 
 considered a brother to as daughter /S ; and I | 
 
 only when they come to the generation D, S, ^ /^ 
 
 supposing no other alliance has been con- q 
 tractcd by their relatives, would intermarriage | ( 
 
 between the two lines be allowed. The same 
 prohibition was enacted in the West by the 
 council held at Rome, A.D. 721. Pope Zachary, A.D. 745, 
 and the Council of Mentz, A.D. 813, confirmed these prohibi- 
 
 I Bio,!;. Univ. 
 
 ' Evidence of ihc Rev. A. V. rcrciv.il, Royal Commission on Marriage Law, 
 1S4S, Question 317. 
 
a war against the Saxons. The ceremony for christening was 
 fully prepared, the company and the priest were waiting, but 
 the lady who was to have stood godmother, having been 
 gained over by Fredegonde, was absent. The queen could 
 not conceal her vexation at this untoward event. ' What 
 prevents you holding the infant yourself? ' said the perfidious 
 Fredegonde, ' and to its love for you as a mother it will add 
 the love of a godmother, which otherwise it would bestow on 
 a stranger.' Audoucre fell into the trap, ignorant of the 
 canon on which her rival had founded her plan, which decrees 
 that god-fathers and god-mothers contract with the parent of 
 the child an alliance which prohibits all others. Fredegonde 
 hastened to inform the king, on his return, that he was free 
 to marry whom he pleased ; and Chilperic, as superstitious 
 as he was licentious, compelled his wife to enter a convent, 
 banished the bishop who had performed the ceremony, and 
 crowned the plot of Fredegonde by making her his queen.' 
 
 This monstrous canon first appeared under the auspices 
 of the first Nicene Council, A.D. 325, by which marriage was 
 prohibited with a wife's god-daughter, god-child, or brides- 
 maids ; or with the mother, sister, or daughter of a god-child.^ 
 It appeared in the 'Institutes' of Justinian, A.D. 529, and by 
 the Council of Trullo, A. P. 692, marriage with a relation by 
 god-parentage was forbidden within the seventh degree, but 
 only in the right line descending. Hence, as the Greeks 
 reckon by the old Roman, or civil method 
 supposing a to be god-parent to B ; B, is 
 considered a brother to as daughter /3 ; and 
 only when they come to the generation D, S, 
 supposing no other alliance has been con- 
 tracted by their relatives, would intermarriage 
 between the two lines be allowed. The same 
 prohibition was enacted in the West by the 
 council held at Rome, A.D. 721. Pope Zachary, A.D. 745, 
 and the Council of Mentz, A.D. 813, confirmed these prohibi- 
 
 ' Hio,!;. Univ. 
 
 ' Eviilence of the Rev. A. P. Tcrcival, Koya! Commission on Marriage Law, 
 1S48, Question 317. 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 fi 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 ] 
 
 D 
 
 8 
 
122 THE MARRIAGE 01- NEAR KIN 
 
 tions.' The result was exemplified in the divorce of 
 Audouerc, and in the divorce of a man in the ninth century 
 for the same thing ; but this last case was pardoned by Pope 
 John VIII. Innocent III. confirmed these prohibitions again. 
 The Council of Trent, A.D. 1 545-1 563, did the same; and 
 further declared that the person baptized, his parents, god- 
 parents, and the priest who baptized him were as much 
 interrelated as though they were relatives by blood to each 
 other. Accordingly no tolerably near relative of the priest 
 could marry the god-relations or relations of any child that 
 priest might have baptized. '■' Boccaccio touches on these 
 prohibitions more than once, and ridicules the idea that 
 marriages of this sort were sinful.' Before the Council of 
 Trent, A.D. 1 545-1 563, fornication with any relative within 
 the fourth degree of the bride would prevent the marriage, 
 but this Council reduced it to the second degree.'' 
 
 By the fourth Lateran Council '' marriage was again per- 
 mitted outside the fourth canonical degree, that is, marriage 
 was permitted beyond the degree of third-cousins ; and such 
 is the nominal law at the present time wherever the canon 
 law prevails.'' 
 
 ' Evidence of the Rev. W. Palmer, Royal Commission on Marriage Law, 
 1848, p. 54 ; Evidence of Dr. Pusey, //'/(/. Question 447. 
 
 - See Pierrot's Utiiv. Lexikon, arl. ' Elie ' ; Tlie Encyc. Method, art. 'Affinite' ; 
 and also the Algeni. Encyc. dci II . iind Kihiste. 
 
 ' In the one CISC, Madonna .\ 1 ; 1,. the advances of Frate Rinaldo, 
 
 \isx cojnpadre : ' Egli sarcbhe u-; ■ 1 .• ; e io ho molte volte udito che 
 
 cgli e troppo gran pcccalo.' IKi j ■ 1., however, proves to the satisfaction 
 
 of his god-daughter ' che loica non sapeva,' that this was not the cas,e {Novel/a 
 III. Giornata Sellima). Again, Tingoccio was in love with his comare, but kept 
 this love secret from his friend Meuccio, ' per la cattiviti che a lui medesimo pareva 
 fare, d' amare la comare ; e sarebbesi vergognato che alcun 1' avesse saputo.' His 
 friend, however, who was also in love with her, finds it out. Tingoccio dies ; and 
 according to a promise conies as a ghost to tell his friend about our future life. 
 He assures him that no account is taken in the next world of these sort of unions 
 (//'/,/. Novella X.) Voltaire aptly expresses the surprise of an Iiigam untutored 
 in the sulilktics of priestly legislation : ' Morbleu, men oncle, pourquoi serait-il 
 (iL-fendu d'ciiouscr sa marraine, quand elle est jeune et jolie?' 
 
 ' Evidence of tlie Right Rev. N. Wiseman, D.D., before the Royal Commis- 
 sion on Marriage Law, 1S48, Question 1203. 
 
 ' November 1215, the twelfth General Council. 
 
 • The civil law permits marriage in the fourth degree, or between first-cousins ; 
 the canon law only permits marriage outside the fourth degree, that i-., third- 
 cousins are forbidden to marry. Hence, according to Tajl. 1 / ( .;/7 
 La7v, p. 331), has arisen among the common people an i.i. : : , \\ !i ijist- 
 cousins may marry, second-cousins may not; a belief xvln . 1 :;' iM, 
 writing in 1673, mentions as a common belief, and which wyy^ ii 1 m n 1, u.i.l.ijs 
 
MODERN r.UKOPEAN rKOIIIlilTIONS 123 
 
 In France marriages are prohibited in the direct ascending 
 or descending line, as well as between brothers and sisters, 
 whether legitimate or illegitimate. Marriage between uncle 
 and niece, aunt and nephew, or brother and deceased wife's 
 sister, may be permitted by the Government. Adoption is no 
 obstacle to marriage, but affinity by marriage is as prohibitory 
 as the blood relationship it simulates, and step-children are 
 forbidden to marry a step-parent.' 
 
 Marriages are prohibited by the Italian civil code, in the 
 direct ascending or descending line, and in the collateral line 
 between brotlrer and sister, aunt and nephew, or uncle and 
 niece. Illegitimacy does not affect these prohibitions. Re- 
 lationship by affinity or adoption in the direct ascending or 
 descending line, or the first collateral degree, is considered to 
 be true relationship, and marriage within those degrees is 
 prohibited ; but the king may permit marriage between 
 relatives by affinity, or between aunt and nephew, or uncle 
 and niece, if he chooses.^ 
 
 By Spanish law the old canonical prohibitions are still in 
 force. All persons related in the ascending or descending 
 line, and all persons of the collateral line related within the 
 fourth canonical (or eighth civil) degree, are forbidden to 
 intermarry. Relationship by affinity, by carnal knowledge, 
 or by god-parentage is considered to be the same as blood 
 relationship.^ 
 
 In Portugal the same canon law prevails, but in both 
 countries dispensations are obtainable. Thus, in 1S26, the 
 two claimants of the crown. Donna Maria da Gloria, and her 
 uncle, Dom Miguel, proposed to settle their claims by marriage. 
 
 hnrillyto have died out (see Dugard'sT/ic A/am'agieso/ Cousin Germans Vindiittte;!, 
 pp. 91 94, and Mrs. Becion's, Book of Household Manai^eiiient, 1S69, ji. 1134, 
 § 2856) — a curious instance of the extent to which our common sense may he 
 misled by the influence of custom. 
 
 ' Adam, Fortnightly Review, 1865, p. 722. 
 
 ' Codue Civile del Regno d" Italia, lib. i. tit. v. 58, 59, 60, 68. Car.linal 
 Wiseman asserted before the Royal Commission on jVarriage Law of 1848 
 that marriages between cousins hardly ever occurred in Italy, since they arc 
 contrary to the canon law (see p. 107, Question 1 194). This, however, does not 
 .seeir. to be the case, since Signor Mantegazza appears to have found no diffi- 
 cully in collecting cases of these marriages (see his Studj sui Matrim. Cww. pp. 
 20 • 26). 
 
 ' Johnston's Translation of the Spanish Civil La-w, pp. 50, 51, 12S. 
 
124 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 A dispensation was obtained from the Pope, and it would 
 have taken place but for the alleged treachery of Dom 
 Miguel.' The Vaquiros of the Asturian mountains habitually 
 marry among themselves, and consequently have to buy dis- 
 pensations for nearly every marriage.^ 
 
 England, the first protcstant country to alter the canonical 
 prohibitions, is still the most conservative of all, not excepting 
 her own colonies. The Anglo-Saxons, says Bade, did not 
 hesitate to marry a father's wife.^ By the code of Theodore, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, A.D. 668-690, marriage is forbidden 
 with a mother, daughter, sister, niece, great-granddaughter, 
 great - great - granddaughter, step-mother, step - daughter, 
 mother-in-law, sister-in-law, god-mother, nurse, the wife or 
 mistress of any relation, two sisters in succession, a maid be- 
 trothed to another, or, indeed, any relative within the sixth 
 canonical degree.'' According, however, to the ' Capitula et 
 Fragmenta Theodori,' marriage is only forbidden in the third 
 degree.'' This discrepancy is probably to be explained by the 
 supposed permission of Pope Gregory I. to the English to marry 
 in the fourth degree ; and the canon of Ecgbert, Archbishop 
 of York, which says that though the canon law puts the limit 
 at the sixth degree, for the very satisfactory reason that the 
 creation lasted six days, yet St. Gregoiy permitted the 
 English, seeing that they were as yet but neophytes, unhabitu- 
 ated to the curb, to marry in the fourth degree, so that they 
 might be gradually accustomed to greater severity ; just as the 
 apostle says : ' I have fed you with milk and not with meat, 
 for hitherto ye were not able to bear it, neither are jc j-ct 
 able.' In the same way Pope Innocent III. permitted the 
 Livonians to continue the Icvirate law, as formerly practised 
 before their conversion." On this account Ecgbert allows 
 marriage in the fifth degree ; in the fourth the parties need 
 not be separated ; but marriage within the third degree is 
 
 ' Adam, Fortnightly Review, p. 722. 
 ^ Michel, Hist, des Races Maudites, ii. 43. 
 ' Sharon Turner, History of the Anglo-Saxons, i. 125. 
 ■• Liber Posn. de Incest, xx. in Thorpe's Ancient Laws, etc. pp. 286, 287. 
 > Thorpe, ihid. p. 3 1 7. 
 
 " Evidence of Dr. Pusey Ijcforethe Royal Commission on Marriage Law, 1S4S, 
 p. 45. 
 
ENGLISH rROHIBITED DEGREES 125 
 
 void, and the parties must be separated.' The Engh'sh were, 
 however, considered sufficiently steadfast in their faith at the 
 beginning of the twelfth century ; for in the year 1102, at a 
 great council convened at Westminster by Ansclm, marriage 
 was prohibited within the seventh canonical degree ; ' and this 
 prohibition remained in force till about the date of the Magna 
 Charta, when marriage outside the fourth canonical degree 
 was permitted.' 
 
 By the 25th Henry VIII. cap. 22, sec. 3 the prohibited 
 degrees were declared to be the same as those mentioned in 
 Leviticus, including a wife's sister ; and by this Act it was 
 declared that neither the pope nor anyone else could grant a 
 dispensation to marry within any one of these degrees. 
 Liberty was however, left to the ecclesiastical courts to 
 prohibit other marriages outside these degrees, or permit 
 them as they chose. The 28th Henry VIII. cap. 7 repealed 
 this Act, but the same prohibited degrees were re-enacted, with 
 the modification that the religious ceremony docs not con- 
 stitute the validity of the marriage ; only the consummation 
 does ; that therefore a man may marry his step-mother, uncle's 
 wife, son's wife, or his brother's wife, provided that none of 
 these marriages had been consummated. The same act con- 
 firmed the prohibitory relationship by affinity, if a marriage 
 had been consummated, even if there had been no religious 
 celebration. The power of the ecclesiastical courts to enact 
 further prohibited degrees was not touched by this Act ; and 
 the power of dispensation was left in the same state as enacted 
 by the 25th Henry VIII. The liberty thus left in the hands 
 of the Church to prohibit marriages outside the statutory 
 degrees, or to allow them, just as they thought fit, was abused, 
 as it had always before been abused. In the preamble of the 
 32nd Henry VIII. it says : ' Further also, by reason of other 
 prohibitions than God's law admitteth, for their lucre by 
 that court [the Pope's] invented, the dispensations whereof 
 they alwa)-s reserved to themselves, as in kindred, or affinity 
 
 ' Pan. Ecgt'erti, lib. iv. 39; Con/ess. 28, p. 354; Exccrp. cxxxi. cxxxii. 
 cxxxviii. cxl. cxlvi. in Thorpe's Ancient Laws, etc. 
 
 - Bixkle's Common P^tce Book, Art. IIO. ' See p. 122 of this work. 
 
126 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 between cousin-gcrmans, and so to the fouitli and fifth 
 degrees, carnal knowledge of any of the same kin or affinity 
 before in such outward degrees, which else were lawful, and 
 be not prohibited by God's law. (4.) And all because they 
 would get money by it, and keep a reputation of their usurped 
 jurisdiction, whereby not only much discord between lawful 
 married persons hath (contrary to God's ordinance) arisen, 
 much debate and suit at law, with wrongful vexation, and 
 great damage of the innocent party hath been procured, and 
 many just marriages brought in doubt and danger of un- 
 doing, and also many times undone, and lawful heirs dis- 
 herited, whereof they had never else, but for their vainglorious 
 usurpation, been moved any such question, since freedom in 
 them was given by God's law, which ought to be most sure 
 and certain.' The statute then declares ' that ' all and every 
 such marriages as within this church of England shall be con- 
 tracted between lawful persons (as by this act we declare all 
 persons to be lawful that be not prohibited by God's law to 
 marry). (7.) Such marriages being contract and solemnised 
 in the face of the church * * * shall be, by the authority of 
 this present parliament, aforesaid, deemed, judged, and taken 
 to be lawful, good, just and indissolvable. » * * (8.) And that 
 no reservation or prohibition, God's law except, shall trouble 
 or impeach any marriage without the Levitical degrees. (9.) 
 And that no person of what estate, degree or condition soever 
 he or she be, shall, after the said first day of the month of 
 July aforesaid, be admitted in any of the spiritual courts 
 within this the king's realm, or any of his grace's other lands 
 and dominions, to any process, plea, or allegation, contrary to 
 this aforesaid act.' 
 
 The law remained as defined by this Act for the remainder 
 of Henry VIII. 's reign, and through that of King Edward VI., 
 excepting that by the 2nd and 3rd Edward VI, cap. 23, the 
 power of enforcing marriage upon sufificient proof of contract 
 was restored to the spiritual courts, but ' that in all other 
 causes and other things therein mentioned, the said former 
 
 ' Cr,p. 38. 
 
ENGLISH I'ROIIimTKD DEGREKS 1 27 
 
 Act of the 32nd year of the late kinij, do stand and remain in 
 his full strength and power.' 
 
 The first act of Mary, on her accession, was to legitimise 
 herself by declaring (ist Mary, sess. 2, cap. i), 'the Queens 
 Hygness to have been borne in a most just and lawful matri- 
 monie,' that the marriage of Henry VIII. with his deceased 
 brother's wife was 'according to the pleasure of Almighty 
 God,' that it was ' a most lawful and Godly concorde,' and 
 ' that the same marriage in every dede, not being prohibited 
 by the law of God, could not by an}' reason or equitie in this 
 case be spotted, that it had its beginning of God, and by Him 
 was continued, and therefore was ever and is to be taken for 
 a most true, just, lawfull, and to all respects a sincere and 
 parfitt marriage.' The Act annuls the divorce of Katharine, 
 the Act of 25th Henry VIII. cap. 22, ' and every such clauses, 
 articles, branches and matters contained and expressed in the 
 foresayd Acte of Parliament made in the 28th year of the 
 reign of the seyd late King, your father, or in any other Acte 
 or Actes of Parliamente, as whereby your Hygness is named 
 or declared to be illegitimate.' To this Mr. James Parker 
 observes that since the marriage of a man with his brother's 
 wife is expressly prohibited by Leviticus,' this Act was not 
 itself consistent with ' God's law,' and that the marriage of 
 Mary's parents alone was intended to be made lawful by this 
 Act, because the marriage was under the Pope's dispensation, 
 and the former marriage was said not to have been consum- 
 mated. As for the first objection, this sort of marriage was 
 not only allowed, but positively ordained when there were no 
 children born, by the Old Testament, and permitted in other 
 cases, provided two sisters were not married in succession, 
 the latter in the lifetime of the former ; an Act of Parliament 
 would besides, even if this permission were contrary to the 
 law as laid down in Leviticus, be amply sufficient to make 
 such marriages legal. For the second objection, 'it should 
 be observed that in this Act not one word is said of a dis- 
 pensation from the Holy See, nor of want of consummation of 
 the marriage between Prince Arthur and Catherine.' 
 
128 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 The 1st and 2nd Philip and Mary, cap. 8, repealed so 
 much of the 28th Henry VIII. cap. 7 as concerned the pro- 
 hibition to marry within the degrees expressed in the said 
 Act, as well as the whole of the 28th Henry VIII. cap. 16, 
 and the 32nd Henry VIII. cap. 38, and others, which took 
 away the ancient power of the Pope and spiritual courts over 
 the law of marriage. At the end of Mary's reign, therefore, a 
 man was prohibited marriage with a mother, sister, grand- 
 daughter, half-sister, or aunt ; with a step-mother, daughter- 
 in-law, or uncle's wife, if the marriage which constituted 
 the relationship had been consummated. Marriage with a 
 daughter or grandmother is not mentioned, but that they 
 were unlawful is implied, as it is in the Old Testament,' whence 
 these degrees are taken, and by the fact that marriages 
 beyond these degrees are forbidden. For if a man may not 
 marry his granddaughter, neither may he marry his cwn 
 daughter ; nor if he is forbidden marriage in the second 
 degree in the descending line, is it likely that he is permitted • 
 to marry in the same degree in the ascending line ? Similarly, 
 marriage with a niece was forbidden, because marriage with 
 an aunt was. 
 
 These prohibited degrees were left as they stood by the 
 1st Elizabeth, cap. i ; for though the 28th Henry VIII. cap. 
 16, and 32nd Henry VIII. were revived, yet in neither of these 
 Acts is there any definition of the prohibited degrees, nor 
 were they interfered with even by the Act which declared 
 Elizabeth's title to the crown.- 
 
 Archbishop Parker published a table, on his own authorit>', 
 in the year i 563, which was of no legal value at the time, 
 but received authority in the year 1603, from the 99th canon 
 in ecclesiastical courts. This canon declared that no person 
 shall marry within the degrees prohibited by the laws of God, 
 and expressed in a table set forth by authority in the year 
 of our Lord 1563, and all marriages so made and conducted 
 shall be adjudged incestuous and unlawful, and consequently 
 
 ' Leviticus, xviii. 6-18; xx. 21 ; Deuteronomy, xxv. 5, 6. 
 
 ' Chief Justice Vaughan 'evidently was not aware of the statute 1st M.iry, 
 fiess. 2, cap. I * * * as expressly repealing the 28th Henry \'HI. c.i|i 7.' 
 Hence the authority relied upon by Mr. James Parker does not hold. 
 
DECEASED WIFE'S SISTER 1 29 
 
 shall be dissolved as void from the beginning, and the parties 
 so married shall by course of law be separated. And the 
 aforesaid table shall be in every church publicly set up and 
 fixed at the charge of the parish.' One of these tables, of the 
 date of 1677-8, and signed by the Bishop of London, which 
 I possess, states that on the authority of this canon, of the 
 Roman law, and ' by divers necessary consequences, from 
 likeness, parity, or majority of reason,' the marriage of a man 
 with the wife of his brother — that marriage which is en- 
 joined by the Bible, and most particularly permitted by the 
 statutes of England — ' to be incestuous ; and all children be- 
 gotten of such marriages to be illegitimate, or bastards, to all 
 intents and purposes.' Such does the law of England remain 
 to this day, with the exception that, by Lord Lyndhurst's Act, 
 marriages between a man and his deceased wife's sister which 
 before were only voidable are now null and void from the begin- 
 ning.' The repeal of this wicked law has been attempted j-ear 
 after year ever since in vain ; yet only two objections have been 
 made to this repeal, namely (i) The supposed scriptural prohi- 
 bition of such marriages, and (2) the alleged social convenience 
 of the present state of things. The first we shall not consider, 
 since to all intents and purposes it has been abandoned. No 
 man whose mind is open to conviction can help admitting that 
 such evidence as is contained in ' Opinions of the Hebrew 
 and Greek Professors of the European Universities,' - is de- 
 cisive, while with those whose minds are not open to conviction 
 argument is useless. Some, indeed, do not lay much stress 
 on the precise meaning of the words in Leviticus, but urge 
 that the code given there and in Deuteronomy stands for 
 a perpetual and divine code to all nations, that the Canaanites 
 were exterminated (which they were not) for not obeying it 
 
 ' The render should consult the Report of lite Royal Commission of 1S4S, on 
 the amount of misery and contempt of the law produced by this canon, and the bad 
 interpretation of the law on this subject. I am indebted for my information to 
 the same Report, Appendix, Art. No. 7. Also to John Fry, The Case of Marriage 
 h-ZiLYf/i near Kindred, etc. 1773, pp. 121-146; Samuel Dugard, Vindication of 
 tite Marria,!;es of Cousin Germans, 1673, p. 90; and T/ie Case of Mr. Emmerton 
 and Mrs. Bridget Hyde, etc. 16S2: London, printed for Richard Baldwin, 
 rP- 3>-43- 
 
 ■•' Published by the Marriage Law Reform Association, 8vo. London, 18S2. 
 
130 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 (which they could not), and that all relationships by affinity 
 are identical with the same degrees of relationship in blood.' 
 All this, I say, I do not mean to discuss. If the Canaanites 
 were exterminated for marrying their sisters-in-law, why 
 were not the Egyptians and the Persians, the Indians, most 
 savages, and the Jews themselves .' If all relationships of 
 affinity are prohibited, as are blood relationships, why may 
 two brothers marry two sisters, or (what is really objectionable) 
 a father and son marry daughter and mother > 
 
 On the other question, however, or the expediency of for- 
 bidding such marriages, some observations may be useful, 
 since in the experience of many of the rich men who make 
 the laws they have found the convenience occasionally of 
 having a sister-in-law to keep house for them, and are ignorant 
 of the hardships the law inflicts upon those poor people who 
 do not choose to disregard it. This, though they do not 
 recognise it, is the selfish motive, that for the sake of their own 
 comfort they interfere with the comfort and just freedom of 
 a greater number than themselves, and to justify it even to 
 themselves they must be able to substantiate their four 
 allegations that — 
 
 1. No sister-in-law could be as a sister to her sister's 
 husband were marriage between them ever permissible. 
 
 2. That sisters-in-law cannot produce jealousy in wives 
 under the present law. 
 
 3. That sisters-in-law can, without scandal, keep house 
 for their deceased sister's husband. 
 
 4. That, were brothers and sisters-in-law permitted to 
 intermarry, there would be less brotherly and sisterly freedom 
 among them than at present, or more scandal. 
 
 They would also do well to show that— 
 
 5. The present state of the law does not open abuses in - 
 
 a. Litigation. d. Bigamy. 
 
 d. Seduction. e. Heritage. 
 
 c. Repudiation. 
 
 6. Explain how it is that we and the Russians are so much 
 
 ' Bishop Wordsworih. 
 
DECEASED WIFK'S SISTER 131 
 
 more virtuous than all the rest of the world, including our own 
 colonies and Jersey, in forbidding such marriages. 
 
 7. Show that the present law is obeyed as a rule, and is 
 not contemptuously disregarded, save by those who abuse it, 
 as mentioned in No. 5. 
 
 An ounce of fact is worth a pound of theory on a practical 
 question like this. I shall therefore give a few cases I have 
 come across within the last few years in the 'Times.' State- 
 ment No. I supposes a state of things that does not at present 
 exist ; everyone will therefore interpret it according to his 
 private experiences. That cousins and friends live together 
 with all the familiarity of brothers and sisters-in-law, no one will 
 deny ; while, on the other hand, that the mere fact of marriage 
 into a family does, in even two-thirds of the cases, put a man 
 on equal terms of familiarity with his sisters-in-law as with 
 his own sisters no one will be bold enough to assert. 
 
 To statement No. 2, I may cite the following : A woman 
 was brought up at the Marlborough Street Police-court fcr 
 throwing vitriol over her husband, whom she suspected of 
 being too intimate with her sister ; ' and another case where an 
 inquest was held on a woman whose husband was a dispenser 
 at a hospital, and she, being of ' violent temper,' and moved 
 to wrath at his undue attentions to her sister, had already 
 frequently threatened to commit suicide, and twice actually 
 had taken poison from the dispensary so conveniently at hand. 
 Her husband, far from resenting these imputations, used 
 every means in his power to preserve her life. He locked 
 the dispensary and hid the keys, but the unhappy woman 
 nevertheless contrived, after expressing her jealousy in the 
 most violent terms possible, to procure a do.-^e of morphia, 
 and thus shuffle off her mortal coil. Her husband admitted 
 that she had some ' slight cause for jealousy, but not to the 
 extent to which she went.'^ In another case a lady brought 
 a suit of divorce against her husband. On her father's death 
 her younger and only sister had come to live with her, and 
 two years afterwards she and her brother-in-law eloped 
 together. The lady had before observed a change in her 
 ' See the Times, November 26, 1872. = See the Times, July 12, 1877. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 husband's behaviour to her, but not being of a jealous dis- 
 position she had no suspicion of his intimacy with her sister.' 
 The frequent divorce cases are sufficient evidence not only 
 that sisters-in-law under existing conditions produce jealousy, 
 but also that jealousy frequently has reason on its side.'^ 
 
 These cases further show clearly enough, despite all 
 statements to the contrary, that, whatever may be individual 
 experience, a sister-in-law cannot live with her brother-in-law 
 to keep house for him. There is a case,^ where we have 
 the Vice-Chancellor (Sir Richard Malins) saying: ' He could 
 not think it proper that any gentleman should continue to 
 live with his deceased wife's sister. In this case there 
 appeared to be no other woman in the house except the two 
 maidservants, and it was evident that suspicions were enter- 
 tained as to the nature of the intimacy which existed between 
 these two people. Under such circumstances the father's 
 house could not be a fit place for the residence of the Infant ; 
 therefore he proposed to make an order that unless the wife's 
 sister took her departure from the house the infant should be 
 removed and given into the custody of some fit person with 
 whom she could reside.' ■* In the end she had to leave her 
 brother-in-law's house.' Again, in another case "= the learned 
 judge said : ' It had been argued, by the learned counsel for 
 the respondent, that there was nothing to be inferred adverse 
 to their characters from their extraordinary intimacy. Inas- 
 much as they were brother and sister-in-law, and could not 
 intermarry with each other. It was quite true that the law 
 did not allow of marriage by a man with his deceased wife's 
 sister, but it was to be observed that the law was based upon the 
 assumption that persons so connected might have an inclina- 
 tion towards and entertain the passion of love for each other.' 
 The law, then, forbids these marriages, because it quite sees 
 that without this prohibition these marriages would take 
 
 ' The Times, May lo, iSSo. 
 
 ^ Ibid. April 10, 1876; ibid. July 19, 1878; ibiJ. November 14, 1S79; ibid. 
 May IS, l8y6;ibid. November 29, 1S77; ibid. November 20, 1S70; //'/./. iM.iy 
 5, 1877 ; ibid. November 7, 1879 ; ibid. January 28, 1875 ; ibid. May 16, 1S77 ; 
 ibid. December 5, 1878. 
 
 ■' //'/,/. January 19, 1880. ' Ibid. 
 
 " Ibid. lamiary 26, 1880. « Ibid. May 15, 1S76. 
 
DECEASED WIFE'S SISTER 133 
 
 place ; but at the same time it admits that brothers and 
 bisters-in-law cannot live together as brothers and sisters, and 
 that their behaviour must be as guarded as though they were 
 cousins. In other words, their relationship but gives the 
 excuse to the world of an introduction, or nothing more than 
 were they permitted to marry. 
 
 And now let us look at the objections to the law. \Vc 
 have seen that it fails in its main object of making artificial 
 brothers and sisters, but those who uphold it argue that in 
 some cases it makes real brothers and sisters— at least a fair 
 imitation. Should the law then only make a great many 
 people miserable, for the simple reason that they honour and 
 obey the law, we, the world in general, can look on very 
 philosophically. 
 
 Unfortunately no one can escape from the evil effects of 
 a bad law, and of all legal ties that of marriage is the most 
 important to the whole community. On the one side it is 
 bound up with property in general through inheritance ; on 
 the other, it is so intimately connected with the practice of 
 morality that we always find the decadence of nations has 
 been preceded by neglect of the marriage tie. A moment's 
 consideration will convince anyone that the growth of nations, 
 the right education of youth, and the well-being of the 
 population depend upon the honour in which marriage is 
 held ; but those who have no difficulty in seeing this do not 
 always see that where a law is held in little estimation it will 
 very likely lead to contempt, and when a law is held in 
 contempt even good people will confound the bad with the 
 good parts of it, and, despising the prohibition of a marriage 
 which seems unobjectionable, will go on to despise marriage 
 itself. The greater number of our laws have only been 
 repealed long after the whole nation has behaved as if they 
 did not exist, and therefore to say that this prohibition shall 
 not be repealed, simply because this repeal will gratify those 
 who have broken the law, is little more than childish. You 
 cannot punish a man even at present for marrying his 
 deceased wife's sister, nor would it be possible for the 
 most ingenious legislator to contrive an effective punishment ; 
 
134 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 but to make that illegal which cannot be punished is not 
 only useless but impolitic. We have had many laws dealing 
 with matters that we should like to regulate, but the merest 
 tyro in legal history knows that moral conduct cannot be 
 regulated by laws, and that where the law meddles ineffec- 
 tively it surely muddles, becoming ridiculous in some cases 
 and harmful in others. 
 
 Now, what is the effect of this particular law ? That it 
 is ineffective in preventing marriages between brothers and 
 sisters-in-law is generally known, though few people know 
 how generally. That it leads to seduction is sufficiently 
 obvious, because giving as it does a false security to some 
 people, seduction is a natural consequence. The divorce 
 cases already given during the few years under our observa- 
 tion sufficiently show this, but there are many other cases I 
 could cite,' given in metropolitan papers alone, besides others, 
 which illustrate other evils. One of these is the facility 
 given to bigamy, of which an instance is afforded by a gentle- 
 man of the name of Sullivan, before Mr. Commissioner Kerr on 
 that charge. Mr. Sullivan, however, pleaded that his first 
 wife, being the widow of his brother, had at present no legal 
 right to the title of wife, and the jury had no choice but to 
 agree with the prisoner that he had a perfect right to two 
 wives. The first lady thereupon inquired who was the 
 innocent man's wife ? a question which Mr. Commissioner Kerr 
 either could not or would not answer.^ Another frequent 
 result of the present state of the law is repudiation. One 
 case became public at the Marylebone Police-court,^ another 
 at the Hammersmith,^ and again another at the same court."" 
 In all these cases there were children of the illegal marriage, 
 and in all, the father, finding the support of his offspring a 
 burden, had repudiated his wife and cast her off. In another 
 case a deceased wife's sister was induced to go through the 
 ceremony of marriage with her brother-in-law, and, after living 
 
 ' See, for iiislance, a case brought before Mr. Watson at ihe Marlborovis^h 
 Street Police-court, given in the Times, May 25, 1877. Another before Mr. 
 Balguy at Greenwich, ibid. November 7, 1 882. 
 
 ^ The Tivies, November 23, 1871. ' IH'i. April 14, 1S75. 
 
 « Evcnhis Standard, May 25, 1880. ' The Times, December 20, 18S0. 
 
DECEASED WIFE'S SISTER 1 35 
 
 with him for about two years and a half, he turned her out 
 of doors.' By these means, with the aid of the law, he saved 
 a housekeeper's wages for the space of two years and a half. 
 There is another case where the parties ' agreed ' to separate, 
 and consider their marriage annulled ; '^ and indeed, the law, 
 if it does nothing else, vastly simplifies the work of the 
 divorce court ; there are, indeed, many instances' how much 
 better it is to marry one's deceased wife's sister or husband's 
 brother than anybody else, if the parties are fond of change 
 and would avoid the irksome restraints of the law. 
 
 The effect on property is illustrated by the following case 
 from Ireland. A society had existed for the purpose of pay- 
 ing life annuities to the widows of constabulary officers, and 
 one of the conditions was that a widow remarrying should 
 forfeit her annuity. The society had been ordered to be 
 wound up, and in the course of the proceedings the annuities 
 were capitalised, and a proportionate share given to each an- 
 nuitant. Now, among these was one lady who had no idea of 
 remaining a widow, but, on the other hand, neither had she 
 any idea of giving up her annuity. The solution of the pro- 
 blem, thanks to our law, was of the simplest. To make matters 
 nice and comfortable she obtained a dispensation from the 
 Pope ; she then married her deceased sister's husband, retained 
 her capitalised annuity, and, I presume, lived in comfort and 
 affluence ever afterwards.'' 
 
 I have asserted that it is impossible for any legislator to 
 prevent the marriage of brothers-in-law with their sisters-in- 
 law by any legal penalty ; but since this statement may be 
 challenged by some who believe that laws are all-powerful, 
 a few more words on the subject may be useful. It is gene- 
 rally conceded that concubinage is beyond the reach of the 
 law. This is not a supposition ; the law has frequently tried, 
 and in every possible way, to suppress it, and in every case has 
 
 ' The Times, March 10, 1 880. ' /iii^. January 11, 1883. 
 
 ' /di.l. November 16, 1877; February 28, 1S7S; and /'a// jl/a// Ca;^//c, January 
 
 25. 1875- 
 
 * See the Times, February 9, 1876. I may add that the legacy duty on a 
 bequest by a man to his sister-in-law is ten per cent., as to a stranger in blood ; 
 while, in the reverse case, the duty on a legacy bequeathed to a brother-in-law by 
 his sister-in-law is three per cent., as to a very brother. 
 
136 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 only succeeded in making matters worse. The living together 
 then of brothers and sisters-in-law, we may accept, is not to 
 be prevented by any law whatsoever. That bigamy and 
 polygamy are prevented by law is no argument (although 
 it may seem to be), because bigamy and polygamy are only 
 prevented by the law when one of the parties does not consent. 
 The cohabitation of a man with two women is not, and can- 
 not be, punished ; but a false representation by which a man 
 induces a woman to live with him as his wife, while he has 
 another wife living, is punishable, because one cf the parties 
 has been deceived. In the same way the wife can punish her 
 husband by divorce (an inadequate and weak punishment at 
 the present day) when he fails to carry out the contract into 
 which he has entered. You might attempt to punish marriage 
 with a deceased wife's sister when the marriage ceremony had 
 been gone through, but the only result would be either that 
 the parties would cohabit without going through the ceremony, 
 or that they would go through the ceremony abroad. Baffled 
 in this way, the law stigmatises the innocent children, and 
 gives either of the sinning parties the power of doing further 
 evil by deserting the other. 
 
 Those indeed who still oppose the marriages we have 
 been discussing must needs possess a confidence in the justice 
 of their cause, which it is not given to most people to have 
 in anything. Any interference with private liberty is bad in 
 itself, and only to be enforced when the enforcement is not a 
 farce, and those who carry it out are assured that they are 
 doing right. In this case not only is the British law alone 
 in the comity of nations with one exception, and that the most 
 backward of them all, but one by one, despite affection and 
 tradition, despite the same education, code of laws, and con- 
 stant influx of new reinforcements from the old country, our 
 colonies have in succession thrown off this prohibition and 
 ranged themselves upon the side of the world in general. 
 To set up an accidental law (for Lord Lyndhurst's Act was 
 nothing but an accident as it stands) against the wisdom of 
 • the world, to say that that law is right, and that all laws con- 
 trary to it are wrong, to arrogate to ourselves a purity in rcli- 
 
NORTH EUIiOriC AND THE U.S.A. 137 
 
 gious feeling and morality beyond what our colonics and 
 America and the other civilised countries can show — against 
 a mass of opinion like this, against the arguments of every- 
 day life, against the opinions of the greater part of their 
 countrymen, the belief in the justice of the prohibition of 
 marriage with a deceased wife's sister must be more robust 
 than we hold it to be if it can stand. 
 
 By the Prussian law marriages in the direct ascending or 
 descending line, or between brothers and sisters, whether by half 
 or by whole blood, are forbidden, whether these relationships 
 be legitimate or illegitimate. Step-parents, or step-brothers 
 and sisters, are considered to be blood relatives. Hence the 
 marriage of uncle and niece is permitted, and there is no pro- 
 hibitory relationship by affinity, except in the direct ascending 
 and descending line. The Rhenish provinces are under the 
 Code Napoleon, with the exception that a man is permitted to 
 marry his sister-in-law, and that it is necessary to get a sort 
 of formal permission from the Church to marry a niece. 
 Such marriages, however, occur but rarely. They were freely 
 allowed in Wiirtemburg, but not in Hanover.' 
 
 The law of Holland adds to the Prussian prohibitions 
 marriage between brothers and sisters-in-law, between an 
 uncle or a grand-uncle, and a niece or grand-niece ; and 
 marriage between an aunt or grand-aunt, and nephew or 
 grand-nephew, whether the parties be legitimately related 
 or not. The king may, however, permit these marriages.^ 
 
 In Sweden marriages within the third civil degree are for- 
 bidden. A man may marry his sister-in-law by special 
 permission of the king ; and a few years ago, says Mayhew, 
 writing about the year 1862, a law was abolished requiring 
 the same formality for the marriage of first-cousins.' 
 
 In the United States of America the prohibited degrees 
 vary somewhat in different States. In the State of New 
 York there was formerly no statuted efining these degrees. 
 
 ' Evidence of A. Bach, E'iq., Iieforc the Royal Commission on Martiage Lmv 
 oj 1S48, pp. S4-86. By the new law of 1875 the prohibited degrees of all 
 Germany are assimilated to the Prussian law. ^ Ibid. p. 86, note. 
 
 ' Mayhew's London Labour and London Poor, ii. 175. 
 
138 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 By the Revised Statutes of 1S30 marriage in the direct Hne, 
 or between brothers and sisters of half or whole blood, is 
 forbidden. In Louisiana marriage is forbidden with an aunt 
 or niece, and in Indiana and Kentucky the marriage of first- 
 cousins even is said to be prohibited.' M. Devay asserts that 
 these marriages are also forbidden in Ohio, but this has been 
 shown by Mr. Darwin to be false f there was merely an Act 
 passed in the year 1855 or 1856, to ascertain the number 
 of deaf-mutes, blind, insane, etc., and the relationship of 
 their parents to each other, if any.' The Mormons allow 
 marriage with all a wife's sisters, with mother and daughter, 
 with a half-sister, or with a step-daughter. Brigham Young 
 himself married a mother and daughter, and MM. Remy 
 and Brenchley give an instance of an indignant Mormon 
 turning his first wife out of doors because her daughter, his 
 step-daughter, refused to share that portion of his heart and 
 hand he was able to offer to her." 
 
 Though never so severe as the Roman, the prohibitions 
 of the Greek Church were much more inflexible, and there- 
 fore not nearly so demoralising. They permitted the marriage 
 of second-cousins, according to Theodorus, who wrote A.n. 
 668 — about the same degree that was permitted by the 
 Roman Church of that time. Like the Roman Church, how- 
 ever, they got more severe under the influence of asceticism, 
 for by the Council of Trullo, A.D. 694, they forbade the marriage 
 of relations within the seventh degree, that is, third cousins 
 were allowed to marry, but no parties more nearly related ; 
 and, like the Roman Church, they held that relationship by 
 affinity, adoption, or god-parentage were equally bars to 
 intermarriage with true relationship. At this time the Roman 
 Church was beginning to launch out upon far wider prohibi- 
 tions, but the Greeks remained fast to theirs, uninfluenced by 
 
 ' T/ie Lancet, April 4, 1868, p. 456 ; J. A. N. Perier, Mhi. de la Soc. de 
 Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 230 ; Adam, Fortnightly Revievi, November 1, 1865, 
 P- 723- 
 
 - Devay, Du Danger, etc. p. 141 ; Darwin, Animals and Plants under 
 Domestication, ii. 102, note. 
 
 ' V>tm\%%, Journal of Psych. Med. etc. p. 378, April 1S57. 
 
 ' Remy and Brenchley, y<iK;-«<y /o Great Salt Lake City, ii. 139, 152, 165. 
 
GUEKK AND RUSSIAN I'KOHIDITIONS 1 39 
 
 the extravagance of the sister Church. The consequence 
 was that, though the people occasionally disregarded them, as 
 is shown by the excommunications of John the Good, A.D. 
 1079, on all those who had married their cousins, yet, since 
 these prohibitions were neither so severe as the Roman nor 
 so often altered or permitted by dispensations, the people 
 began to look upon them as divine laws, and, as such, to 
 wish for no change.' 
 
 The Russian practice at the present time is the same as 
 that of the Greek Church, and the legal obstacles, says Mr. 
 Wallace, ' are not always easily avoided in a small village, 
 the inhabitants of which have been long in the habit of in- 
 termarrying.' - There was, however, and perhaps still is, 
 a practice in some parts of Russia for a son's wife first to be 
 married temporarily to his father.' McLennan says of the 
 Muscovites and Livonians that we have no certain information 
 on their marriage law ; but that it is implied by Magnus 
 that husband and wife invariably belonged to different kin- 
 ships or \illage communities."* Quite lately a law has been 
 brought in legalising civil marriages between dissenters by 
 birth in Russia ; but even here the Greek prohibitions are in 
 force.-^ 
 
 ' See the Evidence of Dr. Pusey, Royal Commission on Marriage Law, 1848, 
 p. 41 ; also the Evidence of the Rev. \V. Palmer, pp. 54-57, ibid. ; and Reich's 
 Ehe, etc. p. 98. 
 
 ''■ Wallace, Russia, i. 138, 139. 
 
 ^ Taylor's Bil'li<al Fragments, appended to Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, 
 iii. 196. London, 1847. A custom analogous to that of the Indians of Darien. 
 See Reich's Eiie, etc. p. 408 ; and Pall Mall Gazette for August 7, 1S77, p. 4. 
 
 * McLennan, Primitive Marriage, p. 131. 
 
 » See the Pall Mall Gazette for September II, 1S73 ; and llie Times for 
 October 5 and November 6, 1874. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME ISOLATED COMMUNITIES WHO 
 HAVE CONSTANTLY MARRIED AMONG THEMSELVES. 
 
 IN the preceding chapters we have seen that no deduction 
 as to the harmfiilness of marriages between near kin 
 can be drawn from the fact that nearly all mankind have 
 certain prohibited degrees, and it remains for us to discover 
 by observation whether these marriages are really harmful. 
 We shall therefore consider a set of cases where such 
 marriages have occurred constantly in communities for so 
 long a time that the effects for evil, if any, must show 
 themselves ; at the same time, however, we cannot ascribe 
 every disease observed in these isolated communities to 
 consanguineous marriage, because we cannot point to one 
 particular factor where many are present, and say this is the 
 cause, and no other ; but if we see people constantly con- 
 tracting these marriages, and find they do not suffer from 
 disease more than other communities who seldom marry near 
 kin, then we may justly reason that these marriages are, in 
 fact, harmless. 
 
 In the year 1789 a mutiny occurred on board the royal 
 ship ' Bounty,' which has now become famous. The ' Bounty ' 
 had been sent out, under the command of Lieutenant Bligh, 
 to make further observations among the South Sea Islands, 
 and to obtain the breadfruit tree from the natives ; but, in 
 consequence of Bligh's temper, the beauty of the climate, 
 combined with the prospect of an idle life, and the contrast of 
 such a life with the hardships a sailor is compelled to undergo, 
 a part of the crew were so tempted that they determined 
 
MUTINEERS OF THE 'BOUNTY' I4I 
 
 to seize the ship at all hazards. How some of them 
 escaped to Otaheitc, some were killed, and some were taken 
 and brought to England, it is unnecessary to relate — the 
 ' Bounty ' was carried away from Otaheite by nine of the 
 mutineers, who brought with them six men and twelve women, 
 natives of Otaheite, and landed on Pitcairn Island, which 
 before their arrival was uninhabited. But they soon began to 
 quarrel. One of the mutineers having lost his wife by an acci- 
 dent took away the wife of one of the natives, who, indignant 
 at such treatment, laid a plot to murder all the whites. This 
 plot, however, was discovered by the women, and the injured 
 husband with another native was treacherously slain. Cowed 
 but thirsting for revenge, another plot was laid about a year or 
 two after by the natives to free themselves from their slavery, 
 which proved only too successful : five whites were killed, only 
 four escaping. Then the women rose, and murdered all the 
 natives ; and thus out of nine white men, six native men, and 
 twelve native women who landed early in 1790 only four 
 white men and ten or eleven native women remained alive in 
 October 1793. From this time for about five years things 
 went on smoothly, excepting that one of the men killed 
 himself in a drunken fit ; but in 1799 another man lost his 
 wife, and insisted on taking the wife of one of his companions. 
 The husband resisted, the widower sought to murder both 
 him and his wife, whereupon the husband with his remaining 
 companion killed the would-be murderer to secure their own 
 safety. A year after one died of asthma, and the other, 
 Adams, remained the only man on the island. 
 
 Thus, in the year 1800, the population consisted of one 
 man, five women, and nineteen children, the eldest nine years 
 old— in all twenty-five persons. In 1808 Mr. Folger makes 
 the total thirty-five. In 18 14 Sir Thomas Staines found the 
 population consisted of about forty-six persons, mostly grown- 
 up young people, besides a number of infants. 'The young 
 men (all born on the island) were very athletic and of fine 
 forms, their countenance open and pleasing * * * but the j-oung 
 women were objects of particular admiration — tall, robust, 
 and well formed.' In 1825 there were, according to Captain 
 
142 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KFN 
 
 Beechey, thirty-six males and thirty females, or a total of 
 sixty-six persons. In 1830 Captain Waldegrave makes the 
 total seventy-nine, showing an increase of thirteen in five 
 years; yet only three strangers had joined the little com- 
 munity, nor had these joined long before. 
 
 In 1 83 1, water being scarce, the community now number- 
 ing eighty-seven, were removed to Otaheite, but, sober 
 Christians as they were, the manners of the Otaheitans 
 shocked them ; moreover, the climate disagreed with them 
 and they longed for the home they had left. Twelve of them 
 died, and the remainder returned to Pitcairn before 1833, five 
 more dying immediately after their return. About the year 
 1853 the crops failed, and the semi-starvation caused general 
 weakness. In 1855 Captain Freemantle found the popula- 
 tion numbered 1 87, all being natives but three, and, omitting 
 the foreigners, having onlj' six surnames among them. In 
 1856 they numbered 194, and since Pitcairn could not sup- 
 port so many, all were removed to Norfolk Island. In 1S68 
 some of them again returned to their beloved Pitcairn, and a 
 shipwrecked crew reported their number as seventy-three in 
 the year 1875, all being natives save one who had married a 
 Pitcairn girl while at Norfolk Island. As usual, they are 
 described as strong and handsome ; only one was ailing, 
 probably from scrofula and consumption. The same year 
 H.M.S. ' Petrel ' visited them, and found thirty-six males, fort}-- 
 seven females, the stranger, and one of the shipwrecked 
 crew who had remained. Besides the two strangers there 
 were only three surnames, and all were healthy then but 
 one child which was scrofulous. In 1878 Rear-Admiral de 
 Horsey found ninety people of all ages. The next year 
 Captain F. Robinson found ninety-three people. The 
 stranger, who was shipwrecked in 1875, had left, leaving two 
 children behind him. Every one was in good health. At 
 the end of 1882 there were 103 or 104 people on the island, 
 of which sixty were females. 
 
 Those who remained on Norfolk Island, though strong, 
 healthy, and handsome, arc not so moral or industrious as 
 their brethren of Pitcairn. 
 
JAVA. DAHOMEY 143 
 
 As to their health, all observers agree nothing could be 
 better, that they are strong, and average six feet in height. 
 Both sexes are well formed and handsome, and their children 
 uniformly enjoy good health ; while the women are almost 
 as muscular as the males, and taller than the generality of 
 females. Parturition was easy, seldom lasted over five hours, 
 and had never proved fatal.' 
 
 There is a community established eastward of Surabaya. 
 Java, on the Tengger Hills, and near the so-called Sandy Sea, 
 consisting of some 1,200 persons, distributed in about forty 
 villages, who still profess the ancient Hindoo religion. These 
 curious people seem to live in a state of Arcadian purity. The 
 chief of every village is appointed by election, and four priests, 
 intelligent, though uncultivated men, have charge of the sacred 
 writings. There is no penal code, for there is hardly any 
 occasion for it— a reproof from the village chief meets every 
 case. They live frugally, peacefully, and happily, are proud 
 of their institutions and themselves ; and therefore take care 
 never to marry out of their own community ; yet they are 
 bigger and stronger than any other race in Java.^ 
 
 A very remarkable case is given by Dr. Thibault of a Por- 
 tuguese slave-dealer, named Da Souza, who died in the }-ear 
 1849, at Widah, Dahomey, leaving behind him 400 discon- 
 solate widows and about lOO children. By order of the king 
 the whole of this family was interned in a particular part of 
 the country, where reigned the most complete promiscuity. 
 In 1863 there were children of the third generation ; and 
 Dr. Thibault, who verified the fact himself, asserts that at 
 that time, although these people were born from all degrees 
 of incestuous unions, there was not a single case of deaf- 
 mutism, blindness, cretinism, nor any congenital malformation. 
 Nevertheless it is probable that they are now decreasing in 
 
 ' T. B. Murray, Pilcaini : the Island, the People, and the Pastor. London, 
 1857, pp. 124, 140, 226, 227, 241, 3S9> 363- The Times, M.irch 26, 1875 ; 
 April 20, 1S76; December 4 and 17, 1878; November 19, 1879; and April 4, 
 1873. The Eventful History of the Mutiny of H.M.S. ' Bounty; etc. London, 
 Anon. 1 83 1, pp. 302-307, 333. 334. 326-328. Their energy was strikingly 
 shown on the visit of the Pearl. See the Times for Novemlier 21, 1S74. 
 
 = Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 482. 
 
144 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 number, for misery, debauchery, and syphilis co-operate to their 
 destruction.' 
 
 Eten, two miles south of Monsefu, in Peru, a village situated 
 in the middle of a desert, is inhabited by a race of people who 
 have preserved the purity of their blood ever since the Spanish 
 conquest. In face and form they strongly resemble the figures 
 in Montero's picture of the obsequies of Atahualpa, nor does 
 their dress differ in fashion from that worn three centuries ago. 
 They number about 6oo, and always intermarry among them- 
 selves ; indeed, every individual vows not to marry out of the 
 tribe, and no one has ever been known to marry a stranger. 
 Sometimes, owing to the difficulty in so small a community 
 of finding suitable partners, even brother and sister intermarry. 
 They look delicate, but are very healthy, with fine shapes, and 
 some are very good-looking ; their only defect is that their 
 lower limbs are weak and childish, which is probably due to 
 their sedentary and indoor life and total abstinence from field 
 work. They labour week after week and year after year at 
 their straw-plaiting and mat-weaving, holding little communion 
 with anyone outside their own doors. Mr. Cole observed no 
 cripples and no disease. 
 
 A few miles north of Eten lies the fishing village of Santa 
 Rosa, the inhabitants of which number a few hundred, and 
 also always intermarry among themselves ; but brothers and 
 sisters do not intermarry. The people are robust and healthy.- 
 
 But, besides these remarkable cases, there are many isolated 
 populations even in the midst of crowded countries. Dr. 
 Beddoe gives many instances of isolated communities in Great 
 Britain. At Brighton the fishermen are said to be a separate 
 caste ; some assert them to be of Spanish origin. They inter- 
 marry among themselves, and are as robust and healthy as 
 the agricultural population.' At Itchenferry, Southampton, 
 the people are little given to intermarriage with their neigh- 
 
 ' Thili.iult, ' Mar. Cons, dans la Race Noire,' in the Airhiv. de M,'d. Navale, 
 Ann. 1864, i. 310. 
 
 ^ My authority for this account of Eten and Santa Rosa is Mr. G. R. FitzRoy 
 Cole, and his Peruvians at Home. London, 1884, pp. 76-S2. 
 
 ' Beddoe, Stature and Bulk of Man in t/te British Islands, pp. 91, 171 ; 
 and Sharp's Gazetteer, 1852, art. ' Brighton.' 
 
ENGLISH ISOLATED COMMUNITIES 145 
 
 hours. Some intermixture there has probably been with tlic 
 Channel Islanders, but it does not appear to have been very 
 great. They seem of average height, and if anything rather 
 above the average weight.' The inhabitants of Portland 
 Island, a hardy, tall, primitive race, seldom if ever intermarry 
 with any on the mainland.'^ At Rentham and its neighbour- 
 hood, in the West Riding, Yorkshire, there has been, until quite 
 lately, continual close intermarrying ; yet the race is stalwart 
 and long-lived, and very free from idiocy and insanity.^ The 
 fishermen of Staithes, a village about halfway between Whitby 
 and Saltburn, were, until quite lately, completely cut off from 
 all land communication. ' From time immemorial,' says a 
 correspondent of the 'Times," Staithes has been a fishing town, 
 and inhabited by the ancestors of its present population.' 
 The name of the town ' is an Anglo-Saxon word, meaning 
 " landing-place," and the fishers still speak of the strand where 
 they beach their cobles as the Staith. The fisherfolk are not 
 migratory.' Though carried far and wide in the pursuit of their 
 calling, north even to Aberdeen, and south to Penzance, ' yet 
 their acquaintance with these places never induces them to 
 change their homes, and, even as they themselves emigrate 
 seldom or never, so do they receive but few aliens in their own 
 town. One or two strangers, may be, have settled and pro- 
 spered in the place, but they have not been numerous. One 
 foreigner indeed, a native of Margate, named Verrill, found 
 his way to Staithes some 1 50 years ago," and ' now there are in 
 the town a far greater number of distinct families bearing the 
 name of Verrill than there are persons bearing any one of the 
 old Staithes names. But this case is quite isolated.' The 
 fisherfolk ' have so intermarried as to be all more or less closely 
 related to one another. Yet this long continued intermarriage 
 does not appear to ha\c in an>- waj^ deteriorated the physique 
 of this hardy race of fisliers, and is remarkable only by a 
 certain family resemblance which characterises one and all of 
 the natives of this place. The men are as well grown, athletic, 
 and powerful, the maidens as straight and comely, and the 
 
 ' Becldoe, ul sup. pp. 92, 93. 
 
 = Brand, Pop. Aiiliq. ii. 87 ; Sharp, iit sup. arl. ' P.irtland Isle.' 
 
 " Bcddoe, Statute and Bulk, etc. p. 55. 
 
 L 
 
146 THE MAkRIACE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 cliildrcn as sturdy as could an}-\vhcre be found in the three 
 kingdoms.' ' To a stranger the wholesale cousinship of the 
 Staithes folk is a source of frequent misunderstanding and 
 no inconsiderable embarrassment, for every man is known 
 and spoken of by a sobriquet — a matter of necessity where 
 so many bear the same name. Then, again, it is a common 
 practice to speak of and address children by the maiden name 
 of their mother.' ' So little commerce is there between Staithes 
 and the inhabitants of the neighbouring fishing village, perched 
 on the cliff side in Runswick Bay, some two miles to the south- 
 ward, that the dialects spoken in the two places are so mark- 
 edly distinct one from the other that even a stranger can dis- 
 tinguish by his tongue a Runswicker from a native of Staithes. 
 Marriages do at times take place between the dwellers in either 
 village, but in such cases the wife is known ever after as so- 
 and-so from the other village, whichever it may be.' ' In Corn- 
 wall there are villages so situated that marriages among blood 
 relations are necessarily frequent. The villages of Mousehole 
 and Newlyn, in Mountsbay, are instances ; yet these people 
 are by no means degenerate. Dr. John Davy asserts that 
 there is only one case on record of any Stuart of Glenfinlass 
 marrying out of the glen, and yet all the families were healthy. 
 Nor in the Scottish islets, where marriages between near kin 
 must necessarily occur, are the inhabitants at all degenerate, 
 while consumption is rare.^ This last is confirmed by the 
 ' Medical Times and Gazette.'' ' We confess,' it says, ' that our 
 experience — founded on a tolerably intimate acquaintance 
 with the inhabitants of the fishing villages along the coast of 
 Scotland, who are altogether a race apart, seldom if ever inter- 
 marrying with the peasants of the surrounding country, but to 
 such an extent among themselves that it is nothing unusual 
 to find only one or two family names in a village, the deficien- 
 cies being made up in nicknames — leads us to agree with 
 Dr. Voisin,' for a hardier or more robust set of men and 
 
 ' The Times, in nn article on 'The Yorkshire Fishermen,' Sept. 7, 1SS5. 
 2 Child, Essays on Physiological Subjects, pp. 50-53. 
 » November 24, 1866, pp. 573, 574. 
 
 * Who gives an account of the community of Batz. See pp. 160, 161 of this 
 work. 
 
SCOTCH ISOLATED CO.MMUXITIKS I47 
 
 women than tlicsc pcoijle do not exist.' At Roulmcr, Aln- 
 wick, Nortlnimberiand, there is a fishing population of about 
 150 persons. How closely they intermarry may be inferred 
 from the fact that with five exceptions all are named Stephen- 
 son, Stanton, or Stewart ; and, withal, they are rather above 
 the average height and weight of the district' The people 
 of Burnmouth and Ross, Berwickshire, form a colony about 
 120 years old, first founded by smugglers with the sole view 
 of security in their trade, and hence by no means favourably 
 situated for health. The houses, though clean and orderly, 
 are damp from their situation close to the sea at the foot of 
 the cliff ; the population of these two connected villages is esti- 
 mated at 420 persons : the men are tall and strong, of swarthy 
 complexion, prudent, and sober ; the women are also tall, stout, 
 and high-featured. Formerly they married strictly among 
 themselves, but now they occasionally marry the daughters of 
 tjie agricultural population who are in their service. At the 
 time of Dr. Mitchell's investigation five of the married women 
 had not been born in the place, and ' careful enquiry only 
 brought to light seven marriages between full cousins,' 
 and no case between second- cousins ; but there were many 
 marriages between persons whose relationship was recognised, 
 though distant. The result of these seven marriages was as 
 follows : — 
 
 Case 
 
 No. of 
 Children 
 Born 
 
 No. of 
 the.se 
 Dead 
 
 No. 
 
 Rem.irks on tlie Children 
 
 II. 
 III. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 VI. 
 VII. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 I 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Tho.se alive were big, strong, sound, 
 ] and healthy. Those de.id were 
 
 said to have been sound. 
 ' Never had a headache.' 
 All are sound and sane. 
 Sound. Newly married. 
 The living one is not roliust. 
 All were sound. 
 All were sound. 
 
 Total 
 
 3S 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 
 Three out of the twenty-eight living children were married 
 
 ' lioddoe. Stature and Bii/k, etc. pp. 44, 45. 
 
TIIK MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 and to persons distantly related to them, with the followinc 
 result : — 
 
 Case 
 
 No. of 
 
 Children 
 
 Born 
 
 No. of 
 these 
 Dead 
 
 No. 
 
 A';r,;e 
 
 Remarks on the Children. 
 
 I. 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 All of them healthy. 
 
 1 All the living ones are sound. The 
 
 ' two deaths were in infancy. 
 
 Barren. 
 
 There were, in the whole population, only two imbeciles, 
 both of whom were self-supporting, and neither was the 
 child of blood relations. Besides these there were two cases 
 of acquired insanity, both women. The disease in both cases 
 resulted from grief and shock to the ner\'ous system, caused 
 by the sudden news of the death of their husbands by drown- 
 ing. The parents of one of these women were distantly re- 
 lated. There was one case also of mild epilepsy, a child whose 
 parents were not related ; there was no case of a lame, de- 
 formed, blind, dumb, or paralytic person to be heard of; and 
 in the school, which was twice visited, and where nearly all 
 the children of the village were assembled, no strumous sores 
 were found, nor were any of the children puny, pale, or 
 languid, but, on the contrary, merry and active, though their 
 teacher thought them slower and duller than other children 
 he had had under his care. Dr. Mitchell adds that though 
 none of the children of cousins were found defective, there 
 was in the whole population a greater proportion of ' un- 
 sound ' persons than the average for the whole of Scotland.' 
 lie does not, however, explain the nature of their ' unsound- 
 ness ' ; and I presume that the unhealthj' position of the villages 
 must have some effect. This much is however plain, that the 
 greatest grievances alleged to follow consanguineous marriages 
 are here conspicuous by their absence, and that the people 
 were generally healthy and strong — a fact which Dr. Beddoe 
 confirms, and adds that the Eyemouth fishermen, of the same 
 county, are also handsome and stalwart in the main, though 
 
 ' Mitchell, Memoir read before ihe AiUhropohgiial Society of London, i{i66. 
 ii. 43S-441. 
 
SCOTCH ISOLArED COMMUXITIl-S I49 
 
 the}- arc a very isolated community.' At Boyndic, in l^anff- 
 shirc, and Rathen, in Aberdeenshire, the fishermen arc a very 
 closely interbred community, the former somewhat shorter 
 and lighter than the landsmen, and their heads are not quite 
 so big.'^ The fishermen of Buckhavcn, Fife, arc also closely in- 
 terbred, but differ less from the agricultural community than 
 do their brethren of Rathen and Royndie. They are supposed 
 to be the descendants of a Dutch ship's crew wrecked in the 
 time of Queen Mary.^ 
 
 The population of the two villages of Portmaholmack 
 and Balnabruiach, Easter Ross, is estimated at 1,548,' of 
 which 710 arc married. Of these 355 couples, 62 are first- 
 cousins and 20 second-cousins, or persons more distantly 
 related. These 82 marriages between relations produced 340 
 children, or an average of a little more than 4'i per marriage. 
 Of these children 90 died, most of them under the age of 
 ten years, making nearly 26'S per cent. In the whole number 
 of 340 children there were 2 imbeciles, T idiot, and 2 cripples, 
 or nearly v^ per cent, malformed or diseased. There 
 were besides 4 imbeciles, 2 idiots, 2 insane, and 2 cripples 
 among the children not born from marriages between near 
 kin.' 
 
 ' Bcdtloe, Stature and Bulk, etc. pp. 42, 43, 171. 
 
 ^ Ibid. pp. 27, 171. 
 
 ^ Ibid. pp. 31, 171 ; Sharp's Gazetteer, 1S52, art. 'Buckhavcn.' 
 
 ' In 1841 the population was only 646, which shows an increase of 902 in 
 twenty-five years (Sharp's Gazetteer). 
 
 ' Dr. Mitchell attempts to show from these ' data ' that such calamities fall on 
 the offspring of blood-related parents with greater frequency than on the offspring 
 of parents not related, by means of a computation from the data of the produc- 
 tiveness and mortality of consanguineous marriages to supply the data wanting 
 concerning the non-consanguineous marriages. To this end he puts the probable 
 number of children born from 273 non-consanguineous marriages at 1,160, a mis- 
 take for 1,132, nearly ; whence the probable number dead would at nearly 26-5 
 per cent, be about 300, leaving 832 alive. Of these it was known th.it 10 were 
 malformed or diseased, making, if the data assumed be correct, I -2 of the children 
 born from non-consanguineous marriages malformed or diseased, <is compared with 
 I '5 per cent, of those born from the consanguineous marriages, or a difference of 
 nearly 0-3 per cent. ; a small fraction indeed, and besides quite an unreliable 
 deduction, seeing that many of the data are conjectural, and that the number 
 altogether is so small that if a mistake were made in the collection of the facts 
 (which is not at all improbable considering that the enumeration was not ofHcila, 
 and that the diseased are moie likely to have been among the 300 dead) the 
 bakince might be on the other side. We shall, moreover, sec later on that prob- 
 ably more children are born from consanguineous marriages than from others, 
 and hence there would be fewer children born than the 1,132 here calculated, and 
 
IjO THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Dr. Mitchell gives his observations on another village, 
 which he docs not name, but which he saj-s is situated ' on 
 the north-east coast of Scotland.' The fishing population is 
 estimated at 779, and contains 119 married couples, of which 
 II couples are first-cousins, and 16 are second-cousins. Of 
 these 27 marriages between near kin 3 are barren, and, from 
 the remaining 24, 105 children were born, or nearly 4-4 for 
 every fruitful marriage, and nearly 4 for all the marriages 
 between near kin, including the barren ones. Of these 105 
 children 38 are dead (of which 35 deaths were in childhood), 
 or 33-4 per cent. ; 4 are deaf-mutes, or nearly 6 per cent. ; 4. 
 are imbecile, and 4 more 'slightly silly'; i is paralytic, or 
 1-5 percent. ; and 11, or a little over 16-4 per cent., were 
 scrofulous and puny. The children of those who are first- 
 cousins are described as ' a// of them neither strong in 
 mind nor in body ' ; ' but Dr. Mitchell says nothing about 
 the results of the marriages of those who were not related, 
 without which the above facts are of no value whatever, 
 except to show, as Dr. Mitchell observes, that there must 
 be more than the average causes of idiocy at work in this 
 community. 
 
 Berneray, situated at the west of the isle of Lewis, con- 
 tains a population of 427, in which there are 74 married 
 couples. Of these 74 couples 2 are first-cousins and 5 are 
 second-cousins. From the first two 10 children were born, 
 of which 8 are yet alive ; from the other six 20 children were 
 born, of which 18 are still living ; making an average of 375 
 children per marriage, and a mortality of 13-4 per cent. ; and 
 yet no one of these ' is either insane, imbecile, idiotic, deaf, 
 dumb, blind, lame, deformed, or in any other way defective 
 in mind, morals, or body.' ' We have thus a population 
 where every ninth marriage is between blood relatives ; yet, 
 instead of finding the i.sland peopled with idiots, madmen, 
 cripples, and mutes, not one such person is said to exist in it.' * 
 
 the percentage of disease on the non-consanguineous marriages would be greater 
 (see Memoir read before the Anthropological Society of London, 1866, ii. 444, 445)- 
 
 ' Mitchell, Memoir read be/ore tlie Ant/iropological Society of loiulon, 1 866, 
 ii. 442. 
 
 - Ihitl. p. 434. His informant was Mr. J. Macdon.ald, land steward at 
 ]!ciucr.iy, a resident, and inlimalely acipiainled with evciy family, who w.-rs him- 
 
The rugged island of St. Kilda, barely six square miles in 
 area, and 40 to 80 miles distant from the nearest land, affords 
 a remarkable instance of a small community which has 
 been practically isolated for two hundred years at least. In 
 1697 the inhabitants numbered 180, distributed among 27 
 families ; but twenty-seven years afterwards a distemper, 
 supposed to have been small-pox, killed nearly the whole 
 population, so that in 1758 there were only 88 people, and 
 this number has since fluctuated from a minimum of 87 to a 
 maximum of 108 between that date and the date of the first 
 census in 1851. In the latter year there were no inhabitants, 
 distributed among 32 families. In 1861 there were 78 persons 
 in 20 families, owing to the emigration of 36 of the inhabit- 
 ants in 1856. In 1871 there were 71 inhabitants, composing 
 19 families, eight persons having lost their lives by drowning 
 since the last census. But though there were from 19 to 32 
 families the following table will show the real relationship 
 of the people : — 
 
 
 
 -- 1 -B3. 
 
 1861 
 
 ..„ 
 
 
 Families! Persons Families 
 
 Persons 
 
 Families' Persons 
 
 Families 
 
 Persons 
 
 Gillies . . . 
 McDonald . 
 Ferguson . . 
 McKinnon . 
 McQueen . . 
 McCrimmon . 
 McLeod . . 
 Morison . . 
 McKenzie . . 
 
 
 
 25 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 9 
 
 
 33 
 23 
 13 
 
 9 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 27 
 16 
 10 
 8 
 8 
 
 Total .... 
 
 29 
 
 loS ' 32 
 
 no 
 
 19 
 
 77 
 
 iS 
 
 69 
 
 There were in addition, in 1861, a Mr. Kennedy, catechist 
 and registrar, who was not a native, but did not marry. In 1 87 1 a 
 Mr. McKay appears in his place, also unmarried, but living with 
 
 self astonished at the paucity of consanguineous marriages. ' Were I not certain 
 of it,' he says, ' as I am now, by a minute search, I would doubt the fact, from the 
 island being inhabited by the present race from time immemorial ' l^ibid. ). If this 
 is the case, the above facts are much more important, for in a population of barely 
 427, marriages between near kin must undoubtedly be very frequent, even excluding 
 those between first and second-cousins. 
 
13- Till-; MAkKIACi: Ol- XKAk KIN" 
 
 an unmarried sister. Tiiese people are omitted, as they did 
 not influence the population. The Macdonalds, however, twice 
 married strangers ; once before 1861, and once before 1871. 
 It is evident therefore that the whole population are very 
 closely related.' In i860 Dr. Mitchell obtained the following 
 particulars from the Mr. Kennedy, mentioned above. There 
 were 14 married couples on the island, but none of these were 
 actually marriages between full first-cousins. One was a 
 marriage with a woman from Lochinvcr, and $ were marriages 
 between second-cousins. These 14 couples produced 125 
 children, or an average of nearly 9 children per marriage, while 
 in Iceland, where the conditions of life most nearly resemble 
 those of St. Kilda, the average is 6'8,as we shall see below ; in 
 Denmark it is 5, and in Scotland 4-64. Of these 125 children 
 84, or 67-2 per cent., died chiefly from iristnns nascentiiim 
 within the first fortnight. The marriage with the woman from 
 Lochinver produced 14 of these children, of which 12, or 
 S57 percent., died within the first fortnight. Two of the other 
 marriages also produced 14 children apiece. Of the 17 sur- 
 viving children out of the 125 not one was insane or imbecile, 
 blind, deaf, crippled, or deformed, or in any way defective in 
 body or in mind. In the whole population the only defective 
 person (otherwise than from accidents incidental to their peril- 
 ous pursuits) was an old woman aged fifty, of weak mind.'^ 
 All observers are agreed that the people generally are good- 
 looking and sharp and cautious, as other Scotchmen are 
 reputed to be.' 
 
 Here, therefore, we have a community which is undoubtedly 
 very closely interrelated, and which has hardly received any 
 new blood for centuries. They are rarely visited, and have 
 almost as little opportunity to change their ideas as they have 
 to change their blood. Yet there is no record of a deaf-mute 
 ever having existed in the island, and the community only 
 differs from other less isolated communities in their astonish- 
 ing immunity from disease and equally astonishing infantile 
 
 ' Selon, Si. Kilda, 1878, pp. 143, 147, 157, 15S. 
 
 - Mitchell, Mciit. read before the Anthropological Society cf I.oiiJon, 1 806, ii. 
 245 429- 
 
 ■' Ibid. p. 427 ; and Scion, St. Kilda, pp. S9-92. 
 
ST. KILUA 153 
 
 mortality. But that this mortality is not clue to the consangui- 
 nity of the p;irents is obvious from the fact that the one mar- 
 riage with a stranger showed quite as bad results as any of the 
 others, and that children brought from the mainland are as 
 subject to this disease as the others.' Trismus nascentiuni is 
 besides undoubtedly caused by the irritation to the umbilical 
 wound caused by foul air, for in the Dublin Hospital, where 
 the infant mortality used to be 17 per cent, of which 19 in 20 
 deaths were due to trismus, the mortality was reduced to 5 or 
 6 per cent, simply by moderate ventilation. Until lately the 
 houses of St Kilda, though apparently much the same as those 
 on the mainland, differed from them in some very important 
 particulars. On the mainland the walls are composed of 
 rough stones, piled together and stopped with turf; but on St. 
 Kilda the walls were double and the space between was filled 
 with tightly pressed sod, which practically made them air-tight. 
 The thatch roofs, instead of having projecting eaves which 
 would catch the wind, sprung from the inside of the wall, and 
 hence the walls were always damp. In the outer of the two 
 rooms into which the huts were divided, and through which was 
 the only inlet for fresh air, and only outlet for smoke, were housed 
 all the livestock belonging to the family. In the inner apart- 
 ments was spread a la}-er of peat, which served in the double 
 capacity of an absorbent of all the liquid and solid refuse of the 
 house ; and afterwards, when by constant additions of peat 
 and refuse it had risen as high as the walls, so that the only 
 space left was in the roof, it was removed and served then as 
 manure. Since i863,however, these horrible abodes have been 
 replaced by hewn stone huts with zinc roofs and fireplaces 
 with chimneys, and the inhabitants are therefore better housed 
 than the people on the mainland. Little, if any, diminution 
 in the mortality has shown itself however ;- and we are hence 
 driven to suspect some other cause which might produce this 
 fatal tetanus in new-born infants. Rear-Admiral Otter con- 
 siders the chief cause to be the very oily diet of the natives, 
 who live chiefly on sea-birds ; for a mother fed on cocoa, meat, 
 
 ' CorfieUl, IcUcr to the Times, August 28, 1S71. 
 -■ Scion, St. Kilda, pp. 10S-I12, 219-266. 
 
154 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 and biscuit was able to rear her child successful!}-.' This 
 inference is countenanced by the fact that the mortality amony 
 Kalmuck children is found to be greatest in the eastern districts, 
 where there are few pastures, and the chief food is fish ; while 
 it is least in the western districts, which contain large cattle pas- 
 tures.^ Here the factor consanguinity, as we have seen,^ is ab- 
 sent, and therefore we have no right to say the similar mortal- 
 ity in St. Kilda is due to the consanguinity of the parents. Miss 
 McLeod found on one occasion port wine and cow's milk being 
 administered to a child one day old ! * Children who happen 
 to survive grow up strong and healthy ; nor do I find among 
 the causes of death one case of any disease, saving trismus, 
 that has ever been supposed by anyone to be originated by 
 consanguinity of the parents — which is saying a great 
 deal."' 
 
 During the years 1750 to 1S46 the population of 
 Iceland ranged between a minimum of 38,142, in the year 
 1786, and a maximum of 58,619 in 1845. So scanty a 
 population as this, in a country like Iceland, cannot fail to 
 contract very many consanguineous marriages ; for it is 
 practically shut out from all communication with the rest of 
 the world ; it is almost roadless, and travelling is so dangerous 
 that many persons are annually drowned in the attempt to 
 cross those torrents which constantly intersect their lonely 
 path ; while the villages are small and far apart, to the end 
 that sufficient pasture may be found for their flocks and herds." 
 Were we to believe all that has been said as to the evil ofthe.se 
 marriages, we must expect to find a dwindling population, 
 dwarfed, and bowed down with phthisis, twisted with rickets, 
 loathsome with swollen glands and unhealed sores, unable to 
 communicate to each other for their deaf-mutism any thoughts 
 that might be spared to them by idiocy and in.sanity, even 
 were they able to distinguish whether they were speaking to 
 
 ' Letter to the Times, August 31, 1871. 
 
 ■' Pall Mall Ga-Mte, May 29, 1874. = See p. 77 of (liis work. 
 
 < Seton, ut sup. p. 227. ^ IbiJ. y\^. 207, 211. 
 
 " M'Culloch says that only one third of the island, or 10,000 square miles, 
 has vegetation of o/y sort ; while the cattle, estimated at 36,000 to 40,000, llieir 
 50,000 to 60,000 ponies, and 500,000 head of sheep, have to live as best they may 
 on grass, moss, and seaweed alone {Geographical Didiomvy). 
 
UELAN'l) 155 
 
 a human being or lo a post. And certainly tlicy do not live 
 under conditions so healthful that they rriight hope to escape 
 from these. They eat their food generally cold, often putrid, 
 and always at irregular times. They have no artificial means 
 of warmth, and therefore allow no ventilation in their miser- 
 able hovels, which are built of damp earth, and where the 
 whole family remains huddled up, not only at night but the 
 greater part of the day also, during six months in the year, 
 with their cattle, sheep, dogs, and all the livestock they may 
 happen to possess. Indeed, the air in these dwellings becomes 
 so poisonous from the breath of the inmates, their refuse, and 
 the fuel they use, composed of dung, rotten bones, and 
 anything that can be got to burn, that it becomes extremely 
 dangerous to women after parturition and to new-born infants. 
 Nevertheless the population, though subject to great fluctua- 
 tions in consequence of the great liability to epidemic 
 diseases, is steadily increasing.' The number of legitimate 
 births in Iceland is 16-3 per cent, higher than in Denmark for 
 women between the ages of twenty and twenty- five ; while 
 the illegitimate births are 22-9 per cent, higher than in 
 Denmark ; and while the number of children per marriage in 
 Denmark averages 5, a high average compared with Europe, 
 in Iceland it averages 6 8, and the percentage of still-born is 
 below that of Denmark.- The Icelanders average 5 ft. 8-5 in. 
 in height, and 156 lbs. in weight,^ are robust, and very 
 rarely deformed, even in the one district where rickets is 
 known, for this disease generally disappears at the age of five 
 or six.^ As in St. Kilda, however, the infant mortality is 
 exceedingly great, almost double that in Denmark at the 
 same period of life. The children are nearly always put out to 
 nurse, and are hardly ever suckled, because the women almost 
 destroy the bust by a close-fitting knitted garment thc>- are 
 accustomed to wear, which renders them physically incap- 
 able ; ■'• and hence the children are brought up by hand on 
 
 ' See Thomson, Uch-r Kraiikheiten, etc. aiif Island iiiid dcii l\i)i<ci--Iiischi, 
 Table II. and pp. 12-15, '7- 
 
 - Ibid. pp. 147, 14S. ' Bcddoe, Slahirc and Bull;, etc. p. 167. 
 
 ' Thomscn, Uebcr k'laiikliciteii, etc. p. 24. 
 ' Ibid. pp. 143, 26, 16. 
 
I5fj THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KI.\ 
 
 very unsuitable food. The foul air of their houses also 
 frequently poisons the wound on the navel, which suppurates 
 and brings on trismus nascentiuiii, the most fatal infant 
 disease perhaps known, and which is often combined with 
 bowel complaints, brought on by their bad food. 
 
 Of every loo deaths 
 
 Were caused by 
 
 In Denmark 
 .840-.844 
 
 In Iceland 
 
 20 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-4 
 
 137 
 
 0-6 
 30-0 
 
 Hydrocephalus. 
 
 WhfKiping-cough. 
 
 Scrofulous disease of the glands. 
 , Other diseases of childhood, including 
 1 convulsions, cramp, trismus, etc' 
 
 It is curious that rickets is found in only one district, the 
 only part of Iceland where Iceland-spar is found, and this is 
 the only part of the island where scrofula is otherwise than 
 extremely rare.^ In the year 1845 there were no idiots in 
 Iceland, of which 6Q were males and 44 females ; of insane 
 there were 10 males and 34 females, making a total of 154 
 mentally deranged, or 0-26 per cent. In Denmark the 
 mentally deranged were 0'3i per cent. ; but while here idiocy 
 composed only 57 per cent, of all mental diseases, in Iceland 
 it composed 7r4 per cent.' The Icelanders are given to hard 
 drinking ; indeed, delirium tremens forms O'oS per cent, of all 
 diseases in Iceland;^ and when we consider, that drunken- 
 ness, illegitimacy, and unskilful midwives are fruitful causes of 
 idiocy, causes which all three are most powerful in Iceland, we 
 can only wonder there is so little idiocy there, not that there 
 is so much. Moreover, it is probable that the disproportion 
 between Iceland and Denmark is not so great, since many 
 persons are returned in Denmark as insane and under the age 
 of ten years who must probably be idiots. The Icelandic 
 insanity is mostly of the gloomy-religious kind,' and, as we 
 have seen, taking all kinds of mental derangement together, 
 
 ' Thomsen, Ucber Kranklicilcii, etc. pp. 115, 116. 
 
 ° Ibid. pp. II, 31. Sir Thomas Watson, quoting from .'^chloisner, on whom 
 ThoiTisen chiefly relics, says that scrofula is entirely unknown in Iceland \^Thc 
 Priitciples and Praetice of Physic, i. 227). 
 
 Thomsen, Ueber Krankheilcn, etc. pp. 1 12, 113. 
 
 • //'/./. pp. Ill, 44. * Ibid. p. 113. 
 
ICELAND 157 
 
 thcrc is less in Iceland in proportion to the i)oi)ul;itiun than 
 there is in Denmark. 
 
 Since the year 1842 all the deaf-mutes in Iceland have 
 been registered. Thomsen picks out the years 1844 and 
 1846, and says that the number of deaf-mutes at that time 
 was 36.' In the year 1845 the population was 58,619, and 
 therefore the deaf-mutes were 6'I4 per 10,000 of the popula- 
 tion. But of these 36 cases 24 were congenital only, and of 
 5 no particulars are supplied, which gives the deaf-mutes of 
 congenital origin a proportion of 4-6 per 10,000 of the popu- 
 lation, including 3 of the 5 whose origin was unknown.- 
 That is, there was i case of deaf-mutism, congenital or 
 acquired, in every i,628"3 of the population : while in Ireland 
 there was, in 1851, i deaf mute in every 1,380 ; in 1861, i in 
 every 1,176 ; in 1871, i in every 1,222, and in 1881, i in 
 every 1,296,' or an average of i in every 1,268. In a total 
 population of 1,700 at Asprieres, in France, where many con- 
 sanguineous marriages occurred, there were only 2 deaf-mutes, 
 and these were from non-consanguineous marriages.^ 
 
 Phthisis, says Thomsen, is extremely rare. Indeed it is 
 doubtful whether it occurs at all, since from the close 
 similarity of the symptoms of hydatis and phthisis, and the 
 frequency of the former disease, it is probable that physicians 
 have often been deceived."' Dr. Hjaltelin, a distinguished 
 physician of Reykjavik, says that among 30,000 patients who 
 have passed through his hands during a practice of fifteen 
 years, he has never found a case of indigenous consumption 
 or tuberculosis ; while Dr. Skaptason, the oldest and most 
 experienced physician in Iceland, says that during thirty-two 
 years of practice, though he has seen a great many diseases 
 of the lungs, he has never once met with a single case of 
 phthisis tuberculosa, either in his practice or his autopsies." 
 
 ' His statement is not very clear, for he only says, ' Nach dem Verzeichniss 
 fur die Jahre 1844 und 1846, fanden sich damals 36 Taubstumme.' Does this 
 mean the average for the years 1844 to 1846 inclusive, or is it the average (or 
 only these two years ? 
 
 - Jbid. p. 114. Two small districts are omitted in the returns. 
 
 » Report onthe Status of Disease, 1871, Table II. p. 7; and Census 1881, p. 288. 
 
 • Devic, Gazette Med. de Paris, March 7, 1863, p. 158. 
 
 = Thomsen, Ueber Krankheiten, etc. pp. 32, 41. 
 
 « Sir Thomas Watson, The Principles and Practice of Physic, i. 227. 
 
158 THE MAKKIACE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 In the little island of Wcstmannoc the infant mortality 
 is even greater than in Iceland. For while in Denmark 
 189 boys and 160 girls of every 1,000 born do not survive the 
 first year, and in Iceland 326 boys and 281 girls of every 
 1,000 do not survive the first year, in Westmannoe the death- 
 rate reaches the enormous figure of "jQ?. boys and 722 girls. 
 This mortality is chiefly due to trismus itascentium, shown 
 statistically to be mainly due to the horrible state of their 
 dwelling places — worse, if conceivable, even than those of 
 Iceland ; at times crowded excessively, and made still worse 
 by the damp and cold of the place." As in Iceland, women 
 are rarely able to suckle their babes, and this is the more 
 unfortunate since they do not keep so many cows as the 
 Icelanders, live more on oily birds, and lesson vegetable food. 
 What cows there are have to be partly fed on dried fish. 
 Since the people of Westmannoe have ceased to use filth for 
 fuel, trismus has almost disappeared. - 
 
 Notwithstanding their wretched way of life, which is much 
 the same as that in Iceland, the Faroe Islanders enjoy an 
 average of life, even including the still-born, of forty-four 
 years and two-thirds ; while in Denmark it does not amount 
 to more than thirty-six, not including the still-born. Scrofula 
 and tuberculosis are very rare ; indeed Sir Thomas Watson 
 says they are entirely exempt from the latter, although their 
 climate, as regards cold and damp, is exact!)- that which has 
 been thought most likely to produce it. But on the other 
 hand the proportion of those mentally deranged is very great ; 
 Fanum estimates them at i per cent. ; and, as in Iceland, their 
 madness assumes a gloomy-religious tendency, which often 
 degenerates into hopeless imbecility, and which Panum 
 ascribes to the melancholy look of the islands, their impo.sing 
 character, and the generally low pressure of the atmosphere. 
 Congenital idiocy also occurs sometimes, though excessive 
 indulgence in alcoholic liquors is not very common. But 
 Panum believes that of those who do indulge in it a relatively 
 greater number go mad than is the case in other countries.'' 
 
 ' Thomsen, Ucbcr Kraiikheiteii, etc. pp. 15, S9, 100, 91-96. 
 
 -' Ibid. pp. 15, 96, 97. 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 160, 156, 157, 158 J Sir Thomas Wr\(«in, iil siif. i. 228. 
 
GRIMSEY. SI. ICO 159 
 
 Mr. Tlioroddsen gives an account of the inhabitants of 
 Grimscy, a small island situated in the Arctic Ocean, about 
 22 miles due north of the promontory which divides the 
 Eyjafjord and Skagafjord, in Northern Iceland. These 
 number 88, almost entirely cut off from all communication 
 with other people by Arctic storms and Arctic ice. Once or 
 twice a year, indeed, they do contrive to communicate with 
 the mainland, at great risk, in order that they may barter 
 their stores for the necessaries of life. The health of the 
 people is good, and trismus nascent ium, which was very com- 
 mon, is no longer seen. Their occupations arc the same as 
 in similar islands— bird-catching, egg-collecting, and fishing — 
 occupations which cause great loss of life. They possess a 
 few sheep and two horses, but for the last twenty-four years 
 no cows. Now and again they are visited by a few Icelandic 
 shark fishers, and more rarely by English and French fisher- 
 men.' 
 
 M. Devay gives a deplorable account of an Irish colony 
 now supposed to be settled in Sligo and county Mayo, of 
 people driven out of Armagh and Down in the years 1641 
 and 1689, and therefore subjected to great hardship. For 
 nearly two centuries they have been, in consequence of always 
 intermarrying among themselves, a diminutive, pot-bellied, 
 crooked-legged, and generally miserable people, who form a 
 race easily distinguishable from the other Irish of the neigh- 
 bourhood.^ Dr. Beddoe, in noticing it, declares the passage 
 to be an entire libel on the inhabitants of eastern Sligo, and, 
 though he has never visited Mayo, does not think that any 
 diminution of stature has taken place there. To Conne- 
 mara, where the people, though small, are well built and well 
 favoured it certainly does not apply ; nor to Jojxc's and 
 O'Flaherty's country, near Galway, where the people are 
 notoriously tall.'' 
 
 " Nature, xxx. 317, 318, No. 770, for July 31, 1S84. 
 
 - Devay, Du Danger, etc. p. 190, who gives the authority of Quatrefages, 
 but does not point out the place in his works, which, according to M. Godron 
 {De VEspice, etc. ii. 316) is in his Afoniteur des Caurs Publics, 1857, p. 64. 
 Quatrefages probably took it from Prichard, who, in his turn, took it from the 
 Dublin University Magazine, No. 48, p. 658. .See Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 63. 
 
 ' Beddoe, Stature and Bulk, etc. p. 190. 
 
IGO THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Again, the ' Pall Mall Gazette,' in a biography of the late 
 Mr. Augustus Smith, for a long time owner of the Scilly 
 Islands, says that he removed some of the inhabitants of the 
 outlying islets to better neighbourhoods : ' On some of these 
 the scanty resident householders — never forming connexions 
 out of their own island — had, it is said, degenerated into a 
 condition approaching that of imbecility.' ' Yet Dr. Beddoc 
 remarks on these same islanders : Their ' proportions certainly 
 give the lie to the current notion that men and quadrupeds 
 must degenerate in small islands,' '^ and M'CuIloch calls them 
 a healthy people.' 
 
 The people of the province of Darlicarlia, Sweden, 
 number some 200,000. ' I know of no peasantry in Europe,' 
 says M. du Chaillu, ' who present a prouder bearing or possess 
 a more independent spirit.' They 'are the handsomest of 
 the peninsular population of Scandinavia ' ; yet, not only do 
 they intermarry among themselves, but rarely marry out cf 
 their own parish. Their families are large.^ 
 
 In France, also, there are many communities which do 
 not intermarry with their neighbours. The commune of 
 Batz, near Le Croisic, says M. Voisin, is situated on a penin- 
 sula, bounded on one side by precipitous rocks, bathed by 
 the sea, and shut off from the mainland by a salt marsh. The 
 inhabitants number 3,300, and have but a very limited inter- 
 course with the rest of their department (Loire-Inferieure). 
 They seem to be a very simple race, are intelligent, but re- 
 served to strangers. Drunkenness, prostitution, concubinage, 
 and crime are unknown ; nor was there a single individual 
 afflicted with any malformation or suffering from any disease 
 of the mind, or from deaf-mutism, albinoism, blindness, or 
 retinitis pigmentosa, though they have been in the habit of 
 closely intermarrying among themselves from time imme- 
 morial. At the time of M. Voisin's visit he found 46 con- 
 sanguineous marriages, of which 5 were between first-cousins, 
 31 between second-cousins, and 10 between cousins of the 
 
 ' August 5, 1872. 
 
 '^ Beddoe, Stature and Bulk, elc. p. 163. 
 
 ' M'CuIloch, Gcographiial Diilionary. 
 
 « Du Chaillu, S-ceden, ii. 216, 217, 248. Lmidon, 1SS2. 
 
ISOLATED F1U-:\CI1 CO.MMU.NI TIKS l6l 
 
 fourth degree. The 5 marriages between first-cousins pro- 
 duced 23 children, an average of 4-6 per marriage, while the 
 average for all France according to M. Husson, is only 3.' 
 All these children were health}-, but two died from acute 
 diseases. The 31 marriages between second-cousins produced 
 120 children, or 3-87 per marriage, none of whom were 
 affected by any congenital malformation or infirmity, but 
 24 of them died of acute diseases. The 10 remaining 
 marriages produced 29 children, all healthy, but 3 of whom 
 died of acute diseases. Of the whole 46 marriages only 2 
 proved barren, or 4-3 per cent. ; while the average of barren- 
 ness is 1 17, or 15 per cent.- The average number of children 
 for all the marriages was 37 per marriage.^ 
 
 M. Broca's results obtained in Bretagne, sa\-s Dr. Bcddoe, 
 seem at first sight to show that in-and-in breeding has a 
 tendency to cause the race to dwindle in size and in numbers. 
 The Bretons, for instance, of the central cantons, where little 
 admixture of blood has taken place, are far smaller men than 
 their compatriots in general. But the greater elevation of 
 stature in some islands, such as that of Ushant, and Cape 
 Clear Isle, and the evidence of other secluded districts where 
 the population, while far from being purely Armorican, has 
 not recently been crossed, points to the essential character of 
 the race rather than its freedom from admixture as the cause 
 of the remarkably low stature, and such indeed is the opinion 
 of M. Broca himself.' 
 
 There exists between St. Armand and Bourges a colony 
 of Scottish origin derived from the Scottish guard of Charles 
 Vn. established at St. Martin d'Auxigny in 1422, to whom the 
 king granted special privileges, which were respected up to the 
 time of the Revolution. They live on the sale of the produce 
 of their orchards. The Foreatines, as they are called, now 
 number some 3,000, all descended from marriages between 
 
 ' Duncan, Fccmidity, etc. p. no. 
 
 ' Medical Times and Gazette, July 20, 1S67, p. 76. .See .ilso below, p. 192. 
 
 ' Voisin, Mtin. dc la Soc. d'Anthrop. de J'aris, ii. 1865, 433-459. This 
 account is confirmed by Dr. Revillout (see Art. No. 6818, xxxvi. 53 of the 
 Jourtial de Med. et de Chir. Prat. 2nd series, note). The full particulars of 
 "these cases are given in the Appendix to this work ; see cases Nos. 254 299. 
 
 ' i3eddoe. Stature and Bulk, dc. pp. 170 and 163, note. 
 
 M 
 
l62 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 near kin, for they always marry among themselves, still 
 retain their Scotch names Gallicised, are tall, strong, in- 
 dustrious, and honest, and form one of the handsomest races 
 in France.' 
 
 Pauillac (Gironde), says Dr. Ferrier, contains 1,700 
 inhabitants, most of them robust, vigorous, and well-made 
 sailors ; while the women are renowned for their beauty and 
 the clearness of their complexion. Yet, he continues, there 
 is perhaps no other part of France where consanguineous 
 marriage is more common, nor is there any other where 
 exemptions from military service, on account of physical 
 defect, is more rare. It is much the same at Granville, where 
 the maritime population is quite distinct and isolated. At 
 Arromanches, a little village containing less than 100 fisher- 
 men, and Portel, a village near Boulogne, containing a 
 population of 3,800, composed almost wholly of five families, 
 the maritime population always marry among themselves, 
 and never among the agricultural population, whom they 
 disdainfully call ' shepherds ' ; yet they are healthy and 
 robust.^ 
 
 M. Gubler also bears witness to the great beaut}' of the 
 inhabitants of Gaust, in the valley of Assau, Pyrenees. The 
 custom of marrying in their own commune, though it barely 
 numbers 200 people, is so well established that should any 
 young man wish to marry out of it, he is obliged to ask per- 
 mission from the village elders.' The Bas-Bretons and 
 Basques, who live at the foot of the Pyrenees, are handsome, 
 hardy, and fertile ; yet they never intermarry with other 
 races ; the Basques always marry Basques, and the Bas- 
 Bretons always Bas-Bretons.'' 
 
 The people of the nominal republic of Andorra, a land 
 comprising .some of the wildest and most picturesque valleys 
 on the south side of the Pyrenees, number some 7,000 or 
 
 ' Revillout, extract from the Gazette des HSpitaux, in \hs Journal de MM. et de 
 Chir. Prat. 1865, xxxvi. 53, note, 2nd series. And the Times for April 2, 1878, 
 p. 10. 
 
 '' Dally, Recherches sur Us Mar. Cons. etc. Paris, 1S64, p. 54; and Lagneau, 
 Bullet, de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1866, i. 635. 
 
 " Dally, ibid. p. 55. 
 
 ' Chatcauiiciif, ill the Ann. d'IIygih:e, xxxv. 43. 44. 
 
ISOLATED IKKNXTl CU.NI M UMTl Ks I 63 
 
 8,000 inhabitants, who are divided into six communes. They 
 live as their fathers lived before them ; the eldest of each 
 family is its chief, and every man chooses a wife from a 
 family of equal consideration with his own, particular care 
 being taken that no one marries below his rank, and veiy 
 little attention being paid to fortune. No one leaves the 
 paternal roof till he marries, nor may anyone till married 
 have a share in the public affairs. When there arc nnl\' 
 daughters in the family the eldest becomes heiress and 
 marries the youngest son of another house, who adopts the 
 name and family of his wife. By this arrangement the 
 principal families have remained for centuries unchanged. 
 Tiicy arc a strong and well-proportioned race, and mental 
 disease and vice are almost unknown.' 
 
 M. Devay gives an instance of a little village near 
 St. Andre and Rives, in the department of ls(^re, called 
 Izeaux, very isolated, and situated on poor and barren soil. 
 The inhabitants, he says, necessarily intermarr)- among them- 
 selves, and frequently in their own family. Towards the 
 end of the last century all of them, men and women, had an 
 e.xtra finger on each hand, and an extra toe upon each foot, 
 but about the year i860 these extra digits had disappeared 
 through crossing.' This very terrible accusation against con- 
 sanguineous marriage I shall have occasion to return to, and 
 therefore shall say no more about it here. 
 
 The Cagots, Capots, Gahets, Cassati, or Chrestiaa formed 
 a widely distributed race in France from the time of Charle- 
 magne to the beginning of this century, when the last 
 vestiges of them were finally absorbed. Their origin is 
 doubtful, but from the researches of M. Michel it is most 
 probable that they were Spanish and Goth refugees from 
 the vengeance of the Saracens, after Charlemagne's unsuc- 
 cessful incursion into Spain.' This much is certain, however, 
 that they were looked upon with no friendly eye by the 
 inhabitants near whom land was granted them : whether 
 
 M'Cuiloch, Ceop-af'Jiica! Didionayy. 
 r)evay, Du Daiis^er, etc. pp. 9$ -97. 
 Miclic-I, ///>/. <(rs Kares Maii.lile!. i. p. 293 fl sfq. 
 
l64 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 because of the jealousy to foreigners inherent in every 
 ignorant people, to the favour shown them by the Carlo- 
 vingian dynasty, or to a taint of the Arian heresy,' they were 
 treated in a way that would speedily have caused them to 
 emigrate to a more hospitable country had there been the 
 chance of such a country's existence. As it was they fell 
 gradually lower and lower. They were not strong enough, 
 distributed as they were in small detachments, to hold their 
 own against a hostile population. They were gradually 
 forbidden to carry arms, to carry on any of the nobler pro- 
 fessions, to move beyond certain bounds, or to mix at all with 
 their neighbours. These disabilities again brought on greater. 
 The people forgot the origin of the Cagots, if they ever knew 
 it, but remembered their hatred. They were tainted with 
 heresy, and the mob in consequence fancied that they were 
 tainted with diseases sufficient to account for the regulations 
 which forbade all intercourse with them. It might be that 
 they were confused with the lepers, who were also an outcast 
 lot, or it might be, as Michel thinks, that their original name 
 of Gavacho, taken from Gabali, or mountaineers, a word which, 
 by what Michel calls a philological accident, had also formed 
 the term Gafo, first used in the sense of dirty or stinking, 
 and then for leper,'- caused them after a time to be looked 
 upon as really tainted with leprosy, and thus they were sup- 
 posed to stink, and to infect everything they touched. For this 
 reason they were obliged to wear a distinctive mark, a piece 
 of red stuff, since yellow was already appropriated by the 
 unfortunate Jews ; they were not allowed to mix in the 
 village sports, to be laid in the village church}'ard, or even to 
 mix with the rest of the faithful in the village church— nay 
 to such extremes was this repugnance carried that thc\- had 
 a separate door, a separate holy-water dish, and the priest 
 handed them the consecrated wafer at the end of a stick.^ 
 
 As may be imagined, it was rarely indeed that they 
 intermarried with their neighbours. Mixed unions of this 
 kind did occasionally take place ; but, as a rule, a man would 
 
 ' Mirlipl, Hi:^l. rifs Kacti .\fmuH'.e<, v.il. i. pp. 302, 305 311. 
 ' Ibid. i. 345-3SO' ' J''''^- '-9. >', 74, 103, \%z, 1S3. 
 
TIIK LAGOTS 165 
 
 rather sec his daughter turned on the streets than married to 
 one of the hated Cagots ; nor would popular prejudice leave 
 even the offspring of these mixed marriages in peace, but 
 taunted them for generations with their Cagot blood.' The 
 marriages which they contracted among themselves must 
 have been very close indeed, since bounds were generally set 
 to the peregrinations of every Cagot community ; and they 
 were forbidden ever to enter a hostelry, for fear lest they 
 might infect the place.- Under these circumstances we are 
 indeed surprised to find that the Cagots, far from being cast 
 down, as almost any people would have been, by the general 
 hate of what to them was the world, nobly struggled for their 
 freedom. Kings and parliaments were importuned again 
 and again in vain. Though justice was often nominally 
 granted them, it was never carried into practice ; and at last 
 when tired out with these misfortunes and cruelties they 
 attempted to compel respect, they were soon disarmed, and 
 forbidden ever again to carry anything more formidable 
 than a pointless stick.' Their wretched habitations outside 
 the walls of cities, their oppression, and the manifold dis- 
 abilities under which they laboured seem only to have had 
 the effect of making them more industrious, and not less 
 healthy than their neighbours.^ De Buziet describes them 
 as indistinguishable from the other people, except that some 
 families had a fair and fresh complexion, and were tall and 
 lithe ; while others again were dark and strong, of middle 
 height, and well-knitted frames ; and Laa, Minvielle, and 
 Zamacola, who, like De Buziet, had exceptional means of 
 observation, confirm this description."* It was a popular idea 
 that they had very small or no ear-lobes ; which may be true 
 of some of them,'' or it may be that those people who had 
 small ear-lobes were believed to be Cagots. Of course if any 
 family should produce a ' sport ' of this kind, or of any other 
 
 .Michel, nis(. des Races Maudites, i. 7, 17, 21, 27, 44, 221, 227, 3, 
 
 Ibid. pp. 165, 166, 181, 183. Compare also p. 170. 
 
 Ibid. chap. ii. 
 
 Ibid. pp. 214, 14, 17. 2S, 37, 40, 41, 48, 53. '03. 217. 2'S. 
 
 Ibid. pp. 266, 267. " Ibid, cliaps. 1. and 11. 
 
i66 TiiK marria(;e of near kin 
 
 such as six fingers, consanguineous marriage must necessarily 
 tend to fix it.' 
 
 In short, the Cagots are a people who have married con- 
 tinually among themselves for centuries, who have been 
 terribly oppressed for centuries, who have been as healthy as 
 other people despite this ill-trcatmcnt, and who have now, 
 through the advance of ci\iIisation, broken through the 
 barriers which opposed their intermarriage with their neigh- 
 bours, and have been absorbed.^ 
 
 The paper-makers of the Angoumois, Limousin, and 
 Auvergne are a separate race, so much attached to their 
 villages that they never quit them, and consequently never 
 marry except among themselves. Their children arc alwa}-s 
 brought up in their own profession, which from its nature is 
 very unhealthy. Living as they do in a damp and marshy 
 country, their factories full of water, and having to pass 
 twelve or fourteen hours at a time surrounded by vapour in 
 their paper vats, it is not surprising that they seldom attain 
 even the age of sixty-five, and frequently suffer from varix, 
 dropsy of the legs, chronic rheumatism, and ulcers of the leg 
 and ankle joints, from tertian fevers in autumn and spring, 
 and that they suffer greatly from catarrh, their knees bend 
 inwards, and their teeth fall out early in life. They are said 
 also to be subject to scurvy,' which would account for their 
 teeth going. It is especially noteworthy, however, that of all 
 these diseases not one is to be found in the list of those said 
 to be caused by the marriage of near kin. 
 
 ' The Chaouia Berbers of the Aures Mountains also have lobeless ears. Waitz, 
 Anthropologies i. 97 ; Godron, De rEspice, etc. ii. 260. 
 
 2 M. Devay, with his usual cUsingenuousness, chooses to repeat a mistake of 
 the Middle Ages, which even at that time was hardly excusable, and confound 
 the Cagots with the lepers, cretins, and guitreux. He has read nothing except 
 Michel's work on the subject, yet he chooses to ignore Michel's deductions founded 
 on an intimate ami cnm|irchcnsive knowledge of his subject, and put up instead 
 some chinieric.nl views of a physician who shared in the prejudices of an ignorant 
 age, and who has been contradicted by more enlightened physicians of the same 
 time. I must refer my readers to Dev.iy, Dti Danger des Mariages Consanguins, 
 p. 186, and to Michel, Histoire des Kates Maudites, vol. i. chaps, iii. and v. 
 l!ut perh<aps the whole of the volume should be read to form an adequate idea 
 on the subject. Compare also Hecker, Die Grossen Volkskrankheiten des 
 Mitlelalters, pp. 65, 75, 96-100, who in his account of the Black Death shows 
 how ready the mob are to fix on any outcast race as the dis.seminators of 
 disease. ' Michel, Hist, des Races Maudites, ii. 30, and note. 
 
ISOLATED FRENCH COMMUNITIES 167 
 
 The Marans, of Auvergne, a race of Spanish converted 
 Jews, were for their origin left particularly isolated. The 
 Christians of Spain would not intermarry with them, nor 
 would cither the Jews or the Moors. It is probable that 
 they were expelled with the Moors from Spain by Philip III., 
 and that they then settled in France. They have been 
 accused of having introduced syphilis into France, an accusa- 
 tion of doubtful truth, since they have always intermarried 
 among themselves, and were generally hated as strangers. 
 No other accusation of ill-health seems to have been made 
 against them.' 
 
 The Hautponnaisand Lyzelards, of St. Omcr, form popu- 
 lations absolutely distinct from their neighbours, and which 
 have preserved themselves without a cross from any other 
 race, since their first establishment about .-\.D. 449. Some 
 say they were Saracens, others say Saxons, others Moors, 
 Flemings, or the descendants of German lanzknechts. They 
 have a separate language, a sort of Flemish patois, and have 
 always lived at peace with the city, and fought with the other 
 community.^ No accusation of ill-health has been brought 
 against them as far as I am aware, and they certainly have 
 not 'died out.' 
 
 There are various communities scattered over Sermoyer, 
 Arbigny, Boz, and Ozan, communes of the department of 
 Ain, and the arrondissement of Bourg-en-Bresse, Canton Pont- 
 de-Vaux. An immemorial tradition ascribes their origin to 
 the Saracens, but Reinaud has shown that this is impossible. 
 Whatever may be the origin of their isolated state and the 
 hatred shown them by their neighbours, it still exists according 
 to the cure of Boz. They cannot get even the commonest girl 
 in marriage, and hence always intermarry among themselves. 
 Yet what a difference is there, says the cur(5, between these 
 Burins, industrious and rich, whose active labour makes the 
 earth put forth her riches in abundance, and their neigh- 
 bours who hold them in contempt, yet often rest in idleness 
 and poverty ! The Burins have been labourers, cattle- 
 
 ' Michel, Hist, ties Raas .Vnudi/fs, ii. 52-54, 94 g*"'- 
 ' Ihid. p. 102-104. 
 
/68 Tilt: .mai;kia(.;k uf iskak kix 
 
 breeders, and butchers for centuries. Some among them arc 
 remarkably fine men, the women pretty, with quick black 
 eyes, fair, and rather inclined to roundness. The_\- have a 
 strange air, which the cure ascribes to their isolation. The 
 Sermoyers, like the people of Boz and Uchiz)-, are hated by 
 their neighbours, and pass for an avaricious and bad people. 
 They have had great disputes concerning the pastures of the 
 Saonc, and man)- have been killed on either side. Now they 
 fight in the law courts ; but these quarrels, adds the cure, 
 do not prevent them being a \-ery sensible lot of people." 
 
 Another isolated community are the Vaqueros, who, not- 
 withstanding their isolation, have probably the same origin 
 as the rest of the Asturians. Their little villages are perched 
 on the Asturian mountains in positions where they are pro- 
 tected by others higher still. Their sole occupation is the 
 breeding and sale of sheep, and every year they leave their 
 habitations for the higher mountains of Leon, where they 
 remain from the middle of June to the end of September for 
 the sake of the pastures. As merchants, they are sharper than 
 those who occupy themselves with agriculture, and also more 
 dishonest. The consequence is they are hated by the other 
 Asturians ; a sentiment which the Vaqueros cordially return, 
 and both avoid as much as possible any intercourse, and 
 especially the ties of relationship. But if, in spite of all this, 
 interest or violent love lead to a mi.xed marriage, it can never 
 occur without great scandal, and the greatest expression of 
 repugnance from the Asturian familj-. The Vaqueros pay 
 more money to Rome for dispensations for marriage within 
 the forbidden degrees than all the rest of the principality 
 together. They are all plebeians alike, with the exception 
 of one family, a very extended one now, since it has married 
 among the others for more than half a century.^ 
 
 TheChuetas, of Majorca, were another isolated community 
 of Jewish converts, who never intermarried with their neigh- 
 bours. Of course they were treated brutally both by the 
 people and by the Inquisition, which tribunal sentenced them 
 
 ' Michel, Ilisl. r.Vi Races Ahiidi/f!, ii. loS-IIO. 
 ' fl'iJ. ii. 42, 43. 
 
I'OTES. AZORK 1SLAM)L;R.S. Kr:UNION 169 
 
 to be burnt in hecatombs on suspicion of a relapse to the faith 
 of their fathers. Notwithstanding this treatment, so far from 
 dying out, there were in the year 1782 more than 300 famiUcs 
 left, who were still generally hated for their origin, and still 
 forced to intermarry among themselves.' 
 
 At Potes, a little town in the province of Santandar, Spain, 
 the inhabitants were quite shut off from all the rest of the 
 world until about thirty )-ears ago. According to Mr. Rose, 
 the\^ had at that time become quite a race of dwarfs from 
 their ' ever-recurring intermarriages.' Then the mines brought 
 a number of Gallician labourers, who soon reformed matters, 
 for' the population has increased in strength, stature, education, 
 intellect, and moralit)-.' - So we see that consanguineous 
 marriage is apt to ruin the education and morality of a people 
 as well as their physical powers. I will add that Mr. Rose 
 never saw them at their pre-reformation period. 
 
 The upper classes of the Azore Islanders, owing to the 
 general desire to hoard wealth, are in the habit of intermarry- 
 ing very closely among themselves, so that marriages even in 
 the third degree are very frequent. They are very ignorant, 
 and contented with their ignorance ; the strain of Moorish 
 blood in their veins tinges their habits and customs, and they 
 are mean and parsimonious in their way of life. Consul the 
 Hon. E. Monson finds an unnatural frequency of idiocy and 
 enfeebled constitution among them, which he considers a 
 consequence of their consanguineous marriages.^ M'Culloch, 
 however, points out that they are also morally debased by a 
 corrupt clergy ,"■ and this of course is likely to lead also to 
 physical debasement. 
 
 The descendants of the original French settlers on the 
 island of Reunion, known as Petits-Creoles, or Petits-Blancs 
 are described by Dr. Yvan, who visited them in the year 1844, 
 as the aristocracy of the island. These families, he says, have 
 acquired, under the influence ofthe most salubrious climate in 
 the world, a remarkable degree of beauty. The men are straight 
 
 ' Michel, Hist, des Races Maudites, ii. 3S-41. 
 
 = Rose, The Spanish People, i. 299. London, 1877. 
 
 » Consular Reports, 1 87 1, No. 4. 
 
 ' Geographical Dictionary. 
 
170 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 and vigorous, their skin a delicate sunburnt shade, the forehead 
 broad, and their countenances noble and dignified. The women 
 are also well-formed and beautiful, with chestnut hair, long eye- 
 lashes, and large brown eyes, regular features, and if anything 
 too proud and energetic an expression of countenance. The 
 manners of these people are simple and peaceful ; the families 
 live in the closest intercommunion ; they commit few offences, 
 and crime is almost unknown among them. It is worthy of 
 remark, adds Dr. Yvan, that in spite of their poverty these 
 people will never marry a half-breed- — nothing would induce 
 them to defile the purity of their race by one drop of mixed 
 blood.' 
 
 In a tribe of hippopotamu.s-hunters settled on the little 
 island of Nyamotobsi, on the river Zambesi, called Akombwi, 
 or Mapodzo, the men rarely, and the women never, intermarry 
 with other tribes. ' They are rather a comely-looking race, with 
 very black smooth skins,' says Livingstone ; ^ and elsewhere he 
 says ' they are ' certainly a magnificent race of men, hardy and 
 active in their habits, and well fed as the result of their brave ex- 
 ploits; every muscle is well developed, and, though not so tall as 
 some tribes, their figures are compact and finely proportioned.' 
 
 Bruce relates that the Wito, who inhabit a small island on 
 lake Tzana, near Gonda, live quite apart from the neighbour- 
 ing Abyssinians, have a different religion, speak a different 
 language, and subsist by hippopotamus-hunting. The Abys- 
 sinians told him they were ugly and dirty, and they considered 
 the touch of a Wito defiled them.'' Mr. de Cosson, however, 
 who saw them, says that some of the Wito are very beautiful, 
 and he actually occupies two pages in the description of one 
 Wito girl.'^ 
 
 We know from the accounts of the early travellers, that the 
 New Zealandcrs were a vigorous and fertile race before the 
 advent of the white man, and we know from history that the 
 latter has ever sought to treat his brown brother with paternal 
 
 ' J. A. N. Peiier, M.'m. de la Soc. <r Aullirop. tie Paris, 1S63, i. 191, 192. 
 
 ' Livingstone, Zambesi, pp. 38, 39. 
 
 ' Livingstone, Last Journals, 1874, ii. 207. 
 
 ' Bruce, Travels, Edinburgh, 1790, iii. 402, 403. 
 
 * E. A. de Cosson, The Cradle oj the Blue Nile, London, 1877, ii. 74, 95-97. 
 
NEW ZEALANDERS 
 
 171 
 
 kindness. In good sooth, though he has taken most of the 
 hind, and killed great numbers of the people, he has not in- 
 troduced those contagious diseases into New Zealand which 
 have killed off whole populations in other places, because in 
 that country the acute contagious diseases seem to have no 
 hold upon the aborigines, and are easily thrown off. He has, 
 by the help of missionaries, clothed and Christianised them, 
 and, with the assistance of their own good sense, forbidden, so 
 far as is possible, the introduction of spirituous liquors. They 
 no longer marry any nearer relations than first-cousins, nor slay 
 each other, nor slay their female infants ; and yet this greatly 
 improved population is dying out with alarming rapidity. A 
 census taken in 1859 shows that the native population at that 
 period consisted of 56,049 persons only. Between the years 
 1844 and 1858 the population had diminished by I9"42 per 
 cent, in certain districts at least ; and out of a total of 444 
 wives, I S S were barren, and 68 more had no living issue. Could 
 anything be more obvious than that this diminution, due on the 
 one side to lessened fecundity, and on the other to great infant 
 mortality, must be caused by consanguineous marriage ? But 
 the only evidence we have on this point is thirteen marriages 
 taken indiscriminately from the village of Tihorewaru : — 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 NuXf'of 
 
 Average 
 
 Average 
 
 .Marriages 
 
 Between 
 
 
 Children 
 Living 
 
 Children 
 Dead 
 
 living Chil- 
 dren per 
 Marriage 
 
 dead Chil- 
 dren per 
 Marriage 
 
 born per 
 Marriage 
 
 5 
 
 No relations. 
 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 3-6 
 
 4-00 
 
 7-6 
 
 3 
 
 Distant relations . 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2-0 
 
 270 
 
 47 
 
 
 First-cousins 
 removed . 
 
 once 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 600 
 
 7-0 
 
 4 
 
 First-cousins 
 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-2S 
 
 5-0 
 
 To which I have added the averages, by which it will be 
 seen that, so far as such microscopic statistics can show any- 
 thing, no trace is discoverable of any effect of consanguin- 
 eous marriage. On the other hand, a great change has been 
 made in the mode of life of the natives. They used to go 
 about most scantily clothed, while now they cover themselves 
 with blankets, which are thrown aside as soon as they become 
 
72 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 hot. Tliey are confined in comparatively small districts by 
 the encroachments of white settlers, and consequently the 
 physical, mental, and moral circumstances to which they had 
 adapted themselves b\^ gradual evolution for centuries have 
 been suddenly changed. But perhaps the main cause is their 
 change of diet. They used to live upon fern and convolvulus 
 root, but now they live upon corn and potatoes, and since 
 1830, when the great decrease was first noticed, they took to 
 living on putrid corn. This remarkable habit seems to have 
 originated in the difficulty or trouble of grinding the corn. 
 The natives steep their maize in a running stream for about 
 two months until it is rotten, and then not only eat it them- 
 selves, but give it to their young children. The consequence 
 is that they have no stamina, and the slightest disease carries 
 them off, while the children die as a matter of course. The 
 missionaries are making earnest endeavours to give them 
 facilities for grinding corn, so that in some districts the popu- 
 lation is now again increasing ; but it will be long before they 
 recover from the fatal gift of clothing or before they under- 
 stand that to go to sleep in a wet blanket is not conducive to 
 health.' 
 
 In the year 1598 Shimadzu Yoshiro, the feudal lord of 
 Satsuma, brought over six potters with their families from 
 Corea. In 1603 they had increased, and the larger number 
 of them, consisting of seventeen families, were settled at 
 Nahashirogaha. From the beginning they never intermarried 
 with the Japanese, except in a very few cases, and have no 
 objection to marrying persons of the same family name as 
 themselves, contrary to the present law in Japan. They retain 
 their customs and language, and until quite lately also retained 
 their Corean dress.^ 
 
 There is some doubt whether the old Samaritans were a 
 half-bred race, or whether they were a pure race, removed to 
 Samaria by Esarhaddon in place of the captives of Shalma- 
 
 ' Fenton, ' Observations on the Slate of the Aboriginal Maori Inhabitants of 
 New Zealand,' in the Journal of Ike Statistical Society of London, December 
 i860, xxiii. 50S-541. _ 
 
 ■' E. Satow, 'The Korean Potters in Satsuma,' in the Transactions ol tht 
 Asiatic Society of Japan, 1S7S, vi. p.irt ii. 193-202. 
 
SAMARITANS 1/3 
 
 ncser. I f they were a pure race they were probably an Assyrian 
 colony, on whose fidelity the king was able to rely. If a 
 mixed race they may have been remnants of the ten tribes, or 
 a fusion of these, Phoenicians and Syrians, or a colony from a 
 great distance placed there by the Ass}-rians. But whatever 
 their origin, they were, by the force of circumstances, a pecu- 
 liarly isolated race. Like the Chosen People, they spurned 
 all connection with the neighbouring races, and were spurned 
 in their turn by the Jews themselves. Stung by this contempt 
 — a contempt which naturally followed from the exclusive 
 ideas and laws which clung to the Jews even in their bondage 
 — the Samaritans arrogated to themseh-es that title which 
 the Jews refused to share with them, and thenceforward a 
 hate burned between them, only possible between neighbouring 
 nations holding different and bigoted religious views. They 
 were exclusive then, they are an exclusive family now. 
 Though they had been slaughtered in thousands by Alex- 
 ander, by Pilate, and by Vespasian, Epiphanius in the fourth 
 century considered that the Christians had more to fear from 
 the Samaritans than from all their other adversaries. In the 
 fifth century they justified this prediction by an outrage on 
 the Christian population, which was so scvcrcl}- punished that 
 they sank into an obscurity scarcely broken until the sixteenth 
 century.' 
 
 In 1855 there were sixty-five men and boys, and about 
 130 women and girls.- In 1872 they were reduced by con- 
 stant ill-treatment and persecution to 135, of whom eighty 
 were males. About the same time Jacob-esh-Shallaby was ex- 
 communicated and retired with his family, thus reducing the 
 total to 130. Lieutenant Conder, like all previous observers, 
 extols their beauty and physique highly. ' The beautj- of 
 their priestl)' family,' he says, ' is remarkable ; the aquiline 
 nose, the lustrous brown eyes, the thick under lip, the crisp 
 hair, the peach-like down of the complexion, are pre-eminently 
 Jewish.' •■' In 1881 he again observes : 'The Samaritans appear 
 
 ' Smith, Dictionary of the Bible, art. ' Samaria.' 
 
 ■-' Rogers, Notices of the Samaritans, etc. p. 51. London, 1S55 
 
 = Conder, Tent W'ork in I'alestine. 1878, i. 35, 36, 54. 
 
174 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 to be prospering, as their numbers have increased from 135 
 to 160 souls ; and I was much impressed with the fine phy- 
 sique and handsome countenances of the men, which seem 
 to contradict the idea that the race is dying out, as does also 
 the fact that the number of males is considerably in excess 
 of that of the females : 98 to 62.' ' 
 
 The Jews, before all others, are the chosen people against 
 whom the attacks of Parasyngeniasts have been directed, yet 
 M. Boudin, the most pertinacious champion of this class, has 
 himself written a remarkable eulogy on the strength, \iability, 
 and wonderful endurance of this much-maligned nation. 
 There are some races, he says, who seem marvellously able to 
 adapt themselves to variations of climate, while there are others 
 who can scarcely support the least change. The Jews, and 
 perhaps the Gypsies, are instances of the former, for the Jews 
 are now spread over every quarter of the world ; they are 
 scattered in Europe, from Norway to Gibraltar ; in Africa, 
 from Algeria to the Cape of Good Hope ; in Asia, from 
 Cochin China to the Caucasus, and from Jaffa to Pekin ; 
 while in America they are to be met with everywhere, from 
 Monte Video to Quebec. Only fifty years ago they invaded 
 Australia, and have already given proof of their ability to 
 flourish and multiply in its equatorial region under a climate 
 which other people of European origin have never yet been able 
 to withstand. Though they are not generally found at any great 
 elevation above the level of the sea, possibly because such 
 places are rarely suited to their usual occupations, there is yet 
 no reason to suppose that they are at all unsuited to such places ; 
 while on the other hand thc}' ha\e lived for centuries, and still 
 continue to live, at the on!}' spot of ihc globe situated 400 
 metres below the level of the sea, a part where it is very doubtful 
 whether any European could live and multiplj'. \Miercver, 
 continues M. Boudin, the Je\\ish race has hitherto been studied, 
 it has shown itself governed by statistical laws as to births, 
 deaths, and the proportion of the sexes entirely different from 
 
 ' Conder, Kf ports to the Palesliitf Exploration Fund, iSSl. The lisU of a 
 wrong proportion of the sexes, owing to the limited nunil>ers of isolated com- 
 munities, is the great difficidty, as also in the case of lirecdors of animals. 
 
TIIL JKWS 175 
 
 those which govern the surrounding communities.' Nor is this 
 astonishing when we recollect that they always marry among yC 
 themselves, except under the supposition that marriages 
 between near kin are harmful, for by marriages of this kind 
 every animal is far more easily acclimatised than by continual 
 crosses. 
 
 That the Jews are so pure a race as M. Boudin supposes 
 has been contested by M. Renan, M. Loeb, and Dr. Neubauer : 
 but Mr. Jacobs, in an interesting article,^ shows strong 
 historical reason, on the one hand, for the truth of the general 
 opinion ; while on the other he shows that mixed unions are 
 very infertile.^ Mr. Adier gives the following statistics : — ■* 
 
 Where the parents were un"""^' ^"^ °^ 
 
 •^ children per marriage 
 
 Both Roman Catholics 5-2 
 
 .. Jews 4-4 
 
 ,, Protestants ........ 43 
 
 One Protestant and one Roman Catholic . . . . 3-2 
 
 One Christian, the other Jewish . . . . 16 
 
 One Protestant, the other Jewish 13 
 
 On 56 cases of mixed marriages collected by Mr. Jacobs 
 18 per cent, were sterile ; ^ while on 62 marriages between 
 cousins only 54 per cent, were sterile if we omit three cases of 
 recent marriage.'' It is highly probable, therefore, that the 
 Jews in every countr\- are an unmixed race, who generally 
 intermarry among themselves and frequently near relatives. 
 If, then, M. Boudin's declared opinions are correct we should 
 expect this stiff-necked generation to have a lesser viability, 
 a greater percentage of still-born, of early mortality, and of 1/ 
 other evils, as befits a people who will not submit to laws A. 
 laid down by pontiffs and sanctioned by emperors, excepting 
 when they applied to themselves. Yet, strangely enough, 
 M. Boudin informs us that the Jewish population has doubled 
 
 ' Cited by Devay, Du Daiig/r, etc. p. I So, from Boudin's G^opafhie 
 Medieali. 
 
 - Jacobs, in iVe. Journal of the Anthropological Institute, p. I'^et seq. vol. xv. 
 No. I, for August 1885. ' Ibid. pp. 27, 28. 
 
 * Adler, ibid. p. 60, for the entire population of Prussia between the years 
 1875 and 1881. 
 
 ' Jacobs, in the fournal of the Anthropological Institute, p. 28. 
 
 ' Jacobs, yir7<'/>A Chronicle, January 12, 1S83, p. 10, \o. 720, new series. 
 
175 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR 
 
 in fifty years, while the infant mortality is less among the 
 Jews by more than one-third in some countries, and by one- 
 half in others, than in the Christian populations.' In Prussia, 
 says Oesterlen, one-fifth of all children born in wedlock, and 
 including the still-born, die before they reach their fifth year, 
 while only two-thirteenths of the Jewish infants die before 
 reaching that age, including, besides the still-born, also all the 
 children born out of wedlock. How great a difference this 
 really is may be seen by the fact that while the average 
 mortality for almost the whole of Europe was 2r8 per cent, 
 for legitimate, it was 32-5 per cent, for illegitimate children.' 
 Neufville shows that in Frankfort, while the average duration 
 of life among the Christian population was 36 years and 1 1 
 months, that of the Jewish population was 48 years and 9 
 months ; and yet, in comparison with other towns, the 
 Christian population was Icng-livcd.' The two following 
 tables will show this difference more clearly : — 
 
 There died between 
 
 Out of every Hundred 
 
 Out of every Hundred 
 
 the age of 
 
 Deaths among the Christians 
 
 Deaths jmong the Jews 
 
 1-9 years 
 
 264 
 
 133 
 
 10-19 .. 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 20—29 ,, 
 
 124 
 
 
 30—39 -, 
 
 10-6 
 
 9-5 
 
 40-49 ,, 
 
 no 
 
 
 50-59 ., 
 
 IO-3 
 
 9-9 1 
 
 60-69 ,, 
 
 1 1 -4 
 
 167 
 
 70-79 ,. 
 
 97 
 
 20-5 
 
 So— 89 ,, 
 
 3-5 
 
 6-5 
 
 90 — 100,, 
 
 02 
 
 
 " Dally, Re herches sur ks Mar. Cons. pp. 47, 48. 
 
 ^ Oesterlen, Med. Stal. pp. 146, 147. If a great proportion of male births 
 is a sign of vigour in a nation, as appears to be the case from the Scotch Census 
 Report of 1 87 1, the Jews seem jire-emincnt. Thus for every 100 girls there were 
 born in — 
 
 Country 
 
 Prussia . 
 
 Aus't'ria '. 
 Algiers . . 
 
 In th; Years 
 
 Male Jews 
 
 Male Christians 
 
 106 -0 
 ios-9 
 
 105-9 
 103-0 
 
 1820- 1834 
 
 1849-1852 
 
 185I 
 
 1S36 -1S5I 
 
 106-9 
 1210 
 
 106-5 
 
 Jliid. p. 164. And Wailz gives the number of male births for eve 
 female births among the Jews as 208 in Berlin, and 120 in Legh. 
 Anthropotos;ie, i. 1 27). 
 
 ' Neufville, l.rhnndaufr. etc. pp. iS. 19. 
 
THE JEWS 
 
 Of the comparative number living — ' 
 
 Je^vs per cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 86-7 
 
 73-6 reach their loth year. 
 
 
 69-1 
 
 20th 
 
 73 '4 
 
 567 
 
 3otl. 
 
 
 63-9 
 
 46-. 
 
 40th 
 
 
 54-0 
 
 35-' 
 
 , 50th 
 
 
 
 24-8 
 
 60th 
 
 
 27-4 
 
 >3-4 
 
 70ih 
 
 
 6-9 
 
 37 
 
 80th 
 
 
 0-4 
 
 
 90th 
 
 
 o-o 
 
 0-04 
 
 95'h 
 
 
 0-0 
 
 
 , I 00th 
 
 ■ ' 
 
 Consanguinity of the parents of course does not affect the 
 mortality one way or the other. The cause of the greater 
 mortality among the Christians may be partially due to the 
 danger from too early exposure for baptism,^ but this can 
 have but a very slight effect. We must look for the cause of 
 infant mortality in that of the greater viability of the adult.s. 
 The Jews are an abstemious race, and their professions are 
 chiefly mental, rarely mechanical. Hence they are less 
 subject to the influence of harmful trades, and the good 
 health of the parent cannot but affect the viability of the 
 child. It is for the same reason that the Jewish population 
 seems comparatively more prone to mental derangement. 
 There were, in the year 1847 in Denmark, 5-85 per 1,000 Jews 
 suffering from some form of mental disease, while there were 
 only 3-34 per 1,000 Catholics thus affected ;' and M. Legoyt 
 gives the following table, showing the relative frequency of 
 mental disease among Catholics, Protestants, and Jews : — '' 
 
 
 Number for one Insane of 1 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Protestants 
 
 Jews 
 
 In Bavaria 
 „ Hanover . 
 „ Silesia. 
 „ Wurtemburg 
 
 908 
 528 
 
 2028 
 
 S>4 
 337 
 644 
 1544 
 
 Total 
 
 4797 
 
 4900 
 
 3039 
 
 Neufville, Lebemdauer, etc. pp. Ill, 113. 
 Oesterlen, Med. Slat. p. 148, note 3 ; and p. 309, note 3. 
 Boufiin, Ann. d'Hygiine, xviii. 2n(l series, p. 15. 
 LfRoyt, /('«'««/ A /a .Sof. de .Stal. df Pans. 1863. 
 
178 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Hence there were four insane in every 4,797 of the Catholic 
 population ; four in every 4,900 of the Protestant population ; 
 and four in every 3,039 of the Jewish population. ' Must we 
 see in this frequency of lunacy among the Jews,' says M. 
 f Legoyt, ' an influence of race, or merely a consequence of the 
 T, fact that they inhabit those towns, and exercise those pro- 
 fessions, the most exposed to economic crises ? Must we see 
 " there, like Dr. Martini, the influence of the fact that marriages 
 between near relatives are commoner among the Jews than 
 among the Christians ? Or ought we to admit the concurrence 
 of all three causes ? ' ' MM. Boudin and Chipault consider it 
 solely due to the last cause, and even fancy they can detect a 
 x" direct relationship between the frequency of insanity and the 
 closeness of the degrees within which marriage is permitted 
 by the Jews, the Protestants, and the Catholics.^ How such 
 a deduction is supported by the table given above I am at 
 a loss to see. In the first place, the Catholics, who are 
 supposed not to contract marriages with first-cousins, appear 
 to be more subject to insanity than the Protestants, who 
 do. In the second, we must consider what are the propor- 
 tions between the three religions in which consanguineous 
 marriages are practised. In some parts the Catholics do con- 
 tract more consanguineous marriages than do the Protestants ; 
 thus Dr. Stieda gives the following from Alsace-Lorraine : ^ 
 o-i86 per cent, of marriages between Protestants were 
 within the degree of first-cousins, 0997 per cent, among the 
 Catholics, and 2-302 among the Jews. I think that this, 
 like all the French statistics on consanguineous marriage, 
 is very much too low / accepting these figures, however, as 
 the proportion, we should find more insanity among the 
 Catholics than the Protestants, if consanguinity produces 
 insanity, and if the relative proportions in Alsace-Lorraine 
 are the same as elsewhere. In the third place, how can we 
 say that the greater proportion of insanity among the Jews is 
 
 ' Legoyl, /oiiriia/ ife la Soc. de Stat, de Paris, 1S63, pp. 90, 91. 
 ^ Boudin, Mhii. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 526 ; Chip.-iull, 
 Etudes, etc. p. 74. • Stieda, Annal. de Dhnogr. Int. iii. 35. 
 
 * See chap. v. of this work. 
 
THE JEWS 179 
 
 not due to their professions when we do not know the 
 relative number of Jews and Christians who h've in towns, and 
 the relative number who live in the country ? How important^ 
 nay, how absolutely necessary, it is to know this before any 
 deduction can be made is shown by the difference of about 
 25 per cent, between madness in the country and madness in 
 towns.' Hence, to make the table really useful, it would be 
 necessary not only to compare the proportion of insane of 
 each faith, but also the proportion who lead a town life ; and, 
 further, the proportion who are engaged in professions which 
 tend to cause constant anxiety. It is well known that a far 
 greater proportion of Jews than of Christians are occupied in 
 professions which may be classed as mental, and not mechani- 
 cal, such as teachers, professors, merchants, and speculators 
 in money, etc. ; and it is also well known that just these pro- 
 fessions give the highest percentage of lunacy ; indeed, it is 
 nearly certain that it is these professions which make madness 
 so much more frequent in towns than in the country. There 
 can be very little doubt but that it is this which brings up the 
 proportion of lunacy among the Jews ; a theory which is con- 
 firmed by the character of that madness — generally an acute 
 or raving mania, and seldom hypochondriacal or despondent.^ 
 But, according to M. Legoyt,' idiocy also is commoner among 
 the Jews. Thus there were in — 
 
 
 Number for one Idiot of 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Protestants 
 
 Jews 
 
 Silesia (1856) . 
 Wurtemburg . 
 
 580 
 
 '%l 
 
 3.003 
 
 and this is not so easily explained as the former. The Jews 
 are not drunkards, and hence we should expect, if anything, 
 a smaller proportion of idiots among them than among the 
 Christians. It is not certain, however, owing to the smallncss 
 
 ' Oesterlen, Metiia'ii. Slalistii, p. 522. Of every 100,000 inhabitants of Han- 
 over living in towns there were 222 mad ; out of the same proportion in the 
 country there were 161. ' Ji>ic/. p. 522. 
 
 ' hegoyl, /otinm/ iU la Soc. de Slat, de Paris, 1863, p. 91. 
 
I So 
 
 HE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 of these numbers, that any deduction is reliable ; and, further, 
 the causes of madness in the parent will doubtless lead to 
 imbecility in the offspring, while, at all events, continued 
 residence in towns must largely influence it. We must there- 
 fore await a more elaborate table before we may venture to 
 reason upon it.' M. Boudin further asserts that deaf-mutism 
 is more frequent among the Jews than it is among Christians ; 
 that on examination of the records of the Imperial Institution 
 for Deaf-mutes at Paris he found three Jews in a total of 
 200 congenital cases ; whereas the Jews are, to the rest of the 
 population of France, as i to ^So."^ Unfortunately for this 
 theory, however, M. Boudin's premises do not happen to be 
 beyond doubt. The chief instructor at that institution, M. 
 Vaisse, says it has only brought up a very inconsiderable 
 number of Jews ; it has sometimes contained one or two, and 
 sometimes none at all. M. Dally, who examined the records 
 very carefully, utterly denies that M. Boudin's three Jewish 
 cases were either congenital or derived from marriages between 
 near kin.^ M. Isidore, Grand Rabbi of Paris, estimates the 
 
 ' It is amusing how, in the absence of reliable statistics, attempts to fix upon 
 marriages of consanguinity as the cause of idiocy refute themselves. ' It is re- 
 markable in England,' says Esquirol, talking of mental derangement, 'especially 
 among the Catholics, who always ally themselves in marriage with those of their 
 own denomination ' {Mental Maladies, etc. translated by E. K. Hunt, p. 49). 
 It is more frequent in England and Scotland, according to Dr. Stark because 
 the Protestants marry their cousins, than in Catholic Ireland (Journal of the 
 Statistical Society of London, xiv. 62). How baseless all these thoughtless off- 
 hand statements are may be seen from subjoined table, compiled from the Report 
 of the Census Commissioners for 187 1 on the Status of Disease in Ireland, and 
 Census 1881, for in every one of the diseases here given, and which are supposed to 
 be peculiarly due to consanguineous marriages, the Roman Catholics have a far 
 greater proportion of sick, whatever may be the cause. Thus : — 
 
 There were 
 
 Census of .861 
 
 Census of .87. 
 
 Census of 188. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Catholic 
 
 Other 
 Religions 
 
 Roman Other 
 Catholic Religions 
 
 Roman 1 Other 
 Catholic Religions 
 
 Deaf and dumb . 
 Blind . 
 
 Lunatics and idiots 
 Lame and decrepit 
 
 "1 
 
 I>oS4 
 799 
 419 
 
 1,260 
 
 938 
 1,040 
 
 2,369 
 
 969 1 990 
 
 796 1,111 
 
 322 348 
 
 1,602 3,710 
 
 988 1,074 
 792 i 1,096 
 
 269 ! 328 
 
 not given 
 
 In the year 1861 the deaf and dumb pupils in the Claremount, Moneymore, Stra- 
 bane, and Ulster Institutions, 'no matter from what source received,' are reckoned 
 as Protestants. The lunatics are also probably wrongly returned for that year. 
 
 • Uoudin, Ann. d'Hygiine, xviii. 14, 15. 
 
 " Ually, Recherches sur les Mar. Cow. p. 46. 
 
Jewish population of that town at 25,000, in which number, 
 he says, there were a few weeks before the date at which he 
 writes only 3 Jewish deaf-mutes in Paris ; of which 2 came 
 from Bordeaux and i from Rhenish Prussia, while the latter 
 has now left.' Counting all three, this gives a proportion of 
 I in every 8,334. Now according to official reports, says M. 
 Dally, there is i deaf-mute in every 4,694 inhabitants of the 
 department of the Seine : hence, so far from giving a greater 
 percentage of deaf-mutism, the Jews give a considerably 
 lesser.^ 
 
 Mr. Jacobs estimates the number of consanguineous mar- 
 riages among English Jews at ;•? per cent., using a method 
 similar to Mr. G. H. Darwin's. He also finds, as Mr. Darwin ( 
 found,^ and as I found,-* that such marriages were more \ 
 fertile than ordinary marriages ; from which he deduces that 1 
 11-2 per cent, of English Jews are the children of first-cousins I 
 Dr. Schontheil, Director of the Deaf and Dumb Home in 
 Walmer Road, informed him that 3 out of the 24 children there 
 were the offspring of first-cousins, or 12-5 per cent, which is 
 much nearer the estimate than could be expected with such 
 small numbers.* Mr. Jacobs, at a later period, found at the 
 same home that the children then there numbered 39, djvided 
 among 28 families as follows : — 
 
 Number of Number of Average Number of Per Cent. 
 
 Families I Children | Number per which Deaf- | Deaf-mute 
 
 Represented Produced Marriage mute on Total of; 
 
 First-cousins . , 3 | 21 7-0 
 
 Other cousins . 4 15 37 
 
 Unrelated . . | 21 109 5-2 
 
 230 
 lS-4 
 61 5 
 
 which makes the number of deaf-mutes produced by relations 
 greatly in excess of the proportion of such marriages in the 
 community. 
 
 Mr. Jacobs justly points out that these figures are much 
 too small to give reliable results,*^ and we see that this is so, 
 
 ' Comptes Rendtis, 1862, Iv. p. 128. ' Dally, ut sup. p. 93. 
 
 » G. H. Daiwin, ' Marriages between First-cousins,' in the Journal of the 
 Statistical Society, xxxviii. 180. ' See below, chap. v. 
 
 » Jacobs, ' Studies in Jewish Statistics,' in the Jewish Chronicle, for January 
 12, 1883, pp. 10, II. 
 
 ' ]a.coh%, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ut sup. p. 32. 
 
 ■;) 
 
182 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 since at the former inquiry there was no excess ; yet at another 
 period there is a great excess. Let us look at them in another 
 way : — 
 
 JFi.s..cous;ns 
 
 Other Cousins 
 
 No Relations 
 
 Total number of children born . -21 
 Percentage of children born . . . 14-48 
 Percentage of deaf-mutes . . .23-0 
 Difference of last two . . . . -^7-6 
 
 J5 
 
 IO-34 
 
 >5-4 
 
 + 5-0 
 
 109 
 
 61s 
 -13-8 
 
 Here we see an intensification of hereditary influence 
 where there is relationship between the parents, which I shall 
 show in the next chapter is probably the case in consan- 
 guineous marriages, but nevertheless does not necessarily 
 imply a greater total proportion of deaf-mutes born from such 
 marriages. 
 
 In the course of his inquiry as to the relative fertility of 
 first-cousin marriages, as compared with others, Mr. Jacobs 
 collected 86 cases.' Among these there were — 
 
 9 cases in which the marriage was recent, or the wife died early. 
 
 3 ,, ,, no details were given. 
 26 ,, ,, the total of the children born is not given. 
 48 „ ,, ,, ,, is given. 
 
 These 48 marriages produced 252 children, or an average 
 of 5-2 per marriage (inclusive of 4 barren marriages). Of 
 these, 8 were deaf-mutes, or 3-17 per cent, and 11 were 
 imbecile or insane, that is, 4-32 percent. ; certainly not a high 
 average, as will be seen in the next chapter. If all the 
 families are reckoned in which the number of children who 
 are deaf-mute or imbecile is given, and including the 26 
 marriages in which the total number of children born is not 
 given, but excluding the 9 in which the marriage is recent 
 (none of which showed evil results), and excluding the 3 
 of which details were not given (which were probablj- without 
 
 ' Sec the Jotiriia! of the Aiilhropohgual Institute, xv. 28, No. i for August 
 1885. Mr. Jacobs kindly gave nic more detailed information on these and the 
 previous figures, but, as will be seen, I cannot take quite the same views on the 
 results as he does. 
 
THE JEWS 
 
 183 
 
 evil results), there are 74 cases of marriage between first- 
 cousins, which (if we put one family in which the number 
 of deaf-mutes is not given at 3) produced 1 1 deaf-mutes, or 
 an average of 015 per family, and taking only those families 
 which produced deaf-mutes (6) an average of 1-9 per family ; 
 while in Ireland the average was about r2 for non-con- 
 sanguineous marriages. In the same way for the imbecile 
 and insane the average was 0-3 per family for all, and 2-3 
 for those in which insanity appears (taking two cases, in 
 which the numbers are not given, at 5 and 2 respectively). 
 Dr. Alings gives the following :— ' 
 
 
 Number for one Deaf-mute of | 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Protestants 
 
 Jews 
 
 In the Duchy of Nassau in 1863 . 
 
 In three Dutch Establishments, i S59, com- 
 pared with the total population . 
 
 The same in 1866, compared with the 
 total population of I S59 . 
 
 1,398 
 11.985 
 9.424 
 
 13.380 
 10,675 
 
 508 
 2,179 
 2,658 
 
 And here we see that in Nassau the Protestants have a greater 
 proportion of deaf-mutes than the Catholics, while in Holland 
 this proportion is reversed, which shows that if religion is a 
 factor these statistics are not reliable. In all, indeed, the 
 Jewish deaf-mutes are proportionately the most numerous ; 
 but if these statistics cannot be depended upon in one matter, 
 neither can we depend upon them in another. We do not 
 even know whether proportionately more Jews are placed in 
 charitable institutions by their brethren ; yet this is most 
 probable, for the Jews take far more care of their poor and 
 infirm than the Christians do. 
 
 Yet Dr. Liebreich, the celebrated oculist, gives his support 
 to M. Boudin's supposition, and adds that retinitis pigmentosa 
 is also much commoner among the Jews than among the 
 Christians, since in the establi.shment for deaf-mutes at Berlin, 
 of 14 patients who also suffered from this disease, 8 were 
 
 ' Alings, Htl Aantri! Doofitommen in Ncikrland, vergckken nut i 
 nden, 1867, pp. 14. IS' 
 
 il(U in andere 
 
 Laitdeu 
 
1 84 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Jews.' Whether this disease is really caused by consan- 
 guineous marriage is discussed below ; but are his statistics 
 on the deaf-mutes who are Jews trustworthy ? He says that 
 in a total number of 341 deaf-mutes in the asylum at Berlin, 
 42 were Jews ; while of 223 out of these, who were born in 
 Berlin, 23 were Jews ; which is one deaf-mute in every 2,215 
 of the Christian natives, and one in every 673 of the Jew- 
 ish.'^ Hence, if we are to accept the results taken from this 
 asylum as an accurate proportional reflection, the Jewish 
 deaf-mutes are very greatly in excess of what we should 
 expect. But here is the weak point. Asylums are not, and 
 cannot be, a correct mirror to the general population. We 
 have seen how very widely M. Boudin was misled by 
 deductions from the Paris asylum ; and no one can accept a 
 theory without hesitation which is so slenderly supported by 
 statistics. Even should we grant that he has proved the 
 Jewish deaf-mutes greatly to exceed the Christian, we have 
 no evidence to show that this is due to consanguineous 
 marriage ; on the contrary, we have far more reason to believe 
 that those causes which lead to mental disease in general, 
 and which in all probability work more on the Jewish than 
 on the Christian population, will also partially show them- 
 selves in deaf-mutism and other mental maladies. The fact 
 is, that the Jews are not influenced, as far as our evidence as 
 yet goes, either for good or for evil by their consanguineous 
 marriages, unless these are the cause of their greater ability 
 to withstand the variations of climate. They transmit their 
 type unchanged, as do all races of men and animals when 
 they constantly breed in-and-in ; but they have probably been 
 somewhat affected by the centuries of persecution they have 
 endured, and still endure, in many parts of the world. The 
 history of the Jewish community of one Christian town is very 
 much the same as that in any other ; and as ufficient idea of 
 the miseries they have endured, and the marvellous elasticity 
 which has preserved them from extinction when so many 
 other outcast races have been utterly stamped out, may be 
 
 ' Liebrcich, Abkunfl .ii.s Ehcn imtcr Hlm^vcrwanHtcn, etc, in llic Dcutuhe 
 h'Uiiik, xiii. 54.' 
 • Licbreicli, ihiJ. 
 
Tiiic J i:\vs 185 
 
 conveyed by the history of the Roman Jews, probably the 
 oldest unbroken community of that nation in Europe. The 
 quarter assigned to them in that town, known as the Ghetto, 
 was the most foul, most crowded, and most evil-smelling part 
 of that formerly evil-smelling city. The position is so low 
 that the whole quarter is very frequently under water ; an 
 inconvenience which the inhabitants remedy by having their 
 houses communicating with each other by the upper floor, so 
 that this forms, as it were, an upper street. Yet they in- 
 habited this den from the time of Paul IV., A.D. 1555, with 
 occasional short-lived mockeries of liberty, and long spells of 
 diabolical persecution. During all this time it is far from 
 probable that they ever received the slightest amount of fresh 
 blood in their veins. What inducement was there to go to 
 the centre of persecution ? But they have constanth' emi- 
 grated. As soon as ever a member became rich enough, he 
 left this wretched place ; and thus much property and much 
 mental capital was constantly withdrawn, and a dispro- 
 portionate amount of poverty left behind. Under Claudius 
 the Roman Jews numbered 8,000 ; about the 3'ear 1667 there 
 were some 4,500 ; not long before the Italians entered Rome 
 there were only 4,000 ; but under more humane laws they 
 have since then risen to 4,500 again. And yet, despite their 
 persecution, despite their bad drainage, their dirty habits and 
 chronic state of overcrowding, the Ghetto seems always to 
 have been one of the healthiest places in Rome. The death- 
 rate has been small, fever rare, fewer died when cholera was 
 devastating Rome in 1837 of that disease in their quarter than 
 in any other quarter of the city. They throve and multiplied, 
 paid heavy taxes to the Papal Government, and supported 
 their own poor ; they founded a university as well as schools, 
 and they supported a synagogue. Truly, as Mr. Story says, ' in 
 a people thus oppressed ' must there be ' immense vitality and 
 energy, or thej' would long ago have ceased to exist.' ' 
 
 ' Story, Kolm di Roma, pp. 306, 310, 322, 327, 332. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE VALUE OF STATISTICS HITHERTO COLLECTED CON- 
 CERNING MARRIAGE BETWEEN NEAR KIN EXAMINED. 
 
 THE Parasyngeniasts have advanced many figures in 
 support of their theories, taken chiefly from collected 
 cases, the deductions from which, if trustworthy, may almost 
 be said to be conclusive as to the harmfulness of marriages 
 between near kin. But in making use of any statistics on 
 the proportion of diseased from consanguineous and non- 
 consanguineous marriages, it is necessary first of all to know 
 the proportion that one class of marriages bears to the other. 
 This unfortunately we do not know, and never shall know 
 with any approach to accuracy, until the previous blood 
 relationship of parties who have contracted marriage has been 
 inquired into by the census commissioners. Of course some 
 attempts have been made to determine the proportion which 
 consanguineous marriages bear to the whole. Mr. G. H. 
 Darwin pursued the following method, which, since he takes 
 care to check his results by several different inquiries, all 
 converging upon the same point, is probably the most 
 reliable we as yet possess. His first object was to deter- 
 mine the proportion of marriages between persons of the 
 same surname which are marriages of first-cousins. From 
 a calculation of the chances of two people of the same 
 name marrying, derived from the Registrar-General's report 
 on the whole number of names in the register, he found that, 
 were there no cause, such as cousinship, tending to increase 
 the number of same-name marriages, the chance of such a 
 marriage was O'OQa per cent. He then had counted 18,528 
 advertisements of marriages in the same paper, the ' Pall Mall 
 
PROPORTION OV COUSIN MARRIAGKS 1 8/ 
 
 Gazette,' and found 232 were same-name marriages, or 1-25 per 
 cent. If we deduct 0-092 from this, the resulting 1-158 percent, 
 should represent the percentage of consanguineous marriages 
 between persons of the same name for the particular 
 class who advertise.' In order to check this result he had 
 the marriages of all the men in the pedigrees of Burke's 
 ' Landed Gentry ' analysed, and, excluding all those in which 
 the relationship could not be determined, he found that out 
 of 9,549 marriages 144 were same-name marriages, or 1-5 
 per cent. ; that is, only 02 5 per cent, higher than that obtained 
 from the analj-sis of advertisements ; which, considering that 
 the ' Landed Gentry ' represent a more propertied class, who 
 are therefore more likely to contract consanguineous marriages, 
 is strikingly confirmatory of the accuracy of the results ; and 
 of these 144, half, or 0-75 per cent., were marriages between 
 first-cousins. He then did the same with the ' English and 
 Irish Peerage,' finding 18 out of 1,989 marriages were between 
 persons of the same name who were first-cousins, or 0-91 per 
 cent. Now in the ' Landed Gentry ' 72 of the 144, or half the 
 marriages between persons of the same name, were found to 
 be between first-cousins. Applying the same rule to the 
 ' Peerage,' there should have been 36 same-name marriages, 
 or r8 per cent. ; a higher proportion than either of the two 
 previous, as was to be expected. 
 
 He next endeavoured to ascertain the proportion of mar- 
 riages between first-cousins who did not bear the same 
 surname. To this end he attempted an amateur census, 
 sending out about 800 circulars to members of the upper 
 middle and upper class, but avoiding so far as possible 
 sending circulars to more than one member of interrelated 
 families. From those circulars which were returned he found 
 that out of a total of 248 marriages between first-cousins, in 
 182 cases the parties did not bear the same surname. If, 
 however, to these are added 29 marriages between parties 
 who were not first-cousins, }-ct who bore the same surname, 
 
 ' Mr. n.irwin was anticip.ited in this by Mr. G. C. Thompson, who during 
 two months noted the number of same-name marriages advertised in the Times. 
 These he found were just I per cent, of the total.' See KYie Journal of Anlhropo- 
 logy for July 1870, No. I, p. cli. 
 
1 88 THE MARRIAGE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 and were therefore in all probability related, we have 182 
 cases out of the 277 in which the parties did not bear the 
 same surname, and 95 in which they did. For every 100 
 marriages between persons of the same name, there would 
 therefore be, if these returns are reliable, 261 marriages 
 between first-cousins. 
 
 If these returns are reliable, therefore, we should deduce 
 the proportion of first-cousin marriages from the advertisements 
 as about (232x2-6i=) 6o5'5 in 18,528 marriages, or 3'26 
 per cent. ; those from the ' Landed Gentry' at (144 x 2-61 =) 
 375'8 in 9,549, or 393 percent. The number of same-name 
 marriages other than first-cousins from the ' Peerage ' is 
 omitted. From the numbers counted in the ' Landed Gentry ' 
 these should be in the proportion of 100 per cent., that is, in 
 1,989 marriages (18x2 = ) 36 were between persons of the 
 same name, and therefore (36 x 2-6i =) 93-9 marriages out of 
 the 1 ,989 should be between first-cousins, or 47 per cent. But 
 according to the returns obtained from the circulars on 95 
 marriages between persons of the same name, 66 were be- 
 tween first-cousins, or not twice, but 2'28 times the same- 
 name marriages not between first-cousins. We have, therefore, 
 
 18 -I- ( = 7'9 ] =25-9 as the total number of same-name 
 
 marriages from the 'Peerage,' and (25-9X2-6i=) 67-59 as 
 the total number of marriages between first-cousins, or a per- 
 centage of only 3-4, which does not seem quite satisfactorj-. 
 
 Taking the mean, again, between the values of 2 and ^-^> 
 
 we get a total of same-name marriages of 309 and (30'9 
 X2'6i=) 8077, or a percentage of 4'o6, which looks much 
 better. From 181 circulars Mr. Darwin further obtained, 
 directly, a total number of 125 marriages between first-cousins 
 on 3,663 marriages, or 3-4 1. 
 
 From all these various sources we have therefore — 
 
 Out of .-ill m.-irri.iKes 
 
 From advertisements (middle and upper cla.sses) . . 3-26 per 
 ,, Circulars (upper middle and upper classes) . 3'4I 
 
 ,. Landed gcnlry 3 93 
 
 ,, I'tcrni-o . .406 
 
■ROl'ORTION OF COUSIN MARRIAGES 
 
 89 
 
 The great weakness, however, in these statistics, as Mr. 
 Darwin himself points out, is that they all rest on the accuracy 
 of the returns in themselves, which, of course, were not 
 numerous enough to overcome slight errors. It is obvious, 
 for instance, that many first-cousin marriages may have been 
 omitted from the returns, while the total of all marriages was 
 correct ; also that the marriages between first-cousins not of 
 the same name may have been omitted. As a further check, 
 Mr. Darwin therefore drew up a list of only those marriages 
 which were contracted by the reporter's uncles, aunts, brothers, 
 and sisters, since he was less likely to omit any of these ; 
 with the result that the proportion of same-name first cousin 
 marriages to same-name not first-cousin marriages was as 
 2 to I, and there are 258 marriages between first-cousins for 
 every 100 marriages between persons bearing the same name. 
 We get then — • 
 
 From the advertisements 3-23 per cent. 
 
 ,, Peerage 3'5 
 
 ,, Landed gentry ..... S'Sg ,, 
 
 Mr. Darwin thinks, upon the whole, that marriages between 
 first-cousins of the same name are to marriages between first- 
 cousins of different names as i to 4 ; and that marriages 
 between persons of the same name are about 0"57 of all the 
 same-name marriages. Applying this to the previous inquiry 
 we have : — 
 
 From the advertisements ..... 3-54 per cent. 
 ,, Landed gentry ..... 375 ,, 
 ,, Peerage 4'5 >• 
 
 Mr. Darwin then obtained a return of the proportion of same- 
 name marriages to all marriages in the year 1872 in London, 
 several large towns, and some agricultural districts : — 
 
 Number of 
 
 ] carriages 
 
 registered 
 
 Percent, of 
 same-name 
 marriages 
 
 Ratio to the 
 framadvmisl 
 
 Percentage of 
 first-cousin 
 
 bylSl^met'ho" 
 
 London district . 33,155 
 Urban districts . 1 22,346 
 Rural districts . 1 13,391 
 
 055 
 071 
 079 
 
 0-50 
 
 It 
 
 .56 
 
 l-Ts 
 
I90 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIX 
 
 which shows that in the London districts the first-cousin 
 marriages are about 1-56 of all; in the urban, 2-02; and 
 rural, 2'25.' 
 
 In France some attempt has been made at an official 
 return of consanguineous marriages, not, indeed, by means of 
 a census, but by the declarations necessary before the civil 
 marriage. IVI. Boudin ^ cites the following for the years 1853 
 to 1859, and the remainder of the table is given by M. Lacas- 
 sagne : — ' 
 
 Marriages in 
 
 Nephews 
 and 
 Aunts 
 
 Uncles 
 
 and 
 Nieces 
 
 First. 
 
 Total of 
 
 Consan- 
 guineous 
 
 Total of all 
 Marriages 
 
 For 100 of 
 all Mar- 
 riages there 
 
 Consan- 
 guineous 
 
 1853-1859. 
 
 All France (except 
 
 4 departments) . 
 
 1861-1874. 
 All France . 
 Rural France 
 Urban France . 
 Seine Department 
 
 897 
 721 
 163 
 13 
 
 921 
 
 2,451 
 
 1,630 
 
 608 
 
 213 
 
 17,872 
 
 47,124 
 34,457 
 9,685 
 2,982 
 
 19,911 
 
 50.472 
 36,808 
 10,456 
 3,208 
 
 2,020,224 
 
 4,164,182 
 
 2,893,854 
 
 1,008,295 
 
 262,033 
 
 0985 
 
 1.219 
 
 We must note, however, that both in these returns and in Mr. 
 Darwin's, mistakes can only occur in the direction of reducing 
 the proportion between consanguineous and non-consan- 
 guineous marriages. In all cases it is probable that the total 
 of all sorts of marriages will betolerably correct, but that the 
 question as to the relationship will in all cases be correctly 
 answered, or even be asked at all, is impossible. 
 
 In 1863 M. Behic, Minister of Agriculture, etc. wrote to 
 the prefects, enjoining greater accuracy in their returns, and 
 in the course of his letter he says : ' Information derived 
 from trustworthy sources authorises me to believe that these 
 returns are remarkably incomplete as regards marriages 
 between first-cousins.' * The difference in the percentage of 
 
 ' G. H. Darwin, ' Marriages between First-Cousins,' in the Journal of the 
 Statistical Society iox ]vtm 1875, xxxviii. 153-164. 
 
 2 Ann. cTHygiine. Paris, 1 862. 2nci series, xviii. 7. The returns for the 
 year 1853 do not include the departments of Creuse, La Manche, Seine, and 
 Vaucluse. 
 
 ^ Diet. Emyclop. ties Sciences Medicates, art. ' Consanguinity,' xix. 708, 709. 
 I'aris, 1877. I have given the percentages on the grand totals. 
 
 ' Gazette MM. ile Paris, 3rd scries, xviii. S06. 
 
I'KOrORTION OK COUSIN MARRIAGES 
 
 191 
 
 consanguineous marriages shown in the table of 121, as 
 compared with O'gS, is the expression of the greater care 
 exercised ; but that r2i represents the whole number of con- 
 sanguineous marriages is extremely doubtful. 
 
 In Alsace-Lorraine, in Prussia, and in Italy, according to 
 official returns : — ' 
 
 In Alsace-Lorraine, 1858-65 . 
 1872-75 . 
 In Prussia in 1875 
 In Italy, 1868-71 . 
 1872-75. 
 
 Nephews 
 
 
 
 Uncles'and 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Nieces 
 0-093 
 
 
 
 I 333 
 
 .•426 
 
 0-051 
 
 1-OI2 
 
 I -068 
 
 0-062 
 
 0-612 
 
 0-674 
 0-841 
 
 0-062 
 
 0-629 
 
 0-691 
 
 I suspect that here again, especially in Prussia and Italy, 
 the returns must be very imperfect ; but I have no means of 
 judging how imperfect. In Prussia no dispensation is neces- 
 sary for the marriage of first-cousins ; and it is highly prob- 
 able that the question of the relationship of the candidates 
 for marriage is rarely put. In the case of Italy also, where 
 intercommunication is difficult and dispensation easy, the 
 official return seems to be far too low. 
 
 Dr. Down made careful inquiry into the family history of 
 200 persons who were sane and healthy, lived in different 
 districts, and who belonged to different families. He found 
 only one of these was the offspring of first-cousins, and con- 
 cludes therefore from this that consanguineous marriages form 
 0"5 per cent, of all marriages.'^ Dr. Mitchell estimates them 
 at about I'S per cent. ; a rough guess on the basis of his in- 
 quiries.^ From an inquiry into the parentage of deaf-mutes, 
 by the Census Commissioners of Ireland, there were : — ^ 
 
 ' Cited by M. Stieda, ' Les Mariages consanguins,' in the Annales de 
 Dimographie Internationale, iii. 31, 33, 36. Tables, I, 2, 7. M. Stieda goes 
 on to compare the number of consanguineous marriages of various years in dif- 
 ferent countries with the birth-rate, mentally afflicted, etc. But I venture to think 
 that a direct comparison, even were the data quite trustworthy, is not possible. 
 Take the birth-rate in France, for instance. It has been diminishing for years 
 from causes which have nothing to do with consanguinity, but chiefly on account 
 of the unwillingness of the people to have many children. 
 
 ■-■ Down, London Hospital Reports, 1866, iii. 226. 
 
 ' Mitchell, Memoir read before the Anthropological Society of London, 1866, ii. 
 415. 423- 
 
 ' Census of Ireland, 1 88 1 , Table III and p. 43 ; Report of the Status of Disease, 
 1871, Table X. and p. 21 : Hid. 1S51, p. 17. 
 
192 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 In.HeVea. 
 
 Out of 
 M.-irrUges 
 
 Consan- ' 
 
 Per 
 
 Cent. 
 
 5-2 
 67 
 
 6-9 
 4-9 
 
 1881 
 18SI 
 
 2,587 
 3,00s 
 3,523 
 3,415 
 
 135 Between cousins up to the fourth 
 201 „ ,, „ sixth 
 242 j „ ,, ,, fourth 
 170 „ „ „ third 
 
 But this, of course, is only the parentage of deaf-mutes, and 
 would only apply if these correctly represent the community, 
 which, as we shall see below, they do not. 
 
 Dr. Cameron, from private inquiries, found 38 in 3,470 
 children of first-cousins in Ireland, or ri per cent., and in 
 1879-80, from inquiries made at three workhouses, 5 out of 
 4,106 who answered, said that their parents were first-cousins,' 
 or 0-I4 per cent. Here again the probability is that many said 
 their parents were not related when they were, and that many 
 of those who did not answer were also born of first-cousins. 
 
 We have therefore absolutely no basis from which to start 
 a statistical inquiry as to the effect of consanguineous marriage 
 on the offspring, and can only proceed on very imperfect 
 estimates indeed. 
 
 Among the many charges brought against consanguineous 
 marriage, sterility, absolute or comparative, occupies a con- 
 spicuous position. It will be convenient to consider this 
 charge first ; because, if it be true, then the proportion of chil- 
 dren born to consanguineous marriages is smaller than the pro- 
 portion born in others, and consequently if the former do not 
 produce disease we should find a smaller proportion of diseased 
 born from consanguineous marriages than is the proportion 
 of the number of such marriages to other marriages.'' In the 
 same way, the reverse should be the case if consanguineous 
 marriages produced on the average larger families than other 
 marriages. 
 
 According to Oesterlcn, 20 per cent, of all marriages in 
 Great Britain were sterile in the year 185 i ;^ Simpson found 
 
 ' Cameron, Transactions of the Academy of Medicitie in Ireland., i. 219, 220. 
 
 ' Mr. Jacobs first called attention to this consideration in iheje^vis/i Chronicle, 
 
 for January I2, 1883, p. to. ' Oesterlen, Medic. Statistik, p. 196. 
 
■ ■i; 
 
 STERILITY AND I'ECUNDITY 193 
 
 1 17 per cent, of the marriages were sterile ; Dr. West found tiie 
 average about the same ; ' and Dr. Duncan puts it at 15 per 
 cent.'' Taking an average from the last three we get I2-S 
 on which to base our comparisons ; certainly a low average for 
 the sterility of marriages in England. As for the prolificness 
 of marriages, there were born in Scotland, which is a very fertile 
 country, an average of 464 legitimate children on every mar- 
 riage in 1 861 ; in England only 3-89 ; and the average is gene- 
 rally about the same ; in France, according to M. Husson, the 
 average is decreasing ; in 1866 it was only 31 per marriage for 
 all France, and only 2 per marriage for Paris, while fifty years 
 before it was 37 for all France.^ 
 
 Now, M. Devay refers to 121 marriages between relations, 
 of which 22 were sterile, or 18 per cenf From 10 marriages 
 in his own family, cited by M. Seguin, between first-cousins 
 and nearer relatives, 61 children were born, or an average of 
 6' I per marriage, and more may have been born since.^ Of 
 46 marriages between near kin reported by M. Voisin, 2 proved 
 barren, or 4-3 per cent., and 174 children were born, or an 
 average of 37 for every marriage barren and fertile.'' Of 833 
 cases of marriage between relatives collected by Dr. Bemiss, 
 53 proved barren, or 6'3 per cent. ; the remaining marriages 
 produced 3,942 children, or an average of 47 per marriage 
 barren and fertile ; ' and the following table shows that 
 marriages between blood relations are not the less fertile the 
 closer the relationship : — 
 
 10 Cases of incest between parent and child, or brother and 
 
 sister, gave an aver.<ige of children per marriage of. 3-10 
 
 12 Marriages between uncle and niece, or aunt and nephew, 
 
 gave an average of 4-42 
 
 56 Marriages between blood relations who were themselves 
 born from consanguineous marri.ages gave an 
 average of 4-18 
 
 27 Marriages between double first-cousins gave an average 
 
 of 570 
 
 ' J/,;/i,-a/ Times and Gazette, July 20, 1867, p. 76. 
 
 - Duncan, /''eciindily, Fertilily, and Sterility, p. 193. 
 
 ' Duncan, ibid. pp. 105, 106, I09, UO, 185, 186. 
 
 ' Devay, Du Danger, etc. p. 93. 
 
 > Seguin, Comptes Rendtts, 1863, Ivii. 254- 
 
 ' Voisin, Mhn. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1865, ii. 447. 
 
 ' Bemiss, Transactions of the American Medical Association, 1S5S, xi. 420, 421. 
 
 O 
 
194 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 5S0 Marriages between first-cousins gave an average of . 4 So 
 
 112 Marriages between second-cousins gave an average of . 4-58 
 
 12 Marriages between third -cousins gave an average of . 492 
 24 Marriages between first-cousins irregularly reported gave 
 
 an average of 50' 
 
 M. Cadiot collected 54 cases of marriage between relations, 
 of which 14 were barren, or nearly 26 per cent. ; but he does 
 not give the total number of children produced.^ Of 459 
 cases of consanguineous marriage given in the Appendix to 
 this work, which Include some of those already cited, there 
 were 29 barren marriages on the total, or 6'l per cent.' The 
 fertility, as affected by the relationship, may be seen in the 
 following table : — 
 
 Analysis of Cases from Appendix. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Children where 
 
 Cases where only those 
 
 
 
 
 
 each .Sign" is 
 
 are taken in which the 
 
 
 S 
 
 No. 
 
 Per 
 
 taken=l, 
 
 Total Number of 
 
 
 °& 
 
 of 
 
 Cent. 
 
 ■severar=3, 
 
 Children is given 
 
 Relationship 
 
 ^.2 
 
 
 of Mar- 
 
 and'V„a„y' = 4 
 
 
 
 
 Bar- 
 
 riages 
 
 
 
 
 z2 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 ^?rr. 
 
 riage 
 
 Mar- 
 riages 
 
 Chil- 
 dren 
 
 riage 
 
 Uncle and niece, or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aunt and nephew . 
 
 4J 
 
 4 
 
 9-75 
 
 136 
 
 3-317 
 
 27 
 
 87 
 
 3-23 
 
 First-cousins born 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from cousins . 
 
 21 
 
 I 
 
 476 
 
 84 
 
 4-0 
 
 IS 
 
 61 
 
 4-06 
 
 First-cousins . 
 
 263 
 
 17 
 
 6-46 
 
 1,032 
 
 3-92 
 
 186 
 
 748 
 
 4-02 
 
 First-cousins once 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 removed 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 107 
 
 134 
 
 478 
 
 27 
 
 131 
 
 4-85 
 
 Second-cousins . 
 
 55 
 
 3 
 
 5-46 
 
 216 
 
 3-93 
 
 39 
 
 163 
 
 4-18 
 
 More distant relation- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ship . 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 107 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 73 
 
 4-0 
 
 Children of cousins 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and no relation 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 8-34 
 
 102 
 
 2-83 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 2-57 
 
 No relationship . 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 76 
 
 53 
 
 312 
 
 12 
 
 40 
 
 3 34 
 
 Relationship not 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stated . 
 
 10 
 
 J_ 
 
 lo-o 
 
 68 
 
 6-8 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 6-8 
 
 This table is formed upon the same system as that of Dr. 
 Bemiss, ■* but it shows none of the beautiful regularity we are 
 invited to observe in that. The few cases of incest are omitted 
 
 ' B<.niiss, il'iii. pp. 420, 421 
 Appendix to this work. 
 
 •■ Cadiot, Camples Rendiis, 1863, 1 
 • See Appendix : Index to Cases. 
 
 I have corrected these averages : see the 
 97S. 
 
STERILITY AND KECUNDITV 195 
 
 because, in the nature of things, more than one child is hardly 
 likely to be born. The highest degree of barrenness is in mar- 
 riages between strangers, over twice as great as the barrenness in 
 marriages between first-cousins born from marriages between 
 cousins ! The next highest is between first-cousins once re- 
 moved. The lowest of all are marriages between persons more 
 distantly related than are second-cousins ! The highest average 
 of children is in marriages where there is relationship, but it is 
 not defined. The next, in first-cousins once removed. The 
 lowest, in children of first-cousins with no relation ; the lowest 
 but one in marriages between strangers ! 
 
 In 17 cases of consanguineous marriage collected by Mr. 
 Buxton,' 85 children were born, or 5 per marriage. 
 
 Again, in 62 cases of consanguineous marriages of Jews, 
 collected by Mr. Jacobs,'^ 3 were barren, and 3 were recent, 
 which gives, omitting the latter, a proportion of 5-4 per cent, 
 as barren. And to 3 1 marriages between first-cousins in which 
 the number of children was ascertained, including the three 
 barren cases and also one in which the wife died within the 
 first year of marriage, 144 children were born, or an average 
 of 4-6 per marriage, including the barren, and 5-3 excluding 
 them ; whereas it is well known that the Jews have generally 
 a lower birth-rate than the rest of the population. 
 
 Mr. Darwin noted 116 marriages between first-cousins in 
 Burke's ' Peerage' and ' Landed Gentry,' in 19 of which there 
 was insufficient information as to the number of sons born, and 
 in all of which the information relative to daughters was very 
 defective. Neglecting the 19 marriages and the daughters, 
 we have 97 marriages, which produced 202 sons, or 2'07 sons 
 apiece. Then Mr. Darwin took at random 2 1 7 cases of marriage 
 between unrelated persons from the same work, and found 
 that they produced 416 sons, or 1-91 per marriage. He further 
 noted 93 marriages of the offspring of cousins in which the 
 number of sons was given, and although some of these mar- 
 riages were recent, 180, or 1-93 per marriage, were recorded. 
 
 ' G. H. Darwin, ' Marriages between Fir-t-Cousins,' in the Journal of the 
 Statistical Society of London, ■s.f.fxni. 171, note. 
 
 '^ Jacobs, 'Studies in Jewish Statistics,' in the Jeivish ChrcnicU, Januan- 12, 
 1S83, p. 10. 
 
I06 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 In all these cases, however, only the sons who survived infancy 
 arc put down, and these figures can only, therefore, be compared 
 with each other. Of the 97 marriages between first-cousins 
 14 produced no issue that survived infancy. Of the 93 mar- 
 riages of children of cousins 16, and of the 217 non-consan- 
 guineous marriages 33, produced noissue that survived infancy.' 
 The results are therefore — 
 
 
 In which 
 Husband and 
 
 In which 
 one Party was 
 
 .n which 
 there was no 
 Relationship 
 
 
 Wile were 
 First-cousins 
 
 the Child of 
 First-cousins 
 
 Number of marriages observed 
 
 
 
 
 Number of sons who survived infancy 
 
 202 
 
 ISO 
 
 416 
 
 Number of cases in which no issue sur- 
 
 
 
 
 vived infancy 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 33 
 
 ■Percentage of such sterde marriages 
 
 14-4 
 
 17-2 
 
 152 
 
 Average numlier of sons on all marriages 
 
 2-07 
 
 '•93 
 
 1-91 
 
 Average number of sons per fertile mar- 
 
 2-43 
 
 2-34 
 
 226 
 
 riage 
 
 
 
 
 From these and the foregoing figures it appears that con- 
 sanguineous marriages, so far from being less prolific than 
 others, are, on the contrary, more prolific, and a much smaller 
 percentage are barren. But the fact is that these statistics are 
 not strictly reliable, although they are advanced chiefly to show 
 that these marriages are harmful ; for they have been collected 
 mostly by the Parasyngeniasts for observed evil results, and 
 consequently they have unconsciously chosen fertile cases to 
 report upon. I may add, however, that as far as I can judge 
 from these cases, there appears to be no foundation for the 
 theory that they are more likely to be barren. On the con- 
 trary, the probability is that they are rather more fertile, 
 since cousins generally marry younger than do strangers, 
 and Dr. Duncan finds that such marriages are the most 
 prolific,'^ provided always that the contracting parties are not 
 too young. 
 
 In spite of this fact, obvious to anyone who has at all 
 looked into the subject or has made any pretence to a statis- 
 tical inquiry, M. Devay, and after him M. Boudin, argue that 
 
 ' G. II. Darwin, 'Marriages between First-Cousins,' in \\\& Journal of lUe 
 Stalislical Sodely of Lortiion, ww'rn. 179 iSl. 
 
 "■ Duncan, FauHdily, I'ertilily, aiiJ Slcrilily, p. 144. 
 
DURATION 01- FAMILIES I97 
 
 because noble families generally marry in-and-in they die out ; 
 and then, continuing their argument in a circle, they assert 
 that because noble families die out therefore consanguineous 
 marriages are less prolific than are others.' The idea has not 
 even the merit of novelty to atone for its untruth, for, as we have 
 already seen, it probably took its origin from the letter of Pope 
 Gregory, who most likely made his mistake because he did not 
 understand the sense of Moses' words.^ Esquirol says, talking of 
 mental degeneration as caused by consanguineous marriages : 
 ' The same may be said of the great lords of France, who are 
 almost all relations. What a lesson for fathers, who in the 
 marriage of their children consult rather their ambition than 
 the health of their descendants ! ' ' Moheau asserts that when 
 in the centre of the French noblesse, one seems to be among a 
 crowd of sick people.* According to the ' Revue Britannique,' it 
 is said that when a grandee is announced in Spain, everyone ex- 
 pects to see a lump of deformity.'' Salvandy remarks that one 
 can see at once if there has been a mesalliance in a noble 
 family by the improvement which results.^ Knight says, 
 'Amongst ancient families, quick men are abundant ; but a 
 deep and clear reasoner is seldom seen. How well and how 
 readily the aristocracy of England speak I how weakly they 
 reason ! ' ' But although these statements may, in a few cases 
 be partially true, it is one thing to notice a disease, and quite 
 another tn a'i sign its cause. Though at cerfam epochs, and in 
 certain countries, a part of the nobles may waste their bodies 
 and substance in riotous living, we never see that their con- 
 sanguineous marriages lead to their degeneration. M. Devay 
 cites the family af the Chevalier Bayard as an example of a 
 great family which has died out, since but five persons now 
 remain out of an original total of sixty-one. To strengtlien 
 his argument, he adds the case of an idiot boy, aged twelve 
 years, who was descended from a noble family, the members 
 
 ' Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 19S-204 ; Bouclin, Ann. d'Hygihtt, 1S62, 
 xviii. 46-52. 
 
 '' See p. 25, note 4, of this work. 
 
 ' Ksquirol, Menial Malatiies, trans, by E. K. Hunt, p. 49. 
 
 ' Cited by Chateauneuf, Ann. d'Hygiine, 1846, xxxv. 40. '' Loc. cit. ibid. 
 
 ' St. Lager, Eludes sur les Causes du Cretinisme, etc. p. 112. 
 
 ' Cited by Walker, On Intermarriage, p. 434. 
 
igS THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 of which were in the habit of closely intermarrying among 
 themselves. His elder brother, though perfectly healthy and 
 successful in his studies, was of a most violent temper. There 
 had also been epilepsy in the family.' 
 
 If these marriages are sterile, says M. Mantegazza, this at 
 least must be due to consanguineous marriage, and to no other 
 cause, for most certainly it cannot be hereditary.^ The pro- 
 bability, however, is that it is hereditary. Mr. Galton points 
 out that the heirs of noble houses often retrieve their fortunes 
 by marriage with an heiress, though she be of plebeian 
 extraction. For a girl to be an heiress she can have no 
 brothers ; hence there is every probability that she will inherit 
 the comparative sterility of her parents. Mr. Galton brings 
 forward some evidence to corroborate this belief;^ and Mr. 
 Macdonald also recommends the farmer to ' select his rams 
 and ewes from among twins, or the progeny of fertile parents, 
 fecundity being well ascertained to be hereditary.' * It is there- 
 fore the cross, if anything, which brings sterility into noble 
 families, and not any intermarriage with near kin. But there 
 does not seem to be any marked sterility or loss of viability. 
 It was shown at a meeting of actuaries, in April 1 86 1, that 
 the families of the English peerage are an unusually long-lived 
 class.'* Chateauneuf shows that the Boileau family lasted 
 scarcely two centuries, although they had sixteen male children ; 
 Racine's family only lasted three generations ; Crebillon's 
 lasted but one generation ; Moliere died childless ; Corneille 
 never married. Where, he asks, are now the descendants of 
 Juvenal des Ursins, of de Mcmes, of Lhospital, L'Huillier. 
 Lemaitre, Pothier, Harlay, or de Thou?'' Did these families 
 die out from marrying in-and-in? Malthus found that out of 
 487 families admitted to the rights of citizenship, between the 
 years 1583 and 1654, by the sovereign Council of the Canton 
 of Berne, but half existed one centuiy.and only 168 still existed 
 
 ' Devay, Z>u Danger, etc. pp. Ill, 112; and Un Mot, etc. pp. 33-.1S' 
 ' Mantegazza, Studj sui Matrim. Cons. p. 34. 
 
 ' Galton, Hereditary Genius, pp. 130-140. The evidence is not very strong, 
 but his theory is highly probable in itself. 
 
 ' Macdonald, Cattle, Sheep, and Deer, p. 470. 
 
 * Letter to the Lancet, signed 'Genesis,' Nov. 15, 1S62, p. 553. 
 
 • Chateauneuf, Ann. d'Hygihie, iS4fi, sxxv. 54, 55. 
 
DURATION Ol- FAMILIES 1 99 
 
 in the year 1783 ; while of 112 famiHes who belonged to the 
 Council of Berne, in 1653, only 58 still existed in 1796. In 
 fine. Chateauneuf concludes that seven or eight consecutive 
 generations, lasting about three centuries, is the average life 
 of a nobleman's family in France ; and shows that, so far from 
 being less prolific, they are perhaps even more prolific than 
 ordinary families.' 
 
 M. Passy showed that any sterility of nobles is only a part 
 of a more general law that the birth-rate is low in all well-to- 
 do families. The smallest number of births are found in the 
 richest towns of France, and in Paris the smallest number are 
 born in the richest quarters.^ We cannot compare the via- 
 bility of a nobleman's family two or three centuries ago with 
 the present viability of even an ordinary family. Many of the 
 sons could not marry, since the law of entail forced all younger 
 sons either into the service of the Church or into the army. 
 Those who chose the former were of course obliged to live un- 
 married ; while those who entered the army were killed in 
 wars, crusades, in internecine strifes, and duels, which latter 
 not only concerned the principals, but often included a long 
 train of noble seconds. When war ceased to be the every-day 
 occupation of gentlemen, they spent their time and money 
 in debaucherj', soon lost all their substance, and were forced 
 to have recourse to selling themselves to the highest bidder 
 among the daughters of the bourgeoisie ; a state of things very 
 much deplored by Count Boulainvilliers in his writings,' and, 
 as we have seen, thus introduced sterility into naturally fertile 
 families. M. Bourgeois further points out that since neither 
 vaccination nor the treatment of children was understood, 
 and since the education of boys at that time necessarily sub- 
 jected them to very rough treatment, their viability was natu- 
 rally far lower than it is in modern times, while we have no 
 standard in plebeian families of that time to compare them 
 with." 
 
 ' Chateauneuf, Ann. (THygihie, 1846, xxxv. pp. 55, 56, 32 34. 
 
 ' Passy, trans, by Sir J. Boileau, ' On the division of Heritable Properly,' etc. 
 in the Quarterly Journal of the Stat. Soi: of London, for August 1843, vi. 1S9. 
 
 ' Chateauneuf, Aim. (TBy^ihie, 1846, xxxv. 32-36, 38, 44-5°- 
 
 ' Bourgeois, Quelle est riiifuemc <lfs Manages Cons. etc. jip. 22, 23. ' M. 
 Benoiston' (de Chateauneuf), says Devay, 'constate feffrayanle mortaliti des 
 
200 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Various ancient authors have noticed the curious fact that 
 certain persons are barren together, who are both perfectly 
 fertile with other people.' This was the case with Augustus 
 and Livia, and this it is which has induced certain authors 
 to attribute barrenness to consanguineous marriages. They 
 see a case where two relatives marry and are childless ; the 
 one dies, and the other marries again and has children. Yet 
 although this case is more partial than those noticed by Pliny, 
 the observer immediately attributes it to consanguinity, and 
 not to natural barrenness in one of the parties.^ We know 
 little of the causes of this barrenness, and hence a great many 
 causes have been assigned to it. One that is often overlooked 
 is obesity. Aristotle notices this cause in his History of 
 Animals? and Dr. Hewitt ■* agrees with him. Mr. Youatt 
 asserts that the English export trade for breeding purposes 
 has been much spoiled by the cattle shows, for now it is 
 essential that the animals should be much fattened ; and Mr. 
 Laverack, also, recommends that the bitch selected for breed- 
 ing should not be too fat ; ' she should be rather lean to 
 ensure fruitfulness.'* We shall see that unacclimatised 
 animals are often sterile, and that races of animals and plants 
 are generally sterile with each other in proportion to their 
 
 enfants en has 6ge chez les nobles ; il voit dans ce fait une cause puissante de leur 
 decadence ; je lui reponds : " Tres-bien ; mais ce qui pour le savant acad^micien 
 est une caiise^ devient unf^Ypour le physiologiste. (Diigit done la cause de cette 
 effrayante mortality des enfants nobles ? On ne saurait alleguer, ici, la misere et 
 les privations ; il y a done la un fait de I'ordre vital, un phenomene organique 
 dans la dccheance de ces grandes families. Qui doit mieiix en rendre raison que 
 la consanguinite dont les effets connus, bien constates (!), sont d'introduire un 
 principe lethiftre dans les races comme dans les families ? Et puis d'ailleurs 
 toutes les families nobles, ou privilegiees, n'ont pas guerroye, toutes n'ont pas 
 suivi I'etat ecclesiastique, et toutes ont eu le meme d&lin."' (Devay, Un Mot, 
 etc. p. 33). M. Devay, however, in the heat of his defence against the attacks 
 of M. Dally, takes no notice of the unimportant fact thai Chateauneuf does not 
 say the viability of noble families was less than that of commoners' families. 
 ( hateauneuf merely says that nobles then lived a shorter life than is usual in our 
 times, that the mortality of children was among all chasses greater than it is now, 
 and that there were many causes to extinguish ancient families. 
 
 ' Pliny, book vii. chap. xi. translated by Bostock and Riley, who also cile 
 Hippocrates, Aristotle (Hist. Anim. book vii. chap. vi. sec. 2). Lucretius, 
 book iv. chap. 1242 et seq. And also in the case of animals, see Darwin, 
 Animals and Plants, etc. 1875, ii. 146. 
 
 - See the Appendix, Cases Nos. 60, 195. 
 
 ' Aristotle, Hist. Anim. book iii. chap. xiii. sec. 4 ; book v. chap. xii. sec. 9. 
 
 * Hewitt, Diseases of Women, p. 689. 
 
 * Vouatt, On the Pig, edited by .Sidney, pp. 47, 48 ; Laverack, The Seller, 
 etc. p. 32 ; Stephens, The Book of the Faim, i. 258. 
 
GOITRE AND CRETINISM 201 
 
 difference. The most usual cause is probabl)- disease in the 
 female, of which obesity is only one form ; but brutal treat- 
 ment may also lead to barrenness.' That it is due to consan- 
 guineous marriage is, however, obviously untenable, as we 
 have already seen that, even in the cases collected by the 
 Parasyngeniasts, the average of barrenness is apparently below 
 the normal. 
 
 Of no disease is the exciting cause more obscure than in 
 cretinism ; it is a malady which forces itself upon the notice of 
 everybody, and, like other widely spread and little understood 
 diseases, has been ascribed to every origin that the ingenuity 
 of man could devise. The very list of supposed causes is so 
 great that it occupies three pages of Dr. St. Lager's luminous 
 work on the subject ; and as every one of these alleged causes 
 has found several supporters, it is not astonishing that so 
 determined a blackener of these marriages as Devay should 
 have accused them of creating cretinism. - 
 
 Now, it is very nearly certain that goitre is an early stage 
 of cretinism, or rather that the same conditions which show 
 their presence by goitre, will in time lead to that disease. 
 For we find that the greater number of cretins also have 
 goitres ; and that even those who have no apparent goitre 
 nevertheless have got a tumefaction of the thyroid gland, 
 which either develops internally or merely impedes respira- 
 tion and thickens the neck generally. Wherever there are 
 cretins there are goitreux ; but the reverse is not always the 
 case, and hence goitre is probably the first stage. Thus in 
 descending a valley first a few cases of goitre will be noticed, 
 then more, and lower down frequent cases of goitre mixed 
 with cretinism.^ It is said, says Sir Thomas Watson, that a 
 couple of generations of goitreux are sufficient to produce 
 cretinism in the third generation. Suspicion for a long time 
 pointed to the drinking water as a source of goitre ; and 
 further and wide investigations as to the nature of the soil 
 
 ' Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologic, vi. 141 ; Gerland, AiissUrhen der 
 Naturvolker. 
 
 ' Dcvay, Du Danger, e\c. pp. 7, 8, no; and Un Moi sur k Danger, Ac. p. 2$, 
 ' St. Lager, £tudes sur !cs Causes du Creiinisme, etc. pp. 22, 23, 25. 
 
202 thl; marriage of near kin 
 
 over or through which these waters ran, chiefly undertaken 
 by M'Clelland, induced Sir Thomas Watson to ascribe their 
 disastrous effects to Hme rocks.' Dr. St. Lager, as the result 
 of his researches, declares that the most constant mineral 
 in those regions where goitre and cretinism are common is 
 iron pyrites, whose presence is betrayed by crystals of 
 sulphate of calcium in calcareous rocks, by sulphate of 
 magnesium in dolomite, and by sulphate of iron and aluminium 
 in other rocks. Second in frequency, he found copper pyrites, 
 and the double sulphate of copper and iron.'-* Professor 
 Lebour, of Newcastle, endorses these conclusions, with the 
 exception that he considers the presence of lime with the 
 metals necessary.' On the other hand, Dr. Robinson points 
 out that iron is nearly everywhere present in the soil, nor will 
 it produce goitre when administered, nor will absence of lime 
 prevent it, for goitre occurs in the weald.^ Professor Klebs 
 ascribes it to the presence of minute infusoria, found, he says, 
 in the goitrous waters of Bavaria, Austria, and Switzerland, and 
 which when introduced into the waters of other places where 
 the disease has not before existed will produce it ; ^ but I am 
 not aware that this assertion has been further proved. What- 
 ever may be the particular poison, it is certain that drinking 
 water is its vehicle. In goitrous districts horses, dogs, pigs, 
 sheep, goats, and other animals may also suffer from this 
 disease.« That strangers may get it by drinking the water, 
 and that natives may in time free themselves of it by avoiding 
 the water, is a matter of common experience. After different 
 drinking water had been laid on at Bozel, in the valley of 
 Doron, Tarentaise, no more cretins were born in those families 
 who exclusively used the new water, notwithstanding that 
 before, in a community of only 1,472 persons, there were 900 
 goitreux and 109 cretins ; and only in those parts where the 
 
 1 Sir Thomas Watson, Lectures on the Pnmifles and Pradkc of riiysic, i. S3 1 . 
 
 ' St. Lager, £.tudes sur les Causes du Crt'iinisme, p. 444. 
 
 ' Lebour, reported in Nature, xxiv. 264. 
 
 ' Robinson, Endemic Gottre, pp. 42, 45. London, 18S5. 
 
 ' Klebs, in a paper ' On the Transformations of the Human Race," read at ihc 
 n>eeting of the Swiss Scientific Association at Freiburg, of which an abstract ib^ 
 given in Nature, xxix. 508. 
 
 " Robinson, Endemic Goitre, p. 50. 
 
GOITRE AND CRtXINISM 203 
 
 people were still obliged to drink the old waters did new cases 
 of goitre and cretinism occur.' 
 
 To those who urge that the people should cross as a 
 means to wipe out crdtinism, Dr. St. Lager observes : ' I have 
 seen, and whoever has visited cretinous countries has seen, 
 as I have, strong and healthy girls, who have been forced by 
 poverty to marriages of this sort, give birth to hideous cretins.' 
 Lombroso asserts that this disease is deplorably frequent 
 at Artogne, the only village of the valley of Camonica where 
 it is customary to seek wives from abroad, and ' every one 
 assured him, with one voice, that those families were most 
 affected with cretinism who were most accustomed to inter- 
 marry with strangers.' M. Billiet observes that at St.-Alban 
 and St.-Georges-des-Hurtieres, which are the principal foci of 
 endemic cretinism in Maurieime, it has long been customary 
 to seek healthy wives from the opposite side of the mountains ; 
 but that these soon get goitres, and their children are often 
 cretins. And Fabre de Meironnes says that in the commune 
 of Condamine-Chatelard, Basses-Alpes, although it is cus- 
 tomary to intermarry with the neighbouring population of 
 Meyronnes, I'Arche, and St. Paul, where there are no cretins 
 and but few goitrcux, the people are nevertheless very sub- 
 ject to madness, idiocy, and cretinism. Dr. Trombotto indeed 
 heard that the Valaisans accuse their intermarriages with 
 the inhabitants of the valley of Aosta, and these their in- 
 termarriages with the Valaisans, of engendering cretinism 
 amongst them. Lombroso further adds that the people of 
 Ouistello, Mantua, where cretinism is unknown, all belong to 
 the same family, the Valvassini ; ^ indeed this kind of evidence 
 is given in abundance in the preceding chapter. As far as 
 statistics go concerning consanguineous marriages in Valais, 
 Maurienne, Tarentaise, and Aosta, they point to the para- 
 doxical conclusion that mixed marriages produce more 
 cretins than do others ; and for this reason : in healthy 
 districts the young men are not obliged to go out of their 
 village to seek health and beauty in a wife ; moreover the 
 
 ' St. Lager, Eluile! sur Ics Causa du Cn'tiiiisiiii;, etc. pp. 197, 19S. 
 - Jtiii. pp. no, III, 115. 
 
204 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 healthiest population live on the higher Alps, and are rather 
 isolated ; but the population lower down, where the water has 
 had more time to linger among the rocks, are less healthy, 
 and here it is easier to contract mixed marriages, because, as 
 a rule, the ground is not so difficult, and intercommunication 
 is consequently easier.' 
 
 It is not a little remarkable that the greatest proportion 
 of idiots and deaf-mutes is found precisely where are the 
 greatest number of goitreux. The four following States of 
 North America — 
 
 
 Idiots. 
 
 Deaf-mutes. 
 
 State of New York 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1,399 
 1,285 
 
 1.307 
 1,004 
 
 947 
 711 
 
 Virginia 
 
 are precisely those where goitre is commonest. Florida is 
 credited with only thirty-seven idiots, and this State is 
 entirely free from goitre.^ This connection of deaf-mutism 
 with goitre is well worthy of further investigation, and may 
 explain M. de Watteville's observation that there are about 
 half as many deaf-mutes again in the mountainous parts of 
 France compared with those in the plain ; ' and M. Chazarain 
 also noticed that where deaf-mutes were commonest, there 
 al.so were most cretins ; ** an observation to the same effect 
 was also made by M. Meniere.' 
 
 Cretinism has often been mistaken for idiocy, but the two 
 are essentially different, as may be seen from the following 
 comparison : — 
 
 Cretinism. 
 endemic in parlicula 
 
 parts. 
 
 II. There is an arrest of develop- 
 ment which affects the whole system. 
 
 III. The greater number of cretins 
 are deformed, stunted, and hideous. 
 
 Idiocy. 
 
 I. Spread indiscriminately all over 
 the world. 
 
 II. Arrest of development as a rule 
 only afiects the head. 
 
 III. Many idiots are perfectly well 
 formed. 
 
 St. Lager, Etudes sur les Causes du Cn'tinisme, etc. p. 1 1 6. 
 /hid. p. 26. ' Chipault, &tudes sur les Mar. etc. p. S4. 
 
 Chazarain, Du Mortage, etc. comiiie Cause de Digenerescence, etc. I S59, p. 31. 
 Gat. Mid. de Paris, 1856, xi. 304. 
 
20S 
 
 Cretinism. 
 
 IV. Over two-thirJs of the cretins IV. Neither idiots themselves nor 
 Tihn have goitres. their immediate ancestors have goitres. 
 
 V. The teeth appear late, are ir- V. Various injuries, 
 regidar, and decay prematurely. A 
 
 premature ossification of the cranial 
 sutures (except in cases of hydrocepha- 
 lus). Occasional ossification of the 
 cartilages. A malformed, narrow, y&ra- 
 men magjium. The cerebral hemi- 
 spheres are not symmetrical ; and some 
 parts of the cerebral substance are thick- 
 ened. 
 
 VI. The sole cause is the nature of VI. Multiple causes : — 
 
 the soil through which the drinking Congenital Idiocy is caused by the 
 
 water percolates. [? Or, rather, the vices of the parents : drunkenness, 
 nature of the drinking water.] senility, accidents, and inheritance. 
 
 Acquired Idiocy is due to different 
 diseases ; such as convulsions, epilepsy, 
 typhoid fever, drunkenness, etc. ' 
 
 The causes of idiocy are not sharply (defined ; they are 
 multiple and obscure, and it has been found convenient, 
 therefore, to shift the responsibility of its production upon 
 the broad shoulders of consanguineous marriage. The 
 sources of every congenital disease must be looked for in the 
 pathological history of the family, in the state of both parents 
 before the conception, in the history and health of the mother 
 during gestation, and in the accidents of birth. Now, Dr. 
 Carpenter believes that a continued state of anxiety and 
 nervous shocks during gestation may cause idiocy in the 
 offspring. Thus, at the siege of Landau, in the year 1793, 
 in addition to a violent cannonading, which kept the women 
 in a constant state of alarm, the arsenal blew up with a terrific 
 explosion, which few could hear with unshaken nerves. Out 
 of ninety-two children born in that district within a few months 
 afterwards, sixteen died at the instant of birth ; thirty-three 
 languished for from eight to ten months, and then died ; 
 eight became idiots, and died before the age of five years ; 
 and two came into the world with numerous fractures of the 
 bones of the limbs, probably caused by irregular uterine 
 
 ' St. Lager, £luJes sur les Causes dii Cretinismc, etc. p. 10. 
 
2o6 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 contractions.' It may be caused during parturition, by a 
 bungling midwife, or the use of surgical instruments,^ though 
 this is rare. The argument that long-continued pressure on 
 the brain practised by some savages does not produce idiocy 
 does not apply here, since that pressure is gradual. But that 
 there is a danger to first-born children, especially to males, 
 who have larger heads, is incontestable. Dr. Ireland has 
 collected considerable evidence of this in his able and 
 exhaustive work.' It seems to be connected with immaturity 
 or senility of the mother, for Dr. Mitchell found that out of 
 443 idiots he examined, 138 were first-born, or 311 percent. ; 
 eighty-nine were the last birth, or 20-i per cent. ; making in 
 all 227 idiots, out of 443, who were born at the extremes of 
 married life, or more than half."" Now, about every sixth 
 idiot is illegitimate in Scotland, and these, as a rule, are either 
 first-born or last-born : ^ hence Dr. Mitchell collected eighty-five 
 cases of idiocy where the subjects were all born in wedlock, 
 and all congenital cases, although he excluded all in whose 
 family there was more than one case of idiocy, and all whose 
 mother was not already beyond the age of childbearing 
 when the inquiry was instituted ; with the result of confirming 
 his previous theory, that the children born at the extremes of 
 married life are more likely to be idiots than are others.' 
 
 The effect of the habitual abuse of alcohol by parents is 
 unfortunately only too evidently a cause of idiocy in the off- 
 spring. Dr. Elam states that on the removal of the spirit duty 
 in Norway insanity increased 50 per cent, and congenital 
 
 ' Carpenter, Human Physiology, p. 864 ; see also Reynolds' System of MeJi- 
 cine, ii. 38 ; and the Cetisus Report 0/1871 on the Status 0/ Disease in Ireland. 
 
 '' Down, Lotulon Hospital Reports, iii. 233, 234. 
 
 ' Ireland, On Idiocy and Imbecility, pp. 203-211. 
 
 ' This is confirmed by the Census Report of \%-]\ on the Status of Disease in 
 Ireland; for in I,2l6 cases out of 3,087 of deaf-mutism, the deaf-mute was the 
 first birth, the last birth, or both. 
 
 ' Dr. Howe says that many idiots have become so by attempts at abortion, 
 and these are usually made when the child is illegitimate (y««-na/c//'y<-;4. Med., 
 July 1858, pp. 394, 395). M. Perier also considers that there are a greater pro- 
 portion of malformed children among foundlings than among other classes ; and 
 Morel seems to be of the same opinion. In the years 1865- 1866, 22 per cent, of 
 the bastards were rejected from the conscripts for want of height ; 33 per cent, of 
 the foundlings; and only 16 per cent, of the legitimate children (see Mim. de la 
 Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1870, iii. 217, 218). 
 
 ' loc. cii. Duncan, Fecundity, etc. pp. 392, 393, note. 
 
iniocY A\n EPiLEi'sv 207 
 
 idiocy by 150 per cent.' Dr. Lannuricn, of tlie establish- 
 ment for mental diseases at Morlai.x, in Bretagne, says, ' I do 
 not hesitate to attribute the greater number of cases of idiocy 
 in this establishment to that cause.' ^ Dr. Ruez noticed that 
 idiocy was very common among the miners of Westphalia, 
 who, living apart from their wives, only came home, and 
 generally got drunk, on their holidays ; and M. Devay saj-s 
 that Morel also observed the same results elsewhere from 
 the same cause.' Dr. Delasiauve instances the village of 
 Careme, whose riches were its vineyards, the inhabitants of 
 which place were forced to be a little more sober in conse- 
 quence of ten years' vine-disease. This, he says, had a 
 sensible effect in diminishing the cases of idiocy.* From an 
 inspection of the Report of the Commissioners appointed by 
 the Legislature of Massachusetts in 1846, to inquire into the 
 condition of the idiots of that State, Dr. Howe finds that 
 out of 359 cases in which the parentage could be ascertained, 
 99 were the children of notorious and habitual drunkards. 
 By pretty careful inquiry as to the number of idiots of the^ ' 
 lowest class derived from parents known to be temperate in 
 their habits, it was found that not one-quarter was so derived.^ 
 Nor does the evil influence of drunkenness end here. 
 Demeaux assured himself that of 36 epileptic patients he had 
 had under his observation during twelve years, and whose 
 history he was able to trace, 5 were conceived in drunkenness. 
 He observed two children of the same family suffering under 
 congenital paraplegia, whose conception also took place while 
 the father was drunk. A youth tainted with insanity and 
 an idiot five years of age were engendered under the same 
 circumstances.'' Dr. Maudsley assures us that insanit}', 
 epilepsy, hysteria, syphilis, tuberculosis, alcoholism, and even 
 neuralgia in the parent predisposes the offspring in many 
 
 ' Elam, A Physician's Problems, p. 84. 
 
 ' St. Lager, Etudes sur les Causes du Crciinisme, etc. p. 114. 
 
 • Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 11, 12. 
 
 ' Devay, ibid. p. UI. M. Devay says crltinisme, but he is probably mis- 
 taken. 
 
 > Howe, 'On the Causes of Idiocy,' in Xhs Journal of Psych, etc. July 1858, 
 p. 388. 
 
 " Devay, Du Danger, etc. p. 10. 
 
2oS THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 cases to insanity. Alcoholism is also induced by these 
 diseases ; a tendency to alcoholism is also inherited ; and 
 thus they act and react on each other. ' Perhaps the most 
 frequent causes of an arrest of mental development are those 
 which operate after birth up to the third or fourth year : they 
 are epilepsy, the acute exanthemata, perhaps syphilis, and 
 certainly conditions of bad nutrition, such as are produced by 
 overcrowding, dirt, and want,' to which may be added hydro- 
 cephalus, convulsions, and their causes.' As to the question 
 whether epilepsy is hereditary, Moreau concludes that it is ; 
 Tissot thinks cases of inheritance exceptional, and in this he 
 is supported by Gintrac ; Beau found in 232 cases which he 
 examined, 22 cases which were inherited ; and Delasiauve 
 found in 133 cases, 13 inherited, since 3 had mothers who 
 were epileptic, i had a brother and i an aunt thus affected, 
 while in 8 other cases 2 had uncles who were idiots, i a 
 brother an idiot, i a mother subject to convulsions, i a brother 
 subject to convulsions, 2 had mothers who were hysterical, and 
 I an aunt who was insane.^ Out of 95 cases of epilepsy enu- 
 merated in the Irish Census Report for 1871, 19 were said to be 
 inherited.' Dr. Reynolds says the ' large majority of cases owe 
 their malady to other causes than inherited tendency, a certain 
 number of those whose parents exhibit a like affection to their 
 own may have become morbid independently of hereditary 
 taint. It is well known that many of the children of epileptic 
 parentage are free from the disease, and it is quite clear that 
 many epileptics, descended from epileptic stock, have been ex- 
 posed to causes of the malady which would, of themselves, have 
 been held sufficient to have produced the malady independently 
 of any constitutional taint.' He considers that perhaps one- 
 third of the cases may be hereditary ; of other causes there were 
 in 63 cases, 29 due to fright, grief, or overwork ; 16 to irritation, 
 such as indigestion, dentition, dysentery, venereal excesses, 
 etc. ; 9 to general organic changes, such as fatigue, pregnancy, 
 
 ' Reynolds' System of M<-di(ine, ii. 12, 15, 37, 3S, 164. 
 - Cliipault, ^7tt./c.t .tar /cm Mar. etc. p. 15. 
 
 ' Report of the Census Commissioners on the Status of Disease in Ireland, 
 1871, p. 77. 
 
IDIOCV 209 
 
 rheumatic fever, and acute diseases ; and 9 to accidental 
 hurts, such as blows, cuts, etc. In about half of these cases 
 convulsions had occurred in infancy ; and it is extremely 
 probable that convulsions from the organic lesions of the 
 brain which they often indicate are frequently followed by 
 idiocy and cpilcps)-.' 
 
 Indeed, since the abuse of alcohol is a fruitful source of 
 degeneracy in the parent, we should suspect that it also fre- 
 quently led to degeneracy in the offspring ; '^ and since any 
 cause such as syphilis, alcoholism, or other diseases or habits W 
 of the parents tending to weaken them are apt to produce an 
 arrest of mental development in the offspring, since most of 
 these causes are hidden to all but the parents, and sometimes 
 doubtless are ignored even by them ; since, moreover, an 
 idiotic child may thus be born from apparently healthy 
 parents, and even in many cases from really healthy pa- 
 rents, quite irrespective of any consanguinity between them, 
 it behoves us to be especially cautious how we accept the 
 evidence tendered to us by those who advocate the theory 
 that marriages between near kin lead to degeneracy in the 
 offspring. 
 
 Now Dr. Voisin states, as the result of a careful examina- 
 tion of 1,077 of his patients at Bicetre and Salpetriere, that 
 in no one instance could healthy consanguinity be regarded y 
 as a cause of idiocy, epilepsy, or insanity ;■' yet Dr. Howe - 
 evidently considers his case proved when he says that he 
 found, among 359 idiots, 17 who were known to be the 
 produce of such marriages, and thinks that from collateral 
 evidence 3 more cases should be added, making in all 20 out 
 of the 359 whose parents were related. I do not quite under- 
 stand what he means here, for he goes on to say, ' The 
 
 ' Reynolds' System of Medicine, ii. 294, 295, 297, 298, 262, 263. 
 
 ' Dr. Ireland, indeed, is not inclined to attribute much idiocy to the influence 
 of intemperance in the parents. ' I am inclined tu think,' he says, ' that a strict 
 observer, speaking ip dh j I m l.n. .v, I. Il' -T inn : 1!- , 'AMiild hesitate to say that 
 any consider.Tl.il i I .11, 1 1 ' 1 ;i ' 'rtiy and finbecilily, \). 
 
 28). But if Ih I i i - ' \ ' \t><m Dr. Magnus Huss' 
 
 Ueber die end, '::■..-, ,: A .,v : -; A , :. /, -■ , in nmlworthy, it is difficult 
 
 to avoid the cnnckision that an increase in ciinyenital idiocy of 150 percent, in 
 ten years is directly due to intemperance, and not only mediately through a neurotic 
 degeneration. ' I.oi:. cil. Medical Times and Gazelle, Oct. 10, 1S68, p. 436, 
 
210 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Statistics of the 17 families, the heads of which, being blood 
 relatives, intermarried, tells a fearful tale. Most of the parents 
 were intemperate or scrofulous ; some were both the one and 
 the other ; of course, there were other causes to increase 
 chances of infirm offspring, besides that of intermarriage. 
 There were born unto them 95 children, of whom 44 were 
 idiotic, 12 others were scrofulous and puny, i was deaf, and 
 I was a dwarf! In some cases all the children were either 
 idiotic or very scrofulous and puny. In one family of 8 
 children 5 were idiotic' ' From which I presume that each 
 of the 17 families had one representative idiot in some insti- 
 tution from which the returns were culled. Hence, dismiss- 
 ing the first comparison, we find that among 95 children, the 
 produce of 17 consanguineous marriages, 44 were idiots, or 
 nearly half Dr. Mitchell examined every case of idiocy in 
 nine counties of Scotland, namely, Aberdeen, Bute, Clack- 
 mannan, Fife, Kincardine, Kinross, Perth, Ross and 
 Cromart}', and Wigtown, with the following result : — 
 
 Whole number of idiots and imbeciles examined . 711 
 
 Of these were illegitimate . . . 108 
 ,, parents unknown . . 84 
 
 Total 192 
 Total number whose parentage was known . .519 
 
 Of these the parents were related in cases numbering . 98 
 ,, „ not related „ ,, . 421 
 
 Of the 98 idiots whose parents were related : — 
 The parents were first-cousins in 42 cases. 
 ,, ,, second ,, 35 ,, 
 third ,, 21 „ 
 
 He also gives an analysis of fifty-nine cases where he 
 
 found that more than one child in the same family was an 
 
 idiot, but with this we have nothing to do here, as such cases 
 
 do not represent the whole. Taking then the idiots born in 
 
 wedlock whose parentage was known, on a total of 519 we 
 
 have ninety-eight who were born in consanguineous marriage 
 
 up to the eighth degree, or iS'i per cent.'- Dr. Down, on the 
 
 other hand, found that on a total of 85 2 idiots, from which all 
 
 cases in which an element was doubtful have been excluded, 
 
 ' Howe, Journal of Psych, etc. July 1858, pp. 393, 394. 
 
 ' Mitchell, Mem. read before the Anthrof. Soc. of Lono'oii, 1866, ii. 414 417. 
 
IDIOCY 211 
 
 sixty were the produce of consanguineous marriages up to 
 the eighth degree, thus : — 
 
 The parents were first-cousins in 46 cases. 
 ,, „ second „ 6 ,, 
 
 third „ 8 „ 
 
 Of the marriages between first-cousins, two were a little 
 more nearly related, the parents of these cases being them- 
 selves the issue of consanguineous marriages.' Dr. Down 
 therefore derives seven idiots in every hundred from consan- 
 guineous marriages. Dr. Bcmiss found among 192 children, 
 born from thirty-four consanguineous marriages, in all four 
 idiots, or only 2 percent.^ And on a total of 833 consanguineous 
 marriages he found 7-8 per cent, of the children were idiots ; 
 while on a total of 125 marriages between persons in no way 
 related by blood he found 07 per cent, of the children were 
 idiots.' [ Yet , notw ithstanding these facts, and the difficulty 
 which iVjicknowledges there is in obtaining an insight into 
 the parentage of patients in asylums, he asserts that he feek 
 he is authorised to assume that I S per cent, of the idiots in) 
 the United States asylums are of consanguineous parentages' 
 
 Dr. Ireland found among 204 families which had produced 
 idiot children, nine marriages between cousins, or 4-4 per 
 cent. ; of which seven were between first-cousins, and two 
 between second-cousins. In six of the marriages between first- 
 cousins forty-two children were born, and in one the number 
 was not given. The two marriages between second cousins 
 produced seventeen children. Hence eight consanguineous 
 marriages produced fifty-nine children, or an average of 7-4 
 nearly per marriage. In one of these eight families Dr. Ireland 
 suspected other members were idiotic, and assuming that 
 there were three idiots in this family, we shall have a total of 
 eighteen idiots of consanguineous origin as compared with 
 
 ' Down, London Hospital Reports, 1866, iii. 2:5. He has evidently made a 
 mistake in the total number of male idiots from which he takes the number of 
 those born from consanguineous unions —having taken the total of those where the 
 doubtful cases have not been eliminated, while he takes the right total of the 
 females. I have ventured to correct this from the context. 
 
 - Dr. Bemiss says /?/ children on one page, and 1<)2 children on the next 
 l^fournal of Psych. Med. and Ment. Path. April 1857, p. 370). 
 
 ' Bemiss, Trans, of the Amer. Med. Assoc, for 1858, xi. 420-423 See also 
 the Appendix to this work. ' Bemiss, iHd. p. 330. 
 
 ■e 2 
 
212 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 195, at one per marriage, of non-consanguineous origin, or 8'5 
 per cent.' In answer to Mr. G. H. Darwin's circular, Dr. 
 Grabham, of Earlswood, inquired of the parents of 1,388 
 patients whether they were first-cousins,^ and found that fifty- 
 three patients were so derived, or 3'8 per cent. The com- 
 missioners appointed to report on idiocy to the General 
 Assembly of Connecticut, in the year 1856, found that of 160 
 cases in which the question was answered' whether there was 
 any relationship between the parents of the idiot in question, 
 twenty were found to be so related, or I2-5 per cent.^ 
 
 Now let us compare the results of these observations : — 
 
 Observers 
 
 Total Number of 
 Idiots examined 
 
 Total Number derived 
 
 from Consanguineous 
 
 Marriages 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Grabham . 
 Howe . 
 Down . 
 Ireland 
 
 Commission of . , 
 Connecticut . f 
 Beniiss . 
 Mitchell 
 
 .388 
 
 359 
 852 
 213 
 ■ 60 
 
 ' from re 
 5-9 
 
 S3 
 
 17 (or 20) 
 60 
 iS 
 20 
 earches ' 
 98 
 
 3-8 
 
 47 (or 5-5) 
 
 12-5 
 
 15-0 
 
 VVc see fluctuations here between 38 and 18 per cent. ; a 
 difference which points conclusively to the fact that these 
 statistics are entirely worthless. Indeed, the disturbing 
 causes are so many that a few hundred cases like these 
 cannot rise above them. When governments see the force 
 of making these returns compulsory in the census ; when this 
 is carried out with a due regard to other questions necessarj' 
 to elucidate the matter, and when we thus have returns by 
 the million, so that a false report or two on either side may 
 be but as a drop in the ocean — then, and not till then, can we 
 venture to deduce conclusions with safety from observations 
 of this kind. 
 
 Of thirty-five cases of insanity and idiocy reported on by 
 Dr. Mitchell, in the island of Lewis, there were born — 
 
 ' Ireland, On Idiocy and Imhecilily, p. 22. 
 
 ^ G. H. Darwin, ' Marriages between First-cousins,' in the Journal of the 
 Stat. Soc. xxxviii. l66. 
 
 " Mitchell, yT/<!«. read before the Anthropological Society of London, 1866, 
 ii. 420, 4?l; Hemiss, Trans, of the Amar. RIed.' Aaoc. for 1858, xi. 331, 
 
INSANITY 
 
 213 
 
 or parents known not to be related ic 
 
 Of parents known to be related : - 
 
 First-cousins 2 
 
 Second . . 3 
 
 More distant relatives -6 
 
 The 
 
 !Of ^ 
 
 Of parents concerning whom nothing ' 
 
 vn (this inclu 
 
 illegitimates) 7 
 Total 35 
 
 Also, on a total of 260 cases reported on from the counties of 
 Ross and Cromarty, and Wigtown, Dr. Mitchell obtained in- 
 formation concerning the parentage of 177, of which 41 were 
 born from marriages between relations. Of these 41, 37 were 
 idiots, and 4 laboured under acquired insanit}-. Of the re- 
 maining 136 not descended from consanguineous marriages, 
 101 were idiots, and 35 laboured under acquired insanity.' 
 
 Far more reliable are the statistics obtained by Mr. G. H. 
 Darwin in reply to his circulars : — '^ 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^S 
 
 Ih 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Asylum 
 
 Doctors 
 
 zi 
 
 Z| 
 
 
 
 
 West Riding, , 
 Wakefield . .1 
 
 Crichton 1 
 
 1407 
 
 655 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 ( Includes 
 1 some idiots 
 (Also 12 cases 
 
 Hanwell 
 
 Rayner . 
 
 380 
 
 255 
 
 2 or 3 
 
 07 to 1-2 
 
 of doubtful 
 .consanguinity 
 
 Warneford, Oxford . 
 
 Eyewater 
 Ward 1 
 
 59 
 
 20 
 
 none 
 
 
 
 
 Mickleover, 
 Derby . . .1 
 
 Murray , 
 Lindsay ( 
 
 364 
 
 198 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 Caterham 
 
 Adam . 
 
 1906 
 
 S60 
 
 20 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 Glamorgan 
 
 Vellowlees 
 
 492 
 
 218 
 
 9 
 
 4' 
 
 
 Chester . 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 4 SO 
 
 221; 
 
 3 
 
 1-3 
 
 
 Nottingham . 
 
 Phillimore 
 
 390 
 
 200 
 
 4 to 9 
 
 2 to 4-5 
 
 
 Grove Hall, Bow . 
 
 Mickle . 
 
 427 
 
 181 
 
 8 
 
 4 '4 
 
 
 Hatton, Warwick . 
 
 Woods . 
 
 '.V 
 
 2S8 
 
 8or9 
 
 3-J to3-S 
 
 
 Montrose 
 
 Howden . 
 
 406 
 
 141 
 
 8 
 
 57 
 
 
 Crichton, Dumfries . 
 
 Gilchrist . 
 
 146 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 
 7 '8 
 
 
 Southern Counties, 1 
 Dumfries . 1 
 
 Anderson 
 
 3i8 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 Murray, Perth { 
 
 Lindsay ( 
 
 80 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 Perth District . 
 
 Mcintosh 
 
 229 
 
 78 
 
 3 
 
 3-8 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,591 
 
 3-2841' {2]° 3'5'°V7 
 
 
 ' Mitchell, jl/ciii. read before the Anthropological Society of l.oniion, 1866, 
 ii. 418,433- 
 
 ■-' G. H. Darwin, 'On Marriages helwcen litst-couiins,' in \.\\k Journal of 
 the Stat. Soc. xxxviii. 166. 
 
2 14 THE MARRIAGE OE NEAR KIN 
 
 In the island of Lewis, therefore, 427 per cent, of the cases 
 of insanity were derived from consanguineous marriages ; 
 and in Ross, Cromarty, and Wigtown, there were nearly 23-2 
 per cent. These figures, as might be expected, do not agree, 
 for microscopic statistics always leave too much to chance. 
 In Mr, Darwin's statistics 3-8 per cent, only are so derived, 
 and we have reason to believe that at least this number is the 
 proportion of first-cousin marriages to others, while we know 
 further that first-cousin marriages produce more offspring 
 than do others ; and hence if 3-8 is the percentage of insanity 
 from these marrjag^Sj thaLdLseajeJsJessJjkelyJo_occi^^ 
 cousins mariy'than wiien.5trangersjnarry. 
 
 Chorea, another alleged result of consanguineous marriages, 
 is brought on by anything that makes a person what is called 
 'nervous'— by inheritance, therefore, of a tendency to epi- 
 lepsy, paralysis, hysteria, insanity, etc.; or it may be caused 
 by fright or irritation, such as dentition, worms, etc.; and it 
 is nearly always combined with cardiac disease, which is, in 
 its turn, induced by rheumatism. Of 104 cases of chorea 
 examined, fifteen only were free from cardiac murmur and 
 had not suffered previously from rheumatism. It follows, 
 therefore, that a rheumatic diathesis, when inherited, may 
 be numbered among the causes of chorea, just as it may, also, 
 of epilepsy.' The statistics adduced '^ to prove the origin of 
 this disease in consanguineous marriage are disproved in the 
 refutation of other statistics of the same class. 
 
 M. Chazarain has attempted to show that these mar- 
 riages tend to the production of deaf-mutism in the off- 
 spring ; ■■' and in France MM. Boudin, Devay, and Chipault 
 have caught up and enlarged upon the theorj^ ; it has been 
 specially investigated in the United States of America ; and, 
 after being the subject of much desultory inquiry in Great 
 Britain, it is gradually getting to be a subject of official 
 
 > Reynolds' System of Medicine, ii. 189, 198-201, 206, 207, 221. 
 ' See Appendix to this work. , „. . „ 
 
 " Chazarain, Du Mariage tntre Cons, fensiderc comme Cause deD,S'n- Org. 
 el fins particttli^rement de Surdimutiti Congenitalc. 
 
DEAF-MUTISM 21$ 
 
 investigation by means of the census. It behoves us, however, 
 before we compare the results of all these inquiries, to examine 
 as far as possible what other causes may produce congenital 
 deaf-mutism, in order that we may eliminate disturbing 
 factors from our problem, and start as nearly as possible on 
 clear ground, just as we have already done in our inquiries 
 on insanity and on goitre. Now, these various causes are 
 tabulated in the Irish Reports,' from which it appears that, 
 whatever the immediate, the remote cause of congenital deaf- 
 mutism must lie in the transmission of nervous disease, and 
 must therefore be looked for primarily in the general causes 
 of nervous disease, and secondarily in accidental causes. 
 This nervous disease may affect both the tongue or the ear, 
 or the one organ alone, and may be inherited in such a va- 
 riet>' of ways that we may well despair of ever ascertaining, 
 without the help of a general census, how consanguinity of 
 the parents affects it. For it may be caused by hydro- 
 cephalus, chorea, convulsions, paralysis, or epilepsy directly, 
 and by the causes of these and of other nervous affections 
 indirectly : we have seen that, deaf-mutism is influenced 
 probably, as idiocy, by the position in the family of the child, 
 whether a first or last birth, or the only child ; it is also caused 
 by an inherited tendency to inflammation of the lining mem- 
 brane of the ear, with a gouty, rheumatic, or scrofulous con- 
 stitution ; by amaurosis of the nerve from inherited syphilis ; 
 or it may be caused in a variety of ways so soon after birth 
 that it is impossible to say whether the disease was con- 
 genital or not. It may very likely be sometimes caused 
 by drinking goitrous waters,'^ and is certainly hereditary like 
 other chronic diseases.' 
 
 Seeing, then, that trustworthy statistics are wanting, we 
 should expect the question to remain in abeyance until there 
 
 ' Census of Ireland, Status of Disease. - See jx 204 of this work. 
 
 ' Reynolds' System of Medicine, i. 740, 757 ; ii. 262, 263 ; Campbell, 
 Deafness and its Causes, etc. ; Pennefather, Deafuss, etc. ; and the Census 
 Reports on the Status of Disease in Ireland. Ur. Graham Hell, also, calls at- 
 tention to the clanger of deaf-mute asylums, which, by promoting marriages 
 between deaf-mutes, tend to create a race suffering from this defect. (Taper 
 read at the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences at New Haven, U.S.A., 
 18S3. Reported in Nature, xxix. 161.) 
 
(^ 
 
 2l6 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 was some safe ground to go upon. Other men, however, have 
 thought differently, and have asserted, as a truth, deductions 
 from statistics which could not possibly yield the truth ; and 
 since scientific men have been found who accept these asser- 
 tions, it will be my duty to point out more clearly where they 
 are fallacious. In the first place, their method of procedure 
 is obviously untrustworthy, for they either inquire into the 
 parentage of as many deaf-mutes as they can find, and then 
 compare the result with what they suppose to be the relative 
 numbers of consanguineous and non-consanguineous marriages, 
 or they collect as many cases of consanguineous marriage as 
 they are able, and then analyse the result. Now, in the first 
 place, suppose that in 400 marriages between near kin, 200 
 produced two deaf-mutes apiece ; and that 400 marriages 
 between persons not related produced each one deaf-mute; 
 we should say that all the non-consanguineous marriages 
 produced unhealthy offspring, while only half the consan- 
 guineous marriages turned out badly. If, however, we had all 
 these deaf-mutes together in an asylum, and inquired into 
 their parentage, consanguineous marriage generally would 
 appear to produce double as many deaf-mutes as the non- 
 consanguineous. In other words, this method of research 
 presupposes three things to be true, all of which we have more 
 evidence to believe untrue, to wit : that an equal proportion 
 of deaf-mutes are born to each consanguineous as to each 
 non-consanguineous marriage ; that an institution (generally 
 charitable) is a true mirror of the state of deaf-mutism in the 
 general population ; ' and, thirdly, that we know the propor- 
 tion of consanguineous marriages to the non-consanguineous, 
 which I have already shown that we do not. The uncertainty of 
 any one of these premises is sufficient to damn any conclusion 
 based on the whole. The uncertainty of all three premises 
 makes the worthlessness of the deductions overwhelmingly 
 decisive. The second method of research— by the collection 
 of cases of consanguineous marriage — I have shown in the 
 
 ' The fallacy of which is strikingly exemplified in the seventeen cases of idiocy 
 reported by Dr. Howe (see p. 210 of this work), and in the facts concerning the 
 number of Jews in the Deaf-mute Asylum at Paris (see p. iSo of this work). 
 
DEAl' -.MUTISM 217 
 
 Appendix to be utterly untrustworthy, except as a proof of the 
 harmlcssness of these marriages ; because there is a greater 
 likelihood that more than the natural proportion of consan- 
 guineous marriages which have turned out badly will be 
 noticed. 
 
 But let us see what has been done. M. Boudin says he 
 examined the books of the Imperial Institution for Deaf-mutes 
 at Paris. At the time of his visit, which occurred in January 
 1S62, there were 200 deaf-mutes, of which ninety-five were 
 congenital cases ; but the parentage of sixty-seven only was 
 satisfactorily ascertained. The parents of forty-eight of these 
 sixty-seven were not related, while the remaining nineteen 
 were derived from marriages between relatives, or 28-35 per 
 cent, were of consanguineous origin. Hence, he argues, there 
 were fourteen times as many deaf-mutes of consanguineous 
 origin as there should have been were these marriages as 
 harmless as others;' because he values these marriages at 2 
 per cent, of all marriages ; a figure which, as we have seen, 
 is founded on mere guesswork. M. Dally went to the same 
 institution, but, instead of restricting himself to the deaf-mutes 
 then present in the asylum, he carefully analysed the records 
 of all the cases which had passed through that institution, 
 with the following result: out of 315 cases, 124 were con- 
 genital, of which eighteen only were derived from consan- 
 guineous marriages ; thus — 
 
 Derived from marriages between first-cousins - . . .6 
 From second -cousins and others up to the seventh degree . 1 1 
 From marriage between aunt and nephew . . . . r 
 
 Nor, perhaps, were all these eighteen cases really derived 
 from consanguineous marriages, for four of them were only 
 supposed to be so from the similarity of the parents' names. 
 Dropping, therefore, these four from our calculations, we have 
 a total of fourteen deaf-mutes, half of whom were born from 
 parents very distantly related, and the other half from parents 
 who can really be considered as related, on a total of 120 
 cases; or 117 percent, if we count the distant relationship, 
 
 ■II,; xviii. S 10. 
 
 iition of the mother's also deaf-mute ; another has a 
 
 ? 
 
2l8 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 and 5'8 percent, if we only count the nearer. Now M. Dally, 
 with quite as much authority as M. Boudin, estimates the pro- 
 portion of marriages between first-cousins alone at figures vary- 
 ing between 1-4 in a division of Paris where the population is 
 constantly shifting, to 8 per cent, in some provinces where the 
 population is stationary.' From which it follows that the 
 number of deaf-mutes derived from consanguineous marriages, 
 which chance has sent to the institution at Paris, is not out of 
 proportion to the estimated number of consanguineous mar- 
 riages, as compared with the non-consanguineous. M. Ladreit 
 de Lacharriere of the institute found that out of 107 congenital 
 deaf-mutes who had entered that asylum since 1867, seventeen 
 were born from consanguineous marriages : — ^ 
 
 Derived from marriages between first-cousins .... 7 
 
 From marriages between second-cousins .... 6 
 
 From marriages between third-cousins . .... 2 
 
 From marriages between fourtli-cousins .... 2 
 
 Or .in average of 15 '89 per cent. 
 
 M. Boudin further cites M. Landes, to the effect that in 
 the Asylum for Deaf-mutes at Bordeaux there were twenty- 
 four congenital deaf-mutes on a total of seventy-nine, who 
 were derived from marriages between near kin.' But M. Dally 
 points out that the number twenty-four refers not to the deaf- 
 mutes, but to their families. On a total of 287 families, who 
 had sent deaf-mutes to the asylum between the years 1839- 
 1859, the parents were related, in twenty-four cases, up to a 
 distance of the sixth degree, or in the proportion of about 8'4 
 per cent., which ought to be reduced if we only take into 
 account marriages between first-cousins and nearer relatives.' 
 M. Boudin also cites a report from M. Chazarain, that at the 
 asylum at Bordeaux, on a total of sixty-six congenital deaf- 
 mutes, fifteen were derived from consanguineous marriages, 
 and these fifteen had among them twelve brothers and sisters, 
 
 first-cousin of the father deaf; in another case the mother had her first child when 
 she had attained tlie age of thirty-four years ; and in another the mother was ill 
 during gestation (Dally, Kechcrches stir Ics Mar. Cons. pp. 24, 25). 
 
 ' Dally, ibid. 
 
 ■ Lacassagne, Did. Eixyd. dcs Sciences Midicales, xix. 698, 699. Paris. 
 1877. ' Boudin, Ann. (THygiine, xviii. 9. 
 
 ' Dally, Rccherches, etc. pp. 26, 27. 
 
UEAK- MUTISM 2I9 
 
 who were also deaf-mutes, but who were not in the asylum. 
 Of fifty deaf-mutes, out of fifty-one not derived from consan- 
 guineous marriages, eight each had one brother or sister, and 
 one had three brothers or sisters also deaf-mutes.' Hence, 
 if there be no confusion between this account and that of M. 
 Landes, we have a percentage of 30'4 deaf-mutes of consan- 
 guineous parentage. The exact relationship is not stated ; 
 but judging from eighteen cases, of which a detailed account is 
 given, M. Chazarain seems to allow himself a very wide scopc.- 
 According to the report furnished to the Foreign Office in the 
 year 1886, there were then fourteen cases of deaf-mutism of 
 consanguineous origin on a total of 194, congenital and non- 
 congenital, or only 7-2 per cent. ;^ while in the year 1878 the 
 director informed M. La Perre that only six out of 173 
 inmates were derived from consanguineous marriages, or 3-5 
 per cent.'' 
 
 Concerning M. Boudin's statement that Piroux found 2 i 
 per cent, of the deaf-mutes at the asylum of Nancy were the 
 offspring of consanguineous marriages, M. Dally adds : ' I had 
 the pleasure of speaking to M. Piroux last year on the subject 
 of his remarkable institution at Nancy. At that time M. 
 Piroux had made no inquiries, and could give no information 
 about the question I was studying. Since then M. Piroux has 
 published a statement which referred to 612 cases of deaf- 
 mutism received at his establishment from 1828 to 1863. He 
 arrived at his conclusions by retrospective inquiries, compris- 
 ing in them the most distant degrees of relationship, and 
 obtained fifteen or seventeen per cent, as a maximum. Why 
 then does M. Boudin speak of 21 per cent? But if we take 
 from M. Piroux's returns the relations beyond first cousins, 
 we only find, in thirty-five years, forty-two who owe their 
 origin to parents who are related, or a little more than 6 
 per cent., the number at which we can approximately value 
 
 ' Chazarain, Du Mariage entre Cons. elc. p. 34 ; Devay, Dii Danger, elc. 
 pp. 122, 123 ; Boudin, Mem. de la Soc. (tAiilhrof. de Paris, 1863, i. 509. 
 
 ^ See Chazarain, Du Mariage entre Cons. p. 36, where he desciibes the 
 relationship in one case as assez eloigne. The 18 cases are given in full in the 
 Appendix to this work. (Cases Nos. 30 to 48.) 
 
 ^ Papers Respeding Deaf-mules. Misecllaiuoiis. No. i, 18S6, pp. 6, 7. 
 
 ' La Perre de Roo, /.a Consanguinile, p. 169. 
 
220 THE .MARRIA(;E OK NEAR KIN 
 
 the marriages between these relations for all France.' ' ' I 
 begged Dr. Jantet,' continues M. Dally, referring to a further 
 statement of M. Boudin's that Dr. Perrin found at Lyons 25 
 per cent, of the deaf-mutes resulted from these marriages ' — 
 'I begged Dr. Jantet, a distinguished physician of that town, 
 to ask him about the statements mentioned in M. Devay's 
 book, and quoted in M. Boudin's essay. Now here is M. 
 Perrin's answer : " I have never made any enquiry on the 
 subject of deaf-mutism caused by consanguineous marriages. 
 There were merely some verbal data which I gave to M. Devay. 
 I can hardly remember the fact myself Besides, no register 
 of this establishment will show whether cases of deaf-mutism 
 result from consanguineous marriages or not." ' ^ In answer 
 to M. La Ferre's inquiry, M. Touestier, the director, reported 
 four deaf-mutes out of eighty-six inmates were derived from 
 marriages between first-cousins, or 4-6 per cent.^ The report 
 furnished to the Foreign Office gives the number of inmates as 
 ten and the percentage of these derived from consanguineous 
 marriages as eighteen, which must therefore be an average.'^ 
 
 During a space of fifteen years, according to M. Brochard, 
 physician to the asylum at Nogent-le-Rotrou, there have been 
 fifty-five cases of congenital deaf-mutism under his care. Of 
 these fifty-five there were fifteen children of first-cousins, and 
 one child of second-cousins, or a total of sixteen children born 
 from near kin out of fifty-five, which makes 29 per cent" 
 
 M. Lefebvre, director of the institute at Rouen, found 
 two deaf-mutes among eighty inmates of that place were 
 derived from marriages between near kin, or 2-5 per cent." 
 
 M. Ehain, director of the institute at Liege, found that 
 out of eightj-seven inmates, forty-nine were congenital deaf- 
 mutes. Out of the whole eighty-seven, five were derived from 
 consanguineous marriages, or 57 per cent, on the congenital 
 and non-congenital cases together.* 
 
 ' Boudin, AUm. dc la So,: ifAiithrop. de Paris, 1863, i.509 ; Dally, Rc/ieirhes, 
 etc. p. 27. 
 
 - Ibid. ; Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 123, \Z\. 
 
 " Dally, lit sup. * La Perre, La Consangtiiuitc, p. 166. 
 
 » Papers Respecting Deaf-mutes. Miscellaiuous. 1866, No. I, p. 11. 
 
 " Rrocharcl, Coniples Reiidus, 1862, Iv. 43, 44. 
 
 ' La PerVc, ul sup. p. 164. • /*/(/. pp. 160. lOi. 
 
DEAF-MUTISM 
 
 In answer to the inquiry of the British Foreign Office, 
 answers were received from the following institutions, in 
 addition to those already cited ; ' but, owing to the careless 
 way in which the returns are made, many of these numbers 
 are only estimates : — 
 
 Alen9on 
 
 Auray . 
 
 Bourg (boys) 
 
 Bourg (girls) 
 
 ChamWty . 
 
 Clermont-Ferrand 
 
 Rill^ . 
 
 Laval . 
 
 Marseilles . 
 
 Inst. Houclin, Pari 
 
 Poitiers 
 
 Puy . 
 
 Rodez . 
 
 St. Brieuc . 
 
 St. Medard . 
 
 Hence we have a pleasing variety between o and 30-4 per 
 cent. 
 
 The director of the asylum for deaf-mutes at Rome sent 
 out a circular to the parents of the inmates at M. Bailey's 
 request. Only thirty-three were answered, and of these only 
 thirteen were congenital. Two of the thirteen resulted from 
 consanguineous marriages, or I5'4 per cent.^ 
 
 The Commission for Promoting the Education of Deaf- 
 mutes of the Province of Milan sent inquiries to the parish 
 priests as to the parentage of 306 deaf-mutes. Of these, 294 
 were returned as derived from parents not related to each 
 other, one from first-cousins, and eleven from second- 
 
 ' Papers Hespeclinf; Deaf-mutes. Miscellaneous. iS86, No. i. 
 
 ' Bailey, Caz. Med. de Paris, December 5, 1863, p. 804. M. Bailey s.iys 
 there were three, but he gives the following history of one of the three :-A cer- 
 tain young lady had a child before marriage, which she sent to the foundling 
 hospital. On her subsequent marriage, she only had one child, a boy, and 
 therefore prevailed on her husband to adopt a daughter from the foundlings. 
 ' Conime on le /««.?,' she chose her own child, who afterwards became the wife 
 of her half-brother, with the result of four still-born, then the deaf-mute in 
 question, sixthly a dwarf, and seventhly an apparently healthy child, now eleven 
 years old. But there is no proof whatever that the girl was half-sisler toher 
 husband. Indeed, nothing was known of her beyond the fact that she was 'd"une 
 
222 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIX 
 
 cou.sms, or yg per cent.' M. Glondy, director of the insti- 
 tute for deaf-mutes at Milan, found among fifty-six congenital 
 cases only one derived from a consanguineous marriage, a 
 marriage between first-cousins, or rS per cent.^ 
 
 In Arnold's School for Deaf-mutes at Moscow Dr. 
 Benzengue found a total of no inmates in May 1878, some 
 of which had deaf-mute brothers or sisters, making together 
 129 in all. These 129 were born from no marriages; of 
 which three were between persons of different nationalities, 
 and nine between persons of the priestly class, and hence 
 twelve at least could not be consanguineous ; seventy-four 
 marriages were of the soldier, mechanic, tradesman, and peasant 
 class, all of whom Dr. Benzengue considers could not in Russia 
 have married a relative, seeing that a dispensation from 
 the archbishop of the diocese, the metropolitan, and the holy 
 synod would have to be obtained ; and such a marriage, from 
 the religion of the people, would be most improbable in central 
 Russia. For the same reasons he cannot think that any of 
 the remaining twenty-four marriages of the Dworiane and 
 Tchinovonik classes (or noble and Government employ^) could 
 possibly be consanguineous ; because, even had any of these 
 people been free-thinkers, a dispensation means money, and 
 were any of these people of means their children would not 
 have been in the asylum. He therefore concludes that none 
 of these 1 29 deaf-mutes were derived from consanguineous 
 marriages ; and, further, he considers that, were these marriages 
 the chief cause of deaf-mutism, as alleged, Russia should be 
 almost free from that disease.' 
 
 Dr. F. B. W. Hermann found in Bavaria, on a total of 
 2,644 deaf-mutes, that si.xt}-nine were born from consan- 
 guineous marriages where the parents were related in from 
 the second to the seventh degrees ; 2,227 ^^'^re derived from 
 
 rare beaute ' ; while the father of her husband seems to have been decidedly un- 
 fertile, and of the girl's parents nothing was known. A man who condescends to 
 an argument like this is unworthy of attention. 
 
 ' Mattel, De/la prelesa mala infuenza del malrimoni cmsangtiitiei. Siena, 
 1871, p. 12. 
 
 - La Perre, La Consans^iiniti, p. l6j. 
 
 ' Uenzengue, ' Les Sourds-Muets de Moscou,' in ihe Rej'iie (PAit/hro/'oh^i.; 
 iii- 27 33. 2nd scries, No. i, for January 15, iSSo. I'aris. 
 
DEAF-MUTISM 223 
 
 marriages in which there was no relationship ; and in 348 
 cases the relationship between the parents was unknown. 
 Taking only the cases in which the relationship of the parents 
 was ascertained, the proportion of deaf-mutes derived from con- 
 sanguineous marriages up to the seventh, which, if reckoned 
 by the civil law would include marriages between second- 
 cousins once removed, and if by the canon law (as seems 
 probable, since Bavaria is a Catholic country, and unions are 
 spoken of between persons related in the second degree) would 
 include fifth-cousins, and equal 3 per cent.' 
 
 On 370 deaf-mutes examined at Cologne by M. Lent 
 thirteen were found to be derived irom consanguineous 
 marriages, or 3-5 per cent.^ 
 
 M. Gunkel, of the institute for deaf-mutes at Munich, 
 found no case derived from a consanguineous marriage among 
 235 deaf-mutes who had passed through his establishment 
 during a period of fifteen years. ^ 
 
 On a total number of 107 deaf-mutes at Pesth, Dr. Boke 
 was able to trace the parentage of sixty, out of which sixteen 
 were congenital cases, and not one of these derived from 
 marriages between blood relations. Of the forty-four non- 
 congenital cases out of the sixty whose origins were traced, 
 twenty-four became deaf-mute from brain disease, nineteen 
 from ear disease, and one from scarlet fever. The parentage 
 of six of these cases was consanguineous. Taking the con- 
 genital and non-congenital cases together, in some of which 
 the disea.se did not manifest itself until the fifth year, we have 
 six out of sixty, or 10 per cent, of consanguineous origin.* 
 
 In the duchy of Nassau, on a total of 381 deaf-mutes, 31 
 were derived from 21 marriages between blood relations. Of 
 these, 14 marriages were between first-cousins, and 7 between 
 
 • Quoted by Dr. A. W. Alings, ' Het Aantal Doofstommen in Nederland ; 
 vergeleken met dat in andere Landen,' in Staathiiidig en Slaathuislioudkiindig 
 laarboekje, 1 867, No. 356, from the Beit rage zur Sla/istik des Konigrekhs Bayerii, 
 viii. p. 261. 
 
 ■' Lent, ' Statist, der Taubstummen Kdlns,' p. 32. Cited by .M. Stieda, in 
 the Annates de Demogr. Internal, iii. 31. 
 
 ' La Pcrrc, La Coiisangiiinit,', p. 162. 
 
 < J. Kbrosi, Die kbnigliche Freisladt Pes/li im lahre 1870, pp. 86, 87. 
 Testh, 1871. 
 
224 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 persons more distantly related.' This gives 8t per cent, 
 derived from consanguineous marriage. 
 
 In the institute for deaf mutes at Groningen the parent- 
 age of 163 congenital patients was traced out of a total of 
 241. Of these, 16 were found to be derived from marriages 
 between first-cousins, and 4 from marriages between more 
 distant blood relations. If those who were supposed to have 
 become deaf-mute within their second year are added, then, 
 out of 203 deaf-mutes, 22 were derived from marriages between 
 first-cousins, and 5 from marriages between other blood rela- 
 tions, which would give a percentage of 12-3 in the first 
 case, and 1 3-3 in the second.^ 
 
 Dr. Freibel, director of the institute at Berlin, found 
 one deaf-mute in his establishment, which comprised 92 
 inmates, derived from a consanguineous marriage ; or rog 
 per cent.^ 
 
 M. J. de Meyer, director of the institute for deaf-mutes 
 at Antwerp, found that out of 42 inmates, 18 or 20 were 
 congenital deaf-mutes, of which none were derived from 
 consanguineous marriage. Of the remainder, i was derived 
 from a marriage between first-cousins. That is, 2-4 per cent. 
 on the congenital and non-congenital cases together.^ 
 
 Dr. Bemiss found that out of 833 marriages between 
 blood relations up to the degree of third-cousins, and including 
 cases of incest, y6 per cent, of the children were deaf-mutes. 
 He was also informed by a principal of a deaf-mute a.sylum 
 that 21 out of 139 pupils, whose history had been in- 
 quired into, were known to be derived from consanguin- 
 eous marriages, or 15 per cent. ; and another principal of an 
 asylum informed him that 28 out of 183 cases, or 15-3 per 
 cent., were derived from these marriages."' From a late 
 report of the Kentucky Deaf and Dumb Asylum, says Dr. 
 Allen, 10 to 12 per cent, of the deaf-mutes are the children 
 of cousins. He adds that it has ' been reported ' that in 
 some parts of Kentucky there has been an unusual number 
 
 ' Alings, u/ sup. p. 16, from the Organ tier Taubslummen- iiiul B/hu/eii- 
 Anstallen in Deutsc/i/and, x. 194. - Alings, iliitf. 
 
 ' La Perre, La Consanguinili', p. 161. * //'/(/. p. 160. 
 
 * liemiss, Trans, of the .4m:r. Mfii. Assoc. 185S, xi. 330, 420, 421. 
 
DEAF-MUTISM 
 
 of such marriages in certain families for several generations, 
 thus intensifying the hereditary effect ; and that a Dr. Mul- 
 ligan, of Dublin, found that lOO out of 154 children born 
 from consanguineous marriages were deaf-mutes, or 0"6s per 
 marriage.' 
 
 From Halifax, Nova Scotia, Dr. J. Scott Hutton reports 
 that the parentage of 100 out of 131 deaf-mute pupils of 
 the school there was traced, showing 56 from 23 families to 
 be derived from marriages in which there was previous rela- 
 tionship between the parents, and 44 from 3 1 families in which 
 there was no relationship.^ This gives an average of 24 
 deaf-mutes per family in the consanguineous cases, as com- 
 pared with 1-4 per family in the non-consanguineous ; and a 
 percentage of 56 deaf-mutes derived from blood relations. 
 
 In response to the inquiry of the Foreign Office, the 
 parentage of the pupils at four deaf-mute schools (apparently 
 in Canada, but this is not clear) was investigated. On a total 
 of 1,278 deaf-mutes, 1,181 from 880 families were of non- 
 consanguineous parentage, or an average of r34 per family ; 
 and 97 deaf-mutes from 65 families were of consanguineous 
 origin, or an average of 1$ per family, and giving 759 per 
 cent, of the total number. The relationship was as follows: — ^ 
 
 Relationship 
 
 Families 
 
 Deaf-mutes 
 
 Per Cent, on 
 Total 
 
 "i^s.t^r 
 
 Uncle and niece . 
 First-cousins 
 Second-cousins . 
 Third -cousins . 
 Fourth-cousins . 
 No relation. 
 
 45 
 10 
 7 
 
 2 
 880 
 
 I 
 63 
 
 ,„;i 
 
 0-078 
 
 0-860 
 0-234 
 92-410 
 
 i-oo 
 1-40 
 
 \To 
 
 I -so 
 I 34 
 
 I presume the average per family is not strictly correct, for in 
 these figures no intensification by double inheritance is to be 
 found. The percentage of deaf-mutes from no relations is 
 9241, which is pretty considerable if consanguinity be the 
 
 17- IS 
 
 ' N. Allen, Intermarriage of Relations, \ 
 
 given to his authorities. 
 
 - Hutton,' Statistics of the Deaf and Dumb in the Lowe 
 
 ;.ily I 
 
 references 
 
 Trovinces of British 
 
 North America,' in the American Anttals of the Deaf and Dumb, for January 
 
 1869, No. i.xiv. 15. ' 
 
 ' Papers Kespectinf: Deaf-mutes. Miscellaneous. No. I (1 886), pp. 60, 6|. 
 
 Q 
 
THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 chief cause of deaf-mutism. The percentage from marriages 
 between first-cousins is less than might be expected unless 
 the number of such marriages is very low ; while that from 
 marriages of more distant cousins shows that the statistics 
 come from a new country, where the population is scattered. 
 
 As for the British Isles, Mr. Buxton, principal of the 
 Liverpool School for the Deaf and Dumb, in an inquiry he 
 made ' from a large number of persons,' found that ' every 
 tenth case of deafness resulted from the marriage of cousins.' ' 
 He gives no particulars ; and in a subsequent communication 
 to Mr. George Darwin, although he relates that 54 deaf- 
 mutes belonged to 26 families (an average of over 2 per 
 marriage), which tells us nothing, he still gives no details as 
 to his other statistics.^ 
 
 In 1862 Dr. Mitchell reported the result of the inquiries 
 he had made of various superintendents of institutions as 
 follows : — ' 
 
 
 No. of 
 Pupils 
 
 No. of 
 
 Families 
 
 represenled 
 
 No. of Pupils 
 the Offspring 
 of Consan- 
 
 ftlarriages 
 
 No. of 
 Families 
 
 I. Scotch Institutions : 
 
 Glasgow, Dundee, Aber- 
 deen, and Donaldson's 
 Hospital 
 
 II. English Institutions: 
 
 Bath, Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne, Swansea, Exetev, 
 Doncaster, and Brighton 
 
 343 
 
 iSl 
 323 
 
 12 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 '5 
 
 Total . 
 
 544 
 
 504 
 
 2S 
 
 . 24 
 
 This gives an average of ro5 deaf-mute per family in the 
 non-consanguineous cases, and ri7 per family in the consan- 
 guineous ; and a percentage of deaf-mutes, congenital and non- 
 congenital, of consanguineous origin of 5-14 on the total. 
 
 ' Buxton, ' An Inquiry into the Causes of Deaf-dumbness, Congenital and 
 Acquired,' in the Liverpool Medico- Chinirgical Joui-nal, for January 1859, No. 5, 
 p. 27. 
 
 ■^ G. H. Parwin, ' On Marriages between First-cousins,' in the Jotima! of 
 the Statistical So(iily,]\mft 1875, xxxviii. 171. 
 
 ' Dr. A. Mitchell, 'Blood Relationship in Marriage,' in the Mem. read before 
 the Anthropological Society pf London, ii. 422, 423. 
 
DEAF-MUTISM 
 
 Dr. Scott found 7 marriages out of 241 which produced 
 deaf-mute offspring were between first-cousins,' or 2-9 percent- 
 Mr. Arthur Hopper, of the deaf and dumb school near 
 Birmingham, from a most careful inquiry, found that of 1 1 3 
 pupils whose parentage was ascertained, 66 were congcnitally 
 deaf, and in 10 the cause of deafness was unknown. Not 
 one of the whole 76 was derived from a consanguineous 
 marriage.'^ 
 
 Of 130 pupils of the Manchester School for Deaf Mutes 
 Mr. Patterson found 63 cases were congenital. Only one 
 case of consanguineous marriage was found among the whole 
 123 marriages from which the pupils were derived, but in S 
 of these whether the parents were related or not was not 
 ascertained. Whether the one case of consanguineous mar- 
 riage produced one of the 63 cases of congenital deaf-mutism 
 is not clear ; but, taking that view, we have 16 as the percent- 
 age.' 
 
 The Irish Census Commissions of 187 1 and 1881 inquired 
 into the parentage of deaf-mutes, with the following result, 
 which I have tabulated : — ■• 
 
 Relationship 
 
 .871 
 
 i88i 
 
 No. of 
 Marriages 
 
 No. of Con- ' Average 
 genital IperMar- 
 Deaf.mutes| riage 
 
 No. of 
 Marriages 
 
 No. of Con- 
 
 genital 
 Dlkf-mutes 
 
 Average 
 per Mar- 
 riage 
 
 First-cousins 
 Second-cousins . 
 Third-cousins 
 Fourth-cousins 
 Fifth- and sixth- 
 
 1^ 
 
 7 
 14 
 
 128 
 89 
 40 
 II 
 
 19 
 
 I 25 
 ■■57 
 
 1-35 
 
 S4 123 
 40 46 
 10 21 
 
 Not staled 
 
 1-46 
 115 
 
 2ro 
 I 00 
 
 Total 
 No relationship . 
 
 201 
 2,804 
 
 287 
 3,216 
 
 1-43 : 
 114 
 
 •35 
 
 2,452 
 
 191 
 2,972 
 
 •■45 
 
 Total 
 
 3.005 
 
 3,503 I -16 2,587 1 3. '63 
 
 -1 
 
 An examination of this table will show that the statistics so 
 much relied upon as proving tlie causation of deaf-mutism by 
 
 ' G. H. Darwin, 'On Marriages between Kirst-cousins,' in \\\c Journal of (he 
 Stat. Soc. xxxviii. 170. - /hid. ' /hid. 
 
 ' This table is obtained from tables i., x., and xi., in the Census Report on the 
 Status of Disease in /reland, 1871, pp. 20, 22. The number of congenital 
 
THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIX 
 
 consanguineous marriage show nothing of the sort. In 1S71 
 fourth-cousins produced more deaf mutes per marriage than 
 any nearer relationship. In 1881 third-cousins produced more 
 than any nearer relationship. Comparing these results with 
 those obtained in the census of 1 85 1 and that of 1 861, we have — 
 
 From .he Trish Census Reports 
 
 Census of 
 1881 
 
 Census of 
 1871 
 
 Census of 
 1861 
 
 Census of 
 .85. 
 
 Totals 
 
 Total number of congenital 
 deaf-mutes derived from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 consangumeous mar- 
 riages .... 
 Total nuinber of congenital 
 deaf-mutes derived from 
 
 195 
 
 287 
 
 362 
 
 242 
 
 1,086 
 
 riages .... 
 Average numlier of congeni- 
 tal deaf-mutes per con- 
 
 ..6S 
 
 3," '6 
 
 4,096 
 
 3,885 
 
 14,165 
 
 sanguineous marriage . 
 
 Average number of congeni- 
 tal deaf-mutes per non- 
 consanguineous marriage 
 
 Percentage of congenital 
 deaf-nnites derived from 
 
 I -445 
 
 I-2I0 
 
 1-427 
 
 ...46 
 
 1-496 
 .•248 
 
 ■•423 
 .■.97 
 
 1-448 
 I 200 
 
 consangumeous mar- 
 riages .... 
 
 6-165 
 
 8-.92 
 
 S-.20 
 
 5-863 
 
 7-085 
 
 In this table, although we do not see any tendency of 
 consanguinity to produce deaf-mutism of itself, as the com- 
 missioners of the census say we should ; ' yet we do see an 
 intensification of a family tendency to deaf-mutism, in the 
 average of i -4 for consanguineous marriages, as compared with 
 I -2 for non-consanguineous marriages ; but, as I have already 
 
 deaf-mutes from consanguineous marriages is from table xi. less those who were 
 not both deaf and dumb. The number of congenital deaf-mutes from non-consan- 
 guineous marriages is the difierence of the total of congenital deaf-mutes given in 
 table i. and those found to result from consanguineous marriages. I have adopted 
 the .same method in treating the Census of Ireland, .88., part ii., using tables 
 105, III, and .14, on pp. 288, 294, 296. 
 
 ' Irish Census Report., 188., p. 43. See also Dr. C. A. Cameron, 'Consan- 
 guineous Marriages in Relation to Deaf-mutism,' pp. 214 220, vol. i. of the Trans- 
 aclions 0/ the Academy of Medicint in Ireland. "These gentlemen see a slightly 
 higher percentage of deaf-mutes per family in the marriages between cousins which 
 hapjien to have produced deaf-mutes, and jump to the conclusion that cousin- 
 marriages in general produce more deaf-mutes than other marriages do. One 
 would think that medical men should learn first what had been done before they 
 hcgin 10 instruct others on any subject ; yet, from the discussion on Dr. Cameron's 
 paper (see the Medical Press, May .6, 1S83), it appears no one present at the 
 meeting was qualified to give an opinion. This is by no means an isolated case, 
 as a glance at almost any medical paper where this subject is touched upon will 
 show. 
 
DKAF-MUTISM 
 
 229 
 
 pointed out, tliis by no means proves that a greater i)H)por- 
 tion of deaf-mutes are born from consanguineous marriages 
 than from non-consanguineous marriages. 
 
 M. Devic found at Aspricres, where to his knowledge 
 many consanguineous marriages take place, only 2 deaf-mutes 
 on a total population of 1,700 ; and even these 2 were not 
 born from consanguineous marriages.' Among the 121 cases 
 collected by M. Devay to show the evil results of consan- 
 guineous marriage,^ it happens, as Dr. Rodet, at the Medical 
 Congress of Lyons, in 1864, pointed out, that there is no 
 example of deaf-mutism.-^ 
 
 It has already been shown that these statistics are worth- 
 less from the way in which they have been collected. If they 
 be now compared, this will be shown beyond a doubt by the 
 figures themselves : — 
 
 N.-i.n= of In.stitute or Observer 
 
 ll 
 
 p 
 
 J! 
 n 
 
 ill 
 
 z s 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 'U 
 
 ii 
 
 o%i 
 
 II 
 
 Chazarain . 
 Bou.g,.886]GWs 
 
 Brochard . 
 Alen^on, i886 . 
 St. Medard, 1886 . 
 Lyons, 1886 . 
 Clermont-Ferrand, 18S6 
 Piroux . 
 Ladreit 
 
 L'S; : : 
 
 Poitiers," 1886 
 Rodez, 1886 . 
 Groningen 
 Dally . . 
 Allen . 
 
 St. Brieuc, 1886 . 
 Institute Houdin, 18S6 
 liuxton . 
 
 Irish Census, 1871 
 
 1S61 
 
 Duchy of N.-issau . 
 
 • 
 ■ 
 
 ; 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 49 
 152 
 
 197 
 33 
 
 80 
 43 
 241 
 315 
 
 ^f 
 t,467 
 
 66 
 S5 
 
 107 
 139 
 
 Z 
 120 
 
 3.S03 
 
 '5 
 
 le 
 
 •7 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 «4 
 
 287 
 362 
 
 3' 
 
 r 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 89 
 
 >5 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 128 
 14 
 
 30-4 
 30-4 
 30-0 
 29-0 
 25-0 
 
 25 :o 
 180 
 
 .7-8 
 160 
 15-8 
 >5-4 
 ■5:3 
 151 
 iS-o 
 140 
 
 12-3 
 
 117 
 
 no 
 
 lOO 
 100 
 
 "H 
 
 S-i 1 
 
 Devic, Gas. MM. de Paris, March 7, 1863, p. 158. 
 
 See the Appendix to this work ; and Devay, Du Pander, pp. 89- 104, 
 
 Cons^iis MMkal de Frame, Svo, p. 401. Paris, 1865. 
 
230 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Name of Institulc or Observer 
 
 If 
 
 Hi 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 S|.5 
 
 III 
 
 11 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
 111 
 
 American Schools, 1886 
 
 •,278 
 
 _ 
 
 97 
 
 19 
 
 63 
 
 7-5 
 
 Bordeaux, 1886 . 
 
 194 
 
 — 
 
 ■4 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 Marseilles, 1886 . 
 
 57 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7-0 
 
 Puy, 1886 .... 
 
 55 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7-0 
 
 Irish Census, 1S81 
 
 3.993 
 
 3,163 
 
 195 
 
 46 
 
 123 
 
 6-2 
 
 1851 
 
 4,747 
 
 4,127 
 
 242 
 
 — 
 
 
 5-8 
 
 Ehain 
 
 87 
 
 
 <; 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5-7 
 
 Hutton 
 
 100 
 
 — 
 
 56 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5-6 
 
 Mitchell .... 
 
 544 
 
 — 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5' 
 
 Touestier .... 
 
 86 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 4-6 
 
 Chambery, 1886 . 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4-5 
 
 Milan Commission 
 
 306 
 
 — 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 3-9 
 
 Lent 
 
 370 
 
 — 
 
 13 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3-5 
 
 Bordeaux, 1878 . . . 
 
 173 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3-5 
 
 Hermann .... 
 
 2,644 
 
 — 
 
 69 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 30 
 
 Scott 
 
 241 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2-9 
 
 Laval, 1886 . 
 
 7J 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2-8 
 
 Lefebvre .... 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2-5 
 
 Meyer 
 
 42 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 2-4 
 
 Glondy 
 
 
 56 
 
 I 
 
 — ■ 
 
 I 
 
 1-8 
 
 Freibel 
 
 92 
 
 
 I 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 i-o 
 
 Patterson .... 
 
 130 
 
 63 
 
 ?i 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 I -6 or 
 
 Rille, 1886 .... 
 
 49 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0-8 
 
 Hopper .... 
 
 "3 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 o-o 
 
 Bolfe 
 
 107 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 o-o 
 
 Benzengue .... 
 
 129 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 00 
 
 Gunkel 
 
 235 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 00 
 
 Auray, 1886 . 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ~ 
 
 00 
 
 We see in this tabi 
 
 ; difference 
 
 s between 
 
 thd results of 
 
 different observers of o p 
 
 er cent, up 
 
 to 30 per c 
 
 int. ; 
 
 a differ- 
 
 ence utterly inconsistent 
 
 with t 
 
 rustw 
 
 orthir 
 
 ess. 
 
 
 
 Since children born from consanguineous marriages arc 
 no more exempt from diseases of the eyes than those born 
 from any other kind of marriage, this also forms an article 
 in the charge against them. But here again no satisfactory 
 statistics in support of such a theory have been adduced suf- 
 ficient to prove that these marriages are the cause and not, for 
 instance, inherited syphilis, which may cause iritis, or retinitis, 
 or injuriously affect the optic nerve, as it may other nerves of 
 special sense, and thus cause complete congenital blindness ; 
 nor chronic hydrocephalus, which may cause atrophy of the 
 optic nerves, or strabismus ; nor other diseases of the brain 
 
KETINITIS I'lGMENTOSA 231 
 
 and nervous system, such as idiocy and other disease of 
 obscure origin, all of which we know may arise independently 
 of any consanguinity of the parents.' Yet Dr. Licbreich, the 
 well-known oculist, has advanced the theory that that par- 
 ticular disease known as retinitis pigmentosa is the result of 
 these marriages, and attempts to substantiate his theory by 
 the help of some statistics from the asylum for deaf-mutes 
 at Berlin. His attention being first called to the matter on 
 finding that one of his patients was the child of first-cousins 
 he made inquiries, and found that, out of 35 persons suffering 
 frorii retinitis pigmentosa, 14 were deaf-mutes, 3 idiots, and 18 
 could hear; and out of 26 whose parentage was traced, 14 
 were derived from marriages between relations. The whole 
 14 were distributed among six families, three of which had 
 one apiece, one had 2, another 4, and another 5 affected. To 
 these belonged 5 of the deaf-mutes affected with retinitis, 3 
 who could hear, and the other 5 he failed to trace the 
 parentage of Therefore on a total of 26 cases, in which alone 
 the parentage was traced, 538 per cent, were the produce of 
 consanguineous marriages, or more than half the cases of 
 retinitis pigmentosa ! In Paris, on a total of 329 deaf-mutes, 
 he found 11 also suffering from retinitis, of which 4 were the 
 offspring of consangumeous marriages, 2 of non -consan- 
 guineous marriages, and the parentage of the remaining 5 
 could not be traced. Of 66 people who were otherwise healthy 
 but suffered from retinitis pigmentosa, 25 were the offspring of 
 consanguineous marriages, 38 of non-consanguineous mar- 
 riages, and the parentage of the remaining 3 could not be 
 traced.'^ Taking all these together, we have a total of 95 
 cases where the parentage was traced, 43 of \\hich were of 
 consanguineous origin, or 45 per cent. 
 
 M. Hocquard e.xamined 200 deaf-mutes in the institute 
 at Paris, of which 5 suffered from retinitis pigmentosa. Out 
 of these i was not derived from consanguineous marriage, the 
 origin of another could not be traced, and the remaining 3 
 were the children of cousins, or 75 per cent. M. Hocquard 
 
 ' Reynolds' System 0/ Medicine, i. 740, 763 ; ii. 38, 262, 264, 412. 
 = Liebreich, in the Detitschc Kliiiik, I'Vliruary 9, 1S61, pp. 54, 55 ; Cliinaull, 
 Etudes stir les Mar. pp. 58, 59. 
 
232 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 insists on the very strong inheritability of this disease.' When, 
 therefore, we see such items as 5, 1 1, 35, and so forth, the ob- 
 jections made to the statistics on deaf-mutes apply with re- 
 doubled force. M. Hocquard might another time have found 
 99 per cent of these cases of consanguineous origin, or, just as 
 likely, none at all. 
 
 Professor Magnus, from a comparison of his own investiga- 
 tions with those of others, found that from 25 to 33 per cent, 
 of the cases of j-etinitis were derived from consanguineous 
 marriages. But on a further comparison of the percentage of 
 marriages producing this disease which were between relations 
 with the percentage of marriages which showed an inherited 
 tendenc}' to disease in having other members or relations 
 afflicted, he found that these latter were two and a half times 
 more frequent than the former.^ This, then, is precisely what 
 we should expect in the ordinary law of inheritance ; namely, 
 that those marriages between relations which did happen to 
 produce disease would produce it in greater intensity ; that is 
 in an inquiry in an asylum double the real proportion would 
 appear to be derived from consanguineous marriage, while a 
 census would show double the proportion of marriages between 
 non-relatives produced disease. Professor Magnus then sent 
 out circulars of inquiry and received 545 answers ; of which 
 457 stated heritable tendencies or collateral disease in the 
 patients' families, and only 374 stated whether there was any 
 relationship between the parents. Of these latter, in 45 cases, 
 the parents were related, these being in i case uncle and niece, 
 27 cases first-cousins, 4 cases of second and third-cousins, and 
 1 3 cases in which the relationship was not stated ; that is, out 
 of 374 cases of di.sease of the eyes generally, 12 per cent, of 
 the patients were derived from consanguineous marriage. If 
 we halve this for the double inheritance we get 6 per cent., and 
 again taking off 2 per cent, for the greater fertility of marriages 
 between relatives, we get 4 per cent., which may be even 
 under the proportion of first-cousin marriages to all marriages. 
 
 ' Hocquard, De la R,'tinile Pigmentaire. These tie I'Ecolc de Med. de Paris, 
 No. 204, 1875, pp. 66, 87. 
 
 "■ Magnus, 'Die Blindheil.' Cited by Zepler, Uelvr den Einfiiss dcr t cr- 
 7mndUn-Ehc atif die Nachkommenscha/I, etc. pp. 27, 28. 
 
'IG^rENTO.SA 
 
 233 
 
 Among the 45 cases 1 2, or 267 per cent., were retinitis, while 
 1 2-67 per cent, was the proportion in the whole 545 cases. We 
 see, therefore, that when wc allow for the double inheritance 
 this is not in excess, and, as I have before explained, it by no 
 means follows that, taking all consanguineous marriages into 
 account, in place of only looking at the diseased children, a 
 consanguineous marriage is any more likely to produce reti- 
 nitis pigmentosa than is any other marriage. Indeed, if we look 
 at the cases where there is collateral disease, we find that 23 
 out of the 45 consanguineous cases show it, or over 50 per 
 cent. ; while of the 457 cases 122, or 267, only show it ; which 
 exactly confirms our contention, and shows, moreover, that 
 while relations do generally marry without any consideration 
 of family-inherited tendencies, yet they do sometimes take 
 these into consideration, and thus by their family knowledge 
 are saved from producing diseased children. Comparing the 
 intensity of inheritance we have — 
 
 Number of 
 
 Brothers and 
 
 Sisters also 
 
 afflicted 
 
 In Cases 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Consanguineous 
 
 In Total given 
 
 Consanguineous 
 
 In Total given 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 7 
 
 9 
 7 
 2 
 4 
 
 70 
 27 
 
 39-21 
 
 17-31 
 
 4-35 
 
 - 
 
 57-47 
 
 22-IO 
 18-50 
 1-64 
 
 ^82 
 
 by which it will be seen that inheritance is intensified by 
 consanguineous marriage.' 
 
 Dr. Fieuzal examined very many persons in the course of 
 two years and a half, among which he found 2 1 who suffered 
 from this disease. Of these, 8 were of consanguineous parent- 
 age, the degree not being stated, or 38 per cent. At the 
 hospital of Quinze-Vingts he found 2 cases, neither of which 
 was of consanguineous origin.- 
 
 At Bicetre, Dr. Liebreich told M. Chipault he found no 
 case of retinitis among 89 idiots ; but he found i case among 
 
 ' See Zepler, ut sup. pp. 28-36. 
 - Lacassagne, an. ' ConbanguinittV 
 Miduaks, pp. 684, 6S5. 
 
 the Dill. Eiuydof; a'cs Scicmcs 
 
234 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 69 idiots at Salpetriere.' Taking the mean alleged percentage 
 of these 158 idiots, that ought to be derived from consanguin- 
 eous marriages if the observations collected above ^ could 
 possibly be correct, or 9 per cent., we find that I4'2 ought to be 
 so derived, of which only i was afflicted with retinitis, instead 
 of about 8 ; nor do we know that that i was of consanguineous 
 origin. It is evident, however, that retinitis pigmentosa is an 
 uncommon disease, and even more evident that 95 cases are 
 much too few to generalise on. There was not one case of 
 this disease in the commune of Batz, in which, as we have 
 already seen, there was a population of 3,300, among whom 
 were 46 consanguineous marriages ; ^ certainly a sufficiently 
 large number to find cases in if Dr. Liebreich's theory be true. 
 
 Another common accusation against these marriages is 
 that they cause congenital malformation in the offspring. 
 But congenital malformations are in nearly all cases due to a 
 morbid state of the cerebro-spinal nervous system acting 
 through the muscles to distort the bones. Any irritation 
 before birth, therefore, may cause it ; it may occur of course 
 in anencephalous infants, and also in cases of spina bifida. 
 Like other diseases of nervous origin, it may be inherited 
 directly ; but it may also be inherited through other diseases 
 which react on the nervous system, such as a rheumatic or 
 scrofulous affection of the joint, which may either directly 
 affect the nerve and cause disease in it, or cause deformity in 
 the limb, because the patient finds it too painful to move it. 
 In this last way again almost any lesion may produce de- 
 formity ; or a mere habit may do the same. It is possible 
 that it may be caused occasionally by irregular uterine con- 
 tractions, which may in their turn be caused by a sudden alarm 
 to the mother ; and in cases of extreme obesity where the 
 pressure interferes with due nutrition, or where the state which 
 produced fat in the parent also interferes with the nutrition of 
 the fcetus ; but this is probably only very rarely a cause. It 
 
 ' Chipault, 6tudes sur les Mar. etc. p. 57. ' See p. Z12 of this work. 
 
 ' Voisin, ' Contribulion i I'Hist. des Mar. entre Cons.' in the Mhn. dc la 
 Soc. d'Aitthrop. dc Paris, 1865, ii. 446. See also pp. 160, 161 of this work, and 
 the Appendix, Cases Nos. 254-299. 
 
MALFORMATIONS 235 
 
 may be caused by an arrest of development, since Wagner 
 has shown that club-foot is natural to the fcetus up to the 
 fourth or fifth month, and even later, and the same is the case 
 with cleft-palate and hare-lip. It may be caused at birth, 
 especially when parturition is assisted by a clumsy midwife, 
 or by the use of instruments, or when the passage is narrow 
 between the bones of the pelvis ; probably many infants have 
 received a life-long injury through pressure on their soft and 
 yielding heads ; but in these cases it is rarely that the upper 
 extremities are deformed.' It is also connected with the 
 period of life of the parent in which the child is born, and 
 with the position in the family of the latter, whether it is a 
 first or last birth or not. For Dr. Duncan found that twin- 
 bearing was most frequent at the extremes of the child-bearing 
 age ; and he found, further, a connection between twinning 
 and the production of idiocy and bodily deformities ; indeed, 
 the greater number of idiots are twins ; and anencephalous 
 monsters hardly ever, perhaps never, occur unless in plural 
 births, in which also miscarriages and hydramnios are more 
 frequent.^ Aristotle considers premature marriage produces 
 puny and dwarfed offspring,'' and Dr. Duncan corroborates this 
 statement so far as it concerns the weight and size of infants.*' 
 It is necessary, therefore, in gathering statistics as to any 
 supposed relation between consanguineous marriages and the 
 production of malformations to consider the age of the parents, 
 the number of the birth, whether the malformed was a twin, 
 whether the parents suffered from any nervous affection or 
 disease belonging to the degenerative class, such as scrofula, 
 tubercles, syphilis, etc. whether they were always sober, and 
 many other like considerations equally important and im- 
 possible to collect, and yet withal to leave a margin for 
 accidental causes. Of course, if the statistics were taken from 
 
 ' Brodhnrst, Tlie Deformities of Ihe Human Body ; Salt, On Deformities, etc. of 
 the Lo-uier Extremities ; Adams, Cluh-foot : its Causes, etc. ; CaqJenter, Human 
 Physiology, p. 866 ; Lannilongiie, Du Pied Bot Conghiital. Thtses de I'Ecole dc 
 Med. de Paris, 1869, pp. 47-59. 
 
 ■' Duncan, Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility, pp. 76, 78, 80, and 68, note. 
 The connection between twinning and monstrosities is shown in the production of 
 hermaphrodites when twin calves are born. 
 
 ' Aristotle, Hist. Anim. book v. chap xii. sec. I. 
 
 ' Duncan, Fe.undity, Fertility, and Sterility, p. 64. 
 
236 THE MARKIAGb; OF NEAR KIX 
 
 the whole population, and were numbered by millions of cases 
 instead of a few hundreds, and if we also knew the proportion 
 which consanguineous marriages bear to others, the thing might 
 be done ; at least as far as the influence of consanguineous 
 marriages on malformations is concerned ; but even then it 
 would be impossible to say whether any evil effect was caused 
 by the intensification of a previous family taint ; or, as many 
 authors would have us believe, by the mere fact of consan- 
 guinity of itself 
 
 Out of 146 children, the produce of 37 consanguineous 
 marriages. Dr. Mitchell found 3, or 2 percent., were deformed, 
 and 6, or 4-1 per cent., were lame ; ^ and out of 3,942 children, 
 the produce of 780 consanguineous marriages, 2'4 per cent, 
 were deformed, according to Dr. Bemiss.^ I have already 
 remarked on the untrustworthiness of statistics collected in 
 the way in which these are, and will only refer the reader to 
 the history of certain isolated communities, given above, where 
 consanguineous marriages are common ; and to the history 
 of certain individual families where marriage in-and-in was 
 customary, given in the Appendix to this work. As an 
 instance, however, of the loose way in u-hich these charges 
 are made, I will quote M. Devay, who says that an abnormal 
 number of digits is ' of all malformations that which I have 
 most frequently noticed.' ■* To support this wonderful theory 
 he cites the instance of a boy, the child of first-cousins, whose 
 toes were undivided ; and says he found 17 cases of these 
 malformations in the progeny of 121 consanguineous mar- 
 riages. He further gives an instance of a little village, near 
 Cote-St.-Andre and Rives, in the department of Isere, called 
 Izeaux, very isolated, and situate on barren soil. The inhabi- 
 tants, owing to the nature of the roads, necessaril)' intermarry 
 much among themselves, and form in reality but one family. 
 Now comes the dreadful part of his story. Towards the end 
 of the eighteenth century all of them, men, women, and 
 
 ' Boudin, Ann. (THygihte, xviii. 17 el seq. ; Devay, Du Danger, etc. p. 143 ; 
 Chazarain, Du Mariage entre Cons. etc. p. 13 tf/ seq. ; Herbert Spencer, Biology, 
 i. 290; Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants, etc. ii. 94, etc. 
 
 ■ Mitchell, Mem. rem! before the Anthropological Society of Lomlon, 1S66, ii. 
 403. ' Bemiss, Trans, of the American Med. Assoc. 1858, xi. 420, 421. 
 
 ' Devay, Du Danger, etc ji. 94. 
 
rdl.VDACTVLISM. RICKETS 237 
 
 children, had an extra finger on each hand, and an extra toe 
 on each foot ! They gradually resumed their normal form 
 about the year 1847 through crosses." It is, perhaps, a pity 
 that the people of Izcaux got rid of their so-called deformity 
 — the sixth digit might in time have revolutionised the world. 
 Who can say what advantages a sixth finger might not 
 confer on a race by dint of careful breeding and exercise ! If, 
 however, M. Devay means to assert that in a space of about 
 fifty years there were no inhabitants in all Izeaux with more 
 than the normal number of fingers and toes, after every 
 person in the place had had them, the fact is one of the most 
 extraordinary on record, for polydactylism is most strongly 
 hereditary.'^ If, again, M. Devay means to assert that this 
 abnormal growth was originated by consanguineous marriage, 
 I have no hesitation in flatly denying it ; for all observation 
 hitherto has shown that crosses are far more likely to produce 
 abnormal developments through imperfect atavism ; while 
 in-and-in breeding is perfectly well known to have a tendency 
 to fix the type so that it never changes. It is known that 
 the five-fingered hand is the modern representative of an 
 extremity that had at least seven rays ; and it has been 
 recently shown that six digits are normally present in the 
 human foetus.' While as for the possibility of getting rid of 
 this appearance in a short time, take the example of polydac- 
 tylism in cats, an animal that from its wandering habits is 
 very unlikely to breed for more than one generation in-and-in. 
 Mr. Paulton gives an instance of a family of cats which showed 
 the strongest tendency to the inheritance of this abnormality, 
 and in cases where close interbreeding could hardly have been 
 possible ; yet the polydactylism was observed for generations 
 in spite of the swamping effect of crosses.** The like is 
 reported by Mr. Hagan from Massachusetts.'' 
 
 Rickets and rickety malformations have constantly been 
 attributed to marriages of near kin ; and here again, as in so 
 
 ' Devay, ut sup. pp. 95-97, loi- 
 
 2 See i.a. Darwin, Animals and Pkiiils, 1S75, i. 457-459 : Nalurc, xvii. 372 ; 
 xviii. 94 ; xxiv. 166. 
 
 ' Weismann, Die Beiieiilun« der scxuelUn Fortpflanzung, p. 53. Jena, 1886. 
 
 ' Nature, ' Observations on Heredity in Cats with an Abnormal Number of 
 Toes,' xxix. 20, 21 ; xxxv. 30-41. " Ibid xxxv. 345. 
 
23S THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 many instances, it is only because the causes of this disease 
 are not yet accurately determined that persons have been 
 able to attribute it to these marriages, not only unchallenged 
 but with applause. 
 
 Rickets, together with phthisis, tabes mesenterica, tuber- 
 cular meningitis, hydrocephalus, spina bifida, and a few 
 others, with their consequent mental and nervous diseases, 
 are at present considered merely different members of the 
 great scrofula family of disease, the causes of which are in 
 some forms still insufficiently worked out. It may, however, 
 be said, generally, that none of these diseases are very easily 
 caused by direct inheritance ; that they are all, so far as we 
 know, due to the presence of a microscopic organism ; ' and 
 that the only possible way in which consanguineous marriage 
 could be a factor is either by a possible intensification of 
 inheritance or by producing children of low vitality who will 
 be more susceptible to the infection. As regards rickets, 
 there is considerable doubt that it is ever directly inherited ; 
 and, as regards post-natal causes, imperfect assimilation of 
 food, impure air, and want of sunlight probably play a con- 
 siderable part.^ That phthisis may be inherited is possible ; 
 indeed, it is known that the micro-organisms which produce 
 splenetic fever may be transmitted to the fcetus.' But though 
 infants are born from highly consumptive parents to live but 
 a few weeks or months when they are found to have both 
 large and miliary tubercles in their lungs, I am not aware 
 that still-born infants of a consumptive father but healthy 
 mother have been found in this state. That this disease is 
 always, however, caused either directly or indirectly by the 
 presence of a specific bacillus is established almost bej-ond a 
 doubt by Koch and others. How great a part the want of 
 ventilation takes, first by lowering the vitality, and secondly 
 by increasing the chances of infection, is shown by statistics ; 
 for the spores of the bacillus which swarm in the sputa of 
 consumptive persons will lie dormant for a considerable time, 
 
 ' .See Sir J. Simon's lecture, rejiorted in Nature, xxiv. 370 et seq. 
 = Reynolds' System of Medicine, i. 805-808. 
 
 ' Perroneilo, in the Archives Italieniies de Biologic, for .Vpril 15, 1SS3, vol. iii. 
 fasc. I. 
 
lIVDROCErilALUS. CONVULSIONS 239 
 
 and still retain their powers of development. All herbivorous 
 animals are easily infected, and their meat is dangerous unless 
 it has been subjected to a heat not less than that of boiling 
 water. Cows frequently are infected ; and their milk is pecu- 
 liarly dangerous, because it is generally taken without having 
 been previously boiled.' 
 
 Hydrocephalus when congenital is generally, but not 
 invariably, due to an arrest of development of the cerebral 
 mass, assisted by slow inflammation of the arachnoid, especially 
 of that part lining the ventricles. Syphilis is a frequent cause 
 of this, both by the production of syphilitic nodes and by the 
 great tendency there is in these patients to serous inflamma- 
 tion. The inflammation may also attack a child after birth, 
 and even begin late in life ; but in the last case the dropsy 
 is generally caused by the mechanical effect of a cancer, 
 tubercle, or cyst, or of some hurt by which the veins are im- 
 peded, thus causing a watery exudation in the neighbouring 
 part, while it prevents the absorption of the serum naturally 
 there. Hydrocephalus is often aroused when latent by 
 whooping-cough ; but in this case the whooping-cough is 
 itself the result of general constitutional disease. Spina 
 bifida, or hydrorhachis, is another form of development of this 
 tendency ; a frequent result of hydrocephalus and the com- 
 monest congenital spinal affection. Here, again, is slow inflam- 
 mation, but the result of a bifid spine is purely mechanical.'^ 
 
 In the same way convulsions in infancy cannot be set down 
 to the influence of consanguineous marriage unless it can be 
 shown that it has not been influenced by rickets, dentition, 
 wrong-feeding, diarrhoea, etc. It may be caused by — 
 
 1. The advent of an acute illness. 
 
 2. The presence of a tumour, abscess, or syphilitic node, 
 or other mental hurt. 
 
 3. Chronic disease ; such as rickets, emaciation, diarrhoea, 
 and other exhausting types. 
 
 ' See the Comptes Rendus de FAcad. des Sciences de Paris, Toussaint, March 
 29, 18S0, and August I, 1881 ; Peuch, June 28, 1880 ; Giboux, May 22, 1882. 
 Also Dr. C. Creighton, ' An Infective Form of Tuberculosis,' in the Journal of 
 Anatomy and Physiology; xv. I et scj. Mr. Watson Cheyne, reported in Nature, 
 xxvii. p. 563. 
 
 ■' Reynolds' System of Medicine, i. 58, 823 ; ii. 410, 411, 719. 
 
240 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 4. Temporarily, by an overloaded stomach, teething, 
 worms, diarrhoea, etc. 
 
 5. Brain disease ; such as epilepsy, etc. 
 
 Among its consequences are paralysis, amaurosis, defects 
 of speech, strabismus, and mental hurts, such as idiocy, etc' 
 
 The reader will, I hope, excuse me this long dissertation 
 on the causes of these diseases. But it is necessary that we 
 should distinctly see that, so far from their real origin being 
 even tolerably clear, they are involved in great obscurity ; and 
 that we should know what other causes are generally assigned 
 to these scourges of humanity before we attempt to judge 
 that alleged by the Parasyngeniasts. We see what a variety 
 of causes, totally independent of consanguinity, may produce 
 scrofulous disease and degeneration ; and how impossible it is 
 — nay, how wicked, with only a few selected cases of consan- 
 guineous marriage for proof — to accuse these of the production 
 of scrofula. M. Chazarain refers to Lugol for support to his 
 statement that in ancient times, before there were many roads, 
 and when intercommunication was difficult, the country people 
 as a rule intermarried among themselves ; that they degenerated 
 in consequence, and scrofula became more common than it is 
 now.2 Lugol, however, gives no support to this conclusion. 
 Throughout the six or seven pages he devotes to the con- 
 sideration of the effects of crosses on scrofula, he gives no 
 authority for his wide and somewhat vague statements ; while 
 he only twice mentions even the names of any observers, to 
 wit, Buffon and Alexandre Bodin. It is impossible to accept 
 such an assertion on such vague authority .^ 
 
 Consanguineous marriages have been further accused of 
 causing ichthyosis and leprosy ; abnormally sized heads and 
 prognathous jaws; and dwarfing;" and M. Aube actually 
 attributes hydatis in the liver to their effect ! The same 
 gentleman also attributes albinoism to these marriages ; ^ but 
 
 ' Reynolds' System of Medicine, ii. 262, 263, 265. 
 
 « Chazarain, Du Mariage entre Cons. etc. p. 12. 
 
 ' Lugol, Recherchcs, etc. sur les Causes des Maladies Scrofuleuses, p. 317. 
 
 < Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 52, 00, 104, 187 ; Bailey, Gas. Mid. de Paris, 
 December 5, 1863, p. 804. 
 
 " Aube, in the Bulletin de la Soc. Imp. Zoologiiiue d' .■IcclimataHon, iv. 510, 
 SI I, /.a. 
 
ALIUNOISM 241 
 
 since he confines his proofs to the lower animals, we will defer 
 the consideration of this last accusation to the next chapter, 
 merely premising that we really know nothing as yet as to its 
 production, but that Beigel shows some cause ' for the belief 
 that a great shock to the nervous system of the mother, 
 whether sudden, or by gradual depression, or by nervous 
 disease, may cause albinoism in the offspring. 
 ' Beigel, Albinismus, etc. Dresden, 1S64. 
 
242 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE RESULTS OF IN-AND-IN BREEDING ON THE LOWER 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 IN the last chapter we have seen how many and how com- 
 plicated are the causes which lead to the various diseases 
 supposed to be produced by the intermarriage of near kin ; 
 and how impossible it is to lay our hands on any one case 
 and say, this is certainly due to the consanguinity alone, and 
 can be due to no other cause. Nay, even if we be intimately 
 acquainted with the whole history of a given case, and find 
 that, so far as our knowledge goes, there is no apparent cause 
 but the consanguinity of the parents, we are yet by no means 
 sure that there may not be other causes, as yet unrecognised, 
 capable of producing that particular effect. All this applies 
 more particularly to man, on whom we cannot experiment as 
 we can on other animals, so as to exclude as far as possible 
 all disturbing factors, and retain consanguinity alone. For 
 this reason no amount of observations on isolated cases of 
 consanguineous marriages, or on isolated communities who 
 have continually intermarried among themselves, will enable 
 us to determine, unless negatively, whether any observed 
 disease in the offspring has been inherited, or whether it is 
 owing to a morbid influence of consanguinity in marriage, 
 whether, in other words, consanguinity pure and simple is a 
 primary cause of disease. 
 
 A census would dispose of the practical question as to 
 whether it is expedient that these marriages should be per- 
 mitted or not. It matters little to the State whether consan- 
 
ANIMALS AND MAN 243 
 
 guineous marriage is a primary or secondary cause of disease. 
 But if it be found tliat there is so great a difference between 
 the results of consanguineous and non-consanguineous mar- 
 riages, that by permitting the former a manifest increase of 
 idiocy, deaf-mutism, or other disease is caused, by which the 
 population is saddled with a heavy charge for the production 
 and maintenance of individuals not only useless, but injurious 
 to the community, in that case the State is both justified and 
 bound to put what restraint it is able on individuals to prevent 
 these marriages. On the other hand, if so marked a result is 
 not discoverable, it would be both impolitic and dangerous 
 for the Government to discourage them. No census, however, 
 as I have pointed out, could determine whether consanguinity 
 can be a primary cause of disease. For that we must inter- 
 rogate Nature, as she has already been so successfully inter- 
 rogated on other physiological questions. We must experiment 
 on the lower animals, since we may not experiment on man. 
 
 It has been objected to this method of investigation of the 
 subject of this work, by many authors who at the same time 
 have not hesitated to avail themselves of it when it has suited 
 their arguments, that observations on the lower animals are 
 not applicable to man. They remind us, for instance, that 
 disturbances of the locomotive system produced by lesions of 
 the semicircular canals of the ear are not identical in different 
 animals. In the frog the muscles of the trunk are affected ; 
 in the pigeon, those of the head ; in the rabbit, the rotatory 
 muscles of the eye-ball.' That caries of the teeth, though a 
 prehistoric disease in man, is unknown in any other animal.- 
 That opium will produce tetanic spasms in the frog, but not 
 in man.' That sulphate of atropine will not kill Crustacea.^ 
 That frogs = and birds " and wasps and blow-flies ^ cannot be 
 inoculated with anthrax. That the long flower-stalks of the 
 dragon-tree serve as excellent food for the camel, but arc 
 
 ' Cyon, in the Comptes Keniiiis, for April 10, 1S76. 
 
 2 Vtokisot Q\xic\i, Physiological Society 0/ Berlin, May 2, iSS.j. 
 
 ' Walson, Principles and Practice of Phyiic^ i. 576. 
 
 ' Yung, in the Comptes Peniius, for July 21, 1879. 
 
 " Gibier, Comptes Pendus, for June 12, 1882. 
 
 « Pa-steur, Acad, de Med. de Paris, July 9, 1878. 
 
 ' Ma.Ho\, Journal of the Microscopical Society, for June 10, 1SS5 
 
244 THE MARRIAfiK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 almost a poison to goats.' That diabetes vielUtus is not 
 known to occur in any animal but man.'^ That dogs are very 
 much more affected than rabbits by nitrophenolpropiolate of 
 soda, independently of the diet.' That rats and mice can feed 
 on red-lead and putty ; " and so forth. 
 
 But with all this it is impossible to show any real physio- 
 logical difference between the lower animals and man. As 
 to lesions of the brain, great care is requisite not to injure 
 neighbouring tracts, and so produce apparently different effects 
 from apparently identical injuries. Caries of the teeth depends 
 very much on the structure of the teeth. The temperature of 
 the blood in frogs is too low, and in birds too high, to suit 
 anthrax ; but if frogs are kept at a higher temperature, or birds 
 cooled, they may take it. On the other hand, to experiments 
 on animals most of the greatest physiological discoveries are 
 due, and by the continuance of such experiments is further 
 advance alone possible. This is a truth so universally re- 
 cognised that experiments are made as a matter of course 
 upon animals in order that their results may be applied to 
 man, and though such results are at first applied tentatively, 
 and with extreme caution, because in the case of drugs the 
 power of resistance in animals is very different in degree, and 
 in surgery the more sensitive organisation of civilised man is 
 apt to complicate the operation, yet of real difference except 
 in degree there is none, and what little difference we do find 
 between man and the higher animals may also be found in 
 a like degree between different races of men. Hemp, for 
 instance, will sometimes produce a cataleptic state in Asiatics, 
 which it will not in Europeans, and, in place of the exhilarating 
 effect common in Asia, it produces simple delirium in Europe. 
 The more the diseases of the lower animals are studied, 
 the more are they found to be identical with those of man, 
 and to be brought about by the same causes in each case 
 where the cause itself is not due to a special habit. We even 
 find that animals are subject to nearly every brain disease, as 
 
 ' Schweinfurt, The Heart of Africa, i. 22. 
 
 * W.itson, ut sup. ii. 723. 
 
 ' Hoppe-Seyler, Physiol. Soc. 0/ Perliii, May II, 1SS3. 
 
 • Stoicr, /)«//,/. ofl/if Jiiissy lust. 1SS4, vol. ii. 
 
ANIMALS AND MAN 245 
 
 well as to others which were formerly supposed to be foiind 
 in man alone ; ' and the absolute identity of some of tlicin, 
 and by analogyof most of them, is established by such diseases 
 as small-pox, hydrophobia, glanders, anthrax, and probably 
 tuberculosis, which are intercommunicable among all the 
 liigher animals ; '^ and by diseases which occur both in man and 
 
 ' Swift, Gulliver's Travels, in the Voyage to the Houyhnhnms. 
 
 ' Jenner found that cows got small-pox from horses which had been tended 
 by the same persons who milked the cows, and its absolute identity is not only 
 shown by the immunity guaranteed by the transference of small-pox from the cow 
 to man, but also by the reverse experiment that it may be communicated by 
 inoculation from men to cows, and that the matter from the vesicles thus pro- 
 duced acts in all respects like ordinary vaccine matter when again used on man 
 (Sir Thomas Watson, Lectures on lite Principles and Practice of Physic, ii. 940, 
 956, 957). Dr. Marsden thinks that inoculation from sheep-pox would be as 
 efficient as that from the cow (Reynplils\Sys/rm of Medicine, i. 224), and Stephens 
 asserts that inoculation on sheep has the same eft'ect as on the human subject 
 (Stephens, The Book of the Farm, i. 487). Dogs also are known to suffer from 
 small-pox ('Stonehenge,' On the Greyhound in 1864, p. 81). 
 
 Hydrophobia may be communicated to man by dogs, wolves, foxes, cats, 
 horned cattle, horses, pigs, goats, sheep, badgers, martens, deer, and other animals 
 (J. and A. Gamgee, Reynolds' System of Medicine, i. 333, 334, 335, 337, 339). 
 Birds also are liable to rabies, but recover spontaneously (Gibier, in the Comptes 
 Ketidus de I 'Acad, des Sciences de Paris, for February 25, 1884). 
 
 Glanders is known to be communicable to man by the horse, ass, or mule ; 
 and may be produced either by inoculation or by a mere touch. The pig also 
 may be inoculated with virulent glanders. The disease in man may be com- 
 municated to other men, or to the ass. (J. and A. Gamgee, utsup. pp. 313, 314, 
 321, 324; and MM. Galtier, and Cadiacand Malet, in the Comptes Kendus, for 
 February 7, 1881, and November 2, 1885). 
 
 Homer describes most accurately the progress of anthrax (in the Iliad, book 
 i. 11. 50, SI): 
 
 Qvprias fjL€t/ irpuTOV eiri^x^^^i '^^^ Kivas apyovs' 
 avrap fireir' avToTiri 0f\o5 ^x^'f ""'^ 4<tiiels, 
 
 So in Yunnan Fu, where anthrax is endemic, it first attacks the rats, who 
 come out from their hiding-places, and die in crowds, turning round and round 
 as if giddy. The remainder migrate in vast numbers to the fields. Then 
 buffaloes, cattle, sheep, and men are infected. (Capt. Wm. Gill, The River of 
 Golden Sand, ii. 304 ; also Rocher, La Province Chinoise dii Yiinnan. ) The 
 same, with the same symptoms of giddiness, is described by Boccaccio in his 
 account of the pest (Black Death) of 1348-1360, when not only men but also 
 animals which came in contact with pest-stricken persons, or with their clothes, 
 were affected. ' Maravigliosa cosa k ad udire,' says Boccaccio, 'quello die io 
 dcbbo dire : il che se dagli occhi di molti e da' miei non fosse stato veduto, appena 
 che io ardissi di crederlo, non che di scriverlo, quantunque da fede degno udito 
 r avessi. Dico che di tanta efficacia fu la qualiti dcUa pestilenzia narrata nello 
 appiccarsi da uno ad altro, che non solamente I' uomo all' uomo, ma questo, che e 
 molto pill, assai volte visibilmente fece ; cioe che la cosa dell' uomo infermo stato, 
 o morto di tale infemiita, tocca da un altro animale fuori della spezie dell' uomo, 
 non solamente della infermita il contaminasse, ma quello infra brevissimo spazio 
 uccidesse. Di che gli occhi miei (siccome poco davanti e detto) presero trail' altre 
 volte un di cosl falta esperienza : che essendo gli stracci d' un povero uomo, da tale 
 infermita morto, gitlati nella via pubblica, e avvenendosi ad essi due porci, e 
 quegli, secondo il lor costume, prima molto col grifo, e poi co' denti presigli, e 
 
246 TUK MAkKIACK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 in the lower animals, and which we know to be induced b\- the 
 same causes in both cases, such as influenza, lead colic, ague, 
 typhus-fever, and others, both epidemic and chronic' There 
 
 scosbiglisi alle guanre ; in ,,irr,iln ,,n anprc-sso, dopo alciino avvolgimento come 
 se veleno avesser pu- , 1 1 11 1 . 1 uh iiml tiiati slmcci morli caddero in 
 i' (Boccaccio, /' i I li ...111, pp. S, 01. ! )ni;s, cals, fowls, and 
 
 Dlher animals 
 
 I 1 "h iiml tiiati stincci 
 
 1. ,7,m, pp. S, 01. 
 
 !)„5; 
 
 Ill l..va 22,000 1 
 
 
 ,ccl.s. In England 
 
 dol 
 
 of tin 
 
 jials died pest-sluclsL-u «iil,in mv ivccl.s. In England domestic animals lay 
 
 dead in ever)' hedgerow ; and il is said that no beast or bird of prey would touch 
 their carcasses (Hecker, p'o/kskranklialen, etc. pp. 26, 27, 45, 51). 
 
 Tuberculosis has been fully shown to be infectious between man and animals, 
 but whether the disease is exactly the same is not quite so certain, yel though the 
 form of the att.ick, (.eihaps, (hfliis slightly, the same micrococcus appears to be 
 iiresent in all cists. Di. Flcmin;; sho«s that sheep, goals, pigs, rabbits, and 
 even the poipuise ma) Iil cxpu iuh iil.ill) infL. led, as well as cattle {Brit. amU-or. 
 Mfi.-Chn. A'l-T/f-i'. i->i ' ' I 1^71 11 1' 1 I'si'ii, and that carnivorous animals 
 give' negative result' 1 plained by natural selection. An 
 
 elephant died of tul < ' Gardens (the Times, July 17, 
 
 1875 • the Comptcs A ' ■ "-S de Paris for the last six years 
 
 contain many conf.imal.u) papos by M. Toussaint. See also .Sir J. Simon's 
 'Address," in Naliin, x.siv. 371, 372). Tuberculous disease is also known to 
 occur in monkeys and birds. 
 
 The recent inxesiiijations of Dr. Klein and Mr. Power show that scarlet fever 
 IS identical \Mtli a c mh -Mistase called ' gai gel,' and also is closely connected with 
 diphtheria. l>i Kl' 11. ui.-L.i an outbrLak of scarlet fever to cases of garget in 
 cows from win. li iIh null sni.ply ha.l lieen obtained; he separated the micrococcus 
 and cultivali ' 1' ni'.iin<i'l. ■^ 'im- i>ii;anism in cows and human beings. Mice 
 wereaffecti 1 ' ' '. ' 1 " h never source the inoculating micrococcus 
 
 was obtaiiM ' I') infected by the organism from human 
 
 cases of scaii 1 1 i .if the report of the Medical Officer of the 
 
 Local Oovcinment ]>naiii, in ihe 1 iiim for July 5, 1886 ; also in Nature, xxxiv. 
 213. And Nature, xxxv. 452, 453, for an abstract of Dr. Klein's lecture on 
 "The Etiology of Scarlet Fever,' 'at the Medical School of St. Bartholomew's 
 
 ' Dogs, cats, horses, and possibly biids, have been affected simultaneously 
 with influen7a when that disease was life (Dr. Parkes, in Reynolds' Systetn of 
 Medicine, i. 37). And, duiing the epidemic catarrh, which proved so fatal to 
 horses in Ameiira, in 1872-73, it was noticed that pigs also were frequently 
 affected when fed in the neighbourhood of horses suffering from that disease (see 
 the Times for Dec. 21, 1872). 
 
 Animals are certainly subject to ague, and they seem to desert aguish places. 
 Bishop Heber states that these in the upper provinces of India are deserted by most 
 animals during the ague months (Sir Thomas AVatson, Lcclnres on the Trinciplci 
 and Pradieeof l'hysic,\.^(i^,^^o,^^■l■). 
 
 Rooks and gulls have been known to die in quantities when cholera was rife 
 {ibid. ii. 585). 
 
 Dogs, cats, and rats which inhabit houses or manufactories where lead is much 
 used are known to become affected with lead-colic {ibid. ii. 558). 
 
 Brain diseases, oftenest dependent on some morbid growth in the brain, are 
 common to cattle ; or they may suffer from phrenitis, and consequent coma and 
 delirium. Horses, pigs, and dogs are also liable to inflammation of the brain, 
 and the latter are also .subject to a disease known as ' lurnside ' from injury to one 
 side of the brain, and to chorea. Paralysis may occur in dogs, pigs (often induced 
 by the cystocerctis), horses, cattle, and fowls. Epilepsy is common to horses, pigs, 
 and dogs ; tetanus to cattle, horses, and pigs ; apoplexy to cattle, horses, pigs, 
 and fowls ; the ophthalmias to cattle, horses, and dogs, which are also liable to 
 amaurosis, cataract, otitis, and mutism. Fowls are .subject to asthma, tattle 
 and pigs are liable to the foot-and-mouth disease. Coryza and catarrh are common 
 
ANIMALS AND MAN 247 
 
 arc, of course, some differences between the physiological 
 functions of mankind and the lower animals, but the general 
 features are the same ; and though it might be easy to pick 
 out one function in one animal which does not exist in another, 
 this will be found to be either a special modification, or it will 
 be a minor function, or the experimenter has omitted to take 
 
 to caUle, horses, sheep, clogs, and fowls. Laryngitis is known to occur in cattle, 
 horses, and dogs ; bronchitis in cattle, horses, pigs, and dogs. Pleuro-pneumonia 
 (sometimes differing from that in man in its contagious property) is common to 
 cattle, horses, pigs, and sheep. But Dr. Friedlander show-s that human pneu- 
 monia is due to the presence of a micrococcus, which he communicated to mice, 
 guinea-pigs, rabbits, and dogs. The mice all died of pneumonia ; the guinea-pigs 
 were less liable ; the dogs less still ; and the rabbits were proof against them. 
 Quinsy is known in pigs. Emphysema is common in horses, arising from the 
 same cause as in man. Diseases of the heart and large blood-vessels, the same 
 as in man, are common to cattle, horses, and pigs (though disease of the heart is 
 always on the left side). Peritonitis is common to horses, pigs, and dogs ; 
 dropsy, of various kinds, to cattle, horses, dogs, and fowls ; diarrhoea, dysen- 
 tery, constipation, and colic to sheep, cattle, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls. 
 Hernia, umbilical and congenital, is known in cattle and pigs. Cases of intus- 
 susception of the bowel have been known to occur in cattle ; and protrusion of the 
 rectum in pigs. Gonorrhoea is known in cattle. Diseases of the kidney, such i 
 ' ■ s, fat ' ' " " ■ ■ ' 
 
 nephritis, fatty degeneration, and hi^maturia, are common to cattle, horses, dogs, 
 and cats. Cystitis, as in man rarely idiopathic, is common to cattle and horses. 
 Calculi, both in the gall and urinal bladders, have been found in cattle, horses, 
 pigs, and dogs. Jaundice is common in horses, dogs, and sheep, frequently 
 caused by hepatitis ; and, as in man, with well-marked sympathetic pain in the 
 shoulder, so that sheep thus affected frequently seem to be lame. The true dis- 
 temper in dogs is identified by Walsh with typhus fever. Diphtheria may be 
 transferred by inoculation from human beings to animals. M. Nicati transferred 
 tiue diphtheria from the fowl to the rabbit ; and Prof. Gerhardt from fowls to 
 cats, a parrot, and to man. Dogs are known to have bleeding and other cancers, 
 commonest in those parts where they are commonest in man ; and to suffer from 
 anaemia, which is curable by the same tonics which cure a like state in man. 
 Rickets are common to dogs and deer. Congenital hydrocephalus is known in 
 cattle. Rheumatism occurs in cattle, pigs, dogs (but only articular in old and 
 worn-out animals), and in whales, in which the bones are often found altered. 
 Erysipelas is common to sheep and pigs. Horses are said to be subject to nettle 
 rash. Goitre occurs in animals in goitrous districts. And albinoism is common 
 to a great many animals (Youatt, On the Pig, pp. 193-198, 206, 207, 210-213, 
 217, 222, 224-226, 230, 233, 235; ibid. Oil I he Horse, pp. 1 89- 1 99; 'Stone- 
 henge,' On the Greyhoiimi, pp. 59-61, 78, 84, 89, 92-IOO, 104, 108, 109, 121- 
 139; Stephens, The Book 0/ the /■'arm, i. 162, 164, 212, 258, 268, 423, 424, 
 485-487, 536, 537 ; ii. 471 ; Dobson, On the Ox, pp. 6, 8, 67, 75-78, 80, 81, 
 89, 136, 153, 176, 181-186, 201-211, 216, 217, 248, 249 ; Sir Thomas Watson, 
 Lectures on the Principles and Practice 0/ Physic, ii. 750, 6S2; Shirley, Deer, etc. 
 p. 243; Struthers, in 'A Paper read before the British Association of 1872,' see the 
 Popular Science Revieiulox Oz\.. 1872, p. 432; St. Lager, Etudes sur les Causes du 
 Goitre, etc. pp. 58-61 ; Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 53-60 ; Boudin, Mem. de Ix 
 Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 515 ; Dr. Friedlander, Physiolog. Soc. of Berlin, 
 reported in Nature, for December 6, 1883, x.\ix. 144. Nicati, in Comptes Rendus 
 de PAcad. des Sciences de Paris, for Feb. 10, 1879. Gerhardt, in the Wiener 
 Allgemeine Med. Zeitung, reported in the Times, Oct. 30, 1883). These are, ol 
 course, merely incidental observations, but, lo the best of my knowledge, no work 
 exists in any language on comparative pathology. 
 
248 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 into account something which is necessary for the success of 
 the experiments. All this is more especially the case as 
 regards generation, which is as unspecialised a function, indeed, 
 a rather less specialised function, than that of the skin ; and 
 varies so little in its essential characteristics from the lowest 
 organisms to the highest that observations deduced from the 
 breeding of domestic animals may very safely be applied to 
 man. 
 
 Nevertheless, two kinds of objections have been made to 
 this ; the one, that domestic animals are usually, from Nature's 
 point of view, nothing but monsters. By artificial means, it 
 is urged, a certain part or quality of the animal is unnaturally 
 developed, while at the same time another part or quality is 
 as unnaturally diminished — withdraw man's care and attend- 
 ance, and what becomes of the so-called improved animal 
 then ? It will languish and die ; and in its place will appear 
 the original stock from which it was developed. The other 
 objection is, that any improvement which may occur is not 
 really due to in-and-in breeding, but to the care of the breeders 
 in feeding, tending, cherishing, and selecting their beasts ; so 
 that the weak are not allowed to breed, nor are they obliged 
 to endure those evils and difficulties of existence which their 
 wilder brethren are forced to undergo.' 
 
 But what an argument is this ! Without denying one of 
 these assertions, I yet maintain the animal itself is neither 
 any worse nor any better than it was before. I say that it 
 is better than a wild animal in the stall, and a wild animal is 
 better than it in the Llanos. It is an argument which has 
 already been refuted by wild Indians to the shame of white 
 
 ' Gourdon, Comptes Rctidiis, 1862, Iv. 269-273; Mitchell, £(///;. Med. Jour- 
 nal, March, 1862, pp. 873, 874, 878; Mitchell, Mem. of the Aiitlirop. Soc. of 
 London, 1 866, ii. 451, 452; Boiidin, Ann. d' Hygiene, 1862, xviii. 67-70; Bou- 
 (lin, Mem. de la .Soc. if .Anihrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 543-549; GeofTroy, cited by 
 I'erier, iHd. 1870, iii. 257 ; Grossman, Brit. Med. Journal, 1S61, i. 401, 402 ; 
 Low, cited by Mitchell, Mem. read before the .4nl/irop. Soe. of London, 1866, ii. 
 450, 451 ; Devay, Liu Danger, etc. p. 48 ; Flourens, Complcs Rendus, 1862, Iv. 
 238, 239. M. Boudin ' recommends to the notice of gastronomers ' a fact noticed 
 by ' un voyageur etranger, qui a habite la France et I'Angleterre,' who found him- 
 self obliged to eat twice as much beef in England as in France to satisfy his 
 hunger; and which M. Boudin suggests is due to the fact that beef is more 
 in-andin bred in England than in France (Boudin, .-inn. d'Hygiene, 1S62, xviii. 
 6q, note 5")! The fact says a great deal for the taste of the intelligent foreigner. 
 
ANIMALS AND MAN 249 
 
 men. 'We thank you,' said the Iroquese to the Government 
 of Virginia, in the year 1744, who had offered to educate some 
 of tlicir young men — 'we thank you for your kind intentions. 
 We have already had some experience of your education. 
 Some of us whom you educated in all your sciences came back 
 again bad runners, ignorant of all woodcraft, unable to bear 
 heat or cold ; they were ignorant how to trap deer, how to 
 build a wigwam ; they were ignorant even of our language : 
 what good, then, either to themselves or to us, was their 
 education .' No. We cannot accept your offer, though we 
 appreciate your goodwill. But send us, if you like, a dozen 
 or so of your sons, whom we will educate as we do our own, 
 and make men of them.' ' When animals are bred by man 
 he must select for every quality he wishes to develop, and not 
 for one alone. If he selects for but one quality, the others will 
 necessarily deteriorate, because they are neglected. It will 
 not do, for instance, to select pigs only for rapid fattening 
 qualities ; or rabbits merely for long ears and a sleek coat ; 
 they must also be chosen from a large litter to ensure the 
 hereditary transmission of fecundity. The fact is, that an 
 animal properly bred in-and-in, and a wild animal, is each the 
 most perfect according to its circumstances. Alter the circum- 
 stances, and the animal is at once unfit for its place. When 
 the Kyloe breed of cattle was crossed it was found only to 
 become more delicate, because the progeny were not so well 
 acclimatised as the pure Kyloe ; and the same was the case 
 with the Galloways.^ From the breeder's point of view in- 
 and-in breeding improves the breed because it suppresses 
 those qualities which under the circumstances are useless, and 
 develops those which are useful, whether it be for racing, for 
 wool, for the butcher, or for any other purpose ; and without 
 in-and-in breeding he cannot alter an animal to suit his pur- 
 pose. He selects for breeding, it is true, but the one factor, 
 the factor consanguinity, still remains ; while by that means 
 he excludes disturbing factors, such as morbid inheritance, 
 whereby he makes his experiments valuable for our purpose. 
 
 ' Qunted by Wailz, Ant/iropolegie, iii. 170, 171. 
 
 = MacJonald, Calllc, Sheep, and Deer, pp. 26S, 276. 
 
250 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 By in-and-in breeding he could as easily and as certainly 
 breed animals with qualities which would elevate them above 
 their savage brethren were they to rejoin them, as he can breed 
 qualities which improve them for himself. Indeed, it may be 
 said that those qualities in every state of existence which give 
 an animal most chances of life and multiplication are those 
 qualities which improve it ; for what else is improvement ? 
 It is equally undeniable that, in their present circumstances, 
 our domestic animals are improved for themselves, as well as 
 for the breeder, since they multiply and live, while the others 
 are exterminated. 
 
 This very care which he bestows so unsparingly on the 
 selection of his stock is what would have to be done were we 
 to experiment on the effects of blood relationship in marriage 
 undisturbed by other factors, the effects of which we are un- 
 able to calculate. An ideal experiment of this sort would be 
 to take a fine and healthy set of people, divide them, and 
 place them under the same conditions of occupation, food, and 
 habitation. Make the smaller lot never marry any but their 
 nearest relations, generation after generation, and the larger 
 never marry anyone related in the remotest degree, selecting 
 in both cases only the most vigorous and healthy. Then note 
 the result of these marriages and compare them. By such an 
 experiment disturbing causes would, as far as is possible, be 
 excluded, and if there were any morbid results, the sole factor 
 which could cause it would be the consanguinity. It is pre- 
 cisely this, though not in so complete a form, that the breeders 
 do ; but with the advantage that, since the domestic animals 
 breed faster in proportion to the length of their lives than does 
 man, a closer degree cf consanguinity can be obtained from 
 them than could be obtained from him. Nor is selection an un- 
 natural process ; for both selection and in-and-in breeding are 
 common to wild animals. Most of those animals which do not 
 pair for life fight for possession of the females ; the weakest 
 thus necessarily is unable to breed, while the strongest not only 
 has the advantage of propagating his strength, but in many 
 cases, also, practises polygamy and incest, since he drives away 
 all the young males and keeps the females. 
 
It is manifest, then, that if the question whether consan- 
 t^uiiieous marriages are harmful through their consanguinity, 
 ;uid not through inheritance (if they are harmful at all), is 
 to be answered, that observations on in-and-in breeding in 
 animals, and these alone at present, are able to do so. Natu- 
 rally persons with that preconceived notion which everyone 
 is bound to have on this subject who has not studied it, are 
 apt to consider any evil result observed in the course of in- 
 and-in breeding as caused by that kind of breeding, without 
 any previous examination whether there may not be other 
 causes to account for it. It is so in the study of these unions 
 among human beings ; and the results obtained from in-and- 
 in breeding in animals, though far more trustworthy than those 
 obtained from consanguineous marriage cases, are not abso- 
 lutcl)' free from disturbing causes which affect their reliability. 
 In the study of these cases, therefore, as in others, we must 
 remember that one fact showing the harmlessness of in-and-in 
 breeding is worth a hundred tending to show their harmful- 
 ness ; since in the former the consanguinity is still a factor, 
 but in the latter we are ignorant what other factors may have 
 come into play. Let us now proceed to facts. 
 
 M. Allie, says M. Boudin, after a long experience, is of 
 opinion that the system of in-and-in breeding is ruin to sheep. 
 A flock at Petit-Bourg, he says, has diminished greatly in 
 value since it passed into other hands, and this system has 
 been practised.' The observations of Stephens lead him to 
 the same conclusion ; the progeny, he says, though improved 
 in figure, firmness of bone, etc., are nevertheless delicate 
 skinned, and therefore liable to the attacks of insects, and to 
 inflammation ; but this evil is only the result of long-continued 
 in-and-in breeding, and by no means the immediate result.'- 
 M. Aube asserts that sheep will produce a dark kind if bred 
 in-and-in, which he explains as a step on the road to albino- 
 ism.^ While ' Mr. Giblett, of Bond Street,' quoted by Walker, 
 asserted that sheep bred in-and-in on Bakewell's principle are 
 
 ' Uoudin, Mem. de la Soe. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1S63, i. 520. 
 
 - Stephens, The Hook of the Farm, ii. 584. 
 
 ' Aube, liulLl. de la Soc. Imp. Zool. dAcdimatalioii, iv. 513. 
 
253 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KI\ 
 
 fitter for the tallow chandler than for the kitchen,' which is 
 very likely true, but has nothing to do with consanguinity.^ 
 
 On the other hand, RI. Beaudouin gives the following 
 account of a flock of 300 merinoes bred in-and-in for a period 
 of twenty-two years ; the animals originally came from 
 Saxony, were renowned for the purity of their blood, and 
 had only been a few years in the Cote-d'Or when, in 1 840, he 
 commenced his observations. At that time, though suffering 
 from no particular disease, the sheep were labouring under 
 general debility, seemingly attributable more to a want of 
 acclimatisation than to anything else. He began by a little 
 judicious selection, eliminating about i S per cent, yearly, and 
 the flock soon became remarkably strong and healthy. There 
 was no sensible sterility ; altogether, perhaps, the cases of 
 cryptorchis and monorchis were not more that 6 per cent., 
 while in the females there were even fewer cases of barrenness. 
 Cases of duplicate organs were about 5 per cent. ; and in 
 1859, a year when these cases were unusually frequent in all 
 the flocks about, there were as many as 7 per cent, in his. 
 The sexes were produced in nearly equal numbers, and cases 
 of miscarriage were not more numerous than among the 
 neighbouring flocks. Far from degenerating, they became 
 finer and far more to be depended upon to reproduce their 
 proper type than is ordinary in flocks which are crossed. 
 During the twenty-two years there was one instance of the 
 birth of a Mauchamp sheep, which is a very rare occurrence. 
 He concludes with the declaration that, in his belief, in-and- 
 in breeding, combined with a moderate amount of selection, 
 has no evil effect.-'' Close interbreeding, says Mr. Darwin, has 
 perhaps been as long continued with sheep as with cattle ; 
 but perhaps the nearest relations have not been so frequently 
 matched. Messrs. Brown, during fifty years, have never 
 crossed their excellent flock of Leicesters, nor since the year 
 
 ' Walker, On Inla-iuarrinsc, p. 335. 
 
 - Too much attention is given by most breeders to the fat-getting qii.alilies of 
 animals, in consequence of the prizes offered at cattle shows being generally 
 bestowed on the fattest beasts (see p. 264 of this work ; and Macdonald, Cattle, 
 Sheep, ami Deer, jip. 258-260). 
 
 " Beaudouin, Commies Rcmlus, 1S62, Iv. 236-23S. 
 
SHEEP 253 
 
 iSio has Mr. Barford crossed the Foscote flock. Tin's gentle- 
 man asserts that when two nearly related individuals are 
 perfectly sound, no degeneracy is produced in their offspring 
 by their union ; or, in other words, that there is no danger in 
 in-and-in breeding unless through morbid inheritance. But, 
 on the other hand, he does not pride himself on breeding from 
 the nearest relatives ; and I may add that such is not a 
 breeder's object : he does not choose a relative for its relation- 
 ship, but for its qualities. In France the Naz flock has been 
 bred in-and-in for sixty years, without the introduction of any 
 strange blood.' Ferdinand and Louis Fischer started a flock 
 of lOO ewes of one family, and four rams of another ; and these 
 families have since been interbred without the admixture of 
 a drop of fresh blood. Mr. Atwood's entire flock, which was 
 so celebrated that it is now scattered by colonisation into all 
 the States of the North American Union, originated from a 
 single impregnated ewe ; and neither she nor any of her pro- 
 geny or descendants while in his hands was interbred with 
 any sheep not descended exclusively from Colonel Hum- 
 phrey's flock, from which she herself came. Mr. Hammond 
 bought a small number of Atwood's flock in 1844, and he has 
 since interbred solely between the descendants of these iden- 
 tical sheep. The Spaniards, in their sheep-breeding, guard 
 against any admixture between the different cabanas, and 
 they have been bred in-and-in for ages.- Hallam says that 
 the fineness of Spanish wool is considered to be owing to an 
 importation of English sheep about the year 1 348, and again 
 about 1465, in return for which the Spaniards exported 
 horses.' M'Culloch says that the Spaniards themselves 
 ascribe their superior breed of sheep to the introduction of a 
 few from England by Catherine of Lancaster in 1394; while 
 elsewhere he says the merino breed is said to have been in- 
 troduced from Barbary.'' These importations could not have 
 been very great, and it appears that the Spaniards have since 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants, etc. 1875, ii. gS, 99. 
 
 ' Randall, Fine Wool Sheep Htisbamiiy, pp. loS, 115. 
 
 ' Hallam, Middle Ages, ii. 386, note. 
 
 * M'Culloch, Geographical Dictionary, arts. 'Spain 'and 'Tunis.' 
 
254 I'I'E MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 bred them in very closely, with the result that they became so 
 valuable that, up to the treaty of Basle, their exportation was 
 forbidden. By that treaty the French were allowed to buy 
 5,000 merino ewes and as many rams ; and from this stock 
 the English sheep, which had also been carefully bred, were 
 improved, while those of France and Germany were almost 
 replaced by them.' In the former country a flock of 334 ewes 
 and 22 rams was established at Rambouillet. The flock was 
 continually bred in-and-in, but no particular selection was 
 practised until nearly a hundred years later. Then the 
 pedigrees were established, and, though nominally brother and 
 sister, and parent and child, were not paired as a rule ; yet if 
 there was any superiority in any particular animal, no relation- 
 ship was regarded. No evil has ever resulted from this, in the 
 opinion of the director, M. Bernardin.^ M. Leroy, the winner 
 of many prizes as a sheep-breeder, informed M. La Perre 
 that once having got his flock to his satisfaction, he intends 
 to breed in-and-in. MM. Camus and Cugnot also occasion- 
 ally crossed their flocks, not on account of any degeneration, 
 but to improve away faults of form or wool. M. Thirouin's 
 flock of merinoes has had one cross about every ten years 
 during the forty years it has existed. M. Noblet, for the first 
 twenty-five years, crossed his flock to improve their meat, with 
 the result that they diminished in weight. For the last fifteen 
 years he has not crossed the flock, and has found no evil results 
 followed. M. Conseil-Lamy's flock was created in 18 16, and 
 for the last sixty years has not been crossed, except from other 
 flocks derived from his own when he saw in any of them a parti- 
 cularly fine ram. During this time he has paid no attention to 
 nearness of blood, but has always bred from the best animals.^ 
 The merino, when introduced into Germany, was so immensely 
 superior to all the native breeds that it was evcrj'where ac- 
 cepted with enthusiasm. In Saxony the greatest attention 
 was paid to them, chiefly, however, as regards the quality of 
 their wool, not as regards the quantity and quality, as well as 
 
 ' M 'Culloch, «</«//. art. 'Castile.' 
 
 ' La Perre de Koo, La Consanguiniti', etc. pp. 140, 141. 
 
 ' //'/,/. pp. i43-'55- 
 
SHEEP 255 
 
 the quality of the meat, as in England. To this end they 
 were kept in stables and fed on heating food, such as coin 
 and hay, throughout the winter. The result is an unexampled 
 quality of wool, but the animals have become a small and 
 puny race. In England the breed of sheep was already so 
 good that men were prejudiced in favour of their own breeds. 
 Many merinoes, therefore, fell into the hands of men who had 
 no experience in breeding, and they were mismanaged ; but 
 ' in the hands of at least one practical breeder they were, how- 
 ever, eminently successful. He reports on them : " Soon after 
 the king's flocks were imported, * * * J purchased a considerable 
 number of sheep from them, and selected from those of the 
 Negrette blood, as being the largest sheep, and carrying the 
 most and softest wool. These I continued to keep strictly 
 pure, having no other sheep whatever, and I drew rams from 
 the royal flock, so long as that was kept up ; since which I 
 have depended wholly on my own. By due attention in 
 breeding, the wool, far from degenerating, has annually im- 
 proved in softness and fineness, and these qualities have 
 become much more uniformly even throughout the fleece ; so 
 that I now obtain for the whole a price beyond what any 
 foreign wool brings in bulk in an unsorted state, whilst the 
 fleeces of [my] own flock are full double the weight of those of 
 the Saxon sheep. It is right, however, to state that the staple 
 of my flocks having arrived at a length beyond that of other 
 Merino sheep, has rendered it fit for combing, thus enhancing 
 the value. The form of the sheep is also highly improved, 
 whilst the disposition to fatten equals that of the Southdown. 
 The mutton is of the first quality, and I can readily have for 
 the fat wethers the highest price which any mutton brings in the 
 London market." ' ' The justly celebrated New Leicester breed 
 of sheep was entirely created as a distinct breed by this 
 method. 'Taking the native sheep,' says Mr. Macdonald, 
 talking of Bakewcll, ' he reduced his size, gave him small 
 offals, induced him to lay on flesh and fat all along the breech, 
 sides, shoulders, flank, and neck. He opened his wool, and also 
 reduced it in weight, and a little in length. He increased the 
 
 ' Macdonald, Cattle, Sheep, and Deer, pp. 351-353. 
 
250 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 tendency to lay on fat in proportion to the food consumed, and 
 made the animal take on fat at least a year or two earlier ; thus 
 enabling two or three animals to be fed where one only was fed 
 before. Nor was this change fitful or temporary ; it was per- 
 manent and indelible ; and, for nearly a century, the same breed 
 of sheep has not only maintained its position, but has been used 
 with more or less success to improve nearly every breed in the 
 United Kingdom, and has, moreover, more or less, displaced 
 almost every other breed.' ' A correspondent of Walker's 
 says : ' I have bred from rams from the same flock in Leices- 
 tershire, for fourteen years, which flock has not had a cross 
 since the year 1799.' Some of the new Leicester breed ap- 
 pear, however, to deserve the remark of the ' Bond Street 
 Butcher' ; for Sir John Sebright said that Bakewell's principles 
 were followed up too far ; the propensity to get fat has in- 
 creased so much that their stock has become small in size, 
 delicate, and produces little wool. But another correspondent 
 of Walker's points out that a propensity for fat-getting and 
 the production of the finest wool are incompatible;' and it 
 certainly appears from the fact that this breed has supplanted 
 so many others that it cannot have degenerated. Too much 
 fat is always a danger to a breed, for fat is a degeneration of 
 tissue and a cause of sterility ; ^ and, although by in-and-in 
 breeding man is able to do a great deal in the way of altera- 
 tion, he must still follow Nature ; he cannot go contrary to 
 physiological laws ; he can increase the qualities which he 
 wishes to get, but often only at the expense of qualities which 
 he is content to do without ; and can no more obtain an 
 animal all fat with every other good quality than he can 
 teach his breed to live without food. We must remember 
 that ill-directed breeding is as bad when there are frequent 
 crosses as when there are none ; that it is selection which is 
 the great improver, when properly directed, and that breeding 
 
 ' Macdonald, Catlle, Sheep, and Deer, p. 446. At p. 415, however, Mr. Mac- 
 donald says : 'The Leicester was notoriously a cross of various breeds in the first 
 instance, although the success which supplied the cross is a secret buried in the " tomb 
 of the Capulets." ' At p. 447 he says : ' It is not so clearly known what w.is the 
 parent stock, though it is generally supposed to have been the Old Leicester.' 
 
 ' Walker, On Intermarriage, pp. 236, 295, 351, 
 
SHEEP 257 
 
 in-and-in is only advantageous because it fixes the breed, and 
 obviates tJic necessity of crossing from an unimproved breed. 
 Indeed, a careless cross may diminish size — a charge against 
 in-and-in breeding— just as in-and-in breeding under the 
 same circumstances may do so. The Romney ]\Iarsh sheep 
 were made smaller in this way ; so were the Teeswater ; and 
 so are the mongrels of the Merino and Scotch, or the South- 
 down and Scotch breeds.' The sheep of Shetland, says Dr. 
 Copland, are very small,'^ their fleeces fine and soft, their meat 
 delicate and finely flavoured. In many parts they have much 
 deteriorated since the introduction of south-country breeds,' 
 which were introduced to increase their size ; for none of 
 the crosses proved successful although many were tried. 
 Indeed, the sheep themselves seem sometimes to have an anti- 
 pathy to crosses, for Marshall relates that a flock of heavy Lin- 
 colnshire and light Norfolk sheep which had been bred together 
 on a large sheep-walk, part of which was low, rich, and moist, 
 and another part high and dry, when turned out, separated 
 from each other, the heavy sheep drawing off to the rich soil, 
 the Norfolks to the dry ; so that whilst there was plenty of 
 grass ' the two breeds kept themselves as distinct as rooks and 
 pigeons ' ; and, on one of the Faroe isles, it was observed that 
 the half-wild native black sheep would not readily unite with 
 imported white sheep.^ So bad are the effects of crossing 
 an improved breed, which must necessarily comprise no very 
 great number at first that some persons keep their animals 
 
 ' Macdonald, Cattk, Sheep, and Deer, pp. 462, 478, 483. 
 
 ' Animals living on islands are said to be frequently small breeds because 
 they are bred in-and-in. But although the fact is true, the alleged cause cannot 
 be, since there are in many other and unisolated parts of the world also small 
 breeds of the domestic and other animals. Thus, there are small breeds of horses 
 in Ladakh, India ; in Morbihan and Lorraine, France ; in Servia ; in the Szekler 
 Mountains, Transylvania ; in Finland ; in Galicia ; and in Sweden : there are 
 small breeds of cattle in Kumaon, India ; in Manchooria ; in Tunis ; in the 
 department of Istre ; in Unterwalden ; and in Sweden : and there are small 
 breeds of sheep in Ladakh, in Manchooria, in Thibet, and in Hanover, etc. 
 (M'CuUoch, Geographical Dictionary). Even had we not these facts, we should have 
 no right to attribute any dwarfishness of island breeds to consanguineous unions 
 among them, when the probability is that small stature, when not directly in- 
 herited, is due to hard work and poor food (Godron, De tEspice, etc. i. 17, 18 ; 
 ii. 286-294). 
 
 ' Walker, On Intermarriage, pp. 349, 351 ; Macdonald, Cattle, Sheep, and 
 Deer, p. 529. 
 
 • Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants, etc. 1875, ii. pp. 80, 81. 
 
 S 
 
258 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 in different families, and thus, while they retain consanguinity, 
 any tendency to disease peculiar to one family from the soil, 
 habit, or what not, is obliterated. On the other hand, so valu- 
 able is in-and-in breeding to perpetuate any peculiarity either 
 caused by selection, or by what is known as a ' sport,' that 
 nearly all ' created ' breeds have been produced in this way, 
 and valuable breeds, such as the Ancon and Mauchamp, would 
 have been entirely lost without it. 
 
 A majority of the most celebrated breeders and improvers 
 of English cattle, says Mr. Randall, have bred closely in-and- 
 in ; ' and this was necessary, as I have already pointed out, 
 since an improvement cannot comprise a large number at 
 first. Bakewell was one of these breeders, and his longhorns 
 were for a considerable time closely interbred, though Mr. 
 Youatt says that they at last became delicate, and the propa- 
 gation of their kind uncertain ;- a state which seems to have 
 been due to bad management, for Bakewell himself was, as a 
 rule, extremely successful. Knight once in the same season 
 reared two young bulls of which the parents were nearly 
 related ; and both proved perfectly impotent, or at least 
 failed to beget a single calf ; yet the females bred well enough 
 while young. But another correspondent of Walker's never 
 found the generative power fail in consequence of in-and-in 
 breeding of cattle ; all that is necessary, he says, is to select 
 carefully.' 
 
 The half-wild cattle kept in British parks, at Blair Athole 
 (now removed to Kilmory), at Cadzow Castle, Chartley, 
 Chillingham, Lyme Park, and Somerford Park, are instances 
 of continued in-and-in breeding from time immemorial, and 
 still exist. There were other herds at Ardrossan, Auchen- 
 cruive, Barnard Castle, Bishop Auckland, Burton Constable, 
 Drumlanrig, Ewelme Park, Gisburne Park, Hoghton, Holdenby 
 Park, Leigh Court, Middleton Park, Naworth Castle, and 
 Wollaton Park ; all of which are now extinct, some from 
 causes which have not been recorded ; in six places from 
 having been killed off; in one, Middleton, from having been 
 
 ' R.iml.ill, Fine IVool Sheep Husbandry^ p. 117, note. 
 
 - n.irwin, The Jarialioii 0/ Anima/s am/ Fhiils, vie. 1875,!!. 96. 
 
 ' Walker, On hi/.:rm„niase, jip- 22S, 229, 23S, 239. 
 
CATTLE 259 
 
 merged into a domestic race ; and in three, namely, Burton 
 Constable, Gisburne Park, and VVollaton Park, from causes 
 alleged to have been due to in-and-in breeding. Some high 
 authorities hold that they are derived from the Bos priini- 
 gcnhis, but Professor Owen and Dr. J. A. Smith consider that 
 that animal became extinct in prehistoric times ; at any rate, 
 if they were derived from Bos pri)iiigeniiis it is probable they 
 originated from him only indirectly. At Cadzovv Castle there 
 were in October 1874, 45 head of cattle, which had increased 
 to 56 in June 1877. At Chartley the average number kept 
 was 30 ; but in 1851 there were 48; in 1873,27; in 1874, 
 25 ; in 1877, 20. At Chillingham there were in the year 
 1692, 28 head; in 1838, about 80; in 1S61, about 50; in 
 1863, about the same number ; in 1873, 64 ; in 1874, 71 ; in 
 1875, 62 ; in 1877, 59. Lord Tankerville says they increase 
 slowly, several dying each year by accidents, or by over- 
 running their calves when disturbed ; and the cows breed 
 slowly, as calves are frequently not weaned until after two 
 years. At Lyme Park there were in 18 17 about 20 head ; 
 about 1850 there were 34, from which number they gradually 
 dwindled to 4 in 1875, and increased to 6 in 1877. This dimi- 
 nution has of course been attributed to in-and-in breeding, 
 but it appears that foot-and-mouth disease had much to do 
 with it in killing some and impairing the fertility of others. 
 Moreover, the mistake was made at one time of keei)ing only 
 one bull, which proved infertile. The cattle at Somerford 
 Park are of the same kind as those which were at Middleton ; 
 no record has been kept of their numbers at various periods, 
 but in 1875 there were 20 head. At Middleton they came 
 through inheritance to be divided, some died out, and others 
 were crossed with shorthorns ; but there is a strong tendency 
 among these latter to revert to the wild type which have so 
 long been bred in-and-in. At Burton Constable the herd 
 had died out from ' a distemper ' in 1785, about. At Gisburne 
 Park the herd, seldom numbering even 10 head, were a part 
 of the Whallcy Abbey herd. An attempt was made about 
 the year 18 10 to cross the breed with tame cattle, and also 
 with a cow from Lyme, but it did not succeed. In 1859 there 
 
260 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 was only one bull, a cow, and a calf left, and they were got 
 rid of. The WoUaton Park herd became extinct between 
 1800 and 1S35, owing to fourteen out of them having died 
 from eating dead branches cut from trees near the house, and 
 since the survivors (the number of which is not given) refused 
 to breed they were all killed.' Nearly all these herds dis- 
 tinctly vary from each other in build, horns, or colouring ; 
 and it is most remarkable that herds which have always been 
 kept at so small a number should not all have died out long 
 ago : an accident, like that at Wollaton ; a distemper, like 
 those at Lyme and Burton Constable, errors in the selec- 
 tion, like those at Lyme and Gisburne, must nearly always 
 prove fatal to the existence of the herd. On the other hand, 
 that such small numbers should have bred from time im- 
 memorial is the most striking and searching proof that 
 in-and-in breeding, when moderately protected by selection, 
 natural or otherwise, as is invariably the case with ordinary 
 breeding, is not dangerous. 
 
 The South American cattle are all descended from a few 
 brought over from Spain and Portugal ; the first by Garay 
 in 1580,- and they have since increased to such astonishing 
 numbers that, even in 1587, there were 64,350 skins exported 
 from New Spain. Vast herds of wild cattle are met with 
 in all parts of the country, particularly in the plains of the 
 southern provinces, where they exist in troops of 20,000 to 
 40,000 ; so that hides, jerked beef, horns, and bones have 
 long formed, and still form, leading articles of export from 
 Brazil. St. Domingo was also furnished with cattle by the 
 Spaniards, and only lOO years after their first importation 
 the French found them in such quantities on the island that 
 the most reckless slaughter seemed to make no impression 
 on their numbers.' On the Falkland Isles there are herds of 
 magnificent cattle, all descended from a few brought over 
 from La Plata about eighty or ninety years ago. They are 
 
 ' Harting, British Animals Extinct within Historic Times, 18S0, pp. 216- 
 247. 
 
 2 Or, according to M. Godron, in 1550 (De VEspice et dcs Races, i. 426, 
 427). 
 
 • M'CuUoch, Geographical Dictionary; Waitz, Anthropologie, iii. 494, note; 
 Godron, He I'Esphe, etc. i. 42S. 
 
CATTLE 261 
 
 now breaking up into separate herds of different colours, the 
 white, on the highlands, breeding usually earlier than the 
 others.' I wish to draw particular attention to this natural 
 segregation, which is also common in horses and sheep,'^ and 
 must be taken in connection with the tendency all polygamous 
 animals seem to have to separate into families. Is this 
 Nature's horror of in-and-in breeding ? Is this her delight in 
 crosses ? Two bulls and five cows which escaped from the 
 early colonists of Sydney in the year 1788 were found in 
 179s to have multiplied to sixty individuals. In 1796 there 
 were ninety-four. In 1797 tliey divided into two troops, one 
 of sixty-seven, the other of one hundred and seventy indi- 
 viduals.' 
 
 Price, the most successful breeder of Hereford cattle on 
 record, until twenty years ago, was a staunch advocate of in- 
 and-in breeding ; so were the Collings, Mason, Maynard 
 Wetherill, Bates, the Booths, Sir C. Knightly,^ Bakewell, 
 Culley, Elman, etc' 
 
 The Shorthorn race are practically all descended from 
 Hubback, and the table of some of their pedigrees shows that 
 they were bred in-and-in to a degree impossible in any slower 
 breeding animal. Messrs. Colling, from whose stock all the 
 others are derived, bred closer than any other breeder, and 
 the cross with the Galloway cow was not intentional." The 
 blood thus introduced was always carefully avoided by Bates, 
 who restricted himself to that of Hubback and Favourite. 
 ' On this I have ever acted in my breeding of shorthorns, 
 and to this is owing, entirely, my success,' he says ; ' ' wher- 
 ever I have in the least deviated therefrom, I immediately 
 saw my error and parted with the produce, not breeding 
 from them again.' ^ In the Booth herds, crosses were also very 
 sparingly resorted to, and then rather ' in conformity with the 
 general practice of cattle-breeders of that day, who seemed, 
 
 > Darwin, The Variation, etc. 1875, ii. 80. 
 
 ^ See pp. 257, 267 of this work ; also an inst.ince in dogs, p. 275. 
 
 » Goflron, De I'Esplcc el ties A'aees, i. 42S, 429, note 4. 
 
 « Randall, Fine Wool S/ieep Hiis/'amiry, p. 117, note. 
 
 * Walker, On Jnlcrmarriage, p. 239. 
 
 " Bell, Improved Sliorthorn, p. 100. 
 
 ' Ibid. p. 41. " Il'id- p. 53- 
 
262 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 to think it a matter of course to effect, at certain intervals, 
 some change or renewal of strain in their stock.' ' No alien 
 blood, says Mr. Carr, has ever been used tlwouglwiit the herd.^ 
 Nevertheless all these breeders seem to have felt the necessity 
 for an occasional change, not through animals of different 
 blood, but through animals of different habitats. Of the 
 crosses, for instance, used by Mr. J. Booth, Mussulman, who 
 appears low down in the subjoined pedigree, was sixty-four 
 times descended from Favourite ; Lord Lieutenant was 
 descended io6 times from Favourite ; and Matcham fifty-two 
 times. Crown Prince was descended 1,055 times from Favour- 
 ite, and Red Rose by Harbinger 1,344 times ; so that the 
 produce of the two are descended from him 2,399 times.^ A 
 writer in the ' Mark Lane Express,' quoted by Mr. Carr, says : 
 ' Some time ago, accepting the then prevalent notion that 
 the Warlaby herd would derive benefit from fresh blood, I 
 ventured to suggest to Mr. Booth the expediency of adopting 
 a cross, when I was met by arguments to the following effect : 
 " Have any of the evils which are usually attributed to in-and 
 in breeding manifested themselves in my herd } Is there 
 any degeneracy in size, substance, or vigour in the animals ? 
 any tendency to premature age 1 any lack of milking or 
 thriving disposition in the cows, or of capacity of frame, or 
 hardiness of constitution ? Are the bulls (with one or two 
 exceptions, such as must occur in every herd) deficient in 
 masculine character and efficacy, or the sires of a puny or 
 feeble offspring ? or do they early become worn out and un- 
 fruitful ? and lastly, is there any tribe of Shorthorns that attains 
 a higher or even the same degree of condition on the same 
 food ? " All of which questions it being impossible to answer 
 otherwise than in the negative, Mr. Booth added, " Becau.sc, 
 if not, it is clear that the only con.sideration that would justify 
 me in having recourse to a cross would be the discovery of a 
 tribe which, besides possessing in an equal degree with my 
 own the qualities wc have mentioned, arc superior to them 
 in utility and .symmetry." . " Granted," I replied. " Where is 
 
 • Carr, History of the Rise ami Progress of the Killerhy, Studky, ami \Varlaby 
 Herds, 1). 39. = IhiJ. p. %^. ' Umi- P- 40. 
 
RD BOOK 
 
 Bull 
 \[ai^nard 
 
 Dallon Du/i, 
 
 '/ Strawicrnj 
 ••'•= Galloway 
 
 Bull 
 
 Brown .Jarnns 
 miiu- BuU 
 
 I .'>7 
 
 Itirne Bull 
 Oh/ Joh.inna 
 
 €^ Lady 
 
 Bull 
 
 ■/so 
 
 hlr,k.fl 
 
 t Washiruilon. Bed Xiniinon Hcstlwin 
 
 1 '''^ 
 /t J^hss Mar.ikf 
 
 hashing to iiy^ 4IS 
 
 Cotnrt I fjijtwi 
 
 Xrr/i/ac, 
 
 Tfl FACL P .-'621 
 
SOME PtDIGREES OF SHORTHORNS COMPILED FROM COATES HERD BOOK. 
 
 ^Uuhh.irk. 
 
 HoiiJhTmrCnn — Fuirktrs Bull 
 Ciiu =ff)ljamfif — Lady May nard ™= 
 
 , "/> / 
 
 Qyw fhoenix \ Yoitruf Strawberry 
 
 ~B(:ii =, C^ii^Cow / Boling broke -'GaUx)way 
 
 Finnuritc -—Thcenix Bull 
 
 Larne Ball 
 OM Johunna 
 
 Young PJicenu: 
 
 Bull 
 
 ■/SO 
 
 (o/ul — W,ldau / fann,,. (vrn'rl -Be.^Tn,H — Lady 
 
 ... . "^^ / I / . '/ '^'' / X ' . 
 
 Cow-Fa-vouriU'-Rril FLOse=Welhnatim -Princess —Favourite -Jinx Mtn ii'ii=yL'l,-i>r-- MiiiorUoT Wnsfiiru/fori Bui S'lntinon. Best Twin 
 
 Flrck/-</ 
 
 j SintttufH 
 
 inhday Ffifrl =, AfJ?njnt/Ma 
 
 Bric/ut/eer 
 MumlU KoyalBuik 
 
 Bcurli/ 
 
 fro FACt P ^.62) 
 
CATTLE 263 
 
 it ? " was the pertinent but perplexing rejoinder. " The result 
 of the last three crosses upon which I ventured," continued 
 Mr. Booth, — " Water King, Exquisite, and Lord Stanley, has 
 made me distrust the policy of any further step in that direc- 
 tion ; nor have the results I have witnessed of the experiments 
 of others in crossing animals of my blood with the most 
 fashionable bulls of other strains tended in any instance to 
 remove that distrust.'"' Mr. Carr, however, considers that 
 Exquisite, at least, was used without Mr. Booth's usual judg- 
 ment, because he at one stroke infused too much fresh blood.- 
 Mr. Darwin says that Nathusius, after a careful study of 
 pedigrees, declares that no breeder has continued in-and-in 
 breeding all his life.' But, at all events, many have bred 
 in-and-in far more closely than would be possible in man, for 
 a number of generations longer than the average of human 
 families exist. 
 
 There seems indeed to be a danger in breeding any family 
 in-and-in that should an unusual number of males be pro- 
 duced that tendency is gradually intensified until the females 
 become too few, and this of course is always likely to happen 
 sooner or later. A tendency to breed females would have no 
 effect, because verj' few males are requisite. When, however, 
 the see-saw of events does produce the tendency to male 
 progeny for a time, the usual accidents of breeding begin to 
 tell upon the diminished herd, and an animal from a herd not 
 so affected becomes necessary. There was such a tendency in 
 the Bates herd at Kirklevington ;* and Mr. Carr says that the 
 Warlaby herd had a most destructive tendency to breed bulls ; 
 but the crossing of the Charity tribe did not prevent that branch 
 from disappearing. ' Charity was a daughter of Buckingham 
 (half Craddock's blood), and granddaughter of Leonard (half 
 Raine's) ; and of the three daughters of Hawthorn Blossom 
 which failed to breed, Rose Blossom and Orange Blossom 
 were by sons of Buckingham and their dams by Leonard ; 
 and Peach Blossom was b>- Water King (half Bates), and her 
 
 ' Carr, ul sup. pp. 127, 128. = //'/./. p. 51. 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation, elc. 1S75, ii 97. 
 ' Bell, Improved Short horn, p. 351. 
 
CATTLE 263 
 
 it ? " was the pertinent but perplexing rejoinder. " The result 
 of the last three crosses upon which I ventured," continued 
 Mr. Booth,— " Water King, Exquisite, and Lord Stanley, has 
 made me distrust the policy of any further step in that direc- 
 tion ; nor have the results I have witnessed of the experiments 
 of others in crossing animals of my blood with the most 
 fashionable bulls of other strains tended in any instance to 
 remove that distrust.'"' Mr. Carr, however, considers that 
 Exquisite, at least, was used without Mr. Booth's usual judg- 
 ment, because he at one stroke infused too much fresh blood.'- 
 Mr. Darwin says that Nathusius, after a careful study of 
 pedigrees, declares that no breeder has continued in-and-in 
 breeding all his life.^ But, at all events, many have bred 
 in-and-in far more closely than would be possible in man, for 
 a number of generations longer than the average of human 
 families exist. 
 
 There seems indeed to be a danger in breeding any family 
 in-and-in that should an unusual number of males be pro- 
 duced that tendency is gradually intensified until the females 
 become too few, and this of course is always likely to happen 
 sooner or later. A tendency to breed females would have no 
 effect, because very few males are requisite. When, however, 
 the see-saw of events does produce the tendency to male 
 progeny for a time, the usual accidents of breeding begin to 
 tell upon the diminished herd, and an animal from a herd not 
 so affected becomes necessary. There was such a tendency in 
 the Bates herd at Kirklevington ;* and Mr. Carr says that the 
 Warlaby herd had a most destructive tendency to breed bulls ; 
 but the crossing of the Charity tribe did not prevent that branch 
 from disappearing. ' Charity was a daughter of Buckingham 
 (half Craddock's blood), and granddaughter of Leonard (half 
 Raine's) ; and of the three daughters of Hawthorn Blossom 
 which failed to breed. Rose Blossom and Orange Blossom 
 were by sons of Buckingham and their dams by Leonard ; 
 and Peach Blossom was b)- Water King (half Bates), and her 
 
 ' Carr, ut sup. pp. 127, 1 28. = //v,/. p. 51. 
 
 " Darwin, The Variation, etc. 1S75, ii 97. 
 ' Bell, Improved Shorthorn, p. 351. 
 
264 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 dam and grandam by Buckingham and Leonard.' Both 
 Mr. Wood and Mr. Carr believe that the chief cause of 
 animals ceasing to breed is the fattening that all show animals 
 have to undergo. Nearly all of the Blossom family were 
 thus ' trained,' and the greater proportion of prize animals do 
 not breed at all. Yet the unforced animals of the herd were 
 ' so prolific that no less than six cases of twins occurred at 
 Warlaby in the first four months of 1864, in every instance 
 the sire being a Warlaby bull, and in four cases the dams 
 pure-bred Shorthorns.' ' Mr. Price, whose Herefords were 
 the best in the world in his day, declared he had not gone 
 beyond his own herd for a bull or a cow during forty years.^ 
 M. Sanson points out that the Charolaise race of cattle has 
 been greatly improved by in-and-in breeding ; and that the 
 small Bretton race of Morbihan, so celebrated for its milk 
 and butter, are usually propagated in this way.^ At 
 Rambouillet in-and-in breeding was practised among the 
 celebrated cattle of that place, a white hornless breed, with 
 great success until they were carried off by the cattle epidemic 
 of 181 5. M. Huzard also saw at Hohenheim.in Wurtemberg, 
 and the royal farm of HoHtsch, in Hungary, herds of superior 
 animals which were always bred in-and-in.'' In this way, says 
 Mr. Darwin, were, in all probability, bred the Niata cattle, from 
 one individual ' sport.' ^ 
 
 Earl Fitzwilliam keeps a herd of about a dozen Indian 
 buffaloes, which have been crossed from Lord Derby's stock, 
 but are also bred in-and-in very closely. These are exceed- 
 ingly healthy." 
 
 The eland, first acclimatised in England by the late Lord 
 Derby between the years 1835-1851, at his menagerie at 
 Knowsley, has been closely bred in-and-in. They were 
 bequeathed to the Zoological Society in 1851, at which time 
 there were two males and three females ; and since then they 
 have regularly reproduced without the loss of a single calf 
 
 ' Carr, id sup. pp. 90, 91, 94, 109. ' Rancl.-ill, Find Woo/, elc. p. 118, note. 
 
 ' Sanson, Comptes Kcitdm, 1S62, Iv. 123, 124. 
 
 * Huzard, in the Ann. tie I'AsricHllure Fraitfaise, 5lh series, ix. 502. 
 
 » Darwin, T/tc Variation, etc. 1875, ii. 409. 
 
 » Macdonald, Cattle, Siieep, and Veer, p. 23 1. ' loid. p. 233- 
 
GUANACO. PIGS 265 
 
 At Fitzroy (Falkland Isles), near Mare and Island 
 Harbours, was, and is now probably, a herd of guanaco, 
 numbering some twenty individuals, all sprung from a couple 
 brought over as a present to the governor. For a long time 
 they were kept in a paddock, but at last they were given to 
 their present owner. Captain Packe, on account of a nasty 
 habit they had of spitting at passers-by. Captain Packe 
 removed them to the neighbourhood of Fitzroy ; where, 
 though necessarily bred in-and-in, they have thriven and 
 multiplied.' 
 
 Breeders are more unanimous on the evils of in-and-in 
 breeding of pigs, says Mr. Darwin, than perhaps of any other 
 large animal. Mr. Druce says their constitution cannot be 
 preserved without a cross. Lord Weston, the first importer 
 of a Neapolitan boar and sow, bred in-and-in till the breed 
 was in danger of dying out. Mr. J. Wright bred with the 
 same boar from its daughter, granddaughter, great-grand- 
 daughter, and so on, for seven generations ; with the result 
 that the offspring in many cases failed to breed, in others they 
 produced few that lived, and of the latter many were idiotic 
 without instinct to suck, and unable to walk straight. The 
 last two sows were put to other boars, and produced several 
 litters of healthy pigs. The best in external appearance pro- 
 duced during the whole seven generations was one of the last 
 births, the sole one of the litter. She would not breed with 
 her sire, and yet bred at the first trial with a stranger in 
 blood. Nathusius imported a gravid sow from England, and 
 bred closely in-and-in from the progeny for three generations, 
 with bad results ; yet he esteemed one of the latest sows 
 a good animal, and she bred well with a boar of different 
 blood.^ Colonel Le Couteur, who has done much for the 
 agriculture of Jersey, wrote to Mr. Darwin that he had bred 
 in-and-in from a fine breed of pigs in his possession, twice 
 pairing brother and sister, but nearly all the young had fits, 
 and died suddenly.'' The late Sir Francis Danvin in 1826 
 
 ' The Field, April 8, 1 87 1, p. 282. 
 
 ' Darwin, The Varialion of Animals anil Plaiils, etc. 1S75, ii. loi. 
 
 » /hid. note 23. 
 
266 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 had presented to him a German red boar, two Alpine black 
 boars, and two sows. The red boar was too fierce to be kept, 
 but before he was killed a cross was obtained with the black 
 sows, and ever afterwards red and black progeny were pro- 
 duced. The black boars and sows were turned out in about 
 two hundred acres of wood, and their descendants degenerated 
 in size, seeming also to become tame and spiritless. The last 
 was shot in 1S37.' On the other hand, the pigs turned out 
 by Captain Cook have ever increased immensely. On the 
 whole, Mr. Darwin thinks, therefore, that in-and-in breeding- 
 does not affect the external form, while it affects the general 
 constitution, the mental powers, and especially the reproduc- 
 tive powers. It must be remembered, however, that pigs are 
 precisely those animals which are cultivated most for their 
 fat, and that fat is very injurious to the health of any animal, 
 and especially to the reproductive powers. Crossing, on the 
 other hand, gives a tendency to reversion, and therefore a 
 relief from fat. Indeed, as I have already explained, facts 
 against the harmlessness of in-and-in breeding have very 
 little value compared with those in its favour, and this is too 
 generally overlooked. Thus pigs with but little hair on their 
 bodies have by correlation also very bad teeth, and this may 
 be prevented by crossing with hairy breeds.' If a breeder, in 
 beginning to breed in-and-in, chose an animal with rather less 
 hair than usual, the progeny would have a tendency to bad 
 teeth, bad digestion, and hence weakness ; and he would natu- 
 rally conclude, on finding that this weakness was cured by a 
 cross, that it was the in-and-in breeding itself which had caused 
 it, and not mere inheritance. That the great breeders who are 
 far more familiar than ordinary men can be with the causes 
 which are likely to interfere with the fertility of their animals 
 are not likely to have overlooked these, as Mr. Darwin 
 observes,' is no doubt true ; but breeders cannot veiy well 
 help themselves, for they must breed for flesh and fat- 
 Nathusius observed that the most varied races of pigs when 
 
 ' Marling, Brilish Animals Extinct, etc. pp. 98-100. 
 
 ^ Darwin, The Variation of Aiiimals and Plants, q\c. 1S75, ii. 319, 320 
 
 " IhiJ. p. 102. 
 
riGS. iioRSiis 267 
 
 cultivated became alike ; a result, says Mr. Darwin, due 
 ' partly to man breeding the pig for one sole purpose, namely 
 for the greatest amount of flesh and fat ; so that selection has 
 always tended towards one and the same end. With most 
 domestic animals the result of selection has been divergence 
 of character, here it has been convergence.' ' 
 
 ]Mr. Hobbs divided his stock into three families, and by 
 this device, though he kept the consanguinity^ he avoided any 
 chance inheritance of a morbid tendency, and obtained more 
 latitude for selection. Mr. Coate, who won the prize for the 
 best pen of pigs at Smithfield Club Show five times, says : 
 ' Crosses answer well for profit to the farmer, as you get more 
 constitution and quicker growth ; but for me, who sell a 
 greater number of pigs for breeding purposes, I find it will 
 not do, as it requires many years to get anything like purity 
 of blood again."- So Mr. Youatt says : 'A useful pig in these 
 days may easily be bred ; but if you want fixity of type, or, 
 as it is well called, " character," you must adopt pure blood.' 
 Red pigs are ' invaluable for giving vigour and constitution to 
 black breeds, when demoralised by over-coddling, over-feed- 
 ing, and injudicious in-and-in breeding.' ' 
 
 In Circassia there are six sub-breeds of horses, three of 
 which are asserted by a native proprietor of rank, almost 
 always to refuse to mingle and cross whilst living a free life, 
 and will even attack each other.* It is a crime punishable by 
 death to forge the mark of pedigree on an animal.'* All the 
 Arab horses are supposed to be derived from one original 
 stock, the Keheyleh, which in course of time have become 
 subdivided into five great strains— the Keheylan, Seglawi, 
 Abcyan, Hamdani, and Hadban ; and sixteen other breeds 
 with sub-strains. Inch for inch, says Mr. Blunt, the Arabian 
 is much the fastest horse ; the boldest jumper in the world, 
 though unaccustomed to it ; he never loses heart or condition, 
 though poorly fed and hard-worked ; they go for immense 
 
 ' D.irwin, ul sup. i. 77. 
 
 2 Ihi.l. ii. loi, 102. ' Youatt, On the rig, PP- o> 7- 
 
 ' Compare .^rislollc. Hist. Anim. vi. xvii. 7. 
 
 " Darwin, The Variation, etc. 1875, ii. 80.; M'CuUoch, Geographical Die 
 lioiiary, art. ' Circassia.' 
 
268 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 distances exposed without shelter to the hot sun by day 
 and bitter wind at night. Nowadays, however, the herds are 
 diminishing, partly on account of the introduction of firearms, 
 which makes a swift horse of less consequence to the warrior, 
 partly to the great number of stallions sold, and partly to the 
 greed of the Turks, who have now got a greater hold over the 
 wild Arabs than was formerly the case.' ' Mr. N. H. Smith, 
 long a resident among the Arabs, quotes with approval the 
 opinion of an experienced friend that colts bred in-and-in 
 ' show more blood in their heads, are of better form, and are 
 fit to start with fewer sweats than are others ; but when the 
 breed is continued incestuous for three or four crosses,' then 
 he apprehends (but it is merely an opinion) that ' the animal 
 degenerates.' ' I cannot take upon me,' he adds, ' to say how 
 often an incestuous breed may be carried on before a degene- 
 racy takes place, as I am not aware of that being the case, in 
 any instance, and experiment is in favour of breeding from son 
 and mother, and father and daughter.' His favourite method 
 of breeding he describes as once in and once out ; but then 
 he considers that putting a mare to ' the same stallion that 
 got her dam, or as near his blood as you can meet with,' is 
 breeding out? Our racehorses are derived from a mixture of 
 Persian, Barbary, Arab, and native horses, from the first very 
 closely interbred ; and in every case departure from the pure 
 Arab blood has been a failure. Rachel, the dam of High- 
 flyer, was the daughter of Blank, and granddaughter of 
 Regulus ; yet both Blank and Regulus were sons of Godol- 
 phin. Fox was bom under similar conditions of relationship. 
 The dam of Goldfinder was the daughter of Blank and 
 granddaughter of Regulus. The granddam of Buckhunter 
 was a daughter of Bald Galloway, who was also the sire of 
 Buckhunter. The great-granddam of Flying Childers, one 
 of the most famous racehorses, was a daughter of Spanker, 
 while his dam was also the dam of this last. The sire of the 
 
 ' Blunt, The Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, ii. 250-276; Layard, Nimvch 
 ami Bahylon,\. T,T] III. 
 
 ■ N.ll. Smith, Observations on Breeding Race Horses for the Turf, pp. 47 
 50, 56, 65, Svo. London, 1825. 
 
M„„ = /n l,r r„r/. Marc = I.tfd': Amhutii 
 
 i.i/.ihii /7iimsii —M„. 
 
 Mart- = Hai/ Ballon 
 
 „.- ,„ll „/l,;,/,„„ 
 ,11 Ih, hihlr. 
 
 SlsliT lo Lfi'fis 
 
 GocL/lphin =«. little 
 Arahian- I ifard^^t 
 Mar,: 
 
 ,„U- Man = Bald 
 t, I- /,. (11,1 I IralOii 
 uilruV.luh 
 
 OU Jfanske 
 
 Malteless=n Arrys BaiiBnll„i,=^Nen;as(l,- = Mar,' 
 
 I Roiial ' I TnrkMarr \ 
 
 Marc- \ 
 
 Spileita 
 
 Erl,,..- 
 
 Hr,,„l =^ /i,„/irl 
 Hu)l,ri,t,r 
 
HORSES 269 
 
 Knight of St. George, a winner of the St. Leger, was also his 
 grandsire and great-grandsire.' Nothing, however, but a 
 careful examination of the accompanying genealogical table 
 suffices to show how complicated and close is the relationship 
 in the breeding of our best horses.'^ The breeder can have 
 no hesitation, continues Mr. Walsh, in coming to the conclu- 
 sion that in-and-in breeding carried out once or twice is not 
 only not a bad practice, but is likely to be attended with good 
 results. The evidence of repeated success in resorting to the 
 practice of in-and-in breeding is too strong to be gainsaid.'' 
 ' For the racecourse,' says Dr. Elam, ' the pure south-eastern 
 breed is adhered to ; but different stocks of the same breed, 
 and those brought up in different localities, are selected.'^ 
 However, by ' crosses,' breeders by no means understand the 
 introduction of fresh blood. There are scarcely two thorough- 
 bred horses in the stud-book, says Mr. Walsh, that cannot be 
 traced back to the same stock in one or more lines. An 
 absolute freedom from relationship is not to be found, or, if 
 so, very rarely. Yet continued in-and-in breeding in the 
 closest relationship he does not think advisable — it is apt to 
 develop weak points in the constitution. ' The cautious 
 breeder, therefore, will do well to avoid running this risk, and 
 will strive to obtain what he wants without having recourse 
 to the practice, though, at the same time, he will make up 
 his mind that it is unwise to sacrifice a single point with this 
 view.' ^ Mr. Darwin says that statistics show nearly one-third 
 of our racehorses have proved barren, or have slipped their 
 foals ; a fact which he ascribes to their high nurture and close 
 interbreeding.*" The editor of the ' Field ' gives the following 
 statistics upon this point : — ' 
 
 ' Sanson, Comptes Rendtis, 1862, Iv. 122, 123. 
 
 ' Mr. Youatt, however, says that the most talented breeders have avoided 
 in-and-in breeding during the present century, because they are convinced that it 
 does harm {The Horse, p. 121). But Cecil, the editor of this edition, s.-iys in his 
 own work {The Stud- Farm, etc. p. 79) that, though he thinks in-and-in breeding 
 undesirable, yet he would allow it ' after three or four generations.' 
 
 ' Walsh, The Horse, etc. pp. I39-I4I- 
 
 < Elam, A Physician's Problems, p. 68. 
 
 <■ Walsh, The Horse, etc. pp. 141, 142. 
 
 ' Darwin, Descent of Man, i. 303, note 40. ' The Field, July 24, 1S75. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mf4ir = Li.strr 
 
 r = Miss DArA 
 
 
 \ pil marc 
 
 
 ^}Jt/rt' = (onri/s/iiit WiiiJ/u/in 
 
 
 Mar, 
 
 = fhrii 
 
 wnhrs 
 
 - 
 
 = Bald S 
 Galloiyatj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inso/i 
 
 Araliu 
 
 
 
 Br 
 
 ^/alus _ 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 Spilrlta 
 
 
 
 Til, ,L:n,,nnn.s , a/I alt 
 
 
 
 1,1 Ihr tnJui'tual /u>rsr it 
 
 
 
 (hart on,' i>lar, in l/i,- lain 
 
 rhpsr //,n> 
 
 Spcu,..o.j. Wlah '..rac, 
 
 
 
HORSES 269 
 
 Knight of St. George, a winner of the St. Leger, was also his 
 grandsire and great-grandsire.' Nothing, however, but a 
 careful examination of the accompanying genealogical table 
 suffices to show how complicated and close is the relationship 
 in the breeding of our best horses.^ The breeder can have 
 no hesitation, continues Mr. Walsh, in coming to the conclu- 
 sion that in-and-in breeding carried out once or twice is not 
 only not a bad practice, but is likely to be attended with good 
 results. The evidence of repeated success in resorting to the 
 practice of in-and-in breeding is too strong to be gainsaid.'' 
 ' For the racecourse,' says Dr. Elam, ' the pure south-eastern 
 breed is adhered to ; but different stocks of the same breed, 
 and those brought up in different localities, are selected.' ' 
 However, by ' crosses,' breeders by no means understand the 
 introduction of fresh blood. There are scarcely two thorough- 
 bred horses in the stud-book, says Mr. Walsh, that cannot be 
 traced back to the same stock in one or more lines. An 
 absolute freedom from relationship is not to be found, or, if 
 so, very rarely. Yet continued in-and-in breeding in the 
 closest relationship he does not think advisable — it is apt to 
 develop weak points in the constitution. ' The cautious 
 breeder, therefore, will do well to avoid running this risk, and 
 will strive to obtain what he wants without having recourse 
 to the practice, though, at the same time, he will make up 
 his mind that it is unwise to sacrifice a single point with this 
 view.' ^ Mr. Darwin says that statistics show nearly one-third 
 of our racehorses have proved barren, or have slipped their 
 foals ; a fact which he ascribes to their high nurture and close 
 interbreeding.*^ The editor of the ' Field ' gives the following 
 statistics upon this point : — ' 
 
 ' Sanson, Comptes Rendus, 1862, Iv. 122, 123. 
 
 ' Mr. Youatt, however, says that the most talented breeders have avoided 
 in-and-in breeding during the present century, because they are convinced that it 
 does harm {The Horse, p. 121). But Cecil, the editor of this edition, says in his 
 own work (The Stiid-Faim, etc. p. 79) that, though he thinks in-and-in breeding 
 undesirable, yet he would allow it ' after three or four generations.' 
 
 ' Walsh, The Horse, etc. pp. 139-141. 
 
 < Elam, A Physician's Problems, p. 68. 
 
 > Walsh, The Horse, etc. pp. 141, 142. 
 
 ' Darwin, Descent of Man, i. 303, note 40. ■ The Field, July 24, 1S75. 
 
2/0 
 
 THE MAKRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Years 
 
 Colts 
 
 Fillies 
 
 Mares 
 Barren 
 
 Slipped 
 Foals 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Unproductive 
 
 Mares 
 
 1846101860. 
 iS6i to 1874. 
 
 Si 
 
 6oo 
 862 
 
 ill 
 
 56 
 100 
 
 74 
 70 
 
 26 
 30 
 
 which shows an increased want of productiveness of 4 per 
 cent. But I think that this may very possibly be caused by 
 the growth of that most pernicious custom of running horses 
 at two years old. In France, indeed, barely two foals are 
 produced for every five mares sent to the Government stal- 
 lions, which is 60 per cent, of barrenness ; and yet these 
 are not cases of in-and-in breeding, but mostly semi-crosses.' 
 
 In-and-in breeding in horses is carried on at any rate to 
 a very great extent, and with decidedly beneficial effects on 
 the race. Count Huniady, says M. Huzard, bred continually 
 in-and-in ; and he also gives other instances.^ 'Nimrod 'con- 
 cludes a comparison between the thorough-bred and half- 
 bred hunter in these words : ' As for his powers of endurance 
 under equal sufferings, they doubtless would exceed those 
 of the " cocktail," and being by his nature what is termed 
 a better doer in the stable, he is sooner at his work again 
 than the other. Indeed, there is scarcely a limit to the work 
 of full-bred hunters of good form and constitution and 
 temper.'' It is, in fact, the natural state of horses to breed 
 in-and-in. 
 
 Donkeys, says M. Godron, are bred most carefully in the 
 East, as carefully as the Arab horse, and their genealogy is 
 as rigidly preserved to prevent any defilement of their blood. 
 They are large, lively, rapid, and much esteemed.-" In Egypt 
 they fetch some thirty or forty pounds sterling 
 
 Some goats turned out on the island of Juan Fernandez 
 in the year 1660 multiplied so prodigiously that it became 
 necessary to turn out dogs to keep them down.' M. Aube 
 states that the Angora goats have occasionally to be crossed 
 by a coarser sort in consequence of in-and-in breeding." 
 
 ' The Fie/d. Letter from Aquarius, quoting from La Fiance Chevaline. 
 ■ Huzard, in the Ann. de r Agricttllure Franfaise, 5th series, ix. 504, 505. 
 » Westminster Revinv, July 1863, cit. p. 100. 
 
 * Godron, De I'Espiee, etc. i. 390, 391. " Ilml. pp. 407, 408. 
 
 " Aube, in the Build. Jc la Soc. Imp. Zooi. irAcclimalation, iv. 515, 516. 
 
DOGS 271 
 
 Sir J. Sebright declares that by breeding between brother 
 and sister he has seen strong spaniels dwindle into diminutive 
 lap-dogs ; and Mr. Darwin, in citing this, adds a case in 
 which some bloodhounds on being bred in-and-in were 
 afflicted with a bony enlargement of the tail ; a malformation 
 which was obliterated by a single cross ; while Mr. Scropc 
 attributes the rarity of Scotch deer-hounds to close inter- 
 breeding, the few specimens yet existing being all related.' 
 But why should they diminish for this reason when sheep, 
 cattle, horses, and other domestic animals have been bred in- 
 and-in for long periods without dying out ? M. Aube gives 
 an instance of a farmer who received as a gift two magnifi- 
 cent dogs, brother and sister, and who wished much to breed 
 from them. The offspring, however, proved very inferior ; 
 their bodies were smaller in proportion to those of their 
 parents, with their heads and tails relativcl)' large, and their 
 backs weak and bowed. Though they retained the hunting 
 instincts of their parents, they had none of their endurance, 
 and the whole family died out at the third generation.^ M. 
 Boudin mentions a case where the offspring of a brother and 
 sister were mute.^ In these cases there was doubtless morbid 
 inheritance, for Sir J. Sebright himself created many races 
 of animals by in-and-in breeding, and was, as we shall see, a 
 staunch advocate of the system. Dr. Child instances a case 
 in which a dog was put to his daughter, and in succession to 
 her puppies, and also to one of the puppies of the latter, yet 
 the dogs were all good dogs.'' Mr. Meynell's famous hounds 
 were bred most closely in-and-in from sire and daughter, and 
 dam and son, and sometimes brother and sister.'' Turnspits 
 and pugs were probably derived from ' sports,' and must 
 necessarily have been much bred in-and-in." 
 
 M. Bertrand, after forty years' experience in the breeding 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation of Animals and Plants, etc. 1S75, ''• '0°- 
 
 = Aube, 'Note sur les Inconv^nients,' etc. p. 517 of the Bulletin Mens, de la 
 Soc. Imp. Zoologique iTAcclimatation, vol. iv. No. II, for November 1857. 
 
 ' Boudin, Mem. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 50S, note I. 
 
 * Child, Essays on Physiological Subjects, Note on Essay I. p. 54. 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation, etc. 1S75, ii. 99; Walker, On Intermarriage, 
 pp. 234, 235. 
 
 '■ Darwin, ut sup. p. 409. 
 
272 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 of sporting and other kinds of dogs, considers in-and-in 
 breeding to be injurious. He used never to cross his breed 
 if he could possibly avoid it, and then noticed that after 
 several generations they became more delicate, and, though 
 better than their ancestors, less robust, and more subject to 
 canine diseases, which were the more inveterate the longer 
 the dog had been bred in-and-in. The males often became 
 impotent, the females sometimes ceased to be fruitful at 
 an early age, but every cross gave them back their vigour. 
 M. Bertrand coupled two magnificent dogs, son and dam, 
 with the result of four puppies, two of which died after 
 sixty days, of paralysis.' But if M. Bertrand has been un- 
 successful after forty years of experience, others have been 
 successful. From an examination of their pedigrees, says 
 Mr. Walsh, talking of greyhounds, ' it will be obvious that 
 " Jason " and " Rosebud " were first-cousins, once removed 
 as regards " Butterfly," and twice removed as regards 
 " Majesty." Mr. Randall's celebrated bitch " Rival," as stout 
 a greyhound as ever ran, was by a grandson of " King Cob," 
 out of a daughter of that dog ; and Mr. Sharpe's " Maid of 
 Islay " * * * is another illustration of success attending 
 this mode of breeding, she being by " Jason," a grandson of 
 " Monarch," out of " Molly Malone," a granddaughter of the 
 same dog, and she has also plenty of bone. Mr. Long's 
 " Lizzie," again, may be quoted, being a large and bony bitch, 
 yet out of an aunt by her nephew. " Motley " and his sisters, 
 " Kitt)- Brown,"" Miss Hannah," and" Money-taker," were also 
 in-bred, and have been of great use at the stud, especially 
 the two first named, to which we are indebted for " David " 
 and his numerous winning progeny, and for " Chloe,'" the 
 winner of the Waterloo Cup last year. All the litter were, 
 however, small ; but as " Tollwife," their dam, was a diminutive 
 bitch, and had a strain of the Italian greyhound, no con- 
 clusion can be arrived at on that score. " Mustard," sire of 
 " Monarch " and other good greyhounds, was three times in- 
 bred to " King Cob," yet he possessed great size and enormous 
 bone, and his son " Monarch " resembles him in both these 
 
 ' CliipauU, E/mlfs siiy Ics Mars. Cons. etc. pp. II2, 113. 
 
DUGS 
 
 273 
 
 particulars. As one of the strongest modern instances of 
 close in-brecding without loss of constitution, size, or bone, I 
 append his pedigree, which is more remarkable from the fact 
 that " Mathilda Gillespie " and " Vrayc Foy " were also much 
 in-bred.' 
 
 Vraye Foy = Elf Frcderica = King Cob = 
 
 {Etwa!/) I [Cap.Dainl. 
 
 I 
 Matvina = Figaro = Countess 
 
 (Lord SlraJh-akc) I (Fyson) I {Barl/io/ome 
 
 i^Laureitce) 
 
 Eg)T' 
 (El-wall) 
 
 Mockinei-hirJ Mangonel! 
 (Jarlinc) (Janlim-) 
 
 Mathilda 
 Gillespie 
 
 [Gillespie) 
 
 Tollwife 
 [Janlinc) 
 
 Mimosa 
 ijardinc) 
 
 Manslayer 
 
 (Jardim) 
 
 Mustard 
 
 ' The argument,' continues Mr. Walsh, 'that in-breeding, 
 when not carried too far, is advantageous, is now so generally 
 admitted, that it is a loss of time to support it by facts. Mr. 
 A. Grayham's rule of " once in and twice out " is perhaps the 
 most prudent course to pursue ; but " twice in and once out " 
 is, in my opinion, not carrying in-breeding too far when the out- 
 crosses are decided.' ' Mr. Laverack, a most successful breeder, 
 and the creator of the ' Blue Belton ' race of setters, is a most 
 determined advocate of in-and-in breeding. His system is to 
 select strong parents of the quality he wants. ' My dogs,' 
 he says, ' are more intercrossed and interbred than directly 
 bred in-and-in. There are several secrets connected with my 
 system of intercrossing, that I do not think it advisable to 
 give to the public at present. I can only say better con- 
 stitutions, better feeders, and hardier animals than I have do 
 not exist. It must not be supposed I am prejudiced and 
 obstinate in my system of breeding. I have tried crossing, 
 or letting my blood loose ten or a dozen times, but the result 
 has always been unsatisfactory ; therefore I stick to inter- 
 crossing with my own strain, as I have ever found it answer 
 ' .Stonehenge, The Greyhound in 1864, pp. 259, 260. 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 best.' He considers that the setter has generally degenerated 
 in consequence of crosses, and because their blood has not 
 been kept pure.' Whatever may be the difference between 
 intercrossing dL.nd in-and-in breeding, it certainly appears from 
 the subjoined genealogical table of the dog Dash, that Mr. 
 Lavcrack in practice breeds habitually between brother and 
 sister, and in the direct ascending and descending line : — - 
 
 Regent 
 
 Cora 1st = Fred 1st = Dclle 2nd 
 
 Sting 
 
 Cora 2nd Moll 3rd = Dash 2nd 
 
 lie says himself, ' A dog named Trimmer (Blue Belton) was 
 one of the best I ever possessed. * * * This extraordinary 
 animal was bred between brother and sister.' ^ In America, 
 says Mr. Burges, formerly at least, ' all in-bred animals were 
 
 • Lavcrack, The Setter, etc. pp. 2, 3, 29, 30. 
 
 ■•i The dotted line calls attention to closer cases of interbreeding. This taMe 
 is rearranged from that given by Mr. Lavcrack ('J'/ie Setter, etc. p. 21). It may 
 possibly be slightly inaccurate, but I do not think it is wrong in any inipurlant 
 particular. 
 
 ' /lii</. pp. 21 23. 
 
DOGS. DEER 275 
 
 looked upon with disfavour ; but of late years experience has 
 modified these views, and our best horses, cattle, and dogs are 
 at least interbred.' ' There is a great difference,' he adds, ' I 
 own, between in-bred and interbred, but I am inclined to go 
 further, and say that up to a certain point I do not think the 
 stock is depreciated by in-breeding. • * * I have both owned 
 and seen a number of dogs bred from brother and sister ; 
 I never found but one which was not fully up to the standard 
 of the parents.' Mr. Burges, too, like Mr. Laverack, gives 
 pedigrees of dogs, which show that, whatever the theories of 
 breeders may be, their practice, at least, is to breed in a 
 manner that most people not breeders would call closely in- 
 and-in.' 
 
 The dogs of Cairo form distinct tribes, each of which 
 confines itself to its own division or quarter of the town. 
 Should a dog of one tribe intrude upon the territory of 
 another, whether urged by some tempting piece of carrion or 
 by the mere spirit of adventure, he is immediately set upon 
 by the others, and if caught severely punished. Should he 
 be lucky enough to escape back to his own territory, he boldly 
 faces his pursuers, and they in their turn fly.^ In Constanti- 
 nople the dogs have the same habit.' This natural segregation 
 is also shown in the aico dog of Mexico, which, according to 
 Mr. Darwin, dislikes pairing with other breeds.' The hairless 
 dogs of Paraguay, too, mix less readily with European races 
 than the latter do with each other.'* 
 
 In many of the British deer-parks the deer have been 
 allowed to breed uncrossed for long periods, without any 
 degeneration showing itself, or loss of general health. The 
 dark herds of deer in the Forest of Dean, in High Meadow 
 Woods, and in the New Forest, supposed to have been 
 brought by James I. from Norway, have never been known to 
 mingle with the pale-coloured herds, although kept together 
 with them.'' Another instance of the rarity of crosses among 
 
 ' Biirgcs, The American Kennel, New Vurk, 1876, 4(0, pp. 55, 56. 
 
 - Lane, Modern Egyptians, i. 438. 
 
 " See the Times for Jan. 7, 1876, p. 7. 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation of Animals .)«</ rianis, etc. 1875, ii. 80. 
 
 i ibid. ' ll.id. p. 81. 
 
 1 2 
 
276 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 animals when left to themselves. Dr. Davy mentions the case 
 of a pair of red deer, who about the year 1850 were taken 
 from the herd and put into a paddock of twenty or thirty 
 acres adjoining Stornoway Castle, Isle of Lewis ; these have 
 multiplied yearly, and numbered, ten years after, twenty-three, 
 not including several which were killed, all descendants of 
 the original pair, and all very much improved in comparison 
 with the deer of the forest.' Nevertheless it is the practice, 
 says Mr. Darwin, to infuse new blood into the fallow deer of 
 the British parks ; and this, he says, proves of the greatest 
 benefit in removing the taint of rickback, and improving their 
 size and appearance.^ Rickbacked deer are too generally 
 found in many parks, says Mr. Shirley, supposed to be due to 
 weakness, brought on both by breeding in-and-in too much, 
 and also by insufficient food.' In other words, we may say 
 that the cause is unknown. The Scotch deer, however, breed 
 naturally in-and-in, and the red deer generally breed between 
 brother and sister for generation after generation,' and yet 
 they are, as a rule, perfectly healthy. Mr. Darwin also justly 
 points out that nearly all the finest stags are selected by 
 Scottish sportsmen for shooting, which leaves only the worst 
 specimens for breeding.' Viscount Powerscourt possesses a 
 herd of Japanese deer {Cervtis sikd), derived from three hinds 
 and a stag which were purchased of a London dealer in 
 1859. In 1879 they numbered about eighty, besides having 
 supplied stock to five other deer-parks, and are described as 
 very hardy." 
 
 M. Aubc, by means of a most extraordinary scries of 
 arguments, attempts to substantiate an hypothesis that in- 
 and-in breeding is a cause of albinoism. Besides a few 
 experiments which he made on breeding rabbits in-and-in, of 
 which we shall see more anon, he gravely states that he saw 
 
 ' Child, Essays on Pliys. Subjects, pp. 53, 54. 
 
 » Darwin, ul sup. p. 99 ; and Shirley, Deer and Deer Parks, pp. 241, 242. 
 " Shirley, Deer ami Deer Parks, p. 243. 
 • See p. 9 of this work. 
 
 ' Darwin, Varialion 0/ Animals and P/ants, e\c.l?,TS,n. 192- ' 
 
 ' In the Proceedings of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, Svo, London, 1879, xlvu. 
 294. 
 
KABurrs 277 
 
 llircc partridges, two sparrows, and a w hole single jackdaw 
 [)crrectly white ; and hence he argues they became albinos 
 because, in all probability, their parents were related. Nor 
 was this all ; M. Aube actually saw two albino deer from 
 the park of Raincy, and in this case also had no doubt that 
 they had become albinos through in-and-in breeding ! ' But 
 let us leave these childish arguments, gravely repeated by 
 M. Devay," and test his experiments. M. Aube obtained 
 guinea-fowl with an admixture of white plumage after the 
 third generation of in-and-in breeding, and further asserts 
 that if rabbits are bred in-and-in, the first generation will 
 assume a grey colour spotted with white, or a pale russet 
 colour ; the next generation will be black, or black and white ; 
 the next a slate colour ; and the sixth generation will be 
 albinos.^ No particulars are given as to the conditions of 
 his experiment. I myself, however, have bred rabbits in- 
 and-in in the closest possible way ever since the year 1875, 
 and have found not the slightest indication of albinoism 
 from this cause. I always bred from brother and sister oj 
 the same htter, generation after generation ; and this un- 
 doubtedly is closer than breeding from parent and offspring, 
 because the physical conditions of the two creatures paired 
 have been the same continuously. This, as I shall show later 
 on, is hardly a fair test, but at least, if it be an error, it is an 
 error in favour of the Parasyngeniasts. 
 
 I chose the silver-grej' or ' Riche ' breed to begin with, 
 and bought in the market two does and a buck, of whose 
 pedigree I of course knew nothing. Now, RI. Aube says 
 they first assume a grey colour spotted with white. I started 
 with a grey colour. In the first generation (and therefore 
 not in-bred generation) a white rabbit with black points 
 (Himalayan breed) appeared. It was not an albino, and was 
 undoubtedly an atavism or throw-back. Of course it was 
 not bred from. In the first iii-bred generation another of the 
 same sort appeared, and was again not bred from. In the 
 
 ' Aube, Note sur les inconvenients qui pcuvent resultcr, e;c. in the Bullet 
 Mens, de la Soc. Inipir. Zoologique, No. n, for November 1857, iv. 511, 513 
 • Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 54, 56. ' Aub^, ut sup. p. 51a 
 
278 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 second, again one appeared, which died youny. All of these 
 were descended from the same original doe, which I shall call 
 B. In the next generation appeared a russet or tawny rabbit, 
 possibly due to a cross of the Belgian Hare breed in the 
 ancestry of the other doe A ; or both the Himalayan and 
 Belgian types may have been in the ancestry of the original 
 buck C, for in this third in-bred generation one appeared 
 also with a white toe, though it did not otherwise differ 
 from the silver-grey type, derived from the doe A. While, 
 therefore, in the first two in-bred generations two variations 
 had appeared in family A, and variations had appeared in 
 family B, in the third generation no variation appeared in 
 family B, and two appeared in family A ; moreover, these 
 two variations appeared in different sub-families, and there 
 was no connection between them below the parent gene- 
 ration—that is, the two lines only met in the great-grand- 
 parents. The tawny rabbit was not bred from, the one with a 
 white foot was, and produced in the next generation another 
 individual with a white foot among a litter of four. In this 
 fourth generation an individual with a white foot appeared 
 in family B ; one of its grandparents' litter had been of the 
 Himalayan type. 
 
 In the next generation the family A was crossed with a 
 doe, purchased like the original ones, and which I shall call 
 D ; and in the first litter of five, three were tawny and grey. 
 Family B was not crossed, and in the fifth generation the doe 
 with a white toe produced two young with white bodies and 
 silver-grey points. These were not bred from, but a silver- 
 grey pair of the same ancestry produced for the next genera- 
 tion one individual with a white toe. This sixth in-bred 
 generation was then crossed with the doe D ; the buck was a 
 silver-grey, and out of a litter of four, one was white with 
 brown points, and another nearly an albino. 
 
 There were, therefore, no albinos, none of slate colour, 
 none black or black and white (for the Himalayan type was 
 always grey and white) ; there was no pure russet colour, no 
 ncrcase in variation with continued in-brceding, but just 
 
RAlililTS 279 
 
 the reverse. As may be seen in the table of averages, the 
 percentage of variation steadily decreased till the sixth gene- 
 ration, when, owing to the accident of there being very few 
 individuals, one variation brought the percentage up again to 
 the level of the first parent generation which was not in-bred. 
 Immediately, however, that a cross was introduced the per- 
 centage jumped up to 33-4, while the highest before in the in- 
 bred generations had been 12-5 in one family and 6-2 in the 
 other, if we neglect the sixth ; and if we do not, then 200 was 
 the highest former percentage. 
 
 As regards other results from this experiment, I have said 
 it was hardly a fair test, because in breeding generation after 
 generation from brother and sister of the same litter, not only 
 is the same blood secured, but also exactly the same physical 
 conditions. With other animals that do not produce so many 
 at a birth, breeding between brother and sister, while equally 
 preventing a change of blood, would allow of change in 
 physical conditions, of which here there was none. But in 
 addition to this, when so hampered as to the choice of animals 
 to breed from, any accident may easily extinguish a family, 
 and unless a great number of families are kept this must 
 occur. Now, my accommodation was only for about sixteen 
 or eighteen individuals ; and since the young while growing 
 have to be separated, the actual accommodation for breed- 
 ing allowed for only three or four families on the average. 
 In other respects the accommodation was exceedingly good. 
 Each hutch had an open yard to it, some five feet square ; 
 they were situated in the country, and, as a rule, they were 
 tended by a gamekeeper. 
 
 The results I have tabulated in the following pages, first 
 in a table of averages of vital statistics, and secondly in 
 detailed results of breeding in each generation, so arranged 
 that the reader may readily trace the parentage of any indi- 
 vidual, with all particulars concerning it. Finally, I have 
 given a comparative table of weights, S(j that any dwarfing or 
 degeneration, if any, may be detected. 
 
THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 
 
 , P , P ^ , 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lo 
 
 
 & 
 
 o ?■ y^p j-r- P * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 , f- 1 r* p , , P 
 
 
 
 \^ \~S\ 1 8 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
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 'i' 'i' ' ' ' 'ill 
 
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 May 31, 1879 
 May 30, 1S79 
 
 l.=°rB;liSIESESS^ 
 
 ^ ^^^^^l^l^l^^ 1^ 
 
 Apr. 24, 
 
 Oct. 13, 
 Apr. 19, 
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 B-a-cdT iS a" of 
 
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282 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
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 partly lop-eared, unlike the 
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 white foot. 
 
 Bad time of year. 
 Killed by the mother. 
 
 Killed by the mother. 
 
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 July 23, .881 
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 June 12, 18S2 
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284 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
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RAlililTS 285 
 
 Owing to the small number of families, as I have said, 
 selection for any aim except colour was out of the question. 
 In the first in-bred generation there were, in family A, 20 
 per cent, of mis.ses of fecundation, or one out of five ; but if 
 this one be omitted on account of the time of year, then there 
 were none. In family B, eight out of twelve were missed ; 
 but two, and probably four, ought to be omitted on the 
 score of tender age ; and again two, and probably four, on 
 account of the bad period of the year. The percentage 
 should, therefore, be reduced from 6(}-y to 334, and probably 
 to nought. The average number per litter had increased one 
 per cent. The percentage of early death decreased by half- 
 But in these as in all future figures we must bear in mind 
 the small number upon which the averages are founded, and 
 the relatively large effect, therefore, of one accident or chance 
 circumstance. 
 
 In the second in-bred generation two out of eight were 
 misses in family A, or 28 per cent. One of these ought to 
 be omitted on account of the bad period of the year, which 
 reduces it to one in eight. In family B there were 40 per 
 cent, of misses. The rabbits were then, and for some time 
 after, under the management of an ignorant and careless 
 labourer (I myself not residing in the neighbourhood), and in 
 one of these I suspected there had been a litter. If there was, 
 the misses would be reduced to one in five. The average 
 number per litter decreased by over one. The percentage 
 of early death increased, but it was not equal to the parent 
 generation. 
 
 In the third in-bred generation there were no misses of 
 fecundation in familj- A, although one was in November. In 
 family B there was one in five, or 20 per cent. The average 
 number per litter was reduced again by nearly one. The 
 percentage of early death was reduced by 8 per cent. 
 
 In the fourth in-bred generation the misses were six out of 
 eleven, or 54-6 per cent. Of these, three, and probably four, 
 should be omitted on account of the time of year, which would 
 makeit37'5, or 28-6 per cent. — that is, two out of seven. In 
 family B there were two out of six, 3 3 4 per cent., but one was 
 
286 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 certainly a bad perio J of the year. The average number per 
 litter was further reduced in family A, but increased in family 
 B. The percentage of early death was very greatly increased. 
 
 The fault of insufficient accommodation now showed 
 itself. Owing to an exceptional number of early deaths in 
 family A in the third generation in 1879, when under bad 
 management, followed by a litter in the fourth generation 
 of four does and no bucks, the continued breeding of family 
 A as before was at an end. In family B, again, the only two 
 surviving litters were four bucks and one doe, and three bucks 
 and one doe. One of these had no surviving young, as 
 nearly happened in the case of the doe IBa, in the first in- 
 bred generation ; as happened with the does II A7,, II Ba,, 
 III A/S„ IV A/3,, and might very easily have happened at 
 any time. The other doe had two litters of four and five. 
 In the fifth in-bred generation, therefore, there were two in 
 seven misses of fecundation, or 28'6 per cent., the lowest as 
 yet save one ; the average number per litter was 37 ; and 
 the percentage of early death, if the two litters that died are 
 taken at the average, was 389, or less than the parent, second, 
 or fourth generations. 
 
 For the sixth generation there were left two divisions of 
 family B, each consisting of a buck and two does. In one of 
 these one doe proved barren, as in the second generation 
 with doe II Ba,. The other doe was worried to death by the 
 buck. In the other family one doe, after having produced 
 two litters, was likewise killed by the buck. In both these 
 instances they were put together in October, an unfavourable 
 period. The other doe only produced two litters of one each 
 time. 
 
 Notwithstanding many adverse circumstances, and the 
 insufficient number of families, the impression left upon my 
 mind is that after the fourth generation there was a diminu- 
 tion of fecundity analogous to the disgust that the stomach 
 would feel at the same diet long continued. At the same 
 time I think that had the litters been separated early in life, 
 and kept in different parts of the country, the fertility would 
 have continued good. We must further bear in mind that 
 
RABBITS. FOWLS 287 
 
 there was no selection for fertility, and that there is no evi- 
 dence to show that sterility was not introduced accidentally, 
 say by keeping the litter of III B/3., in place of that of III By,, 
 for instance. Or, again, in the great preponderance of bucks 
 in the fourth generation, which left only two does to breed from. 
 But if there was any diminution in fecundity, there was no evil 
 effect in any other way. The atavism to other types would 
 have been entirely eliminated by the fifth generation if breeding 
 from V B/3 could have been avoided. Form and colour were 
 perfect. There was no disease. An examination of the 
 table of weights will show that the averages increased, and the 
 seventh or any other generation was better than the first. 
 
 The introduction of new blood showed how careful 
 breeders must be when they venture upon such a course. 
 Out of fifteen young born, five were not silver-grey. In 
 family A, which was continued with IV A^„ the misses of 
 fecundation were nil, the average per litter 4-5, the percent- 
 age of early death \V2. In family B, continued with VII B^, 
 the misses of fecundation were one in three ; the average 
 per litter, three ; and the percentage died young, nil. Of the 
 next in-bred generation it is too soon to speak.' 
 
 Sir J. Sebright asserts that his fowls got long in the legs, 
 small in body, and bad breeders, from too close in-and-in 
 breeding. Mr. Clark continued to breed in-and-in from his 
 own kind of fighting cocks till they became under the weight 
 required for the best prizes, and lost all their pluck. On 
 one cross from Mr. Leighton's they again resumed their 
 former courage and weight. This breeder found that breed- 
 ing from father and daughter produced a greater loss of 
 weight in the offspring than breeding from mother and son. 
 
 ' In the Bullet, dc CAccui. Koyal de Mai. de Belgipic, 1S66, ix. 2S7-295, 
 305-307, M. Legrain gives an account of a scries of experiments in the breeding 
 of rabbits in-and-in, which he pretended to have conducted. In consequence of 
 the doubts of various members a commission was appointed to inquire into them, 
 with the result, as reported by Dr. Crocq {Md. 3rd series, i. 26-49, SSS, 534), 
 that these experiments would have taken about seventeen years, and hence M. 
 Legrain must have begun them while a boy at school, and ten years before the 
 paper by M. Aube (read before the So(. d'Accliinatalion, Feb. 6, 1857), which 
 they were designed to test, was published. In consequence, the Academy, 
 without allowing M. Legrain to be examined in his defence, voted th.il his nieniuir 
 should be held as non-existent. 
 
288 THE MARRTAOK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Mr. Eyton, of that ilk, says his Dorkings became smaller and 
 less prolific if not occasionally crossed. Mr. Hewitt says the 
 same of Malays, as to size at least. But fanciers with large 
 stocks can breed from their own stock without this danger, 
 because they keep various families separate for crossing pur- 
 poses. Mr. Bal lance, who breeds in this way, says that 
 breeding in-and-in does not necessarily cause deterioration, 
 ' but all depends upon how this is managed.' ' My plan has 
 been to keep five or six distinct runs, * * * and select the 
 best birds from each run for crossing. I thus secure sufficient 
 crossing to prevent deterioration.' ' Jumper and frizzled 
 fowls were in all probability derived from monstrosities of 
 their kind," and must, therefore, have been much in-and-in 
 bred. M. La Perre de Roo bred Cochin China fowls for four 
 generations, always pairing brothers and sisters, without any 
 degeneracy or failure in fertility. He then tried black Japan 
 Bantams in the same way for seven generations, with results 
 as before ; moreover, he tried in the sixth generation pairing 
 father and daughter, with equally good results. Another 
 experiment, carried on in the same way, gave the same 
 result.' 
 
 M. La Perre also bred pheasants, with the result depicted 
 in this table : — 
 
 
 A = 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 A = 
 
 1 
 
 1 ,k; 
 
 - 
 
 I cock 
 I hen 
 
 
 A = c 
 1 
 A = </ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 others 
 
 . A 
 
 1 
 
 ,.L, 
 
 Several eggs, 
 all c.iten by 
 A. 
 
 1 
 
 3 died 4 
 young 
 
 oth 
 
 1 
 crs e 
 
 1 
 = E 
 
 1 
 
 
 9 hens = 4 cocks 
 continued to breed 
 without fresh blood. 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation, etc. 1875, ii. 104, 105. 
 409. ' La I'crre dc Roo, La ConsanguiHilc-, pp. 80 85. 
 
PHEASANTS. DUCKS. I'lOI-ONS 289 
 
 That is, in the first generation he p.iircd brother and sister, 
 and obtained four hens and one cock. He then paired one 
 of the hens with her father, and again paired the father with 
 the issue of that union, and from nine eggs were hatched two 
 hens and five cocks. One of these young hens was paired 
 with her father, who was also her grandfather and great- 
 grandfather ; a union which produced several eggs, but they 
 were always eaten by the old cock. He was therefore taken 
 away, and a brother of the hen substituted ; twelve eggs 
 were laid, and nine birds were hatched, of which three died 
 young. Two selected from the survivors were then paired, 
 but owing to a change of locale, and the new aviary being 
 too small, also to M. La Perre's avocations, there was no 
 result. But in the following year fifteen eggs were laid, of 
 which thirteen were hatched, and the young enjoyed the best 
 health. After this M. La Perre allowed them to breed among 
 themselves without selection, and no degeneracy has resulted.' 
 
 Mr. Darwin crossed some half-bred Penguin and Labrador 
 ducks with Penguin, and afterwards bred them in-and-in 
 'and they were extremely fertile.'- Mr. Hewitt had a brood 
 of wild ducks, which were carefully kept uncrossed, but 
 nevertheless, in the course of two or three generations they 
 grew larger and more like the tame duck ; he therefore never 
 kept them for more than six generations without crossing 
 them again with the wild duck.' The hook-billed duck must 
 have been bred in-and-in for some time, since it was no doubt 
 derived from a ' sport.' ^ M. La Perre says that he knew of 
 some ducks at Ruysselede which had bred among themselves 
 for twenty years without change of blood. '^ 
 
 ' There are a great many sorts of fancy pigeons,' saj-s Sir 
 J. Sebright, ' and each variety has some particular property 
 which constitutes its supposed value, and which amateurs 
 increase as much as possible, both by breeding in-and-in, and 
 by selection, until the particular property is made to pre- 
 dominate in such a degree, in some of the most refined sorts, 
 
 ' La Perre, La Consanguinity, pp. 104-106. 
 
 ' Darwin, The Variation, etc. i. 294, note. 1875. ' Ibid. p. 293. 
 
 • Ibid. ii. 409. ' La Perre, ut sup. p. 1 10. 
 
290 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 that they cannot exist without the greatest care, and are in- 
 capable of rearing their young without the assistance of other 
 pigeons kept for that purpose.' ' He continued closely inter- 
 breeding some owl pigeons, till they arrived at such a degree 
 of sterility that he nearly lost the breed. Mr Brent crossed 
 a trumpeter pigeon with a common pigeon, and afterwards 
 bred him with his female descendants to the fourth genera- 
 tion, but failed to get a fifth. All fanciers cross their breeds, 
 says Mr. Darwin, but he admits that their excessive delicacy 
 cannot be accounted for by the amount of in-and-in breeding 
 which docs take place. He himself paired a brother and 
 sister of a hybrid breed, and found them perfectly fertile.^ M. 
 La Perre bred in-and-in with fantail pigeons with perfect 
 success. He paired a female with her son, her grandson, and 
 great-grandson, and there was neither sterility nor degeneracy. 
 Some Bald-heads were bred for twelve years without the 
 introduction of fresh blood : he carefully eliminated every 
 bird that was not perfect of its sort, bred always from brother 
 and sister of the same generation, and after eight generations, 
 so far from being degenerate, they were a great improvement 
 upon the original pair. With Blue Dragons his experience 
 was identical, and they, like the others, were bred from 
 brother and sister for eight generations. Some other pigeons 
 were bred by M. La Perre in the same way for seven or eight 
 years ; he then sent a pair to a friend, who continued to breed 
 them in the same way for three years. A pair of these latter 
 were sent to Doomkerke, where they still continued to pro- 
 pagate themselves in an aviary, and without the smallest evil 
 result ; but here, perhaps, the change of localit)' may have 
 acted beneficially upon them. In 1877 M. La Perre received 
 a pair of carrier pigeons, brother and sister, from a London 
 dealer. The first year they brought up three couples of young 
 of which one couple was presented to a friend, another couple 
 lent to a gentleman, who bred several healthy young from 
 them, while the female, still in M. La Perre's hands, was acci- 
 dentally killed. The borrowed pigeons were returned in 1879 
 
 ' Wnlker, On httermarrius^, p. 227. 
 
 ' D.itwiii, 'J'/if VanalioH, etc. \^TS. '• 20', 202, note 19; ii. ioIj. 
 
BIRDS. INSKCTS 29I 
 
 togctlicr with a daughter, who was paired w ith Iicr father, 
 with apparently the best results. Other instances arc given by 
 M. La Perre of in-and-in breeding of carrier pigeons for four 
 or si.x generations, and all without any evil result whatever.' 
 
 M. La Pcrre bought a pair of canaries, brother and sister, 
 and the produce of a brother and sister, from a breeder at 
 Brussels. These he bred in-and-in, always from brother and 
 sister, for eight generations while in his own possession, irre- 
 spective of the breeder's practice from whom he had bought 
 the original birds, and who also bred without consideration of 
 consanguinity. The breed was put an end to by the Prussian 
 invasion, like so many of his other experiments, but no de- 
 generation or want of fertility of any kind was observable.^ 
 
 In all the experiments practised by this gentleman there 
 was not the slightest evidence confirming M. Aube's assertions 
 as to albinoism. In no case did any of the birds, fowls, 
 guinea-fowl, ducks, peacocks, pheasants, pigeons, or canaries 
 produce an albino. 
 
 The habit of insects as regards breeding in-and-in have 
 been little studied. A good many breed parthenogenetically 
 for many generations, such as the Phylloxera, which has been 
 known to produce itself for sixteen generations in this way 
 while in captivity, without any sign of degeneration.^ Others, 
 again, are known always to reproduce themselves without a 
 male. But, as a rule, they do cross to a very great extent ; 
 for even those which live in communities, such as hive bees, 
 termites, and ants, do cross in the process of dispersal. 
 
 The significance of the variety in the means of repro- 
 duction among the lower forms of organisms, animal and 
 vegetable, will be discussed in the eighth chapter. Puit it 
 is evident from the facts narrated in this chapter that if 
 consanguineous marriage is injurious otherwise than through 
 inheritance, this cannot in any way affect mankind ; for 
 wherever any experiment has shown that after continuous 
 in-and-in breeding barrenness is caused, this in-and-in brecd- 
 
 ' La Perre de Roo, La Coiisanguiniti', pp. 8594. 
 ^ Ihid. pp. 98-102, where the details arc given. 
 
 ' M. P. Hi)iteau, in the Coniptes Kendiis d( PAiad. dts Sa'nufs de Pan's fnr 
 January 25. 1SS6. 
 
 c2 
 
292 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 I'ng has always been so very close that it could not possibly 
 have been done in experiments on man. On the other hand, 
 many other experiments, or rather instances, have been 
 detailed, in which, though there has been close in-and-in 
 breeding, rather beneficial than injurious results have been 
 obtained. 
 
 That such breeding will produce disease or malformation in 
 any other way than through ordinary inheritance I fail to find 
 any reliable evidence whatever ; but undoubtedly there is the 
 disadvantage inherent in every form of restriction, that if a 
 breeder be restricted to certain animals, the accident of an 
 undue number of one sex being born will force him either to 
 let his breed die out, or to have recourse toother animals, and 
 so introduce new blood whether he wishes it or not. It 
 further appears that in many cases, very long and very close 
 interbreeding, in animals which naturally would move freely 
 from place to place, cannot be carried on without some 
 degree of sterility appearing, if all the animals are kept con- 
 tinuously in the same place and under the same conditions ; 
 and that this is due to want of change or a sort of fatigue of 
 sameness, which may, so far as our evidence goes, be remedied 
 without the introduction of fresh blood, merely by keeping 
 the individuals in different localities under slightly differing 
 conditions. On the other hand, to improve by crosses is 
 almost impossible, since many improvements have been 
 obtained from the in-and-in breeding of monstrosities or 
 sports which could not have been perpetuated by crossing 
 while crosses tend to produce mediocrity, or even reversion to 
 a primitive and unimproved type, and therefore to degenera- 
 tion. At the same time the evidence is abundantly sufficient 
 to show the great value of crosses when judiciously carried out 
 in removing an inherited disease, and, as Mr. Darwin shows, 
 in the increase of size it often gives to the offspring ; but the 
 fact still remains that consanguinity, so far as our evidence 
 has gone, cannot be said to originate malformations, disease, 
 or sterility. 
 
293 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 ON THE ALLEGED BENEFITS OF CHANGE OF BLOOD IN 
 MANKIND. 
 
 IN the last chapter I attempted to show that when in- 
 and-in breeding proves injurious to the offspring, and 
 this evil is removed by a cross, it does not prove the in- 
 and-in breeding is itself injurious, but only shows that careless- 
 ness may make it so ; and however doubtful the above evidence 
 may leave us, whether in-and-in breeding generally leads to 
 good or to bad results, there can be no rational doubt, after 
 studying the effects of crosses, that in-and-in breeding cannot 
 create disease, but at most is able to intensify an hereditary 
 taint. For if in-and-in breeding is in itself bad, then crosses 
 must be beneficial. If crosses act by virtue of being a cross 
 and not by virtue of removing an hereditary taint, then the 
 greater the difference between the two animals crossed, the 
 more beneficial will that act be.' But it is an undoubted fact 
 that the wider the difference the less good is the result as a 
 rule. Hence crosses do not and cannot act in man at all, or 
 in any other animal that has not been so closely bred in-and-in 
 in the same locality, that a slight change becomes beneficial, 
 by any inherent virtue beyond this slight change. If they 
 stopped here, crosses would in some cases, no doubt, be bene- 
 ficial, for, besides giving this slight change, they frequently 
 increase the size of the progeny beyond that of either parent. 
 
 ' It ha-s been urged against this argument that because a slight change may be 
 beneficial, it does not follow that a great change must be. If a small amount of 
 salt is good for the constitution, a great amount may be bad. But human beings 
 all belong to the same genus, and we cannot imagine them to, and in fact they do 
 not, refuse to interbreed ; though in some cases there is a dinjculty. The 
 argument remains, if change is gooCi. per se, the more the better— or, only a little 
 change is good. 
 
294 THE MARRIAGK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 But the cost is an ill-balanced growth, reversion to unimproved 
 forms, and the loss, in proportion to the difference between the 
 parents, of generative power in the offspring. Experience has 
 taught breeders to dread the introduction of fresh blood, some- 
 times forced upon them by the accidents described in the last 
 chapter ; and if this is so with animals, whose pedigrees are 
 known and recorded, how much more dangerous is it in man- 
 kind, where a man knows, as a rule, nothing whatever of the 
 pathological history of the family he marries into, even in the 
 usual case of a marriage with one of his own country ! while 
 in the case of a union between two persons of different races, 
 such as a white with a Hindoo or negro, he has to fear an 
 ill-balanced temperament, a weedy body, and more or less 
 sterility, in addition to reversion to a savage type worse than 
 that of the lowest of the two parents. 
 
 There have lately appeared several articles in various 
 periodicals on the moral state of the Eurasians, as they are 
 called, or half-breeds between British, Portuguese, Dutch, or 
 French Europeans, and Hindoos. 'The dangerous character 
 of this element in the society of our Eastern Empire,' says 
 the ' Times,' ' ' has long been recognized. The Eurasians, with 
 a few remarkable exceptions, have shown all the vices of both 
 the parent races, and hardly a sign of the virtues of either 
 Europe or Asia. Truth, honour, and honesty have been 
 almost as rare among the men as chastity among the women. 
 The sincerity and endurance of the Anglo-Saxon, the gravity, 
 dignity, and temperance of the Hindoo, are lost in the Eurasian 
 character.' ' The lower clas.ses of half-castes in India,' says 
 the ' Pall Mall Gazette,' ' lead the life of pariah dogs, skulking 
 on the outskirts between the native and the European com- 
 munities, and branded as noxious animals by both. In a 
 higher class the lads pick up a living as menial servants, or 
 on the river or wharfs, but constantly lose their places from 
 ilrunkenness, and are reduced to starvation and the gaol."'' 
 The life of the women is even more degraded, according to 
 the Archdeacon of Calcutta.' Sir Bartle Frere also regarded 
 
 ' The Tillies^ September 3, 1874. 
 '' rait Matt GazMe, Seiilcmber I, 1874. " Ihid. 
 
LUKASIANS 295 
 
 them as an inferior race to that of the Ilinduo parent, except 
 perhaps, in feature ; ' and even their apoloy;ists cannot put 
 them on a level with either of the parent races, and only 
 succeed in showing that many of them are capable of cultiva- 
 tion. Of the Dutch-Singhalese half-castes, M. Perier says that 
 though some of the women are delicately pretty, the men are 
 so slii;ht and so badly made, that they are at once distinguish- 
 able from the parent races. They are lazy, effeminate, without 
 a virtue, but with all the vices of both parents.^ ' Undoubt- 
 edly,' says Mr. Sendall, late Director of Public Instruction at 
 Ceylon, ' there are characteristic failings and vices incident to 
 a mixed pedigree, interesting to the scientific observer, and 
 requiring due recognition on the part of administrators and 
 statesmen. * * * If not destined for high achievements, they 
 are still capable of attaining a fair average level of moral and 
 intellectual development.'' And Sir Alexander Arbuthnot 
 says of them that ' there is nothing in the Eurasian nature 
 which precludes the expectation that, in their case, education 
 will develop many of the qualities which people in India are 
 accustomed to regard as belonging exclusively to the ruling 
 race.' * Mr. Digby, a staunch apologist, says of the Eurasians 
 of Ceylon that they are very superior to those of the continent, 
 and show no marked inferiority to the dominant race, ' save 
 in certain qualities — such, for instance, as perseverance and 
 persistence ; ' while he admits that the Portuguese half-castes 
 were worse than either race.^ De Warren says they are well 
 gifted, but he adds that they inherit more often the vices of 
 both parents than the virtues of either ; " and Gortz says that 
 ' these half-breeds are nearly all of relaxed temperament, and 
 their mental power is poor.' ' But whatever may be the cause 
 of their moral degradation, it is certain that they are neither 
 fertile among themselves, nor are unions of the two parent 
 
 ' Tilt, Health in India, p. 109. 
 
 ■ Perier, Man. de la Soc. J'Anthrop. de Paris, 1S65, ii. 295. 
 
 ' Letter to the Times, September 9, 1874. 
 
 ' Macmillan's Magazine, October 1874, p. 558. 
 
 ' Digby, 'The Eurasians of Ceylon,' in the Calcutta Kevieir, 1876, Ixiii. 
 
 174, 183. 
 
 « Perier, Mem. de la Soc. iFAnthrop. de Paris, 1865, ii. 293. 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 201. 
 
296 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 races fruitful. It is the exception when a Hindoo female has 
 children by a European husband ; ' and the half-castes them- 
 selves rarely rear their children. - 
 
 The Topas, a set of half-castes of Pondicherry, between 
 Hindoo women and French or Portuguese men, are, according 
 to an anonymous author, debased, ignorant, superstitious, lazy, 
 and debauched. Negrin confirms this ; and Dr. Collas asserts 
 that they are far more subject to phthisis than either parent.^ 
 According to the Revne Coloniale, says M. Broca, the Topas 
 of Pondicherry show a mortality even greater than that of 
 Europeans, though these are considerably shorter-lived in India 
 than in Europe.** 
 
 The Dutch-Malay half-breeds of Java, who go by the name 
 of Lipplapens, are stupid and nerveless, says Gortz. M. 
 Boudin says they can be employed in nothing by the Dutch 
 on account of their stupidity. As to their fertility, Dr. Yvan 
 says of them that they may produce among themselves up to 
 the third generation without any necessity of crossing with 
 one of the parent races, but they then produce only daughters, 
 who are generally sterile.' The Portuguese-Malays, according 
 to Dr. Yvan, are also indolent, small, meagre, degraded, with- 
 out any of the energy of their savage parent, or anything in com- 
 mon with their conquering fathers." It appears that the Por- 
 tuguese can bear the climate far better than the Dutch ; for the 
 latter are generally sterile even among themselves at Batavia, 
 according to Steen Bille, who says that their children are weak 
 and poorly, and frequently sterile in the second generation, 
 while the Portuguese are everywhere fertile ; moreover Dr. Yvan 
 believes that in other Dutch colonies the half-breeds are con- 
 tinuously fertile. It is suggested, therefore, by M. Broca that 
 the sterility of the Lipplapens may be due to the effect of 
 the climate. Yet he himself considers this to be but a partial 
 cause, and attributes their sterility to the fact that they are 
 
 ' I give this on the authority of several gentlemen who are well acijiiaiiitcii 
 with India. « The Pall Mall Gazette, September i, 1S74. 
 
 » r^rier, Mhii. Je la Soc. d'Avthrop. de Paris, 1865, ii. 294, 296. 
 
 • liroca, Hybridity, etc. Blake's Trans, p. 39. 
 
 ' Wailz, Anthropolo!;ie, i. 201, 207 ; Pcricr, M(m. de la Soir. d'Aiithrop. de 
 Paris, 1865, ii. 304 ; Broca, Hybridity, etc. Blake's Trans, pp. 39-4'- 
 
 • Perier, ut sup. pp. 300, 301. 
 
POLYNESIAN lIALF-liREKDS 297 
 
 pr(.|)ortiniially numerous to the parent races, since the Dutch 
 aie numerous compared with the natives, and hence a large 
 colony of Lipplapens is produced, who marry among them- 
 selves instead of with one of the parent races.' The Spanish- 
 Malay half-breeds, says Souven, have the usual qualities of 
 Creoles — bravery and indolence. On Mindanao, where the 
 half-breeds are in the majority, they arc very proud of their 
 Spanish blood, and speak Castilian with greater purity than 
 it is spoken in many parts of Spain.^ In Amboynathe mixed 
 breeds between Portuguese and natives are far darker than 
 are even the natives.' Of the half-breeds between the Japanese 
 and Ainos, the Rev. Mr. Batchelor, who has lived for years 
 among the latter, says they show a diminished fertility : ' The 
 second generation is almost barren ; and such children as are 
 born, whether it be from two half-breed parents or from 
 one half-breed parent and a member of either pure race, are 
 generally weakly. In the third or fourth generation the family 
 dies out.' ' 
 
 Everywhere in the South Seas crosses have debased the 
 native races, fully as much perhaps from their fellowship with 
 the scum of Europe as from the hybridity. The fact remains, 
 however, that as soon as the Ladrone Isles fell under the yoke 
 of foreigners, death, pestilence, and depopulation began. At 
 present these unfortunate islands are inhabited by a mixed race 
 of Spaniards, Tagals, Caroliners, Pol)-nesians, and Chinese — a 
 good-natured and soft-hearted race, but exceedingly ugly, 
 indolent, and listless ; while the original pure race was hand- 
 some, well formed, and stronger than most Europeans.-' 
 Neither do the unions of Europeans and Polynesians seem to 
 be particularly fertile. Jacquinot saw only two half-breed 
 Anglo-Tahitians, a perfect welding of both races. Alfonsi saw 
 not even one half-breed at Tahiti, during a residence of eighteen 
 months on the island, and this notwithstanding that there 
 was a French garrison of about 400 men stationed there, 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologie, i. 207 ; Brocn, Hyhrniily, Blake's Trans, pp. 40-43 ; 
 Perier, AUm. de la Soc. ctAtithrop. de Paris, 1870, iii. 230. 
 - Perier, tit sup. 1865, ii. 303. 
 ' Waitz and Cierland, Aiilhi-opohgic, v. (lart i. 107. 
 ' See a letter by F. V. Dickens in Nature, xxxv. 534. 
 » Waitz, Anthropolosie, v. part ii. 47, 161, 162. 
 
298 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 besides about 200 other Europeans and Anglo-Americans. 
 During a residence of four years on Nukuhiva the same gentle- 
 man saw only one half-breed, while there were 100 French 
 soldiers in the place. In the years 1 862-63 there were twenty- 
 six marriages between Frenchmen and native women on Tahiti 
 and Morea, which produced ' at least double the number of chil- 
 dren,' or about two per marriage. Davis, however, states that 
 Europeans and Sandwich Islanders are very fertile together, 
 and that it often happens that a woman who is barren with 
 her native husband becomes a fertile wife to a European ! On 
 the island of Owahu, to which all his personal observations 
 relate, he says the European-native half-breeds form a large 
 class, and are very handsome, but nearly barren among them- 
 selves.' In New Caledonia, De Rochas saw but two half- 
 breeds. In Fiji these mixed marriages seem proportionally 
 far more fertile. In 1851, Binner found on Ovalau a good 
 school with about eighty half-caste children ; and after he had 
 been on the island some time he got double the number to 
 attend. There is a story, too, of an Irish convict who escaped 
 from New South Wales to Mbau or Rewa, where he became 
 the father of about fifty children. Du Bouzet talks, too, of the 
 numerous progeny of a few English and American sailors at 
 Levuka ; but Pritchard sa}'s that when these half-breeds 
 marry among themselves, they are far more sterile than when 
 they intermarry with one of the parent races.''' Staff-Surgeon 
 A. B. Messer, of H.M.S. 'Pearl,' says there were 120 adult 
 men, 200 women, and 250 children of the American or Euro- 
 pean half-caste race on the islands, who live like the natives 
 and are looked up to by them, but are despised by the whites.' 
 The half-castes in Fiji did not impress Cooper in their 
 favour. They increase rapidly in numbers, but ' their intellect 
 is of low order, and their morals la.x.' * 
 
 Cruise, after a long residence in New Zealand, saj-s he 
 saw but two European-Maori half-breeds, and thinks that 
 
 ' PeritT, J/,'w. ,/<: /a Soc. d'Antlirof. de Paris, 1865, ii. 307 ; 1S70, iii. 234, 
 235. 238- 
 
 - Uii/. 1S70, iii. 237, 238. rail Mall Ga'.ctU, December 21, 1S75. 
 
 " Cooper, Coral Lands, i. 243; ii. 99. London, 18S0; C. F. Gordon 
 Gumming, At Home in Fiji, ii. 1 54. 
 
AUhTRAI.lAN llALl'-liKEEliS 299 
 
 llic\- must practise abortion, which is very prubable, since 
 RI. Pericr says that there are now 500 there. Accordin^f to 
 Polack these half-breeds are a fine, healthy, and strong race. 
 Miss Gordon Gumming found them, contrary to her experience 
 in other places, superior to the natives ; but Savage says they 
 are not either mentally or bodily superior to either parent.' 
 Gliddon says that before the extermination of the Tasmanians 
 only two European-Tasmanian half-breeds were known to 
 have been born. Quoy and Gaimard saw only one ; Jacquinot 
 saw none ; Jeffreys, indeed, saw one half-breed, a girl, who, 
 he says, had a very agreeable figure ; and asserts that the 
 half-breed infants were burnt by the Tasmanians, and their 
 mothers maltreated — which would certainly account for the 
 dearth of them among the natives, but not for their absence 
 when born under the protection of resident Europeans.^ 
 
 In Australia, as in Tasmania, the absence of half-breeds is 
 so remarkable that Waitz is driven to account for it by an ac- 
 cusation of infanticide. They are born, according to Macgilliv- 
 ray, but do not seem to live — at least not at Port Essington. 
 In New South Wales every half-breed boy is said to be killed.' 
 But, at all events, the chief Bongarri kept his son alive, a 
 half-breed, the offspring of the chief's wife and a convict.* 
 Mrs. Praed, quite incidentally, mentions that the blacks had 
 arranged to kill an infant Chinese-Australian girl, and that 
 half-castes were frequently killed.'* Cunningham and Lesson 
 speak only of one, and that is the same one, the son of 
 Bongarri's wife. Mone says that in 1842 only three half- 
 breeds were known in all Australia. Indeed, the very 
 word cross-breed was used in Australia in a totally different 
 signification from what it is elsewhere.'' Though there 
 are, and still more frequently were, unions of a semi-[:er- 
 mancnt character between whites and natives, all accounts 
 
 ' Pericr, .l/.'w. dc la Soc. (fjullirop. de Paris, 1870, iii. 236, 243; \V.iitz 
 Anlhropolo,i;ie, i. 201 ; and C. F. Gordon Cumming, .-// Home in Fiji, ii. 154. 
 
 ' I'ericr, ut sup. pp. 241-243 ; Broca, Hybridity, etc. Blake's Trans, p. 47. 
 
 " Waitz and Gerland, Anthropologic, i. 203 ; vi. 779. 
 
 ' Broca, ul sup. p. 52. 
 
 * Praed, Australian Life, p. 62. London, 1885. 
 
 ' Broca, Hybridity, etc. pp. 47-4S ; Pcrier, Mem. de la Soc. J'Anthrop. d. 
 Paris, iii. 1870, 238, 239. 
 
300 THE -MAKKIACJE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 agree that they are not fertile ; and still more, that if not 
 designedly killed, the haidships of savage life generally 
 kill the offspring. But when half-breeds are spared, says 
 Jung, they are generally females.' ' Onkaparinga,' however, 
 seems to consider the half-breeds too numerous — probably 
 the result of a more settled life of the aborigines, and repeats 
 of them the stock phrase which we meet everywhere, that 
 they ' have the worst vices of both races, without the virtues 
 of either.-' 
 
 Thc Portuguese-Chinese half-breeds at Macao are given 
 up to Asiatic vice, says Castano. The men are robust and 
 big, with regular features and animated eyes. The women 
 are yellow-skinned, with the nose flat, the mouth enormous, 
 and a massive frame.^ 
 
 The half-breeds between the Dutch and the Hottentots 
 are distinguished, says Moodie, for uniting in their persons 
 the vices of both people. They are superior to the Hottentots 
 in understanding, and perhaps under other circumstances 
 many of them would also be superior to the Dutch. As it 
 is, however, they are a drunken and depraved lot, unwilling 
 to work or lead a regular life. They consider themselves to 
 be superior to the Hottentots with whom they live, and hate 
 the white population, from whose society they are altogether 
 shut out. Le Vaillant, Lichtenstein, and Barrow agree that 
 the Hottentot women are more fertile with whites than with 
 their own race, which is accounted for by the superior com- 
 forts of the companion of the white man as compared with 
 the miserable state formerly of the natives under the whites ; 
 and also to the custom among the natives of not weaning 
 their children for two or three years.^ In the year 1801 a 
 horde of these half-breeds, or Bastaards, as they were called, 
 established themselves near the Orange or Garicp River, 
 together with a lot of Bosjesmen, Namaquas, Kaffirs, and 
 
 ' K. E. Jung, ' Ueber die Familienverhaltnisse der Austral-Negcr in Die Nalur, 
 pp. 89, 90, for February 12, 1877. See also E. J- Eyre, Central Australia, London, 
 1845, ii. 324; and G. Taplin, The Narrivgui, Adelaide, 1874, p. II. 
 
 ^ See the l-'ield, July 24, 1875. 
 
 ' Pciier, utsup.'W. 1S65, 301, 302. 
 
 ' Pcrier, ut $up. p. 321 ; Barrow, Travels into the Interior of Southern AJrua, 
 i. 97 ; Buckle, Miscellaneous and Tosthumcus Tafers, ii. 63, Art. N<\ 135. 
 
CAI'i; HALF-BREEDS 3OI 
 
 pure Hottentots, under the leadershiij of a chief named Kok. 
 In the same year a missionary began to organise them into 
 a settled community in the village of Klaarwatcr. In 1805, 
 when visited by Lichtenstein, there were about thirty families, 
 one-half of which belonged to the Bastaard race ; the rest were 
 Namaquas, or Hottentots, and the village began to grow apace 
 by the arrival of refugees, by intermarriages with Bosjesmen, 
 and with Koranas of the neighbourhood. The missionaries 
 seemingly had not much influence over the colony, for the 
 people practised polygamy, they lived by pillage and hunting, 
 smeared their bodies with paint, covered their hair with 
 grease, and were ignorant and uncivilised generally. About 
 the year 18 10, however, the missionaries made another 
 earnest endeavour to civilise them ; they tried to make them 
 take to agriculture, changed their old name of Bastaards to 
 that of Griquas, an old Hottentot name, while Klaarwater was 
 renamed Grlqua-town. Griqua-town was now joined by a 
 large body of Koranas, of which there were 1,341 in the year 
 181 3, on a total population of 2,607, or more than half were 
 Koranas. In the year 18 14, owing to an attempt of the 
 Governor of Cape Town to make them join the local army, 
 Griqua-town was nearly revolutionised ; a part of its people 
 went off to the mountains of the neighbourhood, turned 
 robbers, and, under the name of Bergmaars, pillaged the 
 country round about. Joined with bands of Koranas, they 
 robbed and murdered the Bechuanas and Bosjesmen, 
 carried off their women and children, and thus further mixed 
 their race. At last, in 1825, the Bergmaars were persuaded 
 to return to Griqua-town and live peacefully ; but in the 
 meanwhile those who remained at Griqua-town quarrelled 
 among themselves because the Governor of the Cape had 
 sent a political agent to Waterboer, a Bosjesman by origin, 
 whereas Kok had always been in possession of supreme 
 authority. Kok, therefore, with his party went off and 
 formed another village ; a chief named Berend formed a third, 
 and Waterboer remained head of Griqua-town.' It follows, 
 
 ' Broca, Hybridily, etc. Blake's Trans., pp. 3, 4, note: compare also 
 Godron, De P F.iphe, etc. ii. 354, 355 ; Wailz, Anthrofologie. i. 206 ; Pcrier, 
 Mhn. lie la Soi. il'Anl/uo/: i/e I'an's. ii. 1S65, 320-324. 
 
302 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 therefore, from this history, that the Griquas are by no means 
 an instance of any continuous fertility among half-breeds. 
 They have mixed with Hottentots, Bosjesmen, Kaffirs, 
 Koranas, Namaquas, and Bechuanas, with probably addi- 
 tions of real Bastaards or Dutch Hottentot half-breeds, from 
 time to time. They have consequently become almost a 
 pure African race ; and though they have increased very fast, 
 this increase is due in a great measure to immigrants. 
 
 The pure Hottentot, says Lady Duff-Gordon in her lively 
 letters, was almost extinct in the Cape in 1862; what one 
 now sees are all Bastaards : 'These mongrel Hottentots who 
 do all the work are an affliction to behold — debased and 
 shrivelled with drink, and drunk all day long ; sullen, wretched 
 creatures — so unlike the bright Malays, and cheery pleasant 
 blacks and browns of Cape Town.' She visited a Herrenhut 
 colony of Bastaards, where the young men had ' a sort of 
 blackguard elegance in their gait and figure which is peculiar 
 to them ; a mixture of Negro or Mozambique blood alters it 
 altogether. The girls have the elegance without the black- 
 guard look.' Like the pure Hottentot, they have high cheek- 
 bones, a flat face, are light yellow in colour, and have small 
 hands and feet, but they are sometimes better looking, taller, 
 and the hair not so woolly. These Herrenhuters were by far 
 the most intelligent — equal, indeed, to the whites. A mixture 
 of black blood often gives real beauty, but takes off from the 
 ' air,' and generally from the intelligence.' 
 
 The Africanders, Dutch-Malay half-breeds of the Cape, 
 are handsome, lazy, dirty, and dressy, but the colonists are not 
 particularly industrious. The pure Malays, however, are bright 
 and most industrious.^ Lady Duff-Gordon also saw some 
 half-breeds between a red-haired man and a black woman, 
 frightfully ugly : ' The little monsters are as black as the 
 mother, and have red wool. Vou nc\er saw so diabolical an 
 appearance.' ' 
 
 Sir Richard ]?urton says of the half-castes of the West 
 
 ' Lady Duff-Gordon, Last Letters from Ej^ypt, to 'vhichare added Letters from 
 l/ie Cape, pp. 241, 270, 273, 308. 
 
 '' Jhiil. pp. 207, 224. ' LHd. p. 260. 
 
MULATTOES 
 
 303 
 
 Coast of Africa : ' The most dangerous class is the mulatto ; 
 he is everywhere, like wealth, irritavienta ntalonon. The 
 bar sinister, and the fancy that he is despised, fill him with 
 ineffable gall and bitterness. Inferior in physique to his 
 black, and in moraie to his white parent, he seeks strength by 
 making the families of his progenitors fall out.' ' 
 
 The European-negro half-breeds, known as mulattoes, 
 are said to be preferred for house-work in America, on account, 
 as Sir Charles Lyell suggests, of their better education, since 
 they have associated so much during childhood with the 
 whites. In Guadeloupe nearly all the manufactures are in the 
 hands of mulattoes ; and some at least, says Cassagnac, are 
 rich and industrious. In Peru many study theology, and 
 most of the medical practitioners in Lima are mulattoes. 
 Thi.s, however, is saying but little for their capabilities, since 
 both professions there are compatible with great ignorance. 
 A. de St. Hilaire considers the Brazilian mulattoes to be even 
 superior, if anything, to the Creoles or native whites, except 
 that they have not one spark of chivalry, and are as change- 
 able of mood as their African parents. Nott asserts that 
 mulattoes cannot endure physical exertion as Europeans do ; 
 and that the women especially are delicate, have many chronic 
 diseases and miscarriages, and only produce weakly children. 
 They are, he says, of lower viability than any other race of 
 human beings in South Carolina ; but at Mobile, New Orleans, 
 and Pensacola (Gulf of Mexico) such was not so evidently 
 the case, since their European parents were here generally of 
 the Latin race, and not of the Anglo-Saxon. He further 
 made the curious observation that the nerves of their limbs 
 were a good third less in thickness than in any pure race, light 
 or dark. Labat, who travelled over the Antilles more than a 
 century and a half ago, says that the hair of the mulattoes is 
 much less woolly than that of the negroes, and of a light chest- 
 nut colour ; and he saw one at Cadiz with red hair. They are 
 generally well made, vigorous, strong, skilful, and industrious ; 
 courageous, and impudent beyond imagination ; are proud, 
 false, devoted to pleasure and to thievery, and arc capable of 
 
 ' liurtnn, 7'o llif Co/,/ Coast for Co/:/, ii. 36. 
 
304 THE MARRIAGE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 the worst crimes. The Spaniards, he adds, have no better 
 soldiers or worse men. Demersay says that in Paraguay 
 the negroes are preferred to mulattoes, who are proud and 
 treacherous. The Spaniards have an old proverb, ' No 
 se fie de mula y mulata.' Freycinet, too, says that in 
 the Isle of France (ile Maurice) they are proud and lazy, 
 devoted to gambling and debauchery, soon squander any 
 money their wives have brought as a dowry, make them 
 jealous, and take no thought for the morrow. According to 
 Dr. Hancock, the mulattoes of South America are perhaps 
 not naturally inferior to their fathers, either mentally or 
 physically, but certainly far superior to the primitive African 
 race.' From all which it appears that the mulattoes are far 
 better morally in South America than elsewhere, and there 
 they have also the best position. Mulattoes of the same 
 degree are seldom mutually fertile, according to Van Amringe, 
 Knox, Hamilton Smith, Day, Nott, Etwick, and Long. Lewis, 
 however, asserts that though mulattoes are weak and delicate, 
 and their children are of low viability, yet they are as fertile 
 together as Europeans and negroes, which is not saying very 
 much ; for, according to Hombron, negroes are more fertile 
 with Indians than with Europeans, and Indians are more 
 fertile with Europeans than with negroes. Seemann also says 
 that the half-breeds are fertile among themselves at Panama, 
 though the children are weakly ; and Bachman knew of in- 
 stances of mulatto families in Carolina and New York who have 
 never crossed v/ith either parent race, and have perpetuated 
 themselves for five generations.'- But the balance of evidence 
 seems to showthat mulattoes — the result of a first cross between 
 a white and a negro— theugh not absoluteh- sterile together, are 
 yet very nearly so ; and even where a union of this sort does 
 turn out fertile, there seems to be an irresistible tendency 
 towards atavism — the child will resemble more nearly one 
 of the pure races from which it is descended than its parents. 
 Thus Burdach says that mulattoes return to one of the parent 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologic^ i. 198, 199 ; Perier, Mhit. de la Soc. (TAnthrop. de 
 Paris, ii. 1865, 357-359 ; iii. 1870, 277, 279 ; Walker, On Intermarriage, 
 p. 363 ; Broca, Hyhridity, etc. Blake's Trans, pp. 33, 34. 
 
 ■' Waitz, Aiithropohgie, i. 205-207. 
 
MULATTOES. MESTISOS 305 
 
 Stocks about the third gcnci-;itiun ; Knox sa>'s that every 
 mulatto returns to one of the races from wliich he has sprung ; 
 Livingstone says the same of the Portuguese mulattoes of 
 Angola ; and M. Perier gives many other citations of authors 
 who are not quite so explicit, but seem to say the same thing.' 
 These observations, moreover, are very difficult to collect, 
 since mulattoes only seldom intermarry among their own 
 class, but form by their complicated intermarriages terceroons, 
 quadroons, quinteroons, griffes, negritoes, etc., and thus can 
 very well continue their race aided by constant additions of 
 mulattoes. 
 
 The Mestisos, Cholos, or European-Amcrican-Indian 
 half-breeds, are in Peru short, sallow, coarse-haired, with 
 a low forehead, lazy, treacherous, and careless ; in short, more 
 like their Indian than their European parents according to 
 Raynal, Poppig, Stevenson, and Botmiliau. In Chili they are 
 often bigger than the Indians, but in their small feet and 
 hands, in their hair, and flattish large-nostrilled nose, says 
 Poppig, they more nearly resemble their Indian parents. The 
 Spanish-Guarani half-breeds are perhaps the best specimens 
 of the Mestiso. Azara considers them somewhat superior even 
 to the Spaniards of Europe in height, build, and whiteness 
 of skin. D'Orbigny also considers that the European type 
 prevails in these half-breeds, who ' almost rival the whites ' in 
 looks, while they are their equals in general intellectual power. 
 The Spanish-Paraguay half-breeds are, according to Bracken- 
 ridge, also superior to the Spanish Creoles. Ulloa asserts 
 that the Mestisos of Concepcion are scarcely distinguishable 
 from the Spaniards. Some of the Mestisos of La Plata, says 
 De Moussy, are magnificent men, but so, according to 
 D'Orbigny, are their parents, yet only some of these half- 
 breeds are ' magnificent.' According to Spix and Martius, 
 Tschudi, and Humboldt, the Mestisos are in character superior 
 to the mulattoes, less changeable, and more industrious, both 
 in Brazil and Peru. Koster says they have more self-respect, 
 and are braver than the mulattoes, but they are nevertheless 
 also weak, indolent, soft, and pitiful beings. Both the Mestisos 
 
 ' Perier, Mhii. dc la Soi. (TAnthrop. Je Paris, iii. 1S70, 270-273. 
 
 X 
 
306 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 and mulattoes, says Pbppig, in the stock but probably truthful 
 phrase, inherit the vices of both parents with the virtues of 
 neither. With the pride of the whites exaggerated to a mania, 
 he combines the laziness and apathy, the changeability and 
 improvidence of the Indian. He is as licentious as the mulatto, 
 and as tyrannical to the Indians as the mulatto is to the negro ; 
 but in mechanical things he possesses a great talent for imita- 
 tion. Raynal says that in Mexico they are very intelligent, 
 witty, and imaginative, but without the bravery of the natives, 
 or their skill, or their love of liberty. They have no aptitude 
 for work, nor application to accomplish any great work, 
 neither have they the patriotism of the Spaniards. Gambling 
 and revolution are their chief delights.' A correspondent of 
 the ' Times ' describes the population of Los Angeles as 
 mainly composed of Spanish-Indian half-breeds, a strong and 
 intelligent people, who still retain much of the pride and 
 laziness of their progenitors. The result is the occasional 
 production of characters like that of Tiburcio Vasquez and 
 Charez, two notorious brigands who recently laid the country 
 under contribution, and who, with their followers, committed 
 murder and outrage until one was hanged and the other shot.'* 
 
 They seem, however, to be tolerably fertile. Jourdanet 
 estimates the half-breeds at one-third of the population, while 
 the whites scarcely form a tenth in Mexico. In Nicaragua, 
 says Waitz, there are 145,000 Mestisos, 8o,000 Indians, 10,000 
 whites, and 15,000 negroes. In Paraguay the Mestisos marry 
 mostly among themselves, and their offspring form the greater 
 part of the so-called Spanish population. We have seen that 
 Hombron considers marriages between Europeans and Indians 
 as more fertile than those between either and negroes. ■* 
 
 The European-North-American-Indian half-breeds are 
 not at all numerous, for the various nationalities in North 
 America do not mix so much as in the south. Kohl believes 
 the unions between French settlers and Indians to be very 
 fertile, and their daughters especially are more like their 
 
 ' Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 193, 200, 202 ; Perier, Mi'in. de la Soc. (TAiUtirop. 
 lie Paris, ii. 342-346. 
 
 ' The Times, April 18, 1S76, p. 4. ' W.nilz, «/ sup. p. 209. 
 
THE IWUl.ISTAS 307 
 
 French parents. If these half-breeds, however, marry among 
 themselves they usually have only daughters, and their children 
 are often stunted and of low viability. The Scotch-Indian 
 half-breeds, he continues, form a powerful race. Barnard 
 Davis also says that at the Red River settlement the half- 
 breeds are handsome and fertile. Dr. Landry, of Quebec, 
 however, says the half-breeds of that neighbourhood are pecu- 
 liarly subject to phthisis, and the greater number die early.' 
 
 The Paulistas, like the Griquas, are a half-breed race, who 
 have bred so much with the natives of the country that they 
 have in reality become a pure race. They arc thought to 
 have been originally half-breeds between the Portuguese and 
 people of Guiana, and are said to be brave, fierce, strong, and 
 cruel. Muratorl says that from the unions between the 
 Portuguese and Indians were born children having all the 
 faults of both parents and the virtues of neither ; and, though 
 of Portuguese origin, they were considered to be unworthy 
 to bear that name, which they dishonoured by their infamous 
 conduct. He adds that their country was the asylum of all 
 Portuguese, Spanish, English, Dutch, and Italian criminals ; 
 that they had depopulated the country round about them, 
 and that during the space of 1 30 years they had carried more 
 than two millions of Indians into slavery. Froger, who wrote 
 before Muratori, in the year 1695, says they took their origin 
 from criminals of all nations. They go, he says, in bands of 
 forty or fifty together, travel over all Brazil, and come back 
 after four or five months with sometimes over three hundred 
 slaves. Their courage certainly is indisputable, and their 
 character no less so. The Jesuits of Paraguay represent them 
 as a robber race of the worst type. Lacordaire says that for 
 a century and a half the Paulistas were on land what the 
 Buccaneers were on the sea. They continually attacked the 
 Jesuit missions, robbed their churches, and carried off all 
 their Indians. Dom Vaissette, Charlevoix, De Surgy, Raynal, 
 D'Orbigny, Page, and De Moussy, all agree in these accusa- 
 tions ; and though Gaspar, writing in 1797, says that the 
 elevation of their character, the delicacy of their sentiments, 
 
 ' Perier, Mi-m. dc la Soc. if.-litt/irof. dc Paris, ii. 1865, 369, 370. 
 
308 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 their probity, their industry, their public spirit, cannot be a 
 heritage from a gang of ruffians and vagabonds, he must 
 mean this in the sense of Byron's Lambro : 
 
 He was the mildest manner'd man 
 
 That ever scuttled ship or cut a throat; 
 With such true breeding of a gentleman, 
 You never could divine his real thought. 
 
 Mr. Bigg-Wither, even so late as 1878, says of them : 'The 
 mixture of the two bloods has produced a nature savage and 
 bloodthirsty as a tiger's and more cruel than a cannibal's.' 
 The population of St. Paul is estimated at 30,000, including 
 individuals of all colours : some of them who have kept them- 
 selves from intermarriage with the Indians, says D'Orbigny, 
 are whiter even than the Creoles ; others are of all shades 
 from light yellow to coffee-colour. They still show traces of 
 their Indian origin in their high cheekbones, small black eyes^ 
 and hesitating look.' 
 
 The Gauchos are another half-breed race of South 
 America, of the same description as the Paulistas, and thought 
 to be descendants of Spaniards and Indians. Azara describes 
 them as robust and healthy, hospitable, but dreadfully 
 addicted to gambling, and utterly careless of human life.^ 
 Altogether, the general consensus of evidence agrees with the 
 conclusion of a correspondent of the ' Times,' writing from Rio 
 Janeiro, ' that in the blending of races colour is apt to deepen, 
 and that the mixed has little power of multiplication, unless 
 it draws from the primitive sources at every new generation. 
 Finally, that although the mixed race, mulatto, quadroon, or 
 octoroon, may individually attain great beauty, and even 
 develop rare intellectual faculties, it exhibits in the mass the 
 bad rather than the good qualities of the parent stems, and 
 on the lowest cunning and knavery of the white it engrafts 
 the supine indolence and the stolid improvidence of the black.^ 
 
 The Zamboes, or offspring of negroes and American 
 
 ' Peritr, .1/.' , .' ■,' '•.'.. cTAiithrop. de Palis, ii. 1865, 346-351 ; T. P. Bigg- 
 Wither, J':. . . ■' lirazii, ii. 322. 
 
 ■-■ See ;il I . 1 1 ■ inrrsay. Pirier, ut sup. pp. 351-355. 
 
 • The 7>"- , ^. i-i' ml. I 20, 1880. 
 
ZA.MUOF.S. CAFUSOS 3C9 
 
 Indians, are, according to Dr. Hancock, remarkable for their 
 physical superiority over their progenitors on either side, and 
 this, he says, ' is a well-known fact' ' Lavayssc- also describes 
 them as superior in mental power to either parent and to the 
 Mestiso ; yet he says that in Caracas they are considered the 
 worst class of the population; although A. de St. Hilaire praises 
 those of the Paranahyba district, Waitz points out that nearly 
 everywhere they have the reputation of being very bad charac- 
 ters. In Lima, says Tschudi, four-fifths of the worst crimes 
 are committed by Zamboes.^ St. Venant describes them as 
 a debased race, whose chronic state of misery, laziness, and 
 of apathy among all the means to wealth, it is impossible to 
 paint. In Peru, says Lacroix, they form the worst part of the 
 population ; they are cruel, vindictive, implacable, stupid, and 
 quarrelsome. In stature they are rather tall, and, like the 
 Indians, have scarcely any beard. Their hair is distinctive — 
 indeed, it has been described to me in conversation as that of 
 the Indian and negro commingled, but each hair like that of 
 one of the parent races. Radiguct describes the Zambo as 
 often vigorous and tall ; his woolly hair comes down over his 
 low forehead, his eyes are bright and intelligent, his thick lips 
 (always half open) disclose a set of brilliantly white teeth. 
 His face is not pleasing ; though expressive and animated, 
 it is often hard and scoffing. In Columbia, Famin says the 
 Zamboes are fierce, thievish, and little susceptible to civilisa- 
 tion ; they are robust, and their skin is a dark copper-colour. 
 Squier observed that most of the criminals of Nicaragua were 
 Zamboes, and he describes them as bigger and better made 
 than their parents, without possessing any of their good 
 qualities.^ 
 
 The Cafusos, a half-breed race like the Paulistas, but 
 originating from negroes and Brazilian Indians, according 
 to Spix and Martius, live isolated in the forests of Tarama. 
 They are slender, muscular, weak-legged, and of a copper- 
 colour ; their eyes are slightly oblique, and more frank-look- 
 
 ' Walker, On Intermarriage, p. 363. 
 
 2 Waitz, Anthropologie, i. 200, 201. 
 
 • Perier, Mini, de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, ii. 1865, 363-365. 
 
3IO THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 iiig than those of the Indians ; their hair, not so woolly as 
 that of the negro, and less lank than that of the Indian, 
 stands up like that of the mop-headed Papuans of New- 
 Guinea. D'Orbigny says that the Cafusos do not live 
 perfectly isolated ; and Broca points out that though the 
 Cafusos are said to marry among themselves, we know very 
 little about them, or how much they may have intermarried 
 with the parent stock.' 
 
 The Negro-Carib half-breeds were formed by the inter- 
 marriages of runaway negroes and Caribs, after they were 
 settled together on the islands of Dominica and St. Vincent 
 in 1660. After many struggles the half-breeds obtained the 
 mastery over the true Caribs, who were most of them com- 
 pelled to fly, so that in the year 1763 there were 3,000 black 
 Caribs, and only lOO red or true Caribs. These half-breeds 
 also found time to massacre all the white colonists, and were 
 all transported by the English to the island of Roattan, 
 whence, with the help of the Spaniards, they escaped to 
 Honduras. Here, says Waitz, they always intermarried 
 among themselves, and are very able and active labourers.'^ 
 
 In the Cherokee republic it is noteworthy that the half- 
 breeds between the North American Indians and the negroes 
 do not possess the franchise.' Of all half-breeds in Peru, 
 says Stevenson, those between negroes and Mestisos or negroes 
 and mulattoes are by far the most abandoned. Yet Bracken- 
 ridge asserts that the half-breeds in Peru between the Indians 
 and Mestisos are superior in everything to either parent.' 
 Lacroix endorses the opinion of Stevenson on the negro and 
 mulatto half-breeds, and adds that these are more robust than 
 the mulatto."' 
 
 The Ncgro-Hottentot half-breeds, according to Lc Vaillant, 
 have an agreeable figure, and their skin is of a much less dis- 
 agreeable colour than that of the Bastaards. They are 
 much sought after as servants ; for, with great activity and 
 
 ' Tericr, M,-m. ,h la So,, .f.-tiitlirop. dc Pans, ii. 1S65, 366 ; Ikoca, HyOiU- 
 ily, clc. Blake's Trans, p. 3. 
 
 • WaiU, Anlhropolosie, iii. 35j-354. ' Jf'''^- '"• 295- 
 
 ' Ibid. i. 201, 202. 
 
 ' Perier, Mem. i/e la Soc. d'AiUliiop. Jc Palis, 1S65, ii. 364. 
 
AKAi; i[.vi,f-i:keei)S 31 1 
 
 docility, they combine a fidelity which is not to be found in 
 any other half-breed.' 
 
 The Uarfur women and Arabs produce offspring which 
 are feeble and of low viability, according to Mohammed 
 ibn-Omar el-Tounsy ; while in the same place these pure 
 races are among themselves perfectly fertile.^ The people of 
 Fezzan are a mixed race of negroes and Arabs, tolerably well 
 formed, but ugly, with small eyes and protuberant lips. They 
 are selfish, insincere, inhospitable, and wholly destitute of 
 either physical or mental energy or enterprise.' 
 
 The Maroons of Surinam are also a hybrid race between 
 negro runaways from the Dutch estates and native tribes. 
 They are a vigorous and athletic set of men, active and enter- 
 prising, and superior to either parent stock.'' 
 
 The mixed breed between Persians and Arabs, inhabiting 
 the Bahrein or Aval Islands, possess ' more of the indolence 
 and cunning of the former than the bold frankness of the 
 latter.' '^ 
 
 The Arab-Abyssinian half-breeds are said by Dr. Pruncr to 
 be a fine race,'' yet the Memlouks never succeeded in propa- 
 gating their race in Egypt. This may have been due to the 
 effect of the climate, for Lane says that European women 
 in Egypt are often barren, and the children of foreigners from 
 comparatively cool countries seldom live, even though the 
 mother be a native.' 
 
 The Kuruglis, or half-breeds between Turks and Moors 
 are superior even to the Turks, says Wagner, in strength and 
 beauty.' Indeed, the Turks themselves and the Persians are 
 often cited as examples of the advantage of crosses." It is 
 necessary, however, first to show that the assumption that 
 
 ' Waitz, ut sup. ii. 305 ; Tcrier, Man. ,U la Soc. ifAii/hrop. Jc Paris, 1S65, 
 li. 322- 
 
 ■^ Waitz, ut sup. i. 203 ; Perier, tit sup. 1S70, iii. 2S1. 
 
 " M'Culloch, Geographical Dictionary. 
 
 ' Walker, On Intermarriage, pp. 363, 364. 
 
 ^ M'Culloch, Geographical Dictionary. " Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 202. 
 
 ' Lane, Modern Egyptians, i. 234 ; Perier, Mem. de la Soc. iCAnlhrop. de 
 raris, 1870, iii. 229. " Waitz, Anthropologic, i. 202. 
 
 " Walker, On Intermarriage, p. 240; also Bory de St. Vincent, Morel, Char- 
 din, anil Bomare, cited by Perier, Man. de la Soc. iCAnthrop. de Vans, 1S60, 
 ' 73. 74- 
 
312 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 the Turks were originally an ugly Mongol race is a true 
 one, and De Gobincau points out that the only evidence in 
 favour of this theory is the affinity of language, which, though 
 valuable enough when corroborated. Is not of much value 
 alone. But the traditions point to an origin from Central 
 Asia. They always speak of the Turks as a handsome race ; 
 and, indeed, the people of Central Asia, and between Central 
 Asia and Europe, are nearly all handsome races.' Even sup- 
 posing it to be an unquestionable fact that the Turks were 
 originally an ugly Mongol race, the supposition that their 
 beauty is the result of crosses with Greek, Georgian, and 
 Circassian women is clearly untenable, since only the upper 
 classes can afford these wives, and the small fecundity of the 
 polygamous classes is too notorious '^ to allow of the belief 
 that these few rich people could have influenced the whole 
 race.^ Even Waitz abandoned the theory that their beauty 
 was due to crosses, and attributes it to the influence of civili- 
 sation.* 
 
 There are yet a few more half-breeds, an account of 
 whom I have met with. The Chinese-Cambojias are said by 
 Gutzlaff to be productive at the first generation when they 
 intermarry among themselves, but grow gradually more and 
 more sterile, until at the fifth generation they are perfectly 
 barren.'' The Chinese-Tagal half-breeds are the sole capital- 
 ists of the Philippines ; they are economical, prudent, patient, 
 and manage to do a good business where the Spaniards 
 ruin themselves.'"' The same, however, might be said of their 
 Chinese parents. 
 
 The European-Greenland Eskimo half-breeds resemble 
 more nearly the European parent in feature, and the Eskimo 
 in moral qualities.' At present, says Waitz, 14 per cent, of 
 the population are half-breeds.' They generally grow up 
 
 ' De Gobineau, Dc r Iti^f;alitl des Races Humaincs, i. 216 cl scq. 
 
 ■ See the Tmns. of the Brit. Association, 1872, Stat. Section, a paper read 
 by .Mr. H. Clarke. 
 
 " Perier, Mem. de la Soc. cTAnthrop. de Paris, i860, i. 73, 74, who cites 
 Prilchard, De Salles, Grellois, and Pouchet. 
 
 ' Waitz, Antkropolosie, i. 83, 84. 
 
 ' Broca, Ilyhridity, etc. Blake's Trans, p. 43, note i. 
 
 ' Perier, ul sup. 1865, ii. 303. ' Jhid. p. 370. 
 
 " Waitz, Anthropologic, iii. 301. 
 
GREENLAND HALF-BKEEDS 313 
 
 complete Grccnlandcrs in liabit. The Greenland folk-tales 
 show that the half-breeds between Grccnlandcrs and Canadian 
 Indians partakcof the size of their Indian parents. 'Although,' 
 says one story, talking of a half-breed, ' he was said to be a 
 smaller man than the other inlanders, he was at all events 
 larger than our people ; his back was as broad as that of two 
 others put together, and his height very little less than two 
 people on the top of each other.' And again, in another 
 tale: 'A huge man at length entered, who said he would 
 assist him, declaring that he had sprung from the coast 
 people,' that is from Indians and Eskimo.' 
 
 These observations are sufficient to show that crosses are 
 not so beneficial as they are generally supposed to be. In 
 them we see none of that wonderful beauty, fertility, and moral 
 and physical strength, surpassing the races on both sides from 
 which they are derived ; nor do we see the mixed races 
 elbowing away the pure in the great struggle for existence. 
 We see, on the other hand, the persistence of the great law of 
 inheritance, as exemplified in that atavism which leads back 
 a hybrid race to the parent stock from which it is sprung. We 
 see how simple is Nature's method of reproduction in the 
 fact that differing races are not absolutely barren together, 
 though the one race has not been accustomed to produce 
 offspring of another kind. We see, further, that if Nature is 
 led, and not dragged, she will sometimes allow of the pro- 
 duction of new types of men. New races may be formed by 
 the more gentle fusion of two or more others, by the inter- 
 marriage of the half-breeds sometimes with the one parent 
 stock, and sometimes with the other, or by a cross with 
 another race not extremely different, and subsequent breeding 
 in-and-in. Though the evidence detailed above leads us to 
 believe that the generality of half-breeds are worse than their 
 parents, and incapable of continuous reproduction among 
 themselves, some individuals may be better than their parents, 
 and even have the power of indefinite procreation among 
 themselves. The instance given by Burdach of a mulatto 
 
 ' Rink, Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo, translated by Robert Brown, 
 pp. 77, 119, 269. 
 
314 TIII^ MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 family of New York, which was still fertile after five genera- 
 tions of marriages with mulattoes, the family of Da Souza, 
 and the half-breeds of Norfolk Isle,' are sufficient to show that 
 indefinite procreation of half-breeds is not impossible. Yet 
 that evidence emphatically shows that a cross in itself is not 
 a good thing. As in other realms of the organic world, the 
 body of the half-breed is least often injuriously affected, 
 though it may be weedy and inharmonious ; but the brain 
 and reproductive system are too often seriously hurt. Waitz 
 attempts to excuse these unfortunate beings on the score of 
 their exceptional position, rejected by the superior race, and 
 themselves rejecting the inferior ; ^ yet we do not find them 
 much better where they are actual!)' the most numerous class, 
 as in South America, and might therefore be reasonably 
 expected to find sufficient consolation in their own society. 
 Indeed, half-breed races dwelling apart from the superior 
 race, such as the Paulistas and Griquas, have been notorious 
 for their depravity as long as they could reasonably be held 
 to be half-breed races. Mr. Darwin attributes this ferocity 
 and depravity of character to atavism, which- causes a relapse 
 to the type of their savage ancestors^ — a very probable 
 cause, but hardly sufficient, it appears to me, to account for 
 it alone, without the supposition that the mind is as much 
 affected by the mixture of the characters of the two races 
 as the hair of the Mestiso, a mixture without a blending. 
 Attempts have also been made to account for their sterility 
 by a supposition that this is due to the injurious effects 
 of the climate ; ^ but in most places both pure breeds are 
 perfectly fertile among themselves, as the English and East 
 Indians, or the Arabs and Dafurians, while the crosses are as 
 injurious as ever. There is an absence of homogeneity, an 
 inharmoniousness, an unfittingness the more obvious as the 
 races are more distinct, just as the welding of two different 
 metals is more difficult than the welding of two pieces of the 
 
 ' See pp. 141, 142, 304 of this work. 
 
 - Wailz, Antliropologie, ii. 305 ; and Virey, cited by Perier, Mem. i/i la Soc. 
 (FAnlhrop. tie Paris, 1865, ii. 359. 
 
 " Darwin, T/ic yarialion o/Animah and Plants, etc. 1S75, ii. 21. 
 * Perier, Mem. de la Soc. d'Anl/iio/: dc Pans. 1870, iii. 227230. 
 
IIALF-BRKEDS 315 
 
 same. Thus the Saxon and Latin races of Europe differ so 
 little th;U; the produce of their unions is as good, jierhaps, as 
 the pure race ; the European races are more similar to the 
 American Indians than to the negro ; hence we find that the 
 Mestiso is as a rule superior to the mulatto, who is, perhaps, 
 the worst of all. In short, the greater the difference between 
 the two parent races, the worse will the produce be ; and wc 
 must fully agree with the apothegm of an observant Portu- 
 guese gentleman quoted by Livingstone, that ' God made 
 white men, and God made black men ; but the devil made 
 half-castes.' ' 
 
 ' Livingstone, Zambesi, p. 50. 
 
3i6 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 WHY ARE THERE TWO SEXES? 
 
 THE most powerful deductive argument of those who 
 affirm the harmfulness of the marriage of near kin is 
 that if these marriages are not harmful, and if crosses are 
 unnecessary — 
 
 Oh, why did God, 
 Creator wise, that peopled highest heaven 
 With spirits masculine, create at last 
 This novelty on earth, this fair defect 
 Of nature, and not fill the world at once 
 With men as angels without feminine, 
 Or find some other way to generate 
 Mankind? 
 
 Indeed, if the ultimate object of the two sexes was not to 
 ensure crosses, what was the ultimate object ? 
 
 To examine this question properly we must first consider 
 what are the main features of the organic world, in order that 
 we may, by comparative study, judge of the relative import- 
 ance of the functions ; for there is the danger that any one of 
 these may be assigned too high a place in the hierarchy if 
 taken alone ; or, on the other hand, that it may be neglected 
 as unimportant. Now, the organic differs from the inorganic 
 world, not in the fact that an organism lives, while inorganic 
 matter does not; for how shall we define life? not in that 
 one reproduces itself, while the other does not ; for a crj'stal 
 reproduces itself, and minerals are formed anew : but in the 
 fact that the organic world has to struggle for existence, and 
 any unsuccessful organism is liable to extermination. The 
 whole aim of every organic being, from the lowest to the 
 
THE CHIEF NEEDS OK AN ORGANISM 317 
 
 highest, is to live and multiply itself, and to become immortal 
 in the sense of reproducing itself, at whatever cost to, or 
 rather, wholly irrespective of any cost to other beings — a 
 selfishness which is only controlled by the like aims of other 
 organic beings, and by the difficulties imposed by passive 
 inorganic matter. The primary aim, therefore, of every 
 organic being is to procure food ; then to grow, spread, and 
 disperse itself. Speaking generally, every organism, even when 
 not subject to competition from others, and independently of 
 any decay of its functions, will as it increases become its own 
 competitor, as a plant in a flower-pot may use up all the nutri- 
 ment, or a yeast-plant may transform all the sugar in a liquid. 
 Or circumstances may become passively adverse. The organism 
 must therefore have the power of either moving itself, or of 
 throwing off parts of itself, or of ceasing to live for a time — 
 hibernating, as it were, until circumstances again become 
 favourable. Without such powers it must cease to exist. 
 Hence we find that all organisms possess these powers of divi- 
 sion and dispersion, whether by means of spores or germs, 
 or buds, or subdivision ; or even the whole organism may dry 
 up and be blown about at the mercy of the wind, ready to 
 develop again after the first shower, or nutriment may be stored 
 up, or life practically suspended during the cold of winter. 
 It is clear that the more the organism is subdivided, so long 
 as the subdivision is not in itself hurtful, the less likely is that 
 organism to become extinct ; and it is also clear that if the 
 whole organism were to be subdivided and scattered about, the 
 original individual would cease to exist, and would therefore 
 cease to live and spread. The aim of every organism will there- 
 fore be to secure the dispersion of the greatest number of 
 portions of itself, as buds, spores, or in any other form of germ 
 capable of becoming like itself, at the least expense to itself 
 as an individual. 
 
 But besides this imperative need of dispersion, there is 
 another and somewhat antagonistic need of defence, against 
 both active competitors and passive adverse circumstances. 
 Dispersion is in itself in some degree a defence, because, 
 where an immense number of buds or spores are widely dis- 
 
3l8 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 persed, there are more chances that some will escape adverse 
 circumstances and survive. Subdivisions in the shape of 
 spores, however, though cheap to produce on account of their 
 excessive minuteness,are not always the least costly in the end, 
 since vast numbers are destroyed owing to their inability 
 to resist temporary adverse circumstances. Defence, there- 
 fore, in the shape of a store of nourishment to supply the 
 spore until sufficiently developed to support itself, or in the 
 shape of a protective envelope will be useful, but can only be 
 supplied at increased physiological cost to the parent. Now, 
 it seems to be a law of nature that the more highly developed 
 an organism is, the longer does it require to grow from the 
 germ to the mature stage ; the longer, therefore, is it unfit to 
 cope without assistance with adverse circumstances, and the 
 longer will it need parental defence. That is, we must expect 
 to find a greater advantage to organisms as they increase in 
 complexity, in spending what physiological substance they 
 can spare, rather in the protection of such young they do 
 produce, than in the production of an immense number of 
 young. And this is precisely what we do find. We find that 
 besides the method of reproduction by budding common to 
 nearly the whole vegetable world and part of the animal 
 world, dispersion is secured in all by means of spores so 
 formed as to secure easy dispersion, and more or less fitted to 
 resist adverse circumstances. The simplest form we find in 
 the lowest of the thallophytes, mere simple cells, which are 
 dispersed in vast quantities. Upwards from these, a gradual 
 differentiation and continually greater elaboration may be 
 traced, from spores that develop at once into the parent 
 form, to spores that first develop into a sort of primitive 
 plant which we may liken to the larval stage in the insect, 
 and which in its turn produces the parent form. The spores, 
 again, from exhibiting an indifference to conjugation, showing 
 that they have no real sexual difference, begin to show real 
 sexual differentiation. The female spore drops its motility, 
 increases in size and protoplasmic content, and at last ceases 
 to be separated from the parent plant before the process 
 formerly gone through in the intermediate plant is completed. 
 
VALUE OF PARENTAL CARE 319 
 
 They are besides frequently furnished with a feeding-bottle 
 by the careful parent, and in this state are known as seeds. 
 The male spore, on the other hand, although it also has gone 
 through the same stages of development, receives no store of 
 food, and in most plants retains the system of distribution 
 before conjugation with the female spore. As in the lowest 
 plants, it is produced in immense quantities (with some signi- 
 ficant exceptions), and scattered about in the same prodigal 
 profusion ; while the perfect seed has received a structure 
 which permits it only to develop at the right time, a supply 
 of provisions to start it in life, a defensive envelope, and 
 beautiful and most varied contrivances for securing its dis- 
 persion, whether wafted by the wind on feathery plumules, 
 as in the dandelion ; on wings, as in the ash ; rolled along 
 in balls by the wind, as in some gourds ; floated away on 
 water, as in the cocoa-nut ; hooked to the fur or feathers of 
 animals, like all sorts of burs ; carried by them internally, as 
 in the case of the vast majority of fleshy fruits, and also in 
 the case of some grains and nuts ; or actually carried away 
 and planted, as squirrels frequently do with nuts and acorns, 
 and land-crabs do with the seeds of the iron-wood tree. 
 
 Essentially the same law of development of the method 
 of generation obtains in the animal world. From the 
 common ground of the Protophyta and Protozoa, which in 
 the lowest forms are scarcely distinguishable, the same 
 development is seen as we rise in the scale, from the forma- 
 tion of spores which may or may not coalesce, combined with 
 fission and budding, through intermediate stages in which the 
 embryo has an independent life, and gets widely distributed, 
 to the perfect sexual form, in which all these processes arc 
 concealed, and distribution of the germ does not take place 
 before the development of the perfect young organism. 
 
 Why and how were two sorts of spores originally pro- 
 duced ? and why do they conjugate? 
 
 Mr. Herbert Spencer explains this by the theory that the 
 reproductive cells have arrived at a state of molecular stability 
 which is upset by their union because they are different from 
 each other ; and this stability would not be upset if they were 
 
320 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIK 
 
 not different. He argues that the reproductive cells must 
 have arrived at this state of stability, because the rest of the 
 organism has arrived at this state,' and hence, if his theory- 
 be true, the more alike the male and female germs are, the 
 less likely are they to develop after coalescence. There are, 
 however, objections to this theory, which appear to me to be 
 decisive. In the first place the so-called male and female 
 planogametes, or spores, are primarily exactly similar. They 
 may unite in pairs, or they may not, and each may develop 
 without any conjugation. That there is no polar distinction 
 between gametes derived from different plants, I am not pre- 
 pared to maintain. But this again depends upon what is 
 understood by polar difference. The fact that has to be 
 accounted for is that in some cases conjugation can only take 
 place between planogametes derived from distinct game- 
 tangia, which might of course be accounted for by the 
 supposition that a ' difference ' of polarity, only to be under- 
 stood in the dynamical sense, must exist between gametes 
 derived from different sources ; but the ground for such a 
 theory is merely the theory that it is put forward to pro\-e, 
 and it must fail in proportion as other theories succeed. So 
 little ground is there for it that thinkers like Strasburger,^ 
 Weismann,^ and Balfour^ agree in holding that the germs in 
 the lowest organisms at least, even where there is apparent 
 sexuality, are not differentiated. Further, in all cases, 
 morphologically speaking, the male and female germs are 
 identical. Lastly, as Mr. Spencer notes himself,'* crossing is 
 by no means constant. But this is not nearly strongly 
 enough put : I would rather say that crossing seems to be a 
 matter of almost indifference. While the male germ seems 
 only to lose its power of independent development as the 
 female germ increases in relative size, the latter seems never 
 to lose its power of independent development except in the 
 very highest organisms, and even in them continually betrays 
 a tendency to develop of itself In Botrydium, where sex 
 
 ' Spencer, Biolog}', i. 274-279. 
 
 ^ Straslmrger, Befrucklttngsvorgang bei den Phaneroganun, pp. 154, 159. 
 
 ' Weismann, Continuitiit des Keimplasmas, pp. 118, 119. 
 
 * Kalfour, Embryology, i. 9. > Spencer, ut sup. i. 280. 
 
'ARTIIENOGENKSIS 
 
 321 
 
 appears almost for the first time in the vegetable world, the 
 older spores develop without conjugaticn. In some Fungi 
 and certain Phanerogams it also appears. ' It is remarkable,' 
 says Professor Vines, 'that this is characteristic of plants 
 which are either parasitic or saprophytic in habit, such as the 
 Fungi and certain Phanerogams (Balanophoreae, Loranthaccse, 
 Santalacen;), but we are unable at present to give any satis- 
 factory explanation of this interesting correlation.' ' In the 
 animal world, where the sexes are more generally separated 
 than is the case among plants, the asexual method of repro- 
 duction extends frequently over several generations before 
 sexual generation takes place, and parthenogenetic reproduc- 
 tion is comparatively more frequent than in the v^egetablc 
 world. ' There can be little doubt,' says Balfour, ' that the 
 ovum is potentially capable of developing by itself mio a fresh 
 individual ; ' '■ and he considers that if the polar cells were not 
 extruded from the ovum, parthenogenetic development would 
 be always possible.' What is particularly significant in this 
 respect is the occasional attempt at parthenogenetic develop- 
 ment of the ovum in the higher animals, which has been 
 shown to occur in frogs' eggs, hens' eggs, and even in 
 mammals.'' Professor VVeismann, while agreeing with Balfour 
 that all ova are capable of self-development without the up- 
 setting of any molecular stability, does not agree with 
 Balfour that they do not develop owing to the extrusion of 
 the polar cells, since it has never been demonstrated that 
 unfertilised ova do not extrude the polar cells ; ' and, further, 
 in the bee the same eggs may or may not be fertilised ; while 
 in either case they develop ; " hence, and for other reasons, 
 he rather considers that fertilisation merely supplies further 
 nutrient plasma, and, incidentally, also germ plasma.' 
 
 Professor Weismann considers that germs of male or 
 female sex are of equal physiological value, and do not 
 differ in polarity or in anything else, except perhaps their 
 
 ' Vines, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, p. 649. 
 ■^ Balfour, iit sup. i. 64. ' /ln'J. p. 62-64. 
 
 ' See Balfour, Embryology, i. 64, note ; and Weismann, Conlinuitat Jes 
 Keimplasmas, p. 90. ' Balfour, ihid. p. 63 ; Weismann, ibid. 
 
 « Weismann, ibia. pp. Sg, 90. ' Ibid. p. 92. 
 
 Y 
 
322 THE MARRIACE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 histogcnic content.' The union of germs from two sources 
 was at first, according to him, merely accidental ; which 
 may well be, seeing the universal tendency in nature of 
 like substances to become one, such as two drops of mercury, 
 water, or portions of metal, like two pieces of lead, which 
 only require to be brought into real contact to unite into 
 one piece ; and this union began to be useful in enabling 
 weak germs, that is, germs that through adverse circumstances 
 had become weak, to develop.^ However begun, he points out 
 that the great value of the commingling of different tendencies 
 of development would make it nearly universal. Nature has 
 by these means a choice of characters from which to select 
 the most suitable : for he does not consider that acquired 
 characters can be inherited at all. The reproductive plasma 
 is subdivided and passed on from parent to child, just as a 
 potato is usually cultivated ; and remains entirely unaffected 
 by any acquired habits of the organism in which it is lodged, 
 and from which it derives its nutriment for growth.-' The 
 only time that the organism can transmit acquired tendencies 
 is when it reproduces itself by fission ; and perhaps after- 
 wards, when reproduction by germ plasma is usual, only by 
 external circumstances continually acting for long periods.^ 
 By the commingling of germs from two organisms variation 
 becomes possible at once, because nature may develop 
 characteristics of either organism in th'i progeny in any con- 
 ceivable proportion, and in this way so many tendencies may 
 be inherent in the germ plasma that almost any development 
 becomes possible within certain bounds.'' Without it varia- 
 tion with all its vast advantages would be impossible, as is 
 the case, he maintains, in true parthenogenesis." He scouts 
 the 'rejuvenescence' theory altogether: how can two effete 
 bodies restore each other's vigour ? You cannot make a some- 
 thing from two nothings.' The idea has probablj- arisen 
 from the usual necessity of fertilisation befoie reproduction 
 
 ' Wiisniann, Contiiruitat dcs Kcimplcumas^ jip. 114, 118. 
 
 ■-■ Wcisinann, llie Bcdailuiig der Sexuelkit Forlpjlair.iing, p. 52. 
 
 ' Wcisniann, Contimiitiit, etc. pp. S-7, 58, 59. 
 
 ' W'ei-iiiann, Pie Bcdciilmig, etc. pp. 28, 38. 
 
 ■ Ibid. [I. 2t) <■! seq. " Jhid. pp. 30, 31. ' //'/,/. y. .ifi .-I .«,•-/. 
 
PANGENESIS 323 
 
 can take place, and consequent belief that parthcnoc^enctic 
 reproduction could not go on for ever. 15ut of this there is 
 no proof, or even any sign, and it is contrary to the fact that 
 the eggs of some insects develop whether fertilised or not. 
 For if an egg can develop without fertilisation, fertilisation 
 cannot be necessary for development.' 
 
 The test of a theory is in its power to explain the facts, 
 and with the exception of the proposition that the germ 
 plasma is entirely unaffected by acquired tendencies of the 
 individual this theory seems to me better to satisfy the 
 phenomena of reproduction than any other with which I am 
 acquainted. It reconciles some of the most perplexing con- 
 tradictions : for instance, the necessity in some cases, and 
 uselessness in others, of the union of germs derived from 
 different organisms ; it explains the use of temporary fusion 
 of organisms before fission ; it explains the need of sexual 
 reproduction in the higher organisms where variation is 
 important, and its frequent absence in the lowest organisms 
 which are so simple in function that continual variation is 
 needless ; it also explains the occasional need of crosses when 
 there is alternation of generation with long continued asexual 
 reproduction. 
 
 The late Mr. Darwin's theory of Pangenesis very nearly 
 agrees with the theory now propounded by Professor Weis- 
 mann. They both of them hold that there is an all-pervad- 
 ing germ plasma, which, in those organisms that cannot 
 reproduce mutilated parts, is segregated out or concentrated in 
 the germ-bearing organs ; no real difference between the sexes 
 is assumed by Darwin, any more than by Weismann, the only 
 point in which the latter differs is, that his germ plasma is 
 one and identical through all ages ; as a potato, propagated 
 by cuttings from the tuber, is the same individual through 
 many generations ; - while Darwin considers that each somatic 
 cell throws off minute germs which are congregated chiefly 
 in the sexual organs.' Nageli also considers an unfertilised 
 
 ' Wfisni.inn, Dit Bedetilung, etc. pp. 46, 49, 50. 
 
 ■ Weism.nnn, Contiiiuiliit, pp. 58, 59. 
 
 ■' 1 >ai\viii, Aiiiinah and na}it!i tntdiV Pomoiticalion^ 1S7!;, ii. 369-'^09. 
 
324 THE MARRIAGE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 germ fails to develop only from want of sufficient material' 
 Strasburgcr is of the same opinlon.- 
 
 Novv, we are not called upon by our subject to make up 
 our minds as to the nature of the process by which a germ 
 cell becomes a complicated organism similar to the one from 
 which it was derived : the only object before us is to find 
 some satisfactory reason for the differentiation of the simple 
 spore capable of reproducing the parent form alone, into two 
 spores only capable of doing so in conjunction. One consider- 
 ation alone will convince us that this division is a great gain 
 to the organism, namely, the chance that two such spores may 
 not meet : a risk which it needs a considerable advantage 
 to compensate. Another, as Professor Weismann points out, 
 is the gain where every spore can reproduce itself, in place of 
 having to combine with another before it can reproduce the 
 parent form.^ 
 
 In the earlier portion of this chapter we saw that the 
 necessity for distribution was only second in importance to the 
 powers of reproduction and the assimilation of food ; on the 
 other hand, we do not see that the conjugation of a male and 
 female germ is of fundamental importance, still less that there 
 is an}' constant necessity of sexual reproduction, and least of all 
 that ill the latter case there is any essential need of differen- 
 tiation between the sexual elements. True it is that many 
 writers do believe a differentiation to be nccessaiy, but most 
 of those who have deeply studied the phenomena of fertilisa- 
 tion have come to the conclusion that a differentiation such 
 as that supposed by Mr. Spencer does not exist, and that the 
 essential process is a sudden addition to the germ of material 
 which induces the subdivision of cells and building up of the 
 embryo."* In those organisms which produce several genera- 
 tions asexually, and at last produce a sexual generation, we 
 always find that the produce of this last generation is not 
 intended to dcvckip immediately ; and we may well believe 
 that the addition of plasma indicated by the coalescence of 
 
 ' See Vines, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, p. 657. 
 
 ■•' Strasburger, Befruchlungsvorgaiig, etc. p. 159. 
 
 ' Weismann, Die Bedeutung der Sex. fortpfi. pp. 57, 58. 
 
 • Wcisi.i.ini., CoKlin. des Kei melasmas, p. 98. 
 
WHY ARE SPORES DIFFERENTIATKI) ? 3^5 
 
 two germs is necessary to secure a choice of variations under 
 changed circumstances. 
 
 In short, the almost absolute morphological identity of 
 all germs, and their original identical power of development, 
 leads us to believe that any difference in size or form between 
 them is not due to a difference of nature, but to a division of 
 labour which took place to secure greater perfection and eco- 
 nomy in reproduction. All the other functions of the body 
 are divided and subdivided as we rise in the scale of creation, 
 until from the simple sack of the Medusa which may be turned 
 inside out and still perform all the functions of the body as 
 before, eating, feeling, breathing with no special organs, we 
 come to the mammal who requires lungs, liver, kidney, skin, 
 with all their special attendant and highly differentiated cells, 
 to perform the simple function of removing waste products 
 from the blood. Are we to suppose that of all functions of 
 the body one of the most fundamental and important should 
 alone remain unspecialised ? Is it not more rational to sec in 
 the division of this function between two independent organ- 
 isms the utmost possible specialisation, a specialisation which 
 is only possible because the function is discontinuous, unlike 
 the other functions of the body, and which could not be 
 specialised any further in that direction, because if se.x were 
 divided among more than two independent organisms the 
 chances of meeting of the right sex, in place of being equal as 
 now, would be lessened out of all proportion to the gain in 
 subdivision ? ' 
 
 This explanation is further confirmed by the consideration 
 that the necessary distribution of germs would naturally lead 
 to this form of subdivision of labour in reproduction. Meeting 
 by chance, and being of identical constitution, these motile 
 spores coalesced ; their united contents would naturally show 
 increased vigour, the necessary constitution of a germ which 
 serves to differentiate it from an ordinary somatic cell, namely, 
 
 ' The possi1)ility of two sexes, a and /', meeling are, a may meet a or /'. But 
 in the case of three sexes in place of a, l>, and c meeting, the following combina- 
 tions may meet ; aaa, aab, aac, a/i/>, ace, before we have the combination a/ic 
 needed ; that is, the chances are 5 to i against a, while the benefit derived 
 by subdivision is only multiplied by 3. In the case of four sexes, afift^, the 
 chances against a meeting h and J together are 19 to I. 
 
320 THK MAKRIAGK OI- NKAK KIN 
 
 excess of formative plasma with its governing nuclei, would be 
 strengthened, and the tendency to repeat the process in suc- 
 ceeding developments would be created. Had it not been for 
 this, the whole tendency to specialise function would have 
 worked in the direction we see exemplified in the macrospores, 
 namely, a lesser subdivision of the reproductive plasma in the 
 parent, with the result of a lesser formation of spores, but, as 
 we have seen, the two processes are carried on concurrently. 
 A balance is struck, as it were, between the tendencies to 
 cheap and vast production, and the tendency to more expen- 
 sive and lesser production. Every stage of development of the 
 embryo is capable of dispersion, taking the organised world 
 as a whole ; first the simple spore, then the unfertilised spore, 
 the fertilised spore, the larval stage, the finished stage, and 
 lastly the finished and nearly full-grown stage. But the 
 earlier form is preserved in a manner concurrently with the 
 later, and in most cases the so-called male germs are this 
 earlier form. It is true that generally they are incapable of 
 development by themselves, yet even then their dispersion is 
 a gain. For of two individuals of the same kind if one, A, 
 produced more motile spores than were necessary to fertilise 
 the more highly developed resting spores that it also produced, 
 the excess of motile spores might usurp the functions of some 
 of those produced by B, and fertilise some resting spores of B. 
 The progeny of B would many of them then be half-breeds, 
 and if the progeny of these were again fertilised by spores from 
 A, and so on, the produce of ^ would gradually supplant the 
 produce of B. 
 
 The argument, then, in favour of the real identity of the 
 male and female germs is exceedingly strong. It is the only 
 theory which explains the lowest forms of reproduction, and 
 especially the return to parthenogenesis in organisms in which 
 there is, or has been, division of sex. It is the only theory 
 which is consistent with the known morphological develop- 
 ment ; and it is the theory to which investigation as it ad- 
 vances more surely points. Against it there are only two 
 classes of argument of any weight : the first that in-and-in 
 breeding is injurious ; the second, that hermaphrodite or- 
 
AUVANTACKS OK CKOSSINC 327 
 
 t^anisms of Ihc hi<;hcr sort in plants and animals arc c:cncrally 
 so constituted either that they cannot fertilise themselves or 
 that self-fertilisation is the exception. 
 
 In some of the lowest organisms, such as Ulothrix or 
 Acetabularia, a planogamete will only unite with another 
 from a different gametangium ; and in Dasycladus, only with 
 one from a different individual.' Some flowers avoid self- 
 fertilisation by ripening the one set of organs before the 
 other; some by having the styles or stamens so long that 
 they do not fertilise each other ; in some the different flowers 
 produce only one sex ; in some the different plants produce 
 only one sex, and are no longer hermaphrodites ; and in some 
 the pollen of the same flower has not the power of fertilising 
 it, although it will fertilise another perfectly similar flower. 
 Again, in many flowers there are most beautiful and, physio- 
 logically speaking, most expensive contrivances for ensuring 
 cross-fertilisation by means of insects. Looked at apart from 
 all morphological history, these facts would prove that self- 
 fertilisation must be a disadvantage, and we should be con- 
 fronted with the dilemma that while crosses appeared to be 
 of the greatest importance in the vegetable world, only in the 
 most highly organised plants are special means taken to 
 ensure even occasional crosses. In the light, however, of our 
 theory of the value of distribution, the necessity for variation, 
 and of the division of labour, all these facts no longer pre- 
 sent any difficulty. The phanaerogams have not developed 
 their flowers to their present form in order that they might 
 secure cross-fertilisation, but on account of the advantage, at 
 first accidentally secured, of wider distribution. Hence some 
 of the flowers would become attractive in colour, scent, and 
 honey, and produce in consequence less seed and more pollen. 
 Most flowers, though capable of being crossed, are self-ferti- 
 lised, while the insects that visit them carry off their pollen 
 to fertilise any other flowers that may still chance to be 
 unfertilised ; and where the anthers and stigma do not ripen 
 at the same time, the plant has all the advantage of division 
 of labour which unisexual flowers have. In these latter, again, 
 
 ' Vines, Physiology of I'lanlf, \u 60S. 
 
328 THE .MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 when nourishment is abundant, or if the accustomed fertilisa- 
 tion by insects is impossible on account of the absence of 
 suitable insects, the suppressed pistils or anthers will often 
 redevelop, and the plant will again become hermaphrodite. 
 Many, again, have, besides the open flowers available for 
 crossing, closed flowers which are always self-fertilised, so as 
 to be secure against any mischance in cross-fertilisation. 
 Thus Mr. Godron observed, near Nancy, that Primula gran- 
 diflora was fertilised with the pollen of Primula officinalis by 
 means of bees, and a hybrid formed ; but the reverse case 
 never occurred, because the former flowers earlier than the 
 latter. In another locality the reverse was the case, because 
 here Primula officinalis came into flower before the other.' 
 Mr. Evans observed in Natal that a plant, probably belonging 
 to the sub-order Coffeai, has flowers so arranged that to get 
 at the honey ants cover themsehes with pollen, and so effect 
 cross-fertilisation should any flower chance to be unsclf-fer- 
 tilised. The latter cases, however, must be few, because the 
 anthers dehisce and cover the stigma with pollen before the 
 bud opens.'^ Cleistogamous flowers fulfil the same object in a 
 different way. These are probably derived from open flowers 
 and secure the production of seed even in the absence of 
 insects, or in the case of adverse circumstances injuring the 
 open flowers.^ Possibly even those flowers which habitually 
 cross now were at first usually self-fertilised by insects, the 
 movements of these creatures saving the plant the cost of 
 making movements of its own, securing almost the certainty 
 of fertilisation as compared with wind fertilisation, besides now 
 and again securing the fertilisation of another flower. Mr. 
 Meehan in various papers has long insisted upon the value of 
 insects to plants in this respect, and many instances could be 
 cited. Even in flowers where cross-fertilisation is necessary, 
 the different flowers on the same spike are usually fertilised 
 by pollen from each other. When cross- fertilisation becomes 
 common, variation, as Professor Weismann shows, becomes 
 
 ' Godron, Jiev. des Sc. Nat. Cited in Nattue, xiv. 37. 
 - Nature, xiii. 427. 
 
 ' Mr. Bennett rails this degradation ; is it not rather adaptation ? {Linn. Soc. 
 Cited ibid. xix. 67. ) 
 
THE COST Ol'- CROSSING 329 
 
 possible, and the tendency to cross-feitilisatioti will be in- 
 herited, since there is no reason why it should not be where 
 fertilisation is so certain.' We then very frequently sec the 
 entire suppression of one sex in order that the plant may 
 devote its energies to the production of the other, but when cir- 
 cumstances become exceptionally favourable, or the methods 
 of crossing fail, the suppressed sex may be again revivcil. 
 
 Should a plant exhaust itself in the production of anthers 
 it will not develop the pistil at all. Or, the plant may from 
 change of circumstances have its constitution so upset that 
 it will be unable to produce more than one sex, or become 
 irregular in the production of the sexes. We see this change 
 particularly common when the plant is obliged to produce 
 great quantities of pollen to neutralise the waste of its dis- 
 tribution by the wind. ' The most successful cultivators in 
 Ohio,' says Mr. Darwin, ' plant for every seven rows of " pis- 
 tillata," or female plants, one row of hermaphrodites, which 
 afford pollen for both kinds ; but the hermaphrodites, owing 
 to their expenditure in the production of pollen, bear less fruit 
 than the female plants."- Now, such an hermaphrodite is apt 
 to produce male plants in the course of generations, for the 
 self-fertilised seeds are few in proportion to the others. We 
 see in many plants abortive anthers inherited, just as the 
 stump of a tail in tailless breeds of animals, certain useless 
 muscles in man, or vestige of an ear, is inherited. Kolreuter 
 found that by crossing male flowers that possessed the rudi- 
 ment of a pistil with an hermaphrodite species, the offspring 
 possessed a much larger and more developed pistil, which shows 
 that these rudiments are really the same as the perfect organ.' 
 
 But how can crosses, when both sexes are produced at the 
 
 ' Mr. G. H. Darwin, in a review on this work {Academy for August 28, 
 1S75, p. 227): 'Were Mr. Huth's argument sound, we might expect to find at 
 least some few elaborate plans in nature to secure perpetual self-fertilisation.' I 
 hope in the present edition I have made my argument sufficiently clear, and that 
 the reader will understand it to be that inability to cross (not lie crossed) is a dis- 
 advantage from the lowest to the highest forms of life. Nevertheless, since re- 
 production of the individual is the first consideration, and a cross is only a con- 
 tingent advantage, we find many cases even among phan;erogams where self-fertili 
 sation is perpetually secured by methods analogous to those which in other plants 
 secure crosses. Some instances are given in the following pages. 
 
 - Darwin, The Variation, etc. 1875, i. 375. 
 
 ' Darwin, ibid. ii. 306 ; Oi-igin 0/ Sfiaics, p. 451. 
 
330 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIX 
 
 same lime in the same flower, be an economy ? Most of the 
 orchids, as Mr. Darwin points out, have beautiful contrivances 
 for crossing, while they are totally unable to fertilise them- 
 selves, and their pollen is sometimes barren, and sometimes 
 even injurious when applied to their own stigma. ' Consider- 
 ing how precious the pollen of orchids evidently is, and what 
 care has been bestowed upon its organisation, and on the acces- 
 sory parts ; considering that the anther always stands close 
 behind or above the stigma, self-fertilisation would have been 
 an incomparably safer process than the transportal of the 
 pollen from flower to flower. It is an astonishing fact that 
 self-fertilisation should not have been an habitual occurrence. 
 It apparently demonstrates to us that there must be some- 
 thing injurious in the process. Nature thus tells us, in 
 the most emphatic manner, that she abhors perpetual self- 
 fertilisation.' ' The reason that these orchids habitually cross 
 by means of insects cannot be that there is any saving of 
 physiological power, for there is probably a greater expendi- 
 ture in affixing the anthers to tlie proboscis of a moth than 
 would be necessary in contracting the anther on to the stigma. 
 Neither can it be due to any saving in generative power, since 
 both sexes are produced at the same time, and yet they do not 
 fertilise each other on the same flower. It seems to me to be 
 rather a redundancy of fertility superadded to unisex, just as 
 parthenogenesis seems to be a later stage than dual sex. If 
 orchids were originally hermaphrodites, fertilising themselves 
 as well as their neighbours, and if from any cause, such as 
 poorness of soil, greater expenditure on reproduction or some 
 other cause, certain among them became unisexual, producing 
 only undeveloped pistils or anthers, might they not resume 
 their double sex under more favourable circumstances, and 
 yet from long disuse be unable to fertilise themselves ? If 
 in their unisexual state the females had been fertilised by the 
 agency of insects, would not the apparatus for this means of 
 propagation in all probability still continue ? for what cause 
 would it have to change ? It seems to me that the wa\- in 
 which the pollen is distributed is particularly .safe and ccono- 
 
 ' Darwin, The Fertilisation of Or.huis, p. 359. 
 
KKVKKSION TO SELF-KEKTILISATION 33 I 
 
 iiiical compared with the broadcast distributiiMi by the wind, 
 as occurs in other plants, or the scattering of it all over the 
 flower by the movements of an insect. In the orchis the 
 pollen is mathematically applied to the stigma, and little 
 or nothing is ever lost ; perhaps, indeed, it was the perfec- 
 tion of this plan which proved so great a saving in pollen 
 that the plant was induced to develop again its dormant sex. 
 To me it is far more inexplicable that pollen should be wasted 
 as it is in the conifcrce^ grasses, and other plants. The only 
 explanation of this waste seems to be that these organisms, 
 as they are below the orchids in the vegetable world, have not 
 yet attained to their perfection of economy. 
 
 That the necessity the greater number of orchfds are under 
 of crossing is of no deep significance, but the result of adap- 
 tations caused by the slight advantages already alluded to, 
 and made necessary merely by habit, is clearly shown by their 
 ready reversion to self-fertilising habits — probably in conse- 
 quence of the absence of the necessary insects. In our own 
 country there is the Bee Ophrys, constructed with all the 
 beautiful arrangements for cross-fertilisation common to its 
 brethren, and undoubtedly used for that purpose by its ances- 
 tors ; but now the anthers have become pendulous, so that the 
 pollen is shaken on to the stigma by every breath of wind.' 
 ' Too often,' says Mr. Forbes, ' the interesting cases of 
 flowers observed to bs cross-fertilised by insects have been 
 recorded, while those of flowers otherwise fertilised have not 
 been mentioned, so that the law of cross-fertilisation in or- 
 chids has been in danger of b&ing unduly magnified from the 
 absence of evidence on the other side.' ^ Among the abund- 
 ance of orchids which he had under his observation, only about 
 20 per cent, of the florets set capsules, although evidently 
 fitted for cross-fertilisation by their colour and scent. In 
 Portugal, again, he noted how many orchids remained unfertil- 
 ised.'' All this shows the danger of high specialisation, and 
 how necessary it frequently is for plants fitted to be fertilised 
 
 ' Darwin, Contrivances of Orchids, pp. 63-65. 
 
 ' Forbes, A Nalmalisfs Ifanricrin^'s, elc. pp. 96, 97. 
 
 " //lid. p. 83-85 ; and Naliire, xvi. 102. 
 
332 THE MARRIAGE OE NEAR KIN 
 
 by insects to have the power of rcadaptinf^ themselves to 
 self-fertilisation. In this connection he noted that coffee, 
 when not fertilised by bees, produces cleistogamous flowers in 
 a second crop.' In addition to the self-fertilising orchids noted 
 by Darwin, namely, Ophrys apifera, Peristylis vtridis, Cephal- 
 anthera graiidiflo7-a, and Dendrobium chiysanthuin, of which, he 
 says, only the third one is always self-fertilised ; Mr. Forbes also 
 notes several others : P/iaJiis Blumei, although it is coloured and 
 has a landing-stage and ridges to point the way to a nectary 
 which is now generally empty, can only be self-fertilised, with 
 possibly some very rare exceptions. Other species of Pliajus 
 are fertilised in the same way. Spatlioglottis plicata is often 
 fertilised before the flowers open, but always self-fertilised. 
 Ariindina speciosa, in the same way, though provided with 
 colour and nectar-directing ridges, is usually self-fertilised 
 before it opens. When, as is the case sometimes, the rostel- 
 lum forms a flat floor to the anther, after the more usual form 
 of orchids, the flower remains unfertilised ; and, even were an 
 insect to lift the anther case, few flowers would be found to 
 receive the pollen. Eria albido-toiiientosa is self-fertilised in 
 the bud ; and there is a chrysoglossuiii that is cleistogamous 
 though marked inside with orange and purple. He also 
 mentions several others.'^ 
 
 Instances might be multiplied almost indefinitely of the 
 gradation according to circumstances of the means of fer- 
 tilisation. They all point to the same general fundamental 
 need of securing the utmost certainty of reproduction of the 
 individual, together with, when possible, the means of fertilis- 
 ing others. The small comparative value of the latter is shown 
 by the carelessness of Nature to ensure its continuance even 
 where it has no doubt existed ; a carelessness we sec culmi- 
 nating perhaps in the flower of the grape, which consists of 
 a group of stamens closely surrounding the pistil, and the 
 whole covered up with a green cap, which is not tlropi)ed uiilil 
 the anthers have lost their vitality.^ 
 
 I would draw particular attention to the fundamental 
 difference between the ordinarily received theory that crosses 
 
 ' Forbes, tit sitf. pp. 75, 76. - /l>i,t pp. 83, 85 96. ' jVatuir, xxi. 468. 
 
SMAM, VALUIC OK CROSSES 333 
 
 are usual because they are necessary to the \vell-bciii<^ of the 
 progeny of the organism crossed, and the theory that crosses arc 
 common because they are beneficial to the race of the organism 
 that crosses. The latter theory denies that crossing is of the 
 essence of reproduction, or is anything but an incidental pro- 
 cess, the reason for which has been already given. At the 
 same time it does not deny the occasional benefit of crosses 
 to the progeny of the organism crossed ; it merely denies its 
 universality, or that it was caused by any such benefits, or that 
 it is anything more than the incident consequence of crosses, 
 which itself was incidentally originated for a totally different 
 reason. I cannot reconcile the theories of the late Mr. Darwin, 
 as to ill-effects from in-breeding, or beneficial effects from 
 crosses, with the facts. ' It appears probable,' he says, ' that 
 the difference in the affinities of the sexual elements of dis- 
 tinct species, on which their mutual incapacity for breeding 
 together depends, is caused by their having been habituated 
 for a very long period each to its own conditions, and to the 
 sexual elements having thus acquired firmly fixed affinities.' ' 
 Yet he says elsewhere : ' The advantages of cross-fertilisation 
 * • * follow from * * * such individuals having been subjected 
 during previous generations to different conditions, or to their 
 having varied in a manner commonly called spontaneous, so 
 that in either case their sexual elements have been in some 
 degree differentiated. And, secondly, that the injury from 
 self-fertilisation follows from the want of such dififercntiation."- 
 I fail to see how this explanation explains anything. On Dr. 
 Weismann's theory we can understand how reproductive plasma 
 may fail to develop in conjunction with reproductive plasma 
 of a different species, either from the development of one 
 opposing the development of the other, or insufficiently supple- 
 menting it, or even from difficulties of nutrition or other 
 circumstances ; while the superiority in some ways of some 
 crosses can also be understood on the assumption that if re- 
 productive plasma from two individuals, each bearing some- 
 what different inherited characters, is combined, those charac- 
 ters will develop from each which are most suitable to the 
 
 I D.irwin, Cross- and Sdf-falilisalion, p. 468. - Ibid. p. 443. 
 
334 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 environment ; for the reason that such characters have been 
 rather strengthened than otherwise during the previous life 
 of the parents, and are therefore the strongest and most Hkely 
 to develop. When, on the other hand, plasma from two in- 
 dividuals kept under the same conditions, or plasma from an 
 hermaphrodite individual, is combined, such selective power 
 is denied the offspring in its development. Hence in some 
 cases we see that it is possible for long-continued in-breeding 
 to be carried on, because the surroundings are unchanged, and 
 the capabilities of the parent are sufficient for the offspring. 
 But in most cases this is not sufficient. Every organism 
 must bear heat and cold, fat and thin soils, good and bad 
 nourishment, and other variations of circumstances. To be 
 too well adapted to the surroundings of one period is to be 
 too ill-adapted to the surroundings of another period, and 
 hence the value of the power of variation by means of reci- 
 procal fertilisation. We have also some rough inkling of the 
 reason why a cross between two individuals of an entirely dif- 
 ferent stock will produce great variability, and very frequently 
 reversion to the common parent stock ; and that in man)' 
 organisms larger and more luxuriantly growing individuals 
 are produced, which generally, though not always if circum- 
 stances are favourable, are sterile as compared with the 
 parent, and sometimes absolutely sterile. The reproductive 
 organs, Mr. Darwin shows, are the first to be injuriously 
 affected by changed conditions ; ' when, for instance, animals 
 are confined or tamed, or when plants are cultivated. In the 
 same way a hybrid partakes of only half the nature and con- 
 stitution of its mother : it may be exposed to conditions in 
 some degree unsuitable, and consequently be liable to perish 
 at an early period, or the reproductive system, independently 
 of health, is affected by sterility in a very similar manner. - 
 
 We should anticipate that those plants which were ac- 
 customed to cross would do better when they followcil their 
 nature than when they were self-fertilised, even if we knew 
 nothing as to the several benefits of crosses in enabling nature, 
 
 ' Darwin, The Vayia/ioii,Q\c. 1875.!!. iso^'/.v,/. 
 = Darwin, Origin of Species, |i]i. 26.), 265. 
 
iKKi:i)IN(; OF PLANTS 
 
 335 
 
 as it were, to select from the constitution of two parent indi- 
 viduals the most advantageous construction for the offspring. 
 It is remarkable, therefore, how little advantage crosses are 
 shown to have over self-fertilisation in some long continued 
 and carefully conducted experiments undertaken by Mr. 
 Darwin.' Certainly until the plant called ' Hero ' appeared 
 all the crossed plants were taller than their adversaries ; but 
 there are some points which make even this result doubtful as 
 an indication. His system was to measure all the competing 
 plants as soon as the first one had reached to the top of the 
 pole ; '^ but he noticed in some cases that the in-bred seeds 
 germinated before the crossed, and these ' were of course re- 
 jected.' ^ We have here, therefore, two possible sources of 
 error, to wit : (i) Supposing the in-bred seeds were likely on 
 the average to germinate before the cross-bred, they would 
 also have got to the top of the pole before the others ; and (2) 
 we have no evidence but what, if allowed, the in-bred plants 
 would have grown as tall as the others ultimately, even though 
 the early germinating ones were rejected. The plant called 
 ' Hero,' the sixth generation of in-bred convolvuli, produced 
 seeds by self-fertilisation, which grew up taller than any other 
 plants of the same self-fertilised generation, or any other plants 
 of the corresponding crossed generation. In the eighth gene 
 ration, the grandchildren of ' Hero,' the self-fertilised plants 
 were taller than some that had been intercrossed among each 
 other, the most in-bred being the tallest. Nor did the progeny 
 of ' Hero ' benefit by a cross with a distinct stock.^ 
 I have tabulated his results as follows : — 
 
 Number of 
 Generation 
 
 Number of Seed Produced 
 per Capsule 
 
 1 Number of Seed Produced 
 Number of] per Capsule 
 
 Crossed 
 
 Self-fertilised 
 
 Crossed Self- fertilised 
 
 . 
 
 S-23 
 
 473 
 475 
 4-46 
 
 4 -85 
 
 4-43 
 4-47 
 477 
 
 6 1 Unhe.ilthy Unhealthy 
 
 9 - — 
 10 _ , _ 
 
 Darwin, The Effects of Cross 
 Ibid. p. 54. » IlnJ. 
 
 Ill Self-ferlilisniion i 
 '■ 32, 38, 75- 
 
 ( //le Vegetable Kingdom 
 * /bid. p|). 4S- 50. 
 
336 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Number of 
 Generation 
 
 Average of Five Tallest Plants 
 
 Average of all 
 in each Table 
 
 Averaee Height of 
 
 the Self-fert.lised 
 
 in Inches 
 
 
 
 
 Crossed 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 J 
 
 439 
 
 337 
 
 76 
 
 67-4 
 
 2 
 
 427-S 
 
 357 
 
 79 
 
 71-4 
 
 3 
 
 392 '5 
 
 287 
 
 
 57-4 
 
 4 
 
 382 -s 
 
 325 
 
 86 
 
 650 
 
 5 
 
 426-25 
 
 345 
 
 75 
 
 69-0 
 
 6 
 
 446 
 
 329 
 
 72 
 
 65-8 1 
 
 7 
 
 42975 
 
 382-25 
 
 81 
 
 76-45 
 
 8 
 
 62075 
 
 541 
 
 85 
 
 108-2 
 
 9 
 
 45262 
 
 393-87 
 
 79 
 
 78-75 
 
 10 
 
 468-5 
 
 252 
 
 54 
 
 SO-4 
 
 From which it will be seen that self-fertilisation did not pro- 
 duce degeneration. 
 
 Mimulus luteus, another plant experimented on, though 
 adapted for cross-fertilisation, will also fertilise itself. In the 
 fourth generation a taller variety appeared both in the self- 
 fertilised and in the crossed plants ; but in the fifth generation 
 it became clear that this plant does best when self-fertilised. 
 A cross of the sixth generation of in-bred plants proved in- 
 ferior to the inter-crossed plants of the same generation ; but 
 when the experiment was again tried in the eighth generation 
 the crossed plants were decidedly superior' Possibly this 
 difference may have been due to the fact that the plants were 
 raised from spontaneously fertilised seeds ^ insufficiently pol- 
 lenised ; and we must also note that the fertilised seeds which 
 germinated before the others were rejected.' Tabulating the 
 results as before, we get the following : — 
 
 S-on 
 
 I^eTght^'f 
 Crossed 
 
 Average 
 Height of 
 
 SSlf- 
 fertilised 
 
 Compared as 
 
 100 for 
 
 Crossed to 
 
 Weight of Capsules Com- 
 pared as 100 for Crossed to 
 
 Conditions 
 
 Crossed 
 
 fer^tiLd 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 7* 
 8 
 
 7-62 
 
 12 and 7-5 
 
 8-5 and 6-5 
 
 7, 4-5- 5'5 
 
 .Sorter 
 
 "■43 
 
 5-87 
 
 4-0 
 
 8 and 5 -5 
 
 5 and 7 
 
 8, 7, 6-5 
 
 taller 
 
 15-64 
 
 10-96 
 
 10-44 
 
 77 
 
 ^9 
 80 
 126 
 
 137 
 
 greater 
 100 
 100 
 
 better 
 100 
 
 less 
 065 
 to 40 
 
 worse 
 147 
 
 Unfavourable 
 
 good 
 good & bad 
 
 Parwin, ut sup. pp. 64-7 
 
 Ibid. p. 75- 
 
in-iirl:edixg ok plants 337 
 
 in which \vc see no deterioraticm from in-and-in brecdini;. 
 The difference in the results of in-and-in breeding; in the 
 Convolvulus, Mimulus luteus, and Foxglove is very much as 
 their natural habits of crossing ; little in the first, and more 
 in the two last. 
 
 So, again, in Iberis umbellata the self-fertilised seeds grew 
 five to six inches taller than the crossed, or supposed crossed 
 seeds (since it was not certain that they were crossed) ; while 
 the reverse was the case when the same lots were sown in 
 earth freed from organic matter.' In Eschscholtzia caiifornica 
 the in-bred plants were superior in everything but produc- 
 tiveness.^ In Mignonette the self-fertilised seed produced the 
 tallest plants when grown out of door's.' In the Violet the 
 self-fertilised plants were very inferior to the crossed;'' but 
 we must observe that this plant is cleistogene, and seed should 
 have been taken from the self-fertilised cleistogene flowers, 
 and not from the open flowers, which in their natural state 
 cannot fertilise themselves. The reader must remember, 
 however, that these advantages are really exceptional, while, 
 as a rule, the crossed plants had the advantage in the 
 struggle for life. Nevertheless plants unaccustomed to in- 
 and-in breeding did not degenerate when bred in-and-in for 
 ten generations. I think then that we may fairly conclude that 
 the sexual elements are identical ; that occasional crosses are 
 valuable to secure a small amount of variation and with it 
 adaptability to varying circumstances ; and that too frequent 
 crosses, or crosses between distinct varieties, are usually harm- 
 ful, producing an offspring of weedy growth, ill-balanced 
 intellect, often as ill-adapted to its surroundings as the most 
 ill-adapted of its parents, and frequently sterile. 
 
 ' Datwin, ut sup. \i. 103. -' /hiJ. p. 109. 
 
 ' /iiij. )>. 119. ' /liiiL p. \l%fl seq. 
 
338 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 WF, have seen in the preceding pages that not one of the 
 many reasons which have been advanced why marriage 
 between near kin should be prohibited by the State can stand 
 enquiry. We have seen that there is no natural horror of 
 incest, and that many peoples have practised and habitually 
 do practise it ; while, on the other hand, we have seen that, 
 whatever may be the reasons of certain prohibitions whicli 
 exist, they are certainly not due to any conscious or uncon- 
 * scious experience of any evil results. We have seen that the 
 statistics on which so much reliance has been placed, as a 
 proof of the harmfulness of consanguineous marriage, are, 
 when not absolutely false, miserably misleading and defective. 
 And, finally, we have seen that the great argument of 
 biologists that crosses must be beneficial, or there would not 
 be two sexes, is by no means proved, and the presence of dual 
 sex can be accounted for in another way. 
 
 On the other hand we have seen many cases of in-and-in 
 breeding in isolated communities, and more especially among 
 domestic animals, in which no evil effects have been observed ; 
 and I must here again call attention to the very superior 
 value of this argument in comparison with the converse one, 
 that in many cases evil effects have been observed in the off- 
 spring, since in the latter we have no proof that these effects 
 are not the result of morbid inheritance. We have seen also 
 the failure of arguments against marriages between near kin, 
 and cannot but see in that failure a further series of argu- 
 ments in their favour. It remains for our consideration 
 whether we should rest satisfied with this result, and whether 
 
Tllli CENSUS 339 
 
 it is advisab'c that the laws concciiiiiig the proliibited degrees 
 should be altered in any way. 
 
 The first question scarcely needs consideration, for no 
 question ever really remains stationary. Yet at the same 
 time it would be very desirable that a little more study 
 should be expended before such positive assertions on either 
 side were made, and that those who believe in the baneful 
 effects of consanguineous marriages would rather devote their 
 energies to the only way the practical question can be 
 settled, that is, by including the question of the blood relation- 
 ship of married couples in the census. Objections have been 
 made to this upon various grounds. When Sir John Lubbock 
 attempted to have the question inserted in 1871, Mr. Hardy 
 objected to ' gratify the curiosity of speculative philosophers' ; 
 Mr. Locke thought it 'a piece of the grossest cruelty' ; Mr. 
 ColHns thought a return of those who had married their 
 deceased wives' sisters would be a more valuable and a prac- 
 tical question, whereas this was ' purely inquisitorial ; the only 
 object could be to stigmatise certain marriages to which he 
 personally objected, but upon which he did not think Parlia- 
 ment ought to cast a slur' ; Mr. Melly thought the inquiry 
 useless without further enquiries as to the mental condition 
 of the children ; Dr. Ball thought the public would be none 
 the wiser for the knowledge of the number of consanguineous 
 marriages existing.' In 1880 I endeavoured, by means of a 
 letter to the ' Times,' again to raise the question.'- In a leading 
 article that paper objected that various people wished to have 
 various questions inserted of little practical importance, and 
 which would greatly increase the expense ; ' and a correspond- 
 ent took the same view.' 
 
 Now, interesting as the census is, I venture to say that as 
 at present conducted it is of next to no practical importance. 
 The probabilities of life may be ascertained from the returns 
 of the Registrar-General ; the returns of the occupations of 
 the people are only valuable as they illustrate the prosperity 
 of the country, and may be practically determined by the 
 
 ' The r/wes, for July 27, 1S70. ' IHd. (iily 20, So iS. 
 
 ^ Ihi.i. July 23, iSSo. ■• Jbid. 
 
340 TME MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 returns of the Board of Trade. The returns of population 
 are not of the slightest practical value at present, excepting 
 when a Redistribution Bill is being discussed. When will the 
 nation learn to make a real use of the census ? Very many- 
 questions upon which theory is exhausted may be settled 
 by one census for centuries, and need not be repeated. Par- 
 liament is asked to legislate on disestablishment, in utter 
 ignorance as to the religion of the people ; the same is the 
 case as regards deceased wives' sisters, and many other ques- 
 tions. One additional and different question at every census 
 would make all the difference between a useful and useless 
 expenditure, and settle many questions of the practical im- 
 l>ortance to the health and happiness of the nation. But 
 in another respect its value would be far greater and well-nigh 
 incalculable. The thinkers throughout the world are continu- 
 ally and indefatigably groping in the dark for truths that will 
 benefit mankind ; their accumulations of facts grow, but much 
 time, much misdirected energ}-, is wasted until an induction can 
 be made, and the future direction of investigation determined. 
 Jt is not too much to say that in all questions that directly 
 affect mankind, such as disease, sanitation, morals, commerce^ 
 and what you will, time would be saved, harmful legislation 
 avoided, and sound principles of progress determined by a 
 question in the census, which must not be put, forsooth, lest 
 ' speculative philosophers ' be gratified ! 
 
 As to the particular question before us, my readers will 
 judge of the validity of the objections. How can a marriage 
 be ' stigmatised ' when no one concerned in the census knows 
 the penson who makes the returns? Jones of Birmingham 
 may have married his first-cousin, and may or may not have 
 some deaf-mute children. These facts will doubtless be 
 well known to all his acquaintance ; but will the clerks of the 
 Registrar-General know or care to know Jones of Birming- 
 ham, or select his name from some hundred thousand similar 
 returns to store up in their memory? Had our legi.slators 
 objected to the cruelty of asking ladies no longer young their 
 age, there might have been some force in the objection, fin- 
 such facts arc frequently supposed to be unknown to their 
 
PUBLIC OriN'ION 341 
 
 immediate aequaintance, and possibly the enumerator might 
 be tempted to reveal the secret. Nothing would be easier 
 than for the census commissioners to take the public into 
 their confidence, and by a few figures demonstrate that their 
 private affairs are not published, while at the same time 
 pointing out the value of accurate returns ; or, by arrangements 
 I believe already in force, allow the returns to be sealed and 
 sent direct to London. 
 
 Since this work was first published a great change has 
 come over public opinion as to the harmfulness of marriages 
 between near kin. In 1870 we have Sir John Lubbock say- 
 ing in Parliament 'he was glad that almost all who had 
 spoken had expressed an opinion against these marriages ' ; ' 
 no medical work touched on the question without stigmatising 
 them as creative of disease ; and the public were beginning, in 
 spite of their practical experience, to believe what they were 
 taught. Now we have in the parliamentary return on deaf- 
 mutes - the Americans saying, ' Consanguineous marriages, 
 so generally considered a veritable cause of deaf-mutism, are 
 regarded by our scientific authorities as entailing imperfections 
 simply under the laws of heredity. Tendencies for good or 
 for ill are intensified.'^ And this opinion is the one now 
 generally held by the medical world, as maybe ascertained by 
 reference to the medical papers.'' This alteration of opinion 
 is undoubtedly very largely due to the paper of Mr. G. U. 
 Darwin on the subject," which attained a wide circulation ; and 
 I do not suppose that any proposition to restrict marriages 
 between blood relations beyond the present degrees will ever 
 again be seriously made. 
 
 It is of the greatest importance that the marriage law 
 should be as little subject to change as possible, to the end 
 that it may be certain in its operation, and not induce people 
 by any foolish provisions either to break it or entirely do 
 without it. Marriage should therefore be only prohibited in 
 
 ' The Times, July 27, 1870. 
 
 « Mseellaneoiis, No. I (1SS6). ' //"''/• P- 60. 
 
 * See, e.g., the meeting of the Uritish Medical Associ.ilion at Brighton, 18S6, 
 the report of which I saw too late to incorporate in this work. 
 
 5 ' Marriages between First-Cousins in England,' eic. /ountal 0/ the Stal. Sec. 
 June 1875, xxxviii. 153-182. 
 
342 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 those degrees which by general consent are considered incest- 
 uous ; that is, in the direct ascending and descending hne, 
 between brother and sister, and uncle and niece ; or those 
 degrees which, as a rule, imply an unsuitable difference of age 
 between the parties. It is true that uncle and niece are often 
 at a suitable age for marriage, and brother and sister generally 
 ^ are ; but in the one case an uncle has an undue advantage 
 over other suitors, while as a rule he is proportionally too 
 old, and if some uncles were permitted to marry their nieces 
 all must be allowed to do so ; in the other case it is probable 
 that if brothers and sisters were allowed to marry, they would 
 do so while yet too young, while as they generally do not 
 desire it, and the chances of morbid inheritance are thereby 
 greatly increased, since selection cannot be exercised, it is as 
 well to forbid it. With cousins it is very different. A man 
 may have fifty cousins and only one or two sisters ; he is 
 much more likely therefore to fall in love with a cousin ; 
 moreover, the chances of morbid inheritance are practically 
 reduced to nothing, and the fact that these marriages do 
 occur is sufficient to warn any Government that a prohibition 
 would be useless.' On the other hand, it is for many reasons 
 commendable to marry a relative, for here one can exercise 
 some selection, since a man generally knows the state of 
 health and the disposition of members of his own family. 
 To prohibitions against the intermarriage of connections 
 we must apply the same rule. Marriage between step- 
 mothers and step-sons, or father and daughter-in-law, should 
 
 ' I woukl refer any one who may be doubtful as to the inability of a Govern- 
 ment to prevent marriage within certain degrees in which the people themselves 
 see no harm to the Keporl of the Koyal Commission on Matriage Law of 1848. 
 It will be seen that, despite the laws and that amount of public opinion which up- 
 holds them, more than one per cent, of all marriages contracted in England is 
 
 > 
 
 between widowers and their deceased wives' sisters ; while the proportion of these 
 marriages to all marriages of widowers is one in thirty-three. The proportion 
 must llicrL-fcire bo enormously great compared with those cases where a widower's 
 
 jfl an eligible unmarried sister. The recognition of these 
 mail ! I I iiicd upon the Governments of France, Denmark and all other 
 
 liMi. I I he Continent. The Australians, Canadians, and practically 
 
 all 111 1 i.i' I iw sc|ueezed a recognition of such marriages out of their reluc- 
 tant iiiuilier iciunlry. Even in England there is a powerful society organised in 
 their favour ; indeed in this country the feeling against them is entirely due to 
 the statute of Henry VIII. created to gratify his own passions. For instances 
 of immorality to which this inohibition has led in Kngl.and, see p. 2, q. 8, p. 4, 
 (J. 27, p. 6, q. 46, p. 9, (1., p. 12, b., p. 14, b., p. i6, cj. 175, of the Rcpoii c/ 1S4S. 
 
CONCLUSIONS 343 
 
 be prohibited, since they must usually be of an unsuitable 
 a<je for marriage, and undue influence is to be feared. For 
 the same reason, marriage between a guardian and his ward, 
 so long as this relationship exists, should also be prohibited ; 
 but brothers and sisters-in-law should be allowed to marry, as 
 they arc usually of suitable age, and more nearly represent 
 the deceased party than any other person could. 
 
 The conclusions we arrive at, then, after due study of the 
 foregoing matter, are these : — 
 
 I. That any deterioration through the marriage of near 
 kin per se, even if there be such a thing in the lower animals, 
 is impossible in man, owing to the slow propagation of the 
 species. 
 
 II. That any deterioration through the chance accumula- 
 tion of an idiosyncrasy, though more likely to occur in 
 families where the marriages of blood relations was habitual, 
 practically does not occur oftcner than in other marriages, or 
 it would be more easily demonstrated. 
 
 III. That, seeing the doubt, to say the least of it, which 
 exists concerning the effects for harm of marriages between 
 near kin, and on the other hand the certainty that whenever 
 and wherever marriage is impeded a direct and proportionate 
 impulse is given to the practice of immorality, it is advisable 
 not to extend the prohibitions against marriage beyond the 
 third collateral degree, and to permit all marriages of affinity 
 excepting those in the direct ascending or descending line. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I MAY, perhaps, be blamed, for giving all the following cases in full, 
 worthless as they are, from a statistical point of view, but they are 
 nevertheless useful to show on what foundation the fear of consanguineous 
 marriage rests. 
 
 It is a mystery to me, indeed, why they have been collected at all 
 since most impartial authors agree that they are always, though not 
 purposely, mere selected cases. ' Memory searches for instances of 
 imions of kinship,' says Dr. Mitchell, ' from the history of which the 
 answer is to be framed. Now, it is certain that all those which have been 
 /•marked by misfortune will be first called up, while many of those which 
 ^^have exhibited no evil effect or no peculiarity of any sort will be passed 
 over or forgotten. The attention, in all likelihood, has been frequently 
 drawn to the first, while nothing may have occurred in the progress of 
 the last to keep alive the recollection of relationship in the union. I 
 need scarcely say that facts collected in this manner are almost sure to 
 lead to inferences beyond the truth, yet it is from such data that conclu- 
 sions on this subject have frequently, if not usually, been drawn.' ' M. 
 Mantegazza also says : ' Ouesti fatti * * # non sono la fotografia della 
 societii umana in una vasta regione di paese : ma son fatti scelti c]Uc\ e la 
 secondo 1' opportunit;\ di molti osservatori sparsi e divisi. E naturale poi 
 che in ogni paese si sia raccolto un ninnero maggiore di fatti contrarj alle 
 unioni fra parenti ; perche erano i primi a cadere sotto gli occhi, a fermar 
 quasi I'attenzione dell' osservatore. I piii fra i medici e legislator! sono 
 persuasi che questi matrimonj sono nocivi alia prole ; per cui quando 
 hanno sotto gli occhi figli robusti e senza mende, non si curano di 
 domandare se siano il frutto di due cugini o di uno zio o di una nipote.' •' 
 The collection of cases of consanguineous marriage, where the results 
 as regards the offspring are good, is on the other hand very valuable ; 
 since if it is true that the intermarriage of near kin will of itself, without 
 g any previous taint or hereditary tendency whatever, produce offspring 
 who suffer from some disease of the nervous system or prove barren, then 
 why do not all marriages of this sort produce these effects .' The cause 
 
 ' Mitchell, .Vcm. n-aJ he/ore the Aulhiopclogica! Scdcly of London, 1866, 
 li. 402, 403. 
 
 -■ Mantegazza, Sltidj mi Matiim. Cons. pp. 27, 2S. 
 
346 THE MAKRIAGli OF NEAR KIN 
 
 is there — a very powerful cause if we are to believe these writers — but it 
 only acts in a very uncertain way ; indeed, so uncertain is it that we have 
 good reason totally to deny its action in any case. If, forsooth, we are to 
 believe, with Morris, that over 64 per cent, of the children of these 
 marriages are affected in some harmful way, ' how could it fail to 
 manifest itself in a way that could not be ignored even by the greatest 
 advocate of consanguineous marriage.' If, again, we are told to believe 
 that every consanguineous marriage must lead in time to disastrous 
 results, how much more convincing to the contrary is a set of obser- 
 vations like that of M. Seguin or M. Bourgeois, where after continued 
 consanguineous marriages in the family no harmful effect is there, than 
 isolated cases of which nothing is known either of family idiosyncrasies 
 or family habits ! 
 
 Though I must confess strongly tempted, I have made no remarks 
 on the following cases, with the e.xception that where some explanation 
 has been necessary I have added it in an occasional footnote. Anyone, 
 bearing in mind the manifold causes of the diseases said to result from 
 consanguineous marriage, will readily detect the weak points in these 
 observations for himself, and will at once see that these cases do not and 
 cannot represent the whole population, any more than a set of cases taken 
 from a hospital would do so ; or, rather, they are even less faithful than 
 these would be, since the latter, taken in sufficient quantity, might afford 
 some data for a certain class of the population, while the former, since they 
 are selected cases, and by no means, even with the best intention, im- 
 partially chosen, would not be reliable for any class of the population, 
 however great the quantity. 
 
 1. Two first-cousins, perfectly healthy, married, and, as far as M. 
 Bailey is aware, had only two children, a boy and a girl. The boy was 
 an albino, and the intelligence of the girl was but poorly developed. 
 
 2. Achemist of Bourbonne-les-Bains, who was the son of first-cousins, 
 married a German lady. Both were healthy, and they had four chil- 
 dren. Of these the eldest was malformed but intelligent ; the second, 
 a deaf mute ; the third, well-formed and healthy ; the fourth, a girl, was 
 imbecile. 
 
 A captain at Rome married his first-cousin. They had several 
 children, besides some who lived a short time, and were mal- 
 formed ; and one still living, who, besides being malformed, is rickety, 
 and has been almost from his birth upwards affected with chorea. 
 
 • 4. A doctor married his first-cousin, and had two children, seemingly 
 of poor intelligence.- 
 
 5. Two first-cousins married, and had eight children ; but every 
 alternate child was a deaf-mute.^ 
 
 ' IJourfin, Mem. de la .Soc. tl'-hi/hro/: lie Paris, 1S63, i. 51 
 ■■' Cases Nos. I to 4, reported by Bailey, Ga:,. Mid. dc Pan's 
 iuiil Camples Pctidus, 1863, Ivi. 135, 136. 
 
 " Case No. 5, reported by Brncharil, CcmfU> Rnidw. iSn. 
 
 mioeci 
 stW-bo 
 
Al'l'KN-OlX 347 
 
 6. The llirce daughters of ;i laily married the tlircc sons of her sister. 
 Of these one had a boy and two girls, who were all perfectly liealthy. 
 
 7. The second had three boys and two girls ; the eldest boy had a 
 slight impediment in his speech ; the second was a deaf-mule, and 
 married a person not related to him, by whom he had two children who 
 could speak ; the third boy was also deaf-mute, and remained unmarried ; 
 the two girls were perfectly healthy, but one of them stainmered slightly 
 on certain letters. 
 
 8. The third marriage produced two boys and one girl still living, 
 and a malformed individual who died. Both boys were congenital 
 deaf-mutes. The elder married a person not related to him, and has a 
 child who can speak. The girl first began to speak when aged six years. ' 
 
 9. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced a puny boy, 
 who was an albino, and died in his thirteenth year.'- 
 
 10. In a fainily of six children, two of them boys, two girls and a boy 
 married their first-cousins, and the remaining three married strangers. 
 The first consanguineous marriage produced eleven children, ten of whom 
 died of hydrocephalus in their babyhood, and one died of the same 
 disease in his fourteenth year. 
 
 11. The second marriage produced eight children, of whom six died 
 young, and the remaining two are delicate. 
 
 12. The third marriage produced five children. Of these one died 
 on the fifteenth day of its life ; one lingered three years ; and one died 
 of meningitis, aged twelve years. The three non-consanguineous mar- 
 riages produced si.x, seven, and six children respectively. Of these two 
 of one family died young, and one of another. 
 
 • 13. A still-born infant was born after a protracted labour of ten hours. 
 It was anencephalous, club-footed, hare-lipped, and had a fleshy appendage 
 fifteen centimetres long on tlie right shoulder, only four toes on the left 
 foot, and only three on the right. The parents were first-cousins ; the 
 mother aged thirty-three, of nervous temperament, and subject to 
 hysteria, but otherwise of good constitution ; the husband was aged 
 thirty-nine, and had a good constitution. 
 
 , 14. A child of first-cousins had an extra toe on each foot. His father 
 was a distinguished chemist. 
 
 1 5. An illegitimate child of second-cousins, born in the hospital of 
 St. Charitd, at Lyons, was destitute of a cranial arch, and the brain was 
 but feebly developed. 
 
 16. A boy, twelve years of age, had at the crown of his head a patch 
 of black and white hair. His parents were first-cousins. 
 
 17. In a village in the district of Yverdon two brothers married two 
 sisters, their first-cousins. They were all healthy, well-to-do peasants, 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 6 to 8 reported by Q. tic K.insc, Coniptcs Kcmius, 1S62, Iv. 
 405, 406. 
 
 - Case No. 9 reported by Aube, who asserts that alhinoism as a result of 
 consanguineous marriage is very common. He accordingly instances three alhi. 
 noes, of which two were brothers, and their father uas uiikiimvn ; the third is Case 
 No. 9 ; see .\ube, ' Note sur Ics Inconvenicnts,' etc. in the Bullet, de la Soe, 
 Imp. Zool(\i;iiitu\ No. u, Nov. 1S57, iv. 511. 
 
34S TIIK MAKRIACK OF NKAK KIN 
 
 without any hereditary tendency to disease of any kind. The one had 
 two children by his marriage, both albinoes, and one of which died young. 
 iS. The other had five children, and all of them albinoes. Three of 
 these died, one from a fall, and the other two from some disease not 
 reported by the ' Echo Medical Suisse,' whence M. Devay extracts this 
 case. The husband in this last case lost his wife and married again a 
 person not related to him, by whom he had four healthy children. 
 
 19. A boy of twelve years of age, who was an idiot, was descended 
 from a noble family in which consanguineous marriages were customary. 
 He had an elder brother, who was perfectly healthy and successful in his 
 studies, but subject to a most violent temper. Epilepsy had appeared 
 occasionally in the family. 
 
 20. A woman married her uncle, and has as yet only two children. 
 Both of these are deaf-mutes. The parents are healthy, and there is no 
 hereditary tendency to disease in the family. 
 
 21. In a family of fourteen children, the parents of whom were related, 
 all died early excepting one. Those who died young were attacked by 
 convulsions, the others by consumption.' 
 
 22. Two first-cousins, of good constitution, married, and had eight 
 children. The first at eighteen months of age got an acute fever attended 
 with delirium, but no convulsions ; on convalescence his lower members 
 atrophied, he became a cripple, and besides lost his hearing, though he 
 retained his intelligence up to the date of his death, aged fifty-one. The 
 second died of meningitis, aged five years. The third is very intelligent 
 and healthy, but has become completely deaf. The fourth, a congenital 
 deaf-mute, is very intelligent. The fifth is healthy and intelligent, but 
 his hearing is slightly defective. The si.xth, a girl, was congenitally deaf, 
 though intelligent ; at the age of thirty she altered for the worse, and 
 became subject to hallucinations. The seventh was perfectly healthy 
 at birth, but afterwards became idiotic. The eighth was a congenital deaf- 
 mute, and became a professor in an asylum for the deaf and dumb.*' 
 
 23. An uncle married his niece, and had eight children. Of these 
 seven died before they had reached their fourth year from convulsions, 
 hydrocephalus, etc. The eighth is now thirty-three years old, delicate, 
 and affected with psoriasis diffusa, almost congenitally. Both parents 
 were healthy.^ 
 
 24. A marriage between first-cousins, w hich produced ten children, 
 of whom five died young. The three remaining girls were puny and 
 bent. One of the two boys is healthy, but slightly bent ; the other was 
 very small, and got articular rheumatism at twelve years of age, from 
 which he is rarely free. The father and mother were both healthy, and 
 the father's two brothers who married persons not related to them have 
 healthy children. 
 
 25. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven children, 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 10-21 reported by Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 99-103, in, 
 
 112, II9> '20, 139, 143, 144. 
 
 - Case No. 22 reported by Forest ier ; see Devay. ut suf*. pp. 120. 121. 
 
 ' Case No. 23 reported by Potton ; see Devay, jil sup. p. 145. 
 
APrKNuix 349 
 
 of which one died ynun^'. The eldest, a boy, is healthy, but has a 
 scrofulous tendency. The younger Ijrother, now aged forty, was scrofu- 
 lous, and had when aged six years a white tumour, first on his left elbow, 
 and then on his right, which took a long time liealing, and came again 
 on his knee, so that at last his leg had to be amputated. The youngest 
 is vigorous, but articulates badly and is malformed. The eldest girl was 
 small and tnalformed, and menstruation ceased at the age of twenty-seven. 
 She is now forty-one. The second was always delicate. The third, aged 
 thirty-five, has now been married several years, and has no children. 
 The mother of these children has two sisters, who married out of the 
 family, and both have healthy children.' 
 
 26. A boy, whose parents were the children of two brothers, had his 
 toes malformed and undivided. He has a sister who is perfectly well 
 formed. 
 
 27. A girl, the only daughter of an uncle and his niece, was epileptic. 
 There was no family tendency to this disease. - 
 
 28. Two relatives married and had six children, all affected with 
 scrofula or rickets. One who was rather better than tlie rest was not 
 suckled by the mother, but had five wet-nurses. Both parents were 
 healthy.^ 
 
 29. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced only one 
 child, a puny girl, who while yet in the cradle had croup, convulsions, 
 etc. She lingered several years, though troubled with excessive nervous- 
 ness, and finally died from general haemorrhage from the skin and mucous 
 membranes. Both parents were healthy.' 
 
 30. In a family where the parents were first-cousins, and where for 
 generations consanguineous marriages have been the rule, w-ere born 
 three girls, all congenital deaf-mutes, squat in figure, puny, and scrofu- 
 lous. One is epileptic. They have a brother who hears and speaks. 
 
 31. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced two chil- 
 dren, a boy and a girl, the latter a congenital deaf-mute. The parents 
 were healthy, one was aged thirty-three, the mother twenty-six. Their 
 habitation was healthy, but they had three nieces, who were also deaf- 
 mutes. 
 
 32. Two children, boy and girl, congenital deaf-mutes, were born from 
 parents who were first-cousins. The boy died at the age of four. The 
 mother's mother had died of tuberculosis. 
 
 33. Three children were born to parents distantly related, but per- 
 fectly healthy. One, a boy, hears and speaks ; but the other two, who 
 are girls, are congenital deaf-mutes. 
 
 34. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced but one 
 child, a girl. At the age of eighteen months, during dentition, she 
 was taken with convulsions and became perfectly deaf. The father 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 24, 25 reported by Viennois ; see Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 
 237. 238. 
 
 ■' Cases Nos. 26, 27 reported by Bondet ; see Devay, ut sup. pp. loi, 146. 
 ' Case No. 28 reported by Teissier ; see Devay, ul sup. p. 145. 
 ' Case No. 29 reported by Doyon ; see Devay, ul sup. p. 146. 
 
350 THE .MARRIAGE OF NEAR KI\ 
 
 was slightly deaf. He was, besides, twenty-one years older than her 
 mother. 
 
 35. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven children, 
 three girls and four boys. Two girls are deaf-mutes ; the rest of the 
 children are all dead. The father is two years younger than his wife, 
 and their dwelling is damp. One of the girls recently died of phthisis. 
 
 36. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 two boys and two girls. One girl is a congenital deaf-mute, subject to con- 
 gestion of the cervical ganglia, and suffers from chronic conjunctivitis. 
 Her sister is too young to determine whether she hears. Her brothers 
 both speak and hear. The parents are healthy, but live in a damp 
 house. 
 
 37. Two girls, cousins of case No. 31, the daughters of first-cousins, 
 are congenital deaf-mutes. Their habitation is perfectly healthy. Two 
 cousins of the father married their own cousins, and have deaf-mutes in 
 the family. Deaf-mutism was previously unknown in the family. 
 
 38. Two first-cousins, aged respectively thirty-four and twenty-eight, 
 had two sons, of whom one was a congenital deaf-mute and the other 
 could hear and speak. Their dwelling was healthy. 
 
 39. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eight children, 
 seven boys and one girl. Four of the boys were congenital deaf-mutes. 
 The father was fourteen years older than his wife ; and when the eldest 
 deaf-mute was born, the parents were aged respectively forty and twenty- 
 six. Deaf-mutism was previously unknown in the family, and their 
 dwelling was perfectly healthy. 
 
 40. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced two 
 children, boys, of which one was a congenital deaf-mute. The father 
 was aged thirty-six when the motlier was twenty-two, but both were 
 perfectly healthy. 
 
 41. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced three 
 children, all boys and congenital deaf-mutes. The parents were healthy, 
 their dwelling dry, and deaf-mutism was previously unknown in the 
 family. 
 
 42. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced two children, 
 one of whom was a congenital deaf-mute. The father was aged thirty- 
 five at the time of enquiry, and the mother thirty-four. Their dwelling 
 was healthy. 
 
 43. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children 
 a boy and girl. They were both deaf-mutes. The mother was younger 
 than her husband. 
 
 44. A marriage betweeti first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 a boy and girl, both congenital deaf-mutes. The boy was also lame 
 from birth, puny, and of bad health. The girl died at the age of four 
 years. Their parents were well-to-do people. 
 
 45. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 two boys and two girls. The boys were both of them congenital deaf- 
 mutes. Their dwelling was healthy, and there was no hereditary 
 tendency to deaf-mutism in the family. 
 
Al'l'KNUIX 351 
 
 46. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five cliildren. 
 Of these three were deaf-mutes. There was no hereditary tendency to 
 this disease, nor was the age of the parents disproportionate, nor was 
 tlieir dwelling unhealthy. 
 
 47. A marriage between third-cousins, which produced four children, 
 three girls and one boy, all deaf-mutes. Their parents were healthy, and 
 their grandparents were not deaf-mutes. 
 
 48. The Mayor of C (Dordogne) married the daughter of his 
 
 first-cousin, and had by her a son and daughter, not only exempt from 
 all disease, but endowed like their parents with the best health. The 
 daughter when she was twenty married a person who was not related 
 to her, and a few years older than herself, and gave birth to a con- 
 genital deaf-mute. They lived in a healthy place, and there was no 
 deaf-mutism previously in her family, nor was it common where they 
 lived.' 
 
 49. A healthy man married his first-cousin, by whom he had a 
 daughter, who stammered, and is now aged twenty-three. She had a 
 child which died of hydrocephalus at the age of three. 
 
 50. The same man married again, and again he married a first-cousin. 
 Three children were born to this second marriage, of whom two died 
 young from convulsions, and one is healthy.' 
 
 51. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one epileptic 
 child, now aged twenty-five. The parents at his birth were aged re- 
 spectively thirty-five and thirty. There was no hereditary tendency to 
 the disease in the family. 
 
 52. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 a girl who was epileptic, and a boy who was scrofulous. The husband 
 was two years his wife's senior, and there was no hereditary tendency in 
 the family to these diseases. 
 
 53. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 three of whom died young of convulsions, and one is healthy. The 
 mother is now ill, but up to the time of the birth of these children, and 
 till six years after the birth of the last, she was quite well. 
 
 54. A marriage between healthy first-cousins, which produced only 
 one child, and that died young. 
 
 55. A marriage between persons not related, which produced two 
 children, who died of typhoid fever between the ages of five and of twenty. 
 On the death of their mother the man married again, this time his first- 
 cousin. Two children were born to this marriage, both of them hunch- 
 backed. 
 
 56. Two illegitimate children of first-cousins were born, the one with 
 two extra little fingers and one extra big toe ; the other with two 
 extra fingers, both great-toes double, and one extra little toe. These 
 children died at the respective ages of fifteen days and six weeks. The 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 30-4S reported by Chazarain, Du Mariage cntre Cons. etc. 
 pp. 35-40, 43, 44. 
 
 ■■^ Cases Nos. 49, 50 reported by Chipault, EluJes sur Us Mar. Cons. p. 44. 
 They are given somewhat differenlly in the CompUs Kendiis, 1863, Ivi. lOOl. 
 
352 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 mother afterwards married a stranger, and had three well-formed 
 children.' 
 
 57. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 both deaf-mutes. There was nothing of the sort in the family before.' 
 
 58. Three children, whose parents were first-cousins, were deaf- 
 mutes. 
 
 59. A Neapolitan, who married his niece, had four children by her, of 
 whom one, a girl, was very eccentric ; the second, a boy, was epileptic ; 
 the third, a boy, was very intelligent ; the fourth, also a boy, was an idiot 
 and epileptic. Both parents were healthy.^ 
 
 60. A woman who remained barren during her marriage with lier first- 
 cousin had several children on her second marriage with a person not 
 related to her.' 
 
 61. An intelligent officer married his niece. His first child was a 
 boy, healthy in all respects. Three years after he had another boy, 
 afflicted with hare-lip and clcft-palate, and who only lived a few weeks.^ 
 
 62. A marriage between persons related in the second degree. Seven 
 children were born, of which one with hare-lip died six days after birth, 
 and the remaining six died before they had reached their third year. 
 
 63. It is to be presumed the husband in Case No. 62 married again 
 for he had a son who married his first-cousin, and had three children, 
 of which one had hare-lip and died young. 
 
 64. A son, one of the two remaining children from Case No. 63, married 
 his second-cousin, and had five children. Of these four died young, and 
 one of the four was a deaf-mute. 
 
 65. The remaining son, in Case No. 64, when aged thirty-three, married 
 his first-cousin, who was aged twenty-one. They had four children, the 
 eldest of whom, a girl, had a cleft-palate and hare-lip, and died when 
 twenty-nine days old. The second, a boy, was well formed, and is now 
 five years old. The third, a girl, is also well formed, and now aged three 
 years. But the fourth, a girl, had a cleft -palate and hare-lip, and died when 
 seventeen days old." 
 
 66. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 The eldest, a girl, is much bowed ; the second was born blind ; and the 
 third was hunch-backed. The mother in this case was of remarkably good 
 constitution, and her husband was a fine-looking man, aged twenty-seven 
 at marriage.' 
 
 67. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced two children 
 The eldest, a boy, manifested from early youth a most evil disposition ; 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 51 to 56 reported by Chipault, £/i„/fS sur les Afar. Cons. etc. 
 pp. 43, 44, 47, 48. 
 
 ' Case No. 57 reported by Duteval ; see Chipault, ut sii/i. p. 34. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 58, 59 reported by Trousseau ; see Chipault, ut sup. p. 43- 
 
 * Case No. 60 reported by Lisle ; see Boudin, Mini, de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de 
 
 5 Case No! 61 reported by Potier-Duplessy ; see Boudin, ul suf>. pp. 515. 516. 
 ' Cases Nos. 62 to 65, reported by Rizet ; see lioudin, M-iii. de /.; Soc. 
 d^Anthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. p. 516. 
 
 ' Case No. 66 reported by Ro\>illard ; see Boudin, ul sup. p. 521. 
 
APPENDIX 353 
 
 gave way to all sorts of debauchery as he K>ew up, and finally got a 
 choleraic afTection in Cochin China, of which he died on his return home 
 at about the age of twenty-one years. The second child, a daughter, was 
 microcephalic, but not an idiot, though of small intelligence. The father 
 married at the age of forty-two, was intelligent but crotchety. The mother 
 was also intelligent, but a little nervous and irritable.' 
 
 68. A child entered the institution for deaf-mutes at Paris, whose 
 grandparents were first-cousins. 
 
 69. A marriage between third-cousins, from which two children weie 
 born. One is healthy, the other is monorchid.^ 
 
 70. A marriage between uncle and niece ; both were of lymphatic 
 temperament, and she much younger than he. They have two daughters, 
 now aged respectively fifteen and twenty-five ; like their parents both 
 lymphatic, but both rejoicing in perfect health. 
 
 71. A marriage between second-cousins, both healthy, produced one 
 child, a healthy boy, and now aged thirty-five years. 
 
 72. The boy mentioned in Case No. 71 married, at the age of twenty- 
 five, a cousin related to him in the si.xth degree, and eleven years older 
 than himself. Two boys were born to them, and both are perfectly 
 healthy. 
 
 73. The brother of one parent in Case No. 71, and sister of theother, 
 married, and had three perfectly healthy sons ; and one daughter, who 
 became delicate when about twenty years old. Both parents were 
 healthy. 
 
 74. The daughter in Case No. 73, a few months after her twentieth 
 year, married her second-cousin, who was to all appearance of poor con- 
 stitution. They had a still-born child, and the mother died in childbirth 
 consequent on the grief, an.xiety, and fatigue she had gone through in 
 nursing her parents, who were both carried off by choleia a few weeks 
 before her confinement. 
 
 75. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced, up to the 
 time of the report, two children, who are both still young and healthy. 
 
 76. A marriage between first-cousins, who have as yet one child, four 
 years old, and perfectly healthy. 
 
 77. A marriage between cousins related in the sixth degree. The 
 husband was unhealthy and died young, leaving a child of feeble consti- 
 tution, but without any pronounced disease. 
 
 78. A marriage between cousins related in the fourth degree. The 
 parents are perfectly healthy, and have a child scarcely two years old, 
 and also perfectly healthy. 
 
 79. A marriage between first-cousins, not in good health. They have 
 a puny child, now five years old. The husband became consumptive, 
 and a second child died at the age of a few months, having been con- 
 stantly ill. 
 
 ' Case No. 67 reported by Peter ; see Heliot's Contribution a l'£tuJc de la 
 Consang. Paris, 1875, pp. 60, 61. 
 
 ^ Cases Nos. 68 and 69 reported by de la Charriere ; see Heliot, ut sup. 
 p. 65. 
 
 A A 
 
354 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 80. A marriage between cousins of the sixth degree. They have a 
 son now aged thirteen years, and perfectly healthy. 
 
 81. A marriage between first-cousins of good constitutions. They have 
 no children, but the wife's sister, also perfectly healthy, is likewise barren. 
 
 82. A marriage between cousins related in the si.xth degree, in a 
 family where carcinoma was hereditary. The wife died when she had 
 nearly attained her thirtieth year, having given birth to four children, two of 
 whom died young, and the remaining two are poorly. The father is healthy. 
 
 83. The sister of the husband in Case No. 82, and the brother of his 
 wife, married, and had two children poor in health. One of these died 
 at the age of ten years, and the mother died about the same time of a 
 tuberculous disease. 
 
 84. A physician married his niece, and had two children, whose phy- 
 sical and intellectual powers enabled them to follow with distinction their 
 father's profession. Both parents were healthy. 
 
 85. Another physician, age thirty-five, married his niece aged twenty, 
 who was of lymphatic temperament. In the course of four years he had 
 two children, aged at present respectively three and fifteen months. Both 
 are healthy. 
 
 86. A third physician, in good health, married his first-cousin, who 
 was of poor constitution. He has one child, now aged ten years, and in 
 poor health. 
 
 87. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two daughters, 
 now aged respectively twenty-three and twenty-five years. They are not 
 very healthy, but more so than their mother, who, however, is still living. 
 
 88. A marriage between cousins related in the sixth degree. Two 
 children were born to them, now aged respectively twenty-one and 
 twenty -three years. Although one of them at the age of three years had 
 an attack of acute meningo-encephalitis, which destroyed his hearing, 
 they are both very healthy. 
 
 89. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced three chil- 
 dren. Of these one died at the age of forty-one of an acute disease. 
 The other two are now aged respectively fifty-four and fifty-six, and are 
 in excellent health. The parents died at the respective ages of seventy 
 and ninety-two. 
 
 90. One of the children in Case No. 89 married his cousin in the 
 fourth degree, and had seven children, now of ages ranging between 
 thirteen and thirty years. They are all very healthy. 
 
 91. The son mentioned in Case No. 89, who died of an acute disease 
 at the age of forty-one, had married his first-cousin, and had seven 
 children. Of these four died of epidemic diseases, all under the age of 
 eleven years ; but the three others, whose ages range at present between 
 twenty and twenty-eight, are all perfectly healthy. 
 
 92. One of the children in Case No. 91 married her first-cousin, who 
 was one of the children mentioned in Case No. 90, and had within four 
 years three children, all healthy. The eldest died of croup, aged 
 eighteen months.' 
 
 ' Cases Ncs. 70 lo 92 reported liy Dourgcois, Siir C Iiifluciice. etc. yy. 39-41. 
 
Al'l'KNDIX 355 
 
 93. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three d;ui>,'hters, 
 who all subsequently became the mothers of large families. All were 
 perfectly healthy and well formed. 
 
 94. A nephew of the wife in Case No. 93 married his first-cousin, and 
 had seven children, of which five are still living and in perfect health. 
 Of the two who died one death was from croup, and the other child only 
 lived eight days after birth. 
 
 95. One of the children in Case No. 94 married his first-cousin, and 
 has two children, whose command of voice is only too manifest. 
 
 96. M. G , Dr. at C (Aveyron), married his first-cousin, and 
 
 has three pretty children, all perfectly healthy and well formed.' 
 
 97. Sp. Ligustinus married his first-cousin, and had eight children 
 six boys and two girls. At the time that Livy makes him narrate this 
 case the two girls were married, and four of the boys grown up.- 
 
 98. A marriage between persons in no way related, which produced 
 two children, who both died, was followed by another marriage on the 
 part of the husband, with his first-cousin. This last marriage has resulted 
 in one healthy girl. 
 
 99. A marriage between first-cousins. The young wife had three mis- 
 carriages one after the other, each at six weeks. She was from puberty 
 subject to dysmenorrhoea ; and at every return of the catamenia suffered 
 from uterine congestion, ending in hit-morrhage.^ 
 
 100. Two first-cousins, married and have five children. The husband 
 was scrofulous, and his wife, though naturally of good constitution, is far 
 from healthy. Yet all the children enjoy the best health, though one was 
 delicate during infancy.* 
 
 loi. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 102. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children, 
 three boys and two girls. The eldest son is now married ; ' another is as 
 yet unmarried, and aged twenty-five ; the third died of epilepsy, aged 
 twenty. The eldest girl married a person not related to her ; and during 
 the three years of married life she has passed has had one child. The 
 second girl married a little before her elder sister." 
 
 103. The eldest son mentioned in Case No. 102 also married a first- 
 cousin, and already has two healthy children. 
 
 104. The second daughter mentioned in Case No. 102 also married 
 her first-cousin, and has as yet three children, all perfectly healthy.' 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 93 to 96 reported by Devic, Gaz. Mid. de Paris, 1863, .wiii. 15S. 
 
 2 This case is interesting as bearing on the Roman law. It is related by Livy. 
 Hisl. book xlii. 34 : ' Quuni primum in ajtatem veni, pater mihi uxorem fratris 
 sui filiam dedit ; (\\\x secum nihil attulit, prseter libertatem pudiciliamque, et cum 
 his fecunditatem, quanta vel in diti dome satis esset. Sex filii nobis, dua; filia; 
 sunt, utrsque jam nuptLt. Filii qualuor togas viriles habent, duo pra-textati sunt.' 
 
 = Cases Nos. 98 and 99 reported by Defert. (See Dally, Recherches, etc. p. 50. ) 
 
 * Case No. 100 reported by Dally, ihid. * See Case No. 103. 
 
 ' See Case No. 104. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. loi to 104 reported by Ancelon, Comples Rendus, 1S64, Iviii. 
 1 66, 167. 
 
 A A 2 
 
3 56 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 105. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 three girls and one boy. The girls are all healthy, but the boy is an 
 idiot. He was the last birth, and the mother had been frightened. 
 
 106. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced twins, but Dr. 
 Down does not say whether any more were born. The second twin, a 
 girl, is small, deaf, an idiot, and had fits for many years. The father is 
 healthy, but his brothers and sisters have a tendency to consumption. 
 The mother's parents were also distantly related, and she died from a 
 tumour in the brain. Several of her relatives died of consumption, and 
 a cousin of her daughter's was insane from epilepsy. 
 
 107. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced at least eight 
 children. One of these, a boy, died of consumption, and the eighth- 
 born was an idiot. The father was sound in mind, but delicate and in- 
 temperate ; his relatives were healthy. The mother had twice given 
 birth to twins ; she was healthy, but in the seventh month of her 
 pregnancy she was frightened by a cat, and was ill for a week in conse- 
 quence, while the child became an idiot. 
 
 loS. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced si.'c children. 
 Of these four boys and a girl died of consumption, and the youngest, a 
 girl, is an idiot. The father was sound in mind, but died of pulmonary 
 haemorrhage. One of his sisters died of consumption. The mother had 
 lost a sister from consumption, and was consumptive herself 
 
 109. A marriage between second-cousins. The mother had been 
 married before to a person who was not related to her, by whom she had 
 three children, two girls who were healthy, and a boy who was epileptic. 
 The second marriage produced four children ; first, two healthy girls, 
 then a boy, who is an idiot, and then a girl of weak mind. The 
 father was healthy and sound in mind ; but his father had lost his sight 
 when young, and two of his brothers had died of consumption. The 
 mother was also healthy and sound in mind, but her father's sister was 
 insane. She believed that the idiocy of the first boy was caused by 
 a fright she had had, and that of the girl from constant fear that she 
 also might be an idiot. 
 
 no. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced six children, 
 three boys and three girls. One of these girls, the eldest of all the 
 children, was an idiot. At the time of her birth, the mother suflfered 
 greatly from anxiety regarding pecuniaiy matters, parturition was diffi- 
 cult, the forceps were employed, and the head greatly crushed. The 
 father was delicate when young ; his uncle is imbecile, an aunt died of 
 phthisis, and his father was eccentric and intemperate. The mother is 
 very deaf, and her sister died from cancer. 
 
 III. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced at least 
 six children. Of these the eldest, a boy, died of acute hydrocephalus ; 
 the sixth, a girl, is an idiot, but all the rest are bright and healthy. The 
 father had fits when a child, and is weak and ailing, and feeble in mind. 
 The mother is not very strong, and lost a brother from consumption. 
 She says she saw a girl precisely like her idiot daughter, both mentally 
 
AITEXDIX 357 
 
 and physically, at a time when she was seven months acUanccd in preg- 
 nancy. 
 
 112. A marriage between third-cousins, which produced eleven 
 children, nine boys and two girls. The seventh birth was twins, a boy 
 and a girl, of which the former is an idiot. All the rest of the children 
 are healthy and intelligent. The father is healthy and sound in mind, 
 but very deaf The mother is also healthy, but all her relations are con- 
 sumptive. 
 
 113. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced six children, 
 three boys and three girls. The fourth-born, a boy, is an idiot ; all the 
 remaining children are particularly intelligent. The father died of 
 Bright's disease, after five years' illness. The mother is healthy, but 
 nervous ; had bad health during the pregnancy, and was much distressed 
 at hearing her eldest child had croup at Paris, and could not procure a 
 doctor. She had besides a very bad labour, owing to the large size of 
 the child. 
 
 114. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced six 
 children, four boys and two girls. One boy died of scarlatina ; one is 
 rather delicate ; the fourth-born, a boy, is an idiot ; the remaining three 
 are healthy and intelligent. The father is sane and sound ; but has lost 
 five brothers and sisters by consumption, and has a sister insane. The 
 mother has had a fistula, but is sound in mind. She was very low-spirited 
 during her fourth pregnancy at the prospect of having another child, and 
 but small means to support her family. 
 
 115. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eleven children, 
 five boys and six girls. The first and eleventh births, both boys, are 
 idiots ; one boy died of inflammation of the lungs ; another of convul- 
 sions when a fortnight old ; two sisters who were twins died, the one at 
 birth, and the other of convulsions when ten days old ; another girl died 
 of fever ; and another besides is dead. The remaining three children are 
 all healthy and intelligent. The father was healthy, but below the average 
 in mental power. The mother has always been delicate, is very nervous, 
 had an aunt insane, and all her brothers and sisters died young. 
 
 1 16. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced twelve children. 
 The eleventh-born is an idiot ; all the remaining children were endowed 
 with average mental and physical power. The father enjoys good health, 
 but is very irritable and desponding ; his mother died of consumption, 
 and he lost one sister from congestion of the brain. The mother also is 
 healthy, but she lost a sister from consumption, and has an uncle who is 
 imbecile. When in the fourth month of her eleventh pregnancy, she 
 suffered severely from sea-sickness ; the infant's umbilical cord had to be 
 divided before birth, animation was suspended, and had to be restored 
 artificially. 
 
 1 17. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced nine children, 
 two boys and seven girls. The fourth-born a boy, is an idiot ; one of the 
 others had no parietal bone, and lived but two days ; four died at birth 
 but seemed perfectly constituted ; and the first three children were 
 
358 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 healthy and lived. There was one miscarriage of a child with one leg. 
 The father was healthy, sober, and steady. The mother suffers from 
 chronic bronchitis, but is sound in mind, and comes of a healthy family. 
 The ages of the father and mother at the birth of the idiot were forty-one 
 and twenty-nine ; the labour was lingering, ergot of rye was given twice, 
 and the infant's head was misshapen. 
 
 ii8. A marriage between iirst-cousins, which produced six children. 
 Of these one boy was subject to fits, and died of consumption ; another 
 was an idiot ; a girl died of epilepsy at seven years of age ; and all the 
 rest are bright and healthy. The father is in good health, but of low 
 intelligence. The mother is delicate, and lost a brother and sister from 
 consumption. 
 
 119. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced seven 
 children. Of these, one died of hydrocephalus, one of scarlatina, one 
 of phthisis, and four are idiots. The father has average health, but is a 
 drunkard, and six of his immediate relatives stammer. The mother is 
 very poor in health, suffers from uterine disease, and two of her sisters 
 died young from consumption. She was ill during the whole of her 
 second pregnancy ; fell down stairs w^hen in the seventh month ; was 
 nervous, and suffered from hallucinations. 
 
 120. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 The last-born, a boy, is an idiot. The father is healthy, but his father 
 was eight months in a mad-house, though he ultimately recovered ; his 
 mother was very eccentric ; and his sister had a spinal disease, and died 
 of consumption. The mother was herself healthy, but all her immediate 
 relatives were consumptive. She had much trouble and business diffi- 
 culties during her last pregnancy. 
 
 I2r. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced six children, 
 all boys. Of these the eldest is an idiot ; one died in a fit during 
 whooping-cough ; one of bronchitis ; one is hemiplegic ; another, three 
 and a half years old, cannot talk ; is only just able to walk, and has a 
 large head. The father is a very weak and nervous man, faints frequently, 
 and his whole bearing is like one suffering from mercurial tremor. The 
 mother is in good health, but she is very nervous, and her mother also is 
 very nervous and bordering on insanity ; one uncle of hers died insane, 
 and a cousin is imbecile. In the sixth month of her first pregnancy she 
 tumbled down stairs, and about the same time she was much frightened 
 by her husband falling down in a fainting fit, and this brought on uterine 
 contractions and a considerable amount of flooding. 
 
 122. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children. 
 The eldest was born with animation suspended, and he is an idiot. The 
 second, a girl, was born prematurely, and died three days after birth. 
 The father is healthy but irritable ; two of his sisters died of consump- 
 tion, and one of these was also subject to hallucination. The mother 
 died of consumption ; an uncle was insane, brought on as it was supposed 
 by alcoholic abuse. She was frightened two months before her first con- 
 finement by stepping on an adder ; the labour was lingering and the 
 child's head much distorted. 
 
APPENDIX 359 
 
 123. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children, 
 two boys and three girls. The second-born, a boy, was an idiot, as was 
 also one of his sisters. Another sister was quite helpless, and died at the 
 age of fourteen months. The father is healthy and of sound mind. The 
 mother's mother was insane, her aunt died in a mad-house; and a cousin 
 suffers after every confinement from puerperal mania. 
 
 124. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children, 
 four boys and one girl. Of these the eldest, a boy, is an idiot ; the 
 second and third boys were twins, and are very healthy, and sound in 
 mind ; the fourth boy died of whooping-cough ; the girl is healthy in 
 every respect. The father died of contraction of the bowel, and was quite 
 healthy, but his mother used to stammer. The mother was very nervous, 
 and was frightened during her first pregnancy by an idiotic man. The 
 labour lasted twenty-eight hours, and she was delivered by instruments.' 
 
 125. A marriage between uncle and niece proved barren. 
 
 126. A marriage between uncle and niece produced three children 
 with goitres. Of these two were also cretins, and one was intelligent. 
 
 127. A marriage between uncle and niece produced one son, who was 
 epileptic, and one cretin. The father was epileptic, and the mother was 
 nervous and hysteric. 
 
 128. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 129. A marriage between first-cousins, which also proved barren. 
 
 130. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy 
 children. 
 
 131. A marriage between first-cousins, which also produced healthy 
 children. 
 
 132. A marriage between first-cousins, which resulted in four children, 
 who died young, and two cases of phthisis. 
 
 133. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these one was epileptic and died of phthisis ; one died at four years 
 of age of typhus ; one, aged six, looks tuberculous ; one suffers from 
 hydrocephalus ; and one is an idiot and tuberculous. 
 
 134. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced nine children 
 and two abortions. Of these nine children two suffers from hydro- 
 cephalus, one died of croup, and the remaining si.x are healthy. 
 
 135. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced twelve 
 children. Of these seven died very young, and the remaining five are 
 healthy. 
 
 136. A marriage between first-cousins, thirteen of the children born 
 from which died young, and five were slightly scrofulous. 
 
 137. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 138. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two deaf-mutes. 
 
 139. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four deaf- 
 mutes. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 105 to 124 reported by Down, London Hospital Reports, 1866, 
 iii. 226-231. They are taken haphazard from a number of investigations made 
 on the parentage of idiots, 
 
360 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 140. A marriage between third-cousins, which produced two deaf- 
 mutes. 
 
 141. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced healthy 
 offspring. 
 
 142. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced three 
 children, two of whom died young, and one is healthy and lives.' 
 
 143. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced healthy 
 but dwarfish children. 
 
 144. A marriage between first-cousins, which also produced healthy 
 though dwarfish children. In this case the mother was scrofulous. 
 
 145. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one healthy 
 child, a girl. 
 
 146. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy 
 children. 
 
 147. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced si.\ tuber- 
 culous children, five of whom are already dead. The parents in this case 
 were tuberculous.^ 
 
 148. A marriage between uncle and niece, which proved barren. 
 
 149. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy oflf- 
 spring. 
 
 150. Another marriage between first-cousins, which also produced 
 healthy offspring. 
 
 151. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced scrofulous 
 children, and one was also rachitic. The parents in this case were 
 scrofulous. 
 
 152. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced scrofulous 
 children. The parents were scrofulous. 
 
 153. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children ; 
 one still-born, and the other healthy, and still alive. The one parent 
 was club-footed and the other scrofulous. 
 
 154. A marriage between second-cousins. Of the children born one 
 child, a girl, is scrofulous.^ 
 
 155. A marriage between first-cousins, which resulted in two abor- 
 tions in the fourth months, four premature still-births, and two children 
 who died before they had reached their fifth year. 
 
 156. A marriage between first-cousins, w'hich produced ten children. 
 The first birth was twins, premature and deformed ; the second birth was 
 again twins, who died before they were five months old ; after these the 
 remaining six children were born, who are all healthy.'' 
 
 157. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced ten children. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 125 to 142 reported by Lombroso ; see Mantegazza, SliitiJ sui 
 Matr. Cons. etc. pp. 20-26. In these rases and the following cited by M. Man- 
 tegazza it is a pity that the total number of children is rarely given, and still more 
 rarely the state of health of the parents and relations. 
 
 "■ Cases Nos. 143 to 147 reported by.Sargenti ; see Mantegazza, ul sup. p. 20. 
 
 s Cases Nos. 148 to 154 reported by Moretti ; see Mantegazza, ut sup. 
 p. 22. 
 
 < Cases Nos. 155156 repjrte-1 by Lon^hi ; se2 Minteg azza, ut sup. p. 22. 
 
ArrENDix 361 
 
 Of these three were either imbecile, paralytic, or died young ; and the 
 remaining seven are perfectly healthy. The mother was consumptive. 
 
 158. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two epileptic 
 children.' 
 
 159. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced scrofulous 
 children. 
 
 160. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced scrofulous, 
 tuberculuous, puny children. 
 
 161. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who were deformed, and died young. 
 
 162. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 who all died of phthisis. 
 
 163. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced scrofulous and 
 dwarfish children. 
 
 164. A marriage between first-cousins, which resulted in scrofulous 
 and rachitic children. 
 
 165. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one scrofulous 
 child, one albino, and one daughter, who was a cretin. 
 
 166. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy off- 
 spring. 
 
 167. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced only one 
 child, a boy, very puny, and who died at the age of six months. 
 
 168. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 169. A marriage between second-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 170. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced twins, who 
 died a few days after birth, and one deaf-mute.* 
 
 171. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced children 
 of average health. 
 
 172. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced many, but 
 scrofulous children. 
 
 173. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced healthy 
 offspring. 
 
 174. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced many, and 
 healthy children. 
 
 '''5( Marriages between first-cousins, which produced healthy 
 
 178. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced only few 
 children, and these died young. 
 
 179. A marriage between a man and his half-sister, which produced 
 si.x children. Of these two, who died young, were tuberculous, and 
 three girls are married. The first of these marriages proved barren. 
 The second produced three children, who died young ; but the mother 
 in this case was tuberculous. The third marriage produced healthy 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 157 to 158 reported by De Orchi ; see M.integ.izza, ut sit/', pp. 
 22, 24. 
 
 - Cases Nos. 159 to 170 reported by Demeva ; sec M.integazza, ut su/. pp. 
 22, 24. 
 
362 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 children. The son was consumptive, and has tuberculous children. The 
 mother of the six children was tuberculous.' 
 
 180. A marriage between first-cousins, doubly related, which produced 
 six children. Of these two died almost immediately after birth, and four 
 are alive and healthy. 
 
 181. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy off- 
 spring. 
 
 182. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these one was healthy, and two were tuberculous. 
 
 [87. 
 
 Marriages between second-cousins, all resulting in healthy 
 offspring. 
 
 189. A marriage between third-cousins, and the wife was also derived 
 from a consanguineous marriage. There were five abortions, and one 
 girl still-born. The mother was slightly rachitic. 
 
 190.] Marriages between third-cousins, which resulted in healthy off- 
 
 191.) spring. 
 
 192. A marriage between fourth-cousins, which produced healthy 
 offspring.^ 
 
 193. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these one was a deaf-mute, and the two others were healthy. Deaf- 
 mutism was previously unknown in the family.^ 
 
 194. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. Both 
 were healthy. 
 
 195. A marriage between first-cousins, ^xhich also proved barren. 
 Both were healthy. The husband when sixty years of age married again, 
 and has a child every year. 
 
 196. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced six children. 
 Of these four who were suckled by their mother died in their first year, 
 scrofulous and rachitic ; the two others were suckled by a healthy nurse, 
 and, though ailing, they are alive. 
 
 197. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced many children, 
 who are all either scrofulous or rachitic* 
 
 198. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced scrofulous 
 children. 
 
 199. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children, 
 two boys and three girls. Of these all three girls are in bad health, and 
 one died at the age of ten years, scrofulous, and very small for her age. 
 Tlie two boys are healthy. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 171 to 179 reported by Roboletti ; see Mantegnzza, Stiidj sui 
 Mat. Cons. etc. p. 24. 
 
 = Cases Nos. iSo to 192 reported by Liberali ; see Mantegazza, ut sup. p. 24. 
 
 ' Case No. 193 rciiorted by Bizzozero ; see Mantegazza, ut .w/. p. 26. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 194 to 197 rci)orted by Zaniboni ; see Mantegazza, ut sup. p. 26. 
 
APPENDIX 363 
 
 200. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these one is imbecile and rachitic ; the remaining three children are 
 healthy. The father in this case was tuberculous. 
 
 201. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one scrofulous 
 girl and two abortions. 
 
 202. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 203. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children 
 and one abortion. Of these four children two died young, one girl is 
 scrofulous and ailing, and one boy is healthy. The mother is healthy, 
 but the father was slightly scrofulous. 
 
 204. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
 205. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these, two were healthy and one was epileptic. No case of epilepsy 
 was previously known in the family. 
 
 206. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy off- 
 spring. 
 
 207. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced healthy off- 
 spring. 
 
 208. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who were cretins. 
 
 209. A marriage between first-cousins, in which there were many 
 abortions and four robust children born. 
 
 210. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced many deaf- 
 mutes and imbeciles. 
 
 211. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 still-born, and one epileptic boy. 
 
 212. A marriage between uncle and niece, in which there were four 
 children born and six abortions. Of these four children two died in 
 early youth. 
 
 213. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced six children 
 and five abortions. Of these six children one was paralytic. 
 
 214. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced three 
 children and four abortions. Of these three children one female infant 
 was deaf. 
 
 215. A marriage between uncle and niece, which has produced five 
 children, still young, and all healthy. The parents are healthy.' 
 
 216. A marriage between nephew and aunt, which produced healthy 
 children. 
 
 217. An ' incestuous ' marriage, which produced healthy children.- 
 
 218. A marriage between first-cousins. The hands of the parents 
 were deformed, but those of their children were normal, and the children 
 themselves perfectly healthy.^ 
 
 219. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who both died in their babyhood. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 198 to 215 reported by Mantegazza, ut sup. pp. 22-26. 
 
 - Cases Nos. 216 to 217 reported by Turck ; sec Mantegazza, ut sii/>. p. 20. 
 
 ' Case No. 21S reported by Dobell ; see Mantegazza, u/ sup. p. 20. 
 
354 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 220. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven children. 
 Of these three died in their infancy, and not one of the remaining four 
 
 was 'bright.' 
 
 221. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these two boys died young, and the remaining girl has bad eyes. 
 
 222. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced a boy with 
 club-foot, and another who died and was an idiot. 
 
 223. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who both died young. 
 
 224. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced children, who 
 were blear-eyed and feeble. 
 
 225. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who were idiots. 
 
 226. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children) 
 who were deaf mutes. 
 
 227. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who were blind. 
 
 228. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children, 
 who were hermaphrodites. 
 
 229. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one child, who 
 was club-footed, one an idiot, one near-sighted, one ailing and irritable; 
 one blind, and the rest feeble. 
 
 230. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced ten children, 
 eight sons and two daughters. Of these two sons and one daughter 
 cannot walk, and the youngest child is a deaf-mute. 
 
 231. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eight children, 
 one son and seven daughters. Of these three daughters are mentally 
 deranged, and the rest are nervous. 
 
 232. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eight children 
 three sons and five daughters. Of these one daughter is an idiot and 
 two others are feeble in mind. 
 
 233. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 The first is healthy and bright, the rest ai-e idiots.' 
 
 234. Two brothers, tall, strong, and vigorous, married two sisters, their 
 first-cousins. The eldest still lives in the place of his birth, and has 
 several children, of which only the eldest is a deaf-mute, aged twenty. 
 
 235. The other has been employed on the railway for six years at 
 Besan^on, and has at present six children. Of these the first, a girl 
 aged twelve, is weak, small, and very timid, but otherwise healthy. 
 The second, a girl aged ten, is slim, tall, and vigorous, but a deaf-mute. 
 The third died young, and appeared to have been healthy. The 
 fomth, a boy aged seven, is strong and big, but a deaf-mute. The 
 fifth, a girl aged four and a half, is very small, talks badly, but hears 
 well. The sixth, only three months old, seems but slightly sensible to noise.- 
 
 Ca.ses Nos. 219 to 233 reported by the Rev. C. Brooks ; see Allen, The In- 
 
 irriage of Relations, pp. 13, 14. 
 
 Cases Nos. 234 to 235, reported by Perron ; see Boiulin, Comples Kendiis, 
 
AM'ENDIX 365 
 
 236. A marriage between first-cousins, whicli produced four children. 
 Of these one was a deaf-mute, one scrofulous, one an idiot, and one 
 epileptic. There was a strong idiosyncrasy in the family of the parents, 
 but no definite taint.' 
 
 237. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these two were twins, albinoes, and only lived forty-eight hours ; one, 
 also an albino, only lived a year. The fourth is well formed, healthy, and 
 not an albino.' 
 
 238. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one congenital 
 deaf-mute, besides another child, who became dumb and idiotic at 
 the age of six years without assignable cause. 
 
 239. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two congenital 
 deaf-mutes. Seven of the cousins of these children were also deaf-mutes. 
 The mother was herself the produce of a marriage between first-cousins. 
 
 240. A marriage between first-cousins, the parents of the wife being 
 also first-cousins, which produced five congenital deaf-mutes. Two 
 first-cousins of these children were also deaf-mutes. One of the five 
 deaf-mutes married, but none of his children are deaf-mutes. 
 
 241. A marriage between third-cousins, which produced eight children. 
 Of these two became dumb and idiots at the ages respectively of four 
 and five years, without assignabla cause. 
 
 242. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one child who 
 became dumb when three years old, without assignable cause ; another 
 a girl was born dumb, and became paralysed shortly after birth. 
 
 243. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced five children, 
 Of these two were congenital deaf-mutes. The father married again a 
 person not related to him, and none of the six children resulting from this 
 second marriage were deaf-mutes. 
 
 244. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced eight 
 children. Of these three were mutes, one of the three being also deaf 
 another only dumb, and the condition of the third could not be as- 
 certained. 
 
 245. A marriage between first-cousins, a child born from which 
 became dumb at the age of two and a half years from fright in his 
 sleep. 
 
 246. A marriage between persons not related, but the parents and 
 grandparents of the husband were first-cousins. Two children born from 
 it were congenital deaf-mutes. 
 
 247. A marriage between persons not related, but the wife's parents 
 were first-cousins. They had one child, who was born dumb and an idiot. 
 
 248. A marriage between third-cousins ; the parents of the husband 
 were besides first-cousins. A child born to this marriage was congeni- 
 tally dumb, but the mother had been frightened during her pregnancy.^ 
 
 ' Case No. 236 reported by Carpenter, Human Pliysiology, p. 863, note. 
 
 ^ Case No. 237, reported by Goux ; see Boudin, Mc'm. de la Soi. iTAnthrop. 
 de Paris, 1863, i. 514. 
 
 ^ Cases Nos. 238 10 248 reported in the Irish Census Returns for 1871, Status 
 of Disease, p. 21. There were probably more children than here reported. 
 
366 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 249. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 The eldest of these was sound in mind and body ; the second was im- 
 becile ; the third died, but at what age and the cause of death is not 
 known ; the fourth was imbecile ; and the fifth became insane. 
 
 The eldest son was married twice, and each time to a person not related 
 to him. By his first marriage he had four children, of which two were 
 healthy, one became insane in adult life, and one died in early infancy. 
 By his second he had five children, of which one was healthy, one 
 eccentric, one imbecile, and two insane. 
 
 250. A marriage between first-cousins, in which apparently the 
 husband was derived from the family described in Case No. 249. Nine 
 children were boni, of whom the first was sound in mind, but scrofulous 
 and weak-sighted ; the second was sane, but short, had an impediment 
 in his speech, and a cleft palate ; the third was also sane, but suffered 
 from spinal curvature ; the fourth was an idiot ; the fifth was sane, but 
 suffered from bad sight ; the sixth was healthy in mind and body ; the 
 seventh was imbecile, deformed, and obliged to use crutches ; the eighth 
 was sound in mind and body, but short ; the ninth was an idiot and a 
 dwarf. 
 
 The second married a person not related to him, and has several 
 children, whose condition, however, is not known. 
 
 The third was unmarried. 
 
 The fifth married a lady not related to him, and the marriage proved 
 barren. 
 
 The sixth also married a lady not related to him, and in this case 
 also the marriage proved barren. 
 
 The eighth married a person not related to her, and has three chil- 
 dren, whose condition is not known. 
 
 251. The eldest child of the last case (No. 250) married his first- 
 cousin, and the marriage proved barren. 
 
 252. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these the first was eccentric, and remained unmarried ; the second 
 was sound in mind and a good business man but rachitic ; the third was 
 healthy ; the fourth was imbecile, dwarfish, and impossible to educate ; 
 the fifth was an idiot and a dwarf. 
 
 The third married a gentleman not related to her, and had two 
 children, of which one was an idiot, but the condition of the other was 
 not ascertained. 
 
 2 53. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several children. 
 Of these one boy was an epileptic idiot, but all the rest of the children 
 are sane and sound. 
 
 One of the daughters married a man not related to her, and had two 
 boys, one an epileptic idiot and one healthy. 
 
 This last one married a woman not related to him, and had one girl, 
 an epleptic idiot, but all the rest of his children were sane and sound.' 
 
 254. A marriage between first-cousins, whose fathers were brothers 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 249 to 253 reported by Mitchell, Mem. read before the Anthrop. 
 Soc. of !.ondon, 1866, ii. 405, 406, 40S. 
 
AI'PEXUIX 367 
 
 both salt-workers by profession, and in good health. They had six 
 children, two boys and four girls, all of whom were healthy and intelligent. 
 
 255. A brother of the father in the former case (No. 254) also married 
 his first-cousin ; both were salt-workers in the marshes, and they had 
 four children, one boy and three girls. The children are quite healthy, 
 and are all very intelligent. 
 
 256. A marriage between first-cousins, the children of two sisters. 
 They were fishers by profession, healthy, and had four children, one boy 
 and three girls. Of these one girl died of a chest-disease after she was 
 married, and another girl became slightly deaf after she was seventeen 
 years of age in consequence of a sore throat, which, in its turn, was 
 caused by exposure to the mists of the marshes while she was engaged in 
 her work at night. The other children are very healthy, and all four arc 
 very intelligent. The father was rather dull, but the mother was intelli- 
 gent. 
 
 257. A marriage between first-cousins, the children of a brother and 
 of his sister. Both were intelligent, handsome, and healthy, and salt 
 manufacturers by profession. By the time they had been married six 
 years, they had three children, one boy and two giris, all healthy and very 
 intelligent. 
 
 258. A marriage between first-cousins, the children of a brother and 
 of his sister. They were workers in the salt marshes, both handsome 
 and intelligent, and had six children, three boys and three girls. Of 
 these one boy died at nine years of age from an abscess in the thigh, 
 followed by necrosis of the femur ; the others are all healthy and intel- 
 ligent. The father had had inflammation of the lungs, and was since 
 subject to catarrh ; the mother had never had an illness. 
 
 259. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt- 
 worker, and the wife a worker in the marshes. Three children were 
 born to them, two boys and one girl. Of these one boy died during 
 service with the army ; a second boy is married, and has a healthy child ; 
 and the girl is in perfectly good health. 
 
 260. A marriage between second-cousins, both dealers by profession, 
 and the husband subject to articular rheumatism. Five children were 
 born to them, of which one boy died at the age of fourteen months from 
 a spinal disease ; a daughter died at the age of seventeen years from 
 typhoid fever ; and the other children are all healthy. One daughter, 
 aged twenty, is very big and tall, and a child only twelve years old is 
 very big and strong. The father was very tall. 
 
 261. A marriage between second-cousins, in which the husband was 
 a muleteer and the wife a worker in the salt marshes. When the parents 
 were aged respectively thirty-two and twenty-three years, they had one 
 child, very intelligent, and in good health. 
 
 262. A marriage between second-cousins the husband a salt factor, 
 and the wife a worker in the marshes. The health of both was good. 
 They had already six children by the time the husband was aged thirty- 
 four, and the wife thirty-six, two boys and four girls. There was besides 
 one abortion. All the children are healthy. 
 
3C8 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 263. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a 
 worker in the salt marshes, and healthy ; the wife was a salt factor, older 
 than her husband by one year, and very nervous. They had no children. 
 
 264. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a 
 worker in the salt marshes, rather a drunkard, and of poor intelligence. 
 The wife was a dealer, fifteen years younger than her husband, intelli- 
 gent, and worked for both. They had six children, two boys and four 
 girls, all healthy and intelligent. 
 
 265. A marriage between cousins of the seventh civil degree of relation- 
 ship. The husband was a lighterman, and died, when only thirty-three 
 years old, of brain-fever. The wife was a salt-marsh worker, healthy, 
 and intelligent. They had two children, one boy and one girl, who are 
 both healthy, intelligent, and tall. 
 
 266. A marriage between persons related in the seventh civil degree. 
 The husband was a shoemaker, and healthy ; the wife died of a liver 
 disease. They had eight children, two boys and six girls, and there was 
 also an abortion. One boy died at the age of two years. 
 
 267. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a fund- 
 holder, in good health. They had three children, one boy and two girls. 
 These three children are healthy ; one girl is married, and has four 
 healthy children, while the other is a tall, handsome woman. 
 
 268. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a shoe- 
 maker. They had three boys, all in good health, and besides one 
 abortion. 
 
 269. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, in good health ; the wife, a worker in the salt marshes, and four 
 years younger than her husband. They had three children, of which 
 one child died the fifth day after birth, and another of croup ; the third 
 was, however, quite healthy. The mother's mother is mad. 
 
 270. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband, a dealer, 
 and Mayor of Batz, was healthy, but not very intelligent. The wile was the 
 same age as her husband, and only married when aged thirty-eight. 
 She was rather stout, and rather deaf. They had five children, of which 
 two died at birth, two of convulsions at the respective ages of eight and 
 ten days, and the remaining child, a girl, is now aged twenty, and is per- 
 fectly healthy. 
 
 271. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, in good health ; but his wife was poorly, and frequently bled by 
 means of leeches, and five years younger than her husband. They married 
 young, and had one child, a boy, who is healthy. The father of the wife 
 was rather a drunkard. 
 
 272. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, healthy, and four years his wife s senior. The wife was married 
 when aged twenty-seven. They have four children, two boys, and two 
 girls, all healthy and very intelligent. 
 
 273. A marriage between cousins rekited in the fifth civil degree. 
 The husband was a salt factor, and three years his wife's senior. The 
 wife, like her husband, was perfectly healthy, and married at the age of 
 
APPENDIX 369 
 
 twenty-eight. They had four children, two boys and two giils, all 
 healthy and intelligent. 
 
 274. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a worker 
 in the salt marshes, rather a drunkard, and four years his wife's senior. 
 The wife followed the same profession as her husband. They had four 
 children, one boy and three girls, of which one girl, aged nineteen, is 
 scrofulous and consumptive. Nothing is known concerning the health of 
 the father's parents. 
 
 275. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, healthy, and two years his wife's senior. The wife was also 
 healthy, and worked in the salt marshes. They had five children, two 
 boys and three girls, all healthy. 
 
 276. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a worker 
 in the salt marshes, very healthy, but had been rather addicted to drunk- 
 enness ever since his twentieth year. The wife follow ed the same profes- 
 sion as her husband, and was five years his junior. They had nineteen 
 children, of which eight are living, the rest having all died at ages rang- 
 ing from two years to thirty. Not one, however, was malformed or 
 infirm ; they were all carried off by acute diseases. 
 
 277. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a worker 
 in the salt marshes ; two years his wife's senior, healthy, but fond of 
 drinking. The wife was of the same profession as her husband. They 
 had two children by the time the wife was thirty years old, both boys, 
 and healthy. 
 
 278. A marriage between second-cousins, both workers in the salt 
 marshes, and both healthy. They married when the wife was aged 
 twenty-three, and have eleven children, eight boys and three girls. There 
 was also an abortion. All the children were healthy and intelligent. 
 
 279. A marriage between second-cousins, both workers in the salt 
 marshes, and both healthy. The wife was three years her husband's 
 junior. They had seven children, five boys and tw o girls, all of them 
 healthy and intelligent. 
 
 280. A marriage between second-cousins, which proved bairen. 
 Husband and \vife were workers in the salt marshes, healthy and intelli- 
 gent, and the wife was two years her husband's junior. They have been 
 married twenty years. The wife was 28 at marriage. 
 
 281. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, who ultimately died of asthma. His wife was a worker in the 
 marshes, and healthy. They had two children, both boys, who are 
 healthy and intelligent. 
 
 282. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor. The wife was of the same profession and healthy. They had 
 four children, all boys, of which two died of croup, one is an advocate, 
 and one a salt factor. 
 
 283. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, healthy, and three years his wife's senior. The wife was a worker, 
 married at the age of twenty-four, and was healthy. By the time they 
 
370 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 had been married five years they had two children, both boys, healthy, 
 and big for their age. 
 
 284. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was healthy 
 and a salt factor by profession. The wife was a worker in the marshes 
 They had five children, of which three died at the ages respectively of 
 three, four, and seven years, all of acute diseases. One of the two sur- 
 vivors is married, and has four healthy children. The father of the 
 husband was rather a drunkard. 
 
 285. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a sailor, 
 in good health. His wife was a worker in the salt marshes, and the same 
 age as her husband. They had but one child, who died of croup, aged 
 four years. 
 
 286. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a 
 drunkard, and two years his wife's senior. The wife was healthy, Intel 
 ligent, and worked for both. They had three children, one boy and two 
 girls, all healthy and intelligent. 
 
 287. A marriage between second-cousins. Husband and wife were 
 workers in the salt marshes, both were healthy, and the husband was 
 four years his wife's senior. They had one child, a girl, healthy, and now 
 aged four years. 
 
 288. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, in good health, and two years his wife's senior. She was a 
 worker in the salt marshes, and also healthy. They have been married 
 five years, and have as yet one child, a boy, veiy healthy and intelligent. 
 
 289. A marriage between second-cousins. The husband was a salt 
 factor, and one year his wife's senior. They had one child, a girl, who 
 died, aged eight days, from an illness called cdran, characterised by fever 
 and purple spots on the skin. 
 
 290. A marriage between third-cousins. The husband was a car- 
 penter, in good health ; the wife was also in good health, and four years 
 the husband's junior. They had four children, three boys and one girl, 
 of which one child died from an accident, and the others are very 
 healthy. 
 
 291. A marriage between third-cousins. Husband and wife were 
 workers in the salt marshes, and in good health ; the wife was eight years 
 her husband's junior. They had four children, all girls, and very intelligent. 
 
 292. A marriage between third-cousins, both of them workers in the 
 salt marshes, and both in the enjoyment of good health. The husband 
 used occasionally to get drunk, and was six years his wife's senior. They 
 had two children by the time the wife was aged thirty, both boys, very 
 strong and intelligent. 
 
 293. A marriage between third-cousins, both workers in the salt 
 marshes. The husband was not particularly healthy, and was twenty- 
 two years his wife's senior. They had six children and one abortion. 
 These children, two boys and four girls, are very healthy and intelligent. 
 
 294. A marriage between third-cousins, both workers in the salt 
 marshes. The husband on some occasions got drunk, and was tw^elve 
 years his wife's senior. They had one child, a boy, healthy and intelligent. 
 
APPENDIX 371 
 
 295. A marriage between third-cousins, both workers in the salt 
 marshes, in good health, and of the same age. By the time tliey were 
 thirty-six years old three children had been born to them, two boys 
 and one girl. Of these one child died of croup, but the others are all 
 healthy. 
 
 296. A marriage between third-cousins, both workers in the salt 
 marshes, and in good health. The husband was eleven years his wife's 
 senior. By the time he was aged forty they had one child, a girl, very 
 healthy and intelligent. 
 
 297. A marriage between cousins related in the seventh civil degree. 
 The husband was a landowner, at least fifteen years his wife's senior, in 
 good health, but was already dead when his wife was aged thirty-seven. 
 The wife was also healthy. They had six children, one of whom died of 
 croup when two years old, and the rest are very healthy. 
 
 298. A marriage between third-cousins. The husband was eight 
 years his wife's senior, a Customs officer by profession, and in the enjoy- 
 ment of good health. The wife was a worker in the salt marshes, 
 healthy and intelligent. When she was aged twenty-five, one child had 
 been born to them, healthy and intelligent. 
 
 299. A marriage between third-cousins. The husband was a day 
 labourer, in good health, addicted to occasional drunkenness, and six years 
 his wife's senior, who was a worker in the salt marshes, and also in good 
 health. When the wife was twenty-three, one child had been born to them ; 
 it is aged fifteen months, is very strong, intelligent, and already speaks. 
 
 The other marriages which have taken place in the Commune of Batz 
 were all between relatives, but in more distant degrees, generally between 
 fifth-cousins.' 
 
 300. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 seven children, all healthy. Two of these married, and have a child each. 
 
 301. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 twenty healthy children. 
 
 302. One of these children married a first-cousin, and had six healthy 
 children. 
 
 303. One of the children in the last case married her first-cousin once 
 removed, and the marriage proved barren. 
 
 304. Another of the children. Case No. 301, married his first-cousin, 
 and had five children, who were scrofulous, ophthalmic, and wizened. 
 
 305. Another married his first-cousin, and had twelve children, of 
 which seven died, and the five remaining are scrofulous and poorly. 
 
 306. Another married her first-cousin, and had five children, of which 
 one was a mute, one club-fooled, one epileptic, and two rachitic, 
 
 307. Another married her first-cousin, and had nine children, of which 
 five died young. 
 
 308. Another married her first-cousin once removed. The marriage 
 proved barren during its eleven years. 
 
 ' €.150.=; Nos. 254 to 299 reported by Voisin, wlio examined a// the inhabit.inis 
 of the Commune of Batz ; see the Mem. de la So<. ifAnlhrop. de Paris, 1S65, ii. 
 
 448-459- 
 
372 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 309. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 eight healthy children. 
 
 310. One of these married her first-cousin once removed, and had 
 seven children, who all died young. 
 
 311. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced ten children, 
 the females rachitic. 
 
 312. One of these children married her first-cousin, also the child of 
 relatives, and had three healthy children. 
 
 313. Another married her first-cousin once removed, which marriage 
 proved barren. She was married a second time to a man previously un- 
 related to her, and had two children in the first two years.' 
 
 314. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four healthy 
 children. 
 
 315. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 ' several ' children, of poor health, and scrofulous. 
 
 316. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two healthy 
 girls. One of these that married proved to be barren. 
 
 317. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, in which the wife 
 was the daughter of relatives, and which produced three healthy children. 
 
 318. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 twelve children. Of these four died young, two were mutes, and one a 
 crdtin. 
 
 319. A marriage between first-cousins. The husband had been 
 married before, also to a first-cousin (see Case 302). This marriage produced 
 two boys, who were both rachitic when young. 
 
 320. One of these boys married his aunt, the sister of his father, and 
 had four children, all rachitic, two of which died young. 
 
 321. The other son (Case 319), married his niece, his brother's daughter 
 (Case 320), and the marriage proved barren. 
 
 322. Another son (Case 320), married his first-cousin, and had one child. 
 
 323. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one child. 
 
 324. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 both healthy. 
 
 325. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced, up to the time 
 of the report, three children. Of these two died young, and one was poorly. '- 
 
 326. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced seven 
 children, of which the eldest, a girl, died young of meningitis, and the 
 youngest, also a girl, of gastro-enteritis slioilly after birth. The remain- 
 ing five were healthy. 
 
 327. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children, 
 all healthy. 
 
 328. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 girls. 
 
 ' A third daughter married a first-cousin once removed, but the result is stated 
 variously by M. Poncet. On p. 199 he says seven healthy children were born. 
 On pp. 201 and 209 (observation xxvii.) he says the wife was barren. — ' Mariages 
 Consanguins a la Noria,' in the Rcciicils de Mem. de Mid. etc. Paris, 1865. 
 
 ■■ Cases Nos. 300 to 325 reported by M. Poncet ; see ' Des Mari.ages Consang. 
 a la Noria,' in the Rcrueih de Mem. de Med. etc. Paris, 1865, .\iv. 193-214. 
 
AIPENDIX 373 
 
 329. A marriage between first-cousins, which piodiiced three healthy 
 and particularly strong boys. 
 
 330. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 children. The husband died early. 
 
 331. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several 
 healthy children. 
 
 332. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several 
 healthy children. 
 
 333. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven healthy 
 children. 
 
 334. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 children. 
 
 335. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several 
 healthy children. 
 
 336. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several 
 healthy children. 
 
 337. A marriage between first-cousins, in which the husband was 
 born of first-cousins, and which produced three handsome and healthy 
 children. 
 
 338. A marriage between first-cousins, in which the wife now married 
 for the second time. Four healthy children were born. 
 
 339. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children. 
 The youngest died of diarrhoea, the result of weaning. 
 
 340. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these one died young of croup ; the other two were twins, and are 
 healthy. 
 
 341. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 of which two died young, and the remaining two are strong and healthy. 
 The husband in this case died of phthisis. 
 
 342. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these two died young of acute meningitis, and the remaining two are 
 healthy. 
 
 343. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eight children. 
 The eldest died immediately after birth of dystokia, three died of 
 typhoid fever, one of scarlatina, the remaining three, though of lymphatic 
 temperament, are healthy. In this case both parents were of lymphatic 
 temperament, especially the mother, who was in addition subject to 
 herpes. 
 
 344. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 four healthy children. 
 
 345. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 eight children. Of these two died young, and two when over twenty 
 years old of typhoid fever. The remaining four are strong and healthy, 
 and two who married have healthy children. 
 
 346. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 three healthy children. 
 
 347. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 four healthy children. 
 
374 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 348. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 three children. The eldest died of albuminuria, one of the sequete of 
 scarlatina ; the second was killed by a fall from a carriage ; the third is 
 healthy. 
 
 349. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 three healthy children. 
 
 350. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 three children, of which one died young. 
 
 351. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 two healthy children. 
 
 352. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 seven children. Of these one died of albuminuria, a sequel of scarla- 
 tina ; another had a contraction of the tendon of Achilles, which came on 
 six or seven months after birth ; the others were all healthy and had 
 nothing the matter with them. 
 
 353. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, in which the wife 
 now married for the second time. Four children were born, of which 
 two died young and one was drowned. The other one was well and 
 vigorous. 
 
 354. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 three children. Of these one died young, one died at the age of seventeen 
 of typhoid fever, and the third is healthy and the father of two healthy 
 children. 
 
 355. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 si.\ children, all healthy. 
 
 356. One of the children in the last case married his niece and had 
 one child, now aged about thirteen, healthy but not very strong. 
 
 357. Another of the children in Case 355 married his first-cousin, and 
 has one healthy child. 
 
 358. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 three children. Of these two died young, and one is healthy. The 
 mother seemed to have a scrofulous tendency. 
 
 359. A marriage between first-cousins. Only one child was bom in 
 fifteen years. 
 
 360. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, in which there 
 was only one pregnancy, ending in a miscarriage after seven months. 
 
 361. A marriage between uncle and niece, in which the latter was 
 aged about twenty years and the former about double. No children were 
 born. 
 
 362. 
 363- 
 364- 
 365. 
 
 366. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children, 
 all well-formed and healthy, with the exception that one has thrice had 
 attacks of St. \'itus's dance. The mother was of lymphatic temperament 
 and had also had a slight attack of chorea in her youth. 
 
 367. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced six children, of 
 
 Marriages between first-cousins, which proved barren. 
 
Ari'ENDix 375 
 
 which one died of croup, anotlicr of an eruptive fever, and a third had 
 several attacks of convulsions. With these exceptions all the children 
 were healthy and finely constituted. The father had had convulsions in 
 his infancy. 
 
 368. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several healthy 
 children and one which had an attack of apople.vy followed by hemiplegia. 
 In this case the mother's father had died of apoplexy. 
 
 369. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these one was a congenital deaf-mute, the other two were healthy. 
 The mothei-'s brother in this case was deaf and an idiot. 
 
 370. A man of fifty, who had had no children by his first wife, married 
 his niece aged twenty-one. Two children were born, healthy but of 
 lymphatic temperament, and one through malformation of the middle 
 ear is deaf on that side. The mother in this case is of lymphatic tem- 
 perament ; and the father's brother, stone-deaf. 
 
 371. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these two were idiots, and died at about thirty years of age. Several 
 members of the mother's family were mentally afflicted. 
 
 372. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these one is rather imbecile. There had been a case of madness in 
 the mother's family. 
 
 373. The husband in the last case on his wife's death married his 
 niece, by whom he had five more children, of which another was an idiot. 
 But in this case also one of the mother's family had been mad. 
 
 374. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these the eldest is an idiot ; the second died of phthisis aged twenty 
 years ; the three others are health)'. In this case the father's sister is 
 mad, and two other members of his family are not quite sane. 
 
 375. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these two are partially deaf ; but one of them became so only after a 
 severe fall, and the other became so at the age of about four years. The 
 father in this case had injured his spine, and there was, in all probability, 
 insanity in his family. 
 
 376. A marriage between uncle and niece, in which the latter was 
 about twenty years younger than her husband. Two children were born 
 of which one was an idiot and the other of low intelligence. 
 
 377. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 one congenitally blind, the other rickety. 
 
 37S. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 ten children. Of these three died young ; one at twenty years of age of 
 small-pox ; one is hump-backed ; one became a deaf-mute when aged six ; 
 and one is almost an idiot ; the remaining three are healthy. The mother 
 was delicate. 
 
 379. A marriage between first-cousins, in which the husband, himself 
 the issue of a marriage between first-cousins, was hump-backed. Thiee 
 children were born, of which two died of hydrocephalus at seven months 
 of age, and one of dysentery at eighteen months. 
 
 3S0. A marriage between first-cousins once removed, which produced 
 
370 THE MARraAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 four children. Of these two died at about seven or eiojht years of age of 
 meningitis ; one became at seventeen years of age epileptic ; and the 
 fourth is poorly. 
 
 381. A marriage between first-cousins, which resulted in an abortion 
 at three months, and one healthy child. 
 
 382. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced ten children. 
 Of these one stammers, and another has his spine slightly incurved ; 
 none of the others have anything the matter with them. One married a 
 person who was not related to him, and has two healthy children. 
 
 383. Another married his niece, and has one child who stammers, and 
 another healthy. 
 
 384. The stammering son of Case 3S2 also married a niece, and had 
 si.x children, of which one stammered, one was an idiot, and one mal- 
 formed. 
 
 385. The one with the malformed spine of Case 382 also married a 
 niece, and has only malformed children.' 
 
 386. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced over six 
 children. Of these three are deaf mutes, the fourth is healthy, and as 
 for the rest the reporter, M. des Carrieres, is ignorant as to their state of 
 health. 
 
 387. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children. 
 Of these the eldest suffered from hypospadias, situated near the root, nnd" 
 an ill-developed penis. He died at eighteen months of age. The other, 
 a daughter, was quite healthy. The parents were quite healthy. 
 
 38S. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several 
 children, boys and girls. Among the former one was malformed, and 
 although this did not prevent him marrying he had no children. The 
 father in this case was weakly and ill developed. The rest of the children 
 were healthy. 
 
 389. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced at least two 
 children. Both of these were idiots. 
 
 390. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 one of which was congenitally blind, and one quite sound and healthy. 
 Both the parents were healthy. 
 
 391. A marriage between first-cousins, which during the twenty-five 
 years of its existence proved barren. The wife, however, died of cancer 
 of the ovary. 
 
 392. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two chil Iren. 
 Of these one suffered from hydrocephalus, and died within twelve months 
 after birth ; the other was healthy. Both parents were healthy. 
 
 393. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one child, an 
 imbecile girl. 
 
 394. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one child, 
 healthy and intelligent.'- 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 326 to 385 reported by M. Rodet ; see 'Note pour servir k I'Hist. 
 des Mar. entre Consang.' in the Coitffn^s Mi'tina/ dc Frame, 2nd session, held at 
 Lyons, 1864, pp. 394 399. Paris 1S65. 
 
 - Cases Nos. 386 to 394 reported by M. Diunis des Carrieres ; see ' Note sur 
 
APPENDIX 377 
 
 395. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three liealthy 
 children. 
 
 396. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 children. 
 
 397. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these one died of phthisis, and one of small-pox, the other two were 
 healthy. In this case the mother died of phthisis. 
 
 398. A marriage between first-cousins, which only produced one child, 
 as the mother died soon after its birth. The child was healthy. 
 
 399. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced six healthy 
 children. 
 
 400. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these one died of phthisis, the others are healthy. 
 
 4ot. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eleven healthy 
 children. 
 
 402. A marriage between relatives which produced nine healthy 
 children. 
 
 403. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two healthy 
 children. In this case the mother was a widow when she married, and 
 not young. 
 
 404. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 children. 
 
 405. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two healthy 
 children. 
 
 406. A marriage between relatives, which produced eight children. 
 Of these several were in bad health. The mother in this case and two 
 of her brothers died of phthisis. 
 
 407. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four healthy 
 children. 
 
 408. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced eleven healthy 
 children. 
 
 409. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five healthy 
 children. 
 
 410. A marriage between relatives, which produced nine children. 
 Of these several were consumptive. The wife in this case was mad, and 
 several of her relations were consumptive. 
 
 411. A marriage between relatives, which produced two healthy 
 children. 
 
 412. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 children. 
 
 413. A marriage between first-cousins, which proved barren. The 
 husband in this case, who was born of a German father and English 
 mother, had married three times. His first union with a person not 
 related to him had produced one son, who became mad. His second 
 union, also with a person not related to him, proved barren like his third 
 with his cousin. 
 
 la Variete des Difforniites que prodiiisent Ics Maringcs Consanguine,' in the Contois 
 Medical de France, 2nd scsbion, held at Lyons, 1S64, pp. 443,444. Paris, lii65. 
 
378 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 414. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven healthy 
 children. 
 
 415. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three healthy 
 children. 
 
 416. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two healthy 
 children. 
 
 417. A marriage between relatives, which produced six healthy chil- 
 dren. 
 
 418. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one healthy 
 child. The parents separated a short time after marriage. 
 
 419. A marriage between relatives, which proved barren. In this 
 case the husband's family suffered from poor health, and several members 
 were barren.' 
 
 420. A marriage between second-cousins, which produced seven 
 children. Of these the eldest was a congenital deaf-mute, and died at 
 the age of seven of acute inflammation of the brain. The second, a girl, 
 also a congenital deaf-mute, of poor intelligence, married a deaf-mute, 
 and had five or six children, who all died young ; the third, a boy, con- 
 genitally deaf-mute ; the fourth, a boy, healthy and intelligent ; the 
 fifth, a deaf-mute ; the sixth, healthy, and speaks ; the seventh died 
 at the age of six months of convulsions. The parents in this case were 
 healthy, had no deaf-mutism in their family, but were of poor intelligence. 
 
 421. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven chil- 
 dren, and one miscarriage. Of these one boy was womanish in form 
 and voice. One girl died of phthisis at fourteen years of age. One boy 
 is healthy and taller than ordinary. Another, a girl, is slightly lame, 
 squints, and grew slowly. The fifth developed very slowly. The sixth 
 died when two months old. There was a miscarriage of seven months 
 caused by an acute illness of the mother. The last child died, aged 
 eighteen months, of inflammation of the ganglions. The parents were 
 healthy. 
 
 422. A marriage between uncle and niece, in which the husband was 
 aged forty-six and the wife seventeen. One child only was born, and 
 that had hydrocephalus. Both parents were healthy. 
 
 423. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children^ 
 of which one was healthy and the other a deaf-mute. The parents were 
 healthy. 
 
 424. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children, 
 who all died young. Both parents were healthy.- 
 
 425. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these one, now aged fifteen, had convulsions in infancy and suffers 
 from nervous tic ; the second, aged thirteen, also suffers from tic, and has 
 an impediment in her speech; the third, aged eight, is of feeble consti- 
 tution. 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 395 to 419 reported by Dr. Anderson Sniilh, ' lies M.iri.igcs 
 Consang.' in the Congris AUdUal de 1- ranee, 2nd session, held at Lyons, Ib64, 
 p. 447. Paris, 1865. 
 
APPENDIX 379 
 
 436. A marriage between first-cousins, which has produced two chil- 
 dren, tlie eldest aged two years, and both are poorly. 
 
 427. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 Of these the first weighed under one and a half pounds at birth, but 
 developed like other children ; a second had a dartrous affection ; and 
 the third sufl!ered from inguinal hernia, but recovered. The father's 
 mother was a deaf-mute. The mother's father was also a deaf-mute, and 
 the mother sufi'ered from chorea. 
 
 428. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these one had epilepsy when an infant, which was accounted for by 
 his having cut sixteen teeth at the age of thirteen months. The three 
 other children were quite healthy. 
 
 429. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced several mis- 
 carriages, several children who died young from brain affections, a child, 
 now aged nineteen, who was subject in his youth to epileptiform vertigo, 
 and is of feeble intelligence, and two healthy girls. 
 
 430. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these the eldest was lame in consequence of having had convulsions 
 as an infant. The second married a stranger, her first child died young, 
 and she is again pregnant. Another married a stranger, and has had five 
 children, of which two died young, and the three others are poorly. 
 
 431. The fourth married a first-cousin and had one child, which they 
 reared with difficulty. It had only three fingers on one hand. 
 
 432. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced one child, who 
 was poorly and small. 
 
 433. A marriage between uncle and niece, which produced ' many ' 
 children and some miscarriages. Of these several died young, the 
 remainder are feeble in intelligence, and one was club-footed. 
 
 434. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced seven children. 
 Of these one was a deaf-mute, the rest were healthy. The parents were 
 healthy.' 
 
 435. In a Protestant family on the isle de Rd three brothers married 
 three sisters, their first-cousins. To the first marriage five children were 
 born, of which the eldest died from convulsions when ten months old ; 
 the second, a girl, is scrofulous ; the third, a girl, died from convulsions 
 at the age of eight months ; the fourth, a girl, has an impediment in her 
 speech ; the fifth, a boy, is scrofulous, and slightly idiotic. 
 
 436. In the second marriage also five children were born. Theeldest, 
 a boy, is insane, scrofulous, and has an impediment in his speech. The 
 second, a girl, articulates slowly. The third, a boy, is scrofulous and a 
 deaf-mute ; he married a person not related to him, and has two healthy 
 children able to speak. The fourth, a boy, is a deaf-mute. The fifth, a 
 girl, is healthy ' 
 
 437. To the third marriage eight children were born. Of these the 
 first was still-born. The second, a boy, was a deaf-mute ; he married a 
 person not related to him, and has a child able to speak. The third, a 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 420 to 434 reported by Ileliot, Coiitr. (J fAtiiJe dt la Consan- 
 ^uiniU; Paris, 1875, pp. 51-55. 
 
380 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 boy, was scrofulous, and died of hydrocephalus, aged three years. The 
 fourth, a girl, is scrofulous, and could not speak before she was four years 
 old. The fifth, a boy who died in convulsions at the age of twelve months, 
 was thought to have been deaf. The sixth, a boy, is a deaf-mute. The 
 seventh, a boy, was scrofulous, and died at the age of five years. The 
 eighth, a boy, died at the age of ten months from convulsions, and was 
 thought to have been deaf.' 
 
 438. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children, 
 who were all scrofulous and died young. 
 
 439. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 scrofulous in their youth, but the daughter lived till the age of forty-five, 
 while the son, \vho became a sailor, lived to a greater age. 
 
 440. The brother of the husband in the last case also married his 
 first-cousin. Six children were born to them, four boys and two girls. 
 The boys were poorly when young, two died, who were almost idiots. 
 The girls were cjuite healthy. 
 
 441. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children, 
 all of them very scrofulous. 
 
 442. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children. 
 One of these died of hydrocephalus, and the two others of the sequelae of 
 scrofulous glands. 
 
 443. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children, 
 who were both scrofulous and died young. 
 
 444. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three chil- 
 dren, all scrofulous and rickety, but still living.- 
 
 445. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these the eldest died of convulsions at the age of seven months. The 
 second has a cleft-palate. The third, aged seven years and a half, is 
 healthy and intelligent. The fourth is microcephalous and suffers from 
 convulsions. The fifth, aged about three years, also suffers from con- 
 vulsions, and has not yet begun to speak. The parents were healthy. 
 
 446. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced four children. 
 Of these two died in infancy ; one, a deaf mute, rachitic and tubercu- 
 lous, died at the age of eight years. The fourth, a girl, has an asym- 
 metric cranium and face, and though intelligent is perverse and 
 debauched. The father in this case is a confirmed drunkard ; the 
 mother, indolent, of small intelligence, and forgetful. 
 
 447. A marriage between uncle and niece, when the former was aged 
 forty-five and the latter eighteen. Three children were born, of which 
 one, who died when seven years old, was scrofulous and a deaf-mute. 
 Another is half-imbecile, hysteric, passionate, and lisps. The third is 
 very intelligent, but squints with both eyes. 
 
 448. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced two children. 
 Of these the eldest at twenty-one years of age hanged himself after a 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 435 to 437 reported by Ponsin ; see Boudin, Mhn. de la Soc. 
 (VAnthrop. de Paris, 1863, i. 522, 523. 
 
 ■ Cases Nos. 438 to 444 reported by M. Ponsin ; see Heliot, Contribution d 
 rUludc de la Cons. Paris, 1875, p. 57. 
 
(|iiarrel with his father. The other fi)llows his father's occupation of a 
 tailor ; he is, however, a bad workman, stammers, is of small intelligence, 
 and passionate. The grandfather of the parents in this case hanged 
 himself. 
 
 449. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced three children, 
 of which the first was club-footed, and died before the age of three 
 months. The second squinted and died of bronchitis also before three 
 months old. The third is epileptic, and is now aged three years. In 
 this case the husband's father had hanged himself, and his mother was 
 mad. The wife's mother was also mad, and she herself hysteric. 
 
 450. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced five children. 
 Of these one was a deaf-mute, and suffered from chorea ; two died of 
 convulsions at seven months and four months of age ; and two were 
 healthy and intelligent, but one squinted, and the other had eleven fingers. 
 The father in this case was a drunkard. 
 
 451. A marriage between first-cousins, which produced a healthy son. 
 
 452. The son in the last case married his first-cousin, and they had 
 two children, who were both deaf-mutes. There was no illness among 
 the relatives of the parents. 
 
 453. A case of incest between father and daughter, which produced an 
 idiot infant. 
 
 454. A case of incest between father and daughter, which produced an 
 epileptic and rickety boy. 
 
 455. A case of incest between father and daughter, \vhich produced 
 a child which died of hydrocephalus at five months of age. The father 
 was a drunkard. 
 
 456. A case of incest between brother and sister, in which the latter 
 was by about fifteen years the elder, and which produced an idiot infant. 
 
 457. A case of incest between mother and son, which produced a 
 child which died of convulsions fifty-eight days after birth.' 
 
 458. A marriage between near blood relations, which produced twelve 
 children, of which eight were healthy. Of the remaining four all were deaf- 
 mutes, and suffered from bad and failing eyesight. In this case the 
 father had bad sight, but was otherwise healthy, as were all his relatives, 
 and also the mother and her relatives." 
 
 459. A marriage between first-cousins, who were both healthy, which 
 produced at least three children. Of these one, a boy, had cataract and 
 retinitis pigmentosa, and also stammered slightly. The other two, his 
 sisters, were, one of them deaf, and the other had retinitis pigmentosa 
 like her brother.' 
 
 ' Cases Nos. 445 to 457 reported by M. Legrantl du SauUe ; see Ilcliot, Con- 
 trill, li r£lU(le de la Coiisaitg. Paris, 1875, pp. 62, 63, 67, 68. 
 
 2 Case No. 458 reported by W. Tobin, ' Pigmentary Degeneration of the 
 Retina,' in the Americait Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, edited by E. A. F.ay, 
 xxix. 178-185, No. 3, for July 1884. 
 
 » Case 459 reported by A. Picard, in the Gazette Meduale de Fans, 3rd series, 
 1868, No. 23, xxiii. 332, 333. 
 
382 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE ABOVE CASES. 
 
 ^^diocy: Cases Nos. I, 2, 4, 19, 22, 59, 105-124, 133, 157, 200, 210, 222, 225, 
 
 229, 232, 233, 236, 238, 241, 247, 249, 250, 252, 253, 371-374, 376, 378, 
 
 384, 389. 393, 435. 440. 447> 453. 456. 
 Insanity: Cases Nos. 22, 231, 249, 436. 
 Hydrocephalus: Cases Nos. 10, 23, 49, ill, 119, 121, 133, 134, 379, 392, 422, 
 
 437. 442. 455- 
 Meningitis: Cases Nos. 12, 22, 88, 326, 342, 3S0, 420. 
 Epilepsy: Cases Nos. 27, 30, 51, 52, 59, 102, llS, 127, 133, 158, 205, 211, 
 
 236, 253, 306, 380, 428, 429. 449. 454- 
 Chorea : Cases Nos. 3, 366, 425, 450. 
 Convulsions: Cases Nos. 21, 23, 29, 34, 50, 53, 106, 115, 118, 121, 270, 279, 
 
 367, 420, 425, 430, 435, 437, 445, 45°. 457- 
 Squinting : Cases Nos. 421, 447, 449, 450. 
 
 Croup : Cases Nos. 29, 92, 94, 134, 269, 282, 2S5, 295, 297, 340, 367. 
 Whooping-cough : Cases Nos. 121, 124. 
 Paralysis : Cases Nos. 121, 157, 213, 242, 368. 
 ^Deaf-mutism: Cases Nos. 2, 5, 7, 8, 20, 22, 30-33, 3S-48, 57, S8. 64, 68, 138, 
 -'"'' 139, 140, 170, 193, 210, 226, 230, 234-236, 238-240, 243, 244, 246, 369, 
 
 378, 3S6, 420, 423, 434, 436, 437, 446, 447, 450, 452, 458. 
 Mutism : Cases Nos. 121, 238, 241, 242, 244, 245, 247, 248, 306, 31S. 
 Defective hearing : Cases Nos. 22, 34, 69, 88, 106, 214, 256, 370, 375, 437, 459- 
 Defective speech: Cases Nos. 7, 25, 49, 235, 250, 382, 383, 384, 425, 435, 436, 
 
 448, 459- 
 Blindness : Cases Nos. 66, 227, 229, 377, 390, 458. 
 Injuries to the eye : Cases Nos. 36, 221, 224, 229, 250, 304, 45S, 459. 
 Goitre : Case No. 126. 
 
 Cretinism: Cases Nos. 126, 127, 165, 20S, 318. 
 Polydactylism : Cases Nos. 14, 56, 450. 
 Anencephalous : Case No. 13. 
 Want of cranial arch : Cases Nos. 15, 117. 
 Hermaphroditism : Case No. 228. 
 Hare-lip : Cases Nos. 13, 61-63, 65. 
 Cleft palate : Cases Nos. 61, 65, 250, 445. 
 Club-foot: Cases Nos. 13, 222, 229, 433, 449. 
 Lameness : Cases Nos. 22, 44, 250, 352, 421, 430. 
 Malformations in general: Cases Nos. 2, 3, 8, 13, 25, 26, 69, 117, 156, 161, 
 
 250, 304, 352, 378, 3S4, 385, 387, 388, 421, 431- 
 Rickets: Cases Nos. 3, 28, 151, 164, 196, 197, 200, 252, 306, 319, 320, 377, 
 
 444. 446, 454- 
 Spinal disease : Cases Nos. 24, 55, 66, 250, 260, 37S, 382. 
 Dwarfing : Cases Nos. 30, 143, 144, 163, 199, 235, 250, 252. 
 Scrofula: Cases Nos. 25, 28, 30, 52, 136, 151, 152, 154, 159, 160, 163 165, 
 ^ 172, 196-199, 201, 203, 236, 250, 274, 304, 305, 315, 435, 436, 437, 43S, 
 
 439. 441-444. 447- 
 Tuberculosis: Cases Nos. 21, 35, S3, 107, loS, liS, 119, 132. 133, 147. 160, 
 162, 179, 182, 274, 374, 397, 400, 410, 42', 446. 
 
APPENDIX 383 
 
 Albinoism : Cases Nos. t, g, 16-18, 165, 237. 
 
 Hemorrhage : Case No. 29. 
 
 Psoriasis : Case No. 23. 
 
 Early death in the family: Cases Nos. 3, 8-12, 17, iS, 21-25, 29, 32, 35, 44, 
 50. 53. 54. 56, 61-65, 79, S2, 83, 91, 92, 94, III, 115, Ii7-ii9> 121-124, 
 132-136, 142, 147, 155-157, 161, 167, 170, 178 I So, 196, 199, 203, 212, 
 219-223, 235, 237, 25S, 260, 266, 269, 270, 276, 282, 2S4, 285, 289, 295, 
 297. 3°5. 307. 310, 318, 320, 325. 326, 339-343. 345. 348, 350, 352, 353, 
 354. 35S. 367. 378-380, 392, 421, 424, 435, 437, 438, 440, 443, 446, 449, 
 450. 455. 457- 
 
 Healthy children only in the family : Cases Nos. 6, 48, 70-73, 75, 76, 78, 80, 
 84, 85, 89, 90, 93, 95-98, 100, 103, 104, 130, 131, 141, 145, 146, 149, 150, 
 166, 171, 173-177, iSi, 183-1S8, 190-192, 206, 207, 209, 215-21S, 254, 
 25s. 257, 261, 262, 264, 265, 267, 268, 271-273, 275-279, 281, 283, 2S6- 
 288, 290-294, 296, 29S, 299, 300-302, 309, 311, 312, 314, 316, 317, 322- 
 324, 327-338, 344, 346, 347, 349. 35i, 355-357. 359. 394-396, 398, 399, 
 401-405, 407-409, 411, 412, 414-418, 451. 
 
 In which deaf-mutes marry : Cases Nos. 7, 8, 69, 240, 420, 436. 
 
 Still-born: Cases Nos. 3, 13, 74, 117, 122, 153, 155, 189, 211, 270, 437. 
 
 Abortion: Cases Nos. 99, 117, 134, 155, 189, 201, 203, 209, 212-214, 262, 266, 
 268, 278, 293, 360, 38 1, 421, 429, 433. 
 
 Incest, cases of: Nos. 62, 179, 217, 453-457. 
 
 Marriages between uncle and niece, or aunt and nephew : Cases Nos. 20, 23, 27, 
 
 29, 34, 59. 61, 67, 70, 84, 85, 125, 126, 127, 141, 142, 143, 148, 170-173, 
 212-216, 320, 321, 326, 356, 361, 370, 373, 376, 383, 384, 385, 422, 433, 
 447- 
 
 Marri.Tges between first-cousins born of cousins: Cases Nos. 91, 92, 95, 103, 104, 
 
 180, 239, 240, 251, 302, 304-307, 312, 322. 337, 357, 379. 43'. 452- 
 Marriages between first-cousins : Cases Nos. i, 3-14, 16, 17, 18, 22, 24, 25, 26, 
 
 30, 32, 35-39, 43-46. 49-58, 60, 63, 65, 66, 75, 76, 79, 81, 86, 87, 93, 94, 
 96-102, 105-108, no, 113, 115-118, 120-124, 128-139, 144-147, 149-153, 
 155-168, 174-178, iSi, 182, 193-211, 218-238, 242, 245, 249, 250, 252- 
 258, 311, 314, 316, 319, 323, 324, 325, 327-336, 338-343, 359, 362-369, 
 37', 372, 374, 375. 377. 381, 382, 3S6-401, 403-405, 407, 408, 409, 412- 
 416, 418, 421, 423-430, 432, 434-446, 448-451. 459- 
 
 Marriages between first-cousins once removed : Cases Nos. 48, 273, 300, 301, 
 
 303, 308, 309, 310, 313, 315, 317, 318, 344-355, 35S, 360, 37S, 380. 
 Marriages between se^oncUcousir^ Cases Nos. 15, 31, 40, 41, 42, 64, 71, 73, 
 
 74, 78, 89, 90, 109, III, 114, 119, 154, 169, 183-188, 243, 244, 259-264, 
 
 267-272, 274-289, 420. 
 Marriages between more distant relatives : Cases Nos. 33, 47, 69, 72, 77, 80, 
 
 82, 83, 88, 112, 140, 1S9-192, 241, 248, 265, 266, 290-299. 
 In which the children of cousins marry persons not related to them : Cases Nos. 
 
 2, 7, 8, 25, 48, 49, 68, 93, 102, 179, 240, 246, 247, 249, 250, 252, 253, 
 
 267, 284, 300, 316, 345, 354, 382, 38S, 420, 430, 436. 
 In which there is a double marriage of the same person, one consanguineous and 
 
 one not : Cases Nos. 18, 55, 56, 60, 98, 109, 195, 243, 313, 370, 413. 
 Marriages between persons not related : Cases Nos. 12, 18, 25, 55, 56, 60, 98, 
 
 109, 195, 243, 313, 370, 413- 
 In which the relationship is not stated: Cases Nos. 19, 21, 28, 402, 406, 410, 
 
 411, 417, 419, 458. 
 
384 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of Children Born to each Marriage.^ 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of No. of 1 
 
 Case 
 
 Births 
 
 Case 
 
 Births 
 
 case 
 
 Births 
 
 Case 
 
 Births 
 
 0^ 
 
 Births 
 20= 
 
 Case 
 
 Births 
 
 , 
 
 200 
 
 55 
 
 
 109 
 
 4 
 
 163 
 
 2<» 
 
 217 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 IIO 
 
 6 
 
 164 
 
 200 
 
 2l8 
 
 200 
 
 272 
 
 
 3 
 
 several 
 
 57 
 
 
 III 
 
 600 
 
 165 
 
 3<» 
 
 219 
 
 200 
 
 273 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 300 
 
 112 
 
 II 
 
 166 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 7 
 
 274 
 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 59 
 
 
 113 
 
 6 
 
 167 
 
 I 
 
 221 
 
 3 
 
 275 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 60 
 
 
 114 
 
 6 
 
 168 
 
 
 
 222 
 
 
 276 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 61 
 
 
 115 
 
 II 
 
 169 
 
 
 
 223 
 
 200 
 
 277 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 62 
 
 
 116 
 
 12 
 
 170 
 
 3'» 
 
 224 
 
 200 
 
 278 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 I 00 
 
 63 
 
 
 117 
 
 10 
 
 171 
 
 200 
 
 22s 
 
 200 
 
 279 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 64 
 
 
 118 
 
 6 
 
 172 
 
 many 
 
 226 
 
 200 
 
 280 
 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 65 
 
 
 119 
 
 7 
 
 173 
 
 200 
 
 227 
 
 2 00 
 
 281 
 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 66 
 
 
 120 
 
 4 
 
 174 
 
 
 228 
 
 i^ 
 
 282 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 121 
 
 6 
 
 175 
 
 "2"^ 
 
 229 
 
 70c 
 
 283 
 
 2 CO 
 
 14 
 
 I 00 
 
 68 
 
 I 00 
 
 122 
 
 2 
 
 176 
 
 2a, 
 
 230 
 
 10 
 
 284 
 
 
 IS 
 
 I CO 
 
 69 
 
 
 123 
 
 5 
 
 177 
 
 
 231 
 
 8 
 
 285 
 
 
 i6 
 
 I CO 
 
 70 
 
 
 124 
 
 5 
 
 178 
 
 200 
 
 232 
 
 8 
 
 286 
 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 71 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 179 
 
 6 
 
 233 
 
 5 
 
 287 
 
 
 i8 
 
 5 
 
 72 
 
 
 126 
 
 3« 
 
 180 
 
 6 
 
 234 
 
 several 
 
 288 
 
 I 00 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 73 
 
 
 127 
 
 200 
 
 181 
 
 200 
 
 235 
 
 60c 
 
 289 
 
 
 20 
 
 200 
 
 74 
 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 182 
 
 L 
 
 236 
 
 4 
 
 290 
 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 75 
 
 200 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 183 
 
 
 237 
 
 4 
 
 291 
 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 76 
 
 I 00 
 
 130 
 
 200 
 
 184 
 
 2 00 
 
 238 
 
 
 292 
 
 2 00 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 77 
 
 
 131 
 
 200 
 
 185 
 
 2oo 
 
 239 
 
 200 
 
 293 
 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 78 
 
 100 
 
 132 
 
 600 
 
 186 
 
 2oo 
 
 240 
 
 5«= 
 
 294 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 133 
 
 5 
 
 187 
 
 2 00 
 
 241 
 
 8 
 
 295 
 
 300 
 
 25 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 134 
 
 
 188 
 
 200 
 
 242 
 
 2 00 
 
 296 
 
 I 00 
 
 27 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 135 
 
 12 
 
 189 
 
 600 
 
 243 
 
 1 
 
 297 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 136 
 
 1300 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 244 
 
 298 
 
 I 00 
 
 29 
 
 
 83 
 
 
 137 
 
 
 191 
 
 200 
 
 245 
 
 I 00 
 
 299 
 
 I 00 
 
 30 
 
 
 84 
 
 
 138 
 
 200 
 
 192 
 
 2 00 
 
 246 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 
 31 
 
 200 
 
 85 
 
 2 00 
 
 139 
 
 400 
 
 193 
 
 3 
 
 247 
 
 100 
 
 301 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 200 
 
 86 
 
 
 140 
 
 200 
 
 194 
 
 
 
 248 
 
 I 00 
 
 302 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 87 
 
 
 141 
 
 200 
 
 195 
 
 
 
 249 
 
 S 
 
 303 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 142 
 
 3 
 
 196 
 
 6 
 
 250 
 
 9 
 
 304 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 
 143 
 
 
 197 
 
 many 
 
 251 
 
 
 
 305 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 144 
 
 200 
 
 198 
 
 200 
 
 2S2 
 
 5 
 
 306 
 
 
 37 
 
 200 
 
 91 
 
 
 145 
 
 I 
 
 199 
 
 5 
 
 253 
 
 several 
 
 307 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 92 
 
 3 °° 
 
 146 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 254 
 
 6 
 
 308 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 147 
 
 600 
 
 201 
 
 3 
 
 255 
 
 4 
 
 309 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 94 
 
 
 148 
 
 
 
 202 
 
 
 
 256 
 
 4 
 
 310 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 95 
 
 2 00 
 
 149 
 
 200 
 
 203 
 
 5 
 
 257 
 
 3« 
 
 3" 
 
 10 
 
 42 
 
 
 96 
 
 r 
 
 ISO 
 
 200 
 
 204 
 
 
 258 
 
 6 
 
 312 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 97 
 
 151 
 
 3» 
 
 205 
 
 3 
 
 259 
 
 3 
 
 3'3 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 98 
 
 
 152 
 
 
 ! 206 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 5 
 
 3H 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 99 
 
 3 
 
 153 
 
 2 
 
 ; 207 
 
 200 
 
 261 
 
 
 315 
 
 several 
 
 46 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 154 
 
 200 
 
 208 
 
 2 
 
 262 
 
 700 
 
 316 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 1 lOI 
 
 
 «SS 
 
 8 
 
 209 
 
 4C« 
 
 263 
 
 
 1 3'7 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 1S6 
 
 10 
 
 210 many 
 
 264 
 
 6 
 
 3>8 
 
 12 
 
 49 
 
 
 103 
 
 2 00 
 
 157 
 
 10 
 
 211 
 
 300 
 
 26s 
 
 2 
 
 1 319 
 
 
 50 
 
 ■2 
 
 104 
 
 3 °° 
 
 158 
 
 200 
 
 212 
 
 10 
 
 266 
 
 9 
 
 320 
 
 
 5« 
 
 
 lol 
 
 4 
 
 1 59 
 
 200 
 
 213 
 
 II 
 
 267 
 
 3 
 
 321 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 200' 160 
 
 200 
 
 214 
 
 7 
 
 1 268 
 
 4 
 
 322 
 
 
 53 
 
 4 
 
 107 
 
 800' 161 
 
 200 
 
 2.5 
 
 500 
 
 269 
 
 3 
 
 323 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 108 
 
 6 
 
 162 
 
 400 
 
 216 
 
 200 
 
 270 
 
 5 
 
 324 
 
 
 ' Each sign of fertility, such as an abortion, is put down ; 
 that probably more children were born than are reported ir 
 
385 
 
 Number of Children Bom to each jWamaf»— (continued). 
 
 No. of No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of No. of 
 
 No. of No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of 
 
 No. of No. of, 
 
 Case 
 
 Births 
 
 3« 
 
 Case 
 348 
 
 Births 
 
 case 
 
 Births 
 
 s 
 
 Case 
 394 
 
 Births 
 
 Case 
 4>7 
 
 Births 
 
 440 
 
 Births 
 
 32s 
 
 3 
 
 371 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 326 
 
 7 
 
 349 
 
 3 
 
 372 
 
 s 
 
 395 
 
 
 418 
 
 
 441 
 
 4 
 
 327 
 
 5 
 
 350 
 
 3 
 
 373 
 
 5 
 
 396 
 
 
 419 
 
 
 442 
 
 
 328 
 
 3 
 
 351 
 
 2 
 
 374 
 
 s 
 
 397 
 
 
 420 
 
 
 443 
 
 
 329 
 
 3 
 
 352 
 
 7 
 
 375 
 376 
 
 s 
 
 398 
 
 
 421 
 
 
 444 
 
 
 330 
 
 3 
 
 353 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 399 
 
 
 422 
 
 
 445 
 
 
 331 
 
 several 
 
 354 
 
 3 
 
 377 
 
 2 
 
 400 
 
 
 423 
 
 
 446 
 
 
 332 
 
 .. 
 
 355 
 
 6 
 
 378 
 
 10 
 
 401 
 
 II 
 
 424 
 
 
 447 
 
 
 333 
 
 7 
 
 356 
 
 I 
 
 379 
 
 3 
 
 402 
 
 
 425 
 
 
 448 
 
 
 334 
 
 3 
 
 357 
 
 I 
 
 380 
 
 4 
 
 403 
 
 
 426 
 
 
 449 
 
 
 335 
 
 several 
 
 358 
 
 3 
 
 381 
 
 2 
 
 404 
 
 
 427 
 
 
 450 
 
 
 336 
 
 .. 
 
 359 
 
 
 382 
 
 10 
 
 40s 
 
 
 428 
 
 
 451 
 
 
 337 
 
 3 
 
 360 
 
 I 
 
 3?3 
 
 2 
 
 406 
 
 
 429 
 
 5 0° 
 
 452 
 
 
 338 
 
 4 
 
 361 
 
 
 
 384 
 
 6 
 
 407 
 
 
 430 
 
 
 453 
 
 
 339 
 
 2 
 
 362 
 
 
 
 385 
 
 several 
 
 408 
 
 II 
 
 43 « 
 
 
 454 
 
 
 340 
 
 3 
 
 363 
 
 
 
 386 
 
 700 
 
 409 
 
 
 432 
 
 
 455 
 
 
 341 
 
 4 
 
 364 
 
 
 
 3f^ 
 
 2 
 
 410 
 
 
 433 
 
 many 
 
 456 
 
 
 342 
 
 4 
 
 3^5 
 
 
 
 388 
 
 several 
 
 411 
 
 
 434 
 
 
 457 
 
 
 343 
 
 8 
 
 366 
 
 3 
 
 389 
 
 200 
 
 412 
 
 
 435 
 
 
 458 
 
 12 
 
 344 
 
 4 
 
 367 
 
 6 
 
 390 
 
 2 
 
 413 
 
 
 436 
 
 
 459 
 
 300 
 
 345 
 
 8 
 
 368 
 
 several 
 
 391 
 
 
 
 414 
 
 
 437 
 
 
 
 
 346 
 
 3 
 
 369 
 
 3 
 
 392 
 
 2 
 
 415 
 
 
 438 
 
 
 
 
 347 
 
 4 
 
 370 
 
 2 
 
 393 
 
 « 
 
 416 
 
 2 
 
 439 
 
 
 
 
 Cases No. 
 
 Reported by 
 
 Case 
 
 sNo. 
 
 Reported by 
 
 
 I 
 
 to 4 
 
 . Bailey 
 
 143 t 
 
 3 147 
 
 . Sargenti 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 . Brochard 
 
 .48 
 
 . '54 
 
 . Moretti 
 
 
 6 
 
 , 8 
 
 . De Ranse 
 
 155 
 
 ,.56 
 
 . Longhi 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 . AuW 
 
 157 . 
 
 ,'58 
 
 . DeOrchi 
 
 
 
 , 21 
 
 . Devay 
 
 "59 
 
 , 170 
 
 . Demeva 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 . Forestier 
 
 171 
 
 . '79 
 
 . Roboletti 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 . Potion 
 
 180 
 
 , 192 
 
 . Liberal! 
 
 
 24 
 
 . 25 
 
 . Viennois 
 
 '93 
 
 
 . Bizzozero 
 
 
 26 
 
 . 27 
 
 . Bondet 
 
 194 
 
 . 197 
 
 . Zaniboni 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 . Teissier 
 
 .98 
 
 - 2>5 
 
 . Mantegazza 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 . Doyon 
 
 216 
 
 . 217 
 
 . Turck 
 
 
 30 
 
 . 48 
 
 . Chazarain 
 
 218 
 
 
 . Dobell 
 
 
 49 
 
 . 56 
 
 . Chipault 
 
 219 
 
 . 233 
 
 . Brooks 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 . Duteval 
 
 234 
 
 > 235 
 
 . Perron 
 
 
 58 
 
 . 59 
 
 . Trousseau 
 
 236 
 
 
 . Carpenter 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 . Lisle 
 
 237 
 
 
 . Goux 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 . Potier-Duplessy 
 
 238 
 
 , 248 
 
 . Reported in the Ir 
 
 sh 
 
 62 
 
 . 6s 
 
 . Rizet 
 
 
 
 Census for 1871 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 . Robillard 
 
 249 
 
 . 253 
 
 . Mitchell 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 . Peter 
 
 254 
 
 . 299 
 
 . Voisin 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 . de la Charri^re 
 
 300 
 
 . 325 
 
 . Poncet 
 
 
 70 
 
 , 92 
 
 . Bourgeois 
 
 326 
 
 , 385 
 
 . Rodet 
 
 
 93 
 
 . 96 
 
 . Devic 
 
 386 
 
 . 394 
 
 . desCarrieres 
 
 
 97 
 
 
 . Livy 
 
 395 
 
 , 419 
 
 . .Vnderson Smith 
 
 
 98 
 
 , 99 
 
 . Defert 
 
 420 
 
 . 434 
 
 . Heliot 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 . Dally 
 
 435 
 
 . 444 
 
 . Ponsm 
 
 
 01 
 
 , 104 
 
 . .-^ncelon 
 
 445 
 
 .457 
 
 . Lcgrand 
 
 
 05 
 
 , 124 
 
 . Down 
 
 458 
 
 
 . Tob.n 
 
 
 125 
 
 . "42 
 
 . Lombroso 
 
 459 
 
 
 . I'icaid 
 
 
3S6 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 M. Hervier says that he knew of twenty consanguineous marriages 
 among the population of Rive-de-Gier, a town of 1 5,000 inhabitants, which 
 were all of them without any bad results. Among the rest of the popula- 
 tion he met with twenty-three cases of sterility, twelve of deaf-mutism, and 
 three of polydactylism, all derived from marriages between persons who 
 were not related.' 
 
 Dr. Bemiss gives an account of 833 marriages between relations, 
 which need not here be given in full, as the account is not difficult to get 
 at,' and it would take up a great deal of space. The results, however, are 
 given in the following table — :' 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 
 
 ^§ 
 
 ^S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 is 
 ^0 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 ■a 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 A. Ince« with parent, or be- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tween brother and sister . 
 
 10 
 
 3'' 
 
 93'5 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 5i-2 
 
 
 3 '2 
 
 l6-i 
 
 3i'4 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aunt 
 
 
 
 75'4 
 
 i-o 
 
 ■;•(> 
 
 
 l'9 
 
 I'O 
 
 20'7 
 
 
 43 '3 
 
 C. Marriages between blood 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 relations, the issue of blood 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 se 
 
 4-.8 
 
 
 4-2 
 
 
 T2-8 
 
 
 1-7 
 
 i«-R 
 
 3-8 
 
 26-Q 
 
 D. Marriages between double 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27-2 
 
 
 
 ^•■i 
 
 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 35-0 
 
 E. Marriages between first- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cousins 
 
 
 
 24-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-"i« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •(■■s 
 
 G. Marriages between third- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-92 
 
 27 'o 
 
 
 
 
 • 7 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 13 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cousins, irregularly reported . 
 
 =4 
 
 S-o 
 
 ■7-5 
 
 ^•s 
 
 — 
 
 2-5 
 
 .0 
 
 "" 
 
 12-5 
 
 ~ 
 
 100 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 833 
 
 4-6 
 
 28-7 
 
 3-6 
 
 2-1 
 
 7-0 
 
 2-04 
 
 .. 
 
 7-6 
 
 2-4 
 
 22-4 
 
 Marriages between persons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in no way related . 
 
 1^5 
 
 f, 
 
 2'I 
 
 o'3S 
 
 O'l 
 
 o'7i 
 
 
 °3S 
 
 01 
 
 "" 
 
 
 This ' table of aggregates,' as Dr. Bemiss calls it, does not include all 
 the cases he gives ; for these are 873, producing 4,124 children, while the 
 table only gives S33, producing 3,942 children. I have besides noticed 
 that the averages of births are not quite correct, especially in Class A, but 
 have amended this in my copy of the table.' Of course these results are 
 
 ' Hervier, ' Des Mariages Consanguins,' in the Congris Maiiial dc France, 2nd 
 session, 1864. Paris, 1865, pp. 390, 391. 
 
 ' Bemiss, ' Report on Influence of Marriages of Consanguinity upon Offspring,' 
 Trans, of the Amer. Med. Assoc. 1858, xi. 334-419. 
 
 ' Ibid. pp. 420-423 ; but I have condensed it slightly. 
 
 * M. Devay is incorrect, as usual, in referring to these statistics. He says 
 873 marriages between relations produced 3,900 children, whereas they produced 
 4,124. These 873 marriages, he says, were contracted in the State of Ohio, 
 whereas they were spread over twenty-five different States. As we have already 
 seen, he falsely asserts that marriages between first-cousins are prohibited (see p. 1 38 
 of this work), and, as we shall see directly, is guilty of further carelessness (Devay, 
 Dii Danger, etc. pp. 141, 142). 
 
APPENDIX 387 
 
 open to the objections already given ; Dr. Bemiss himself says, ' It is 
 natural for contributors to overlook many of the more fortunate results 
 of family intermarriage, and furnish those followed by defective offspring 
 or sterility.' ' M. Boudin quotes the above statistics of Dr. Bemiss, but 
 without giving any authority, and because he did not copy them firsthand 
 he has given them wrongly.- He must, indeed, have obtained them 
 from the' Annales d'Hygiene," but he has contrived to make the further 
 blunder of attributing their collection to Mr. Morris, whereas Professor 
 O. W. Morris appears only to have been President of the American 
 Medical Association, who appointed a committee to enquire into the 
 subject.'' If M. Boudin had enquired a little further he would have found 
 that the ' Annales d'Hygifene ' obtained its information from Ranking's 
 ' Abstracts,' ^ which, oddly enough, took its information from the ' Dublin 
 Hospital Gazette,' which got its information from the' Art Medical," which 
 reprinted it from the ' Nouvelliste de Rouen.'" But M. Boudin did not 
 look any further, and, disdaining alike the doubts of Dally and the notice 
 of his authority, reprints his statement intact in the ' M6m. de la Soc. 
 d'Anthropologie.' ' 
 
 In another article Dr. Bemiss says of 34 marriages between relations 
 which he examined, 7, or 20-5 per cent., proved barren. The remaining 
 27 marriages produced 192 children,'-' or 5-6 children per marriage, barren 
 and fertile. Of these 192 children 58 died young, from causes which 
 were given in 24 cases, to wit : 15 from consumption, 8 frozn ' spasmodic 
 affections,' and i from hydrocephalus. Of the remaining 134, 46 were 
 healthy, 32 are said to be ' deteriorated, but without absolute indications 
 of disease,' of 9 nothing is stated, while of the remaining 47, 23 were 
 scrofulous, 4 were epileptic, 2 were insane, 2 were deformed, 4 were idiots, 
 2 were dumb, 2 were blind, 6 had defective sight, 5 were albinoes, and 
 I suffered from chorea. These make together 51 cases, but Dr. Bemiss 
 says they were only 47 : hence several must have been affected with one 
 or more of these diseases.'" 
 
 Dr. Howe obtained from Massachusetts statistical tables containing 
 17 cases of consanguineous marriage. ' Most of the parents were in- 
 temperate or scrofulous ; some were both the one and the other.' These 
 marriages produced 95 children, or about 5-5 per marriage ; 44 were 
 
 ' Bemiss, ' Report on Influence of Marriages of Consanguinity upon Offspring,' 
 Trans, of the Amer. Med. Assoc. 1858, xl. 323. 
 
 " Boudin, Ann. d" Hygiene, 1862, xviii. 13, where he %ay?, Morris obtained 883 
 returns of marriages between relations, which produced 4,013 children ! 
 
 = Annalcs'iFHygibie, 1862, xvii. 227. 
 
 ' //>/,/. ; and Bemiss, lit Slip. p. 322 ; and Ranking's .4/'j/rac/.c, 1861, xxxiii. 12. 
 
 ' V.M-\V\x\^i Half-yearly Abstract of the Med. Sciences, 1859, xxix. 10. 
 
 « December i, 1858. ' Ranking, ut sup. 1859, xxix. 10. 
 
 ' Mem. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris, 1 863, i. 511. 
 
 ' In Xhe Journal of I'sych., Med., and Mental Path, for April 1857, vol. x. 
 p. 369, it makes this number 191, and on the following p.age 192. I do not 
 know whether this mistake occurs also in the North Amer. Med.-Chir. Review, 
 for January 1857, from which this article is taken ; but it is copied with great 
 exactitude by M. I)ev.ay {Dti Danger, etc. pp. 140, 141). 
 
 "■ V>em\=.~-., Journal of Psych., Med., and Mental Path. 1S57, x. 369, 370. 
 
388 
 
 THE MAKRIAGK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 or 5-5 percent 
 
 , were idiots. 
 
 3, 
 
 r2-ope 
 
 cent. 
 
 , were deformed 
 
 „ 3-4 „ 
 
 „ imbecile. 
 
 
 
 
 (spinal, etc.) 
 
 „ 7-5 .. 
 
 „ insane. 
 
 6 
 
 . 4-1 
 
 
 ,, lame. 
 
 ,. 1-4 
 
 „ epileptic. 
 
 I 
 
 , 07 
 
 ,, 
 
 was rachitic. 
 
 „ 30 „ 
 
 „ paralytic. 
 
 22 
 
 > 150 
 
 
 were consumptive, 
 
 „ 1-4 
 
 ,, deaf-mutes. 
 
 
 
 
 scrofulous, or mani- 
 
 
 „ blind (con- 
 genital ?) 
 
 
 
 
 festly of weak con- 
 
 M 1-4 
 
 „ ' defective ' in 
 vision. 
 
 
 
 
 
 idiots, or nearly 50 per cent.; 12 were scrofulous or puny, I was deaf, 
 and I was a dwarf.' In some cases all the children were very scrofulous 
 and puny, and in one case, out of a family of eight children, 5 were idiots.' 
 Dr. Mitchell collected 45 cases of consanguineous marriage, of which 
 8 were either virtually or actually barren. The 37 fertile marriages pro- 
 duced 146 children, or an average of about 4 per fertile marriage, and 
 about 3 for all the marriages, barren and fertile. Of these children — 
 
 In 8 cases none of the above diseases or defects appeared among the 
 children ; and therefore 29, or 64'5 per cent., of all the marriages pro- 
 duced children who were affected in some way injuriously. Dr. Mitchell, 
 however, adds that, though his notes show a total of only 146 children 
 born, there were probably many more, since some of the marriages were 
 very prolific.^ 
 
 M. Cadiot collected 54 cases of marriages between persons related in 
 the third or fourth canonical degree with this result : — 
 
 No. Per Cent. 
 
 Barren . . -14 25 9 
 
 Marriages producing children who were scrofulous, 
 
 rachitic, idiots, or deaf-mutes . . . .18 33-4 
 
 Marriages which produced children who all died before 
 
 reaching adult age . . . . . .7 13-0 
 
 Marriages which produced healthy children . . 15 28-0' 
 
 M. Ancelon, however, as a complement to the above statement, gives 
 the results of an enquiry into the whole population of Dieuze, a town of 
 some 3,700 persons, composed of 800 families. The non-consa?iguineous 
 marriages gave the following results : — 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Barren 75° 
 
 Marriages producing children who were scrofulous, rachitic, 
 
 con.sumptive, idiots, or deaf-mutes . . . • •47'33 
 Marriages producing children who all died before re.iching 
 
 adult age 069 
 
 Marriages which produced healthy children . . . 44-93 
 
 ' M. Devay says : ' 44 sont idiots et 14 scrofuleux,' ignoring the classification 
 of Dr. Howe (Du Danger, etc. p. 142). 
 
 - Howe, ' On the Causes of Idiocy,' in \\\t Journal of Psych. , Med., and Menial 
 Pnth. July 1858, pp. 393, 394. 
 
 ' Mitchell. Mem. reml before the Anlhrop. .9«(-. of London, 1S66, ii. 403. 
 
 * C\i<lif)l, Comflrs Reiuius. 1S63, Ivii. 97S. 
 
nhcr chil 
 
 Jacques D. = A lady not related 
 
 riages all proved fer- 
 tile, though less so 
 than those of their 
 
 ffffa m b| J J: 5" I II I I 5l 
 
 ^^ir^^ 1^ ii II Vo zf o^iil -r 
 
 % ■! 1 -^. 3 ^-^ I i IS 
 
 I I T T I _J_ 
 
 
 HI Pit I 
 
 f ^^ I It f 
 
 
 1 1 I 
 
 I I 
 
 & i: 
 
 C. Iht <IJer 
 1725- il- "805. 
 
 i/ii; /la/ 15 children. 
 
 \l\ 
 
 
 S9' |p i*.^iS 
 
 
 It 
 
 ^- « I! I 1; 1; 1; M ^ 
 
 g i ?r « =■-_ 3.-;^ 3.-_ : 
 
 3 ff S^^i -_ P-;^ ?■£■ P-if 5. K? 
 
 I I s- r = I it tss- 
 
 
 ^•■ii 
 
 .•/iuif.,:i J«5. Af^„ulix 
 
 (/^r<»/« .1/. Bourgeois GentahgUal Table : ' Comptks Rbnovs, 
 
Al'l'lCNDlX 3S9 
 
 There were only four consanguineous marriages, which are given above, 
 Cases Nos. 101 to 104.' 
 
 Of 13 cases collected by M. Devay 8 were barren, 4 produced scrofu- 
 lous children, who all died before they had attained their fourteenth year, 
 and I produced a child afflicted with ichthyosis. Of another set of 26 cases 
 he collected, 1 1 turned out unfortunately : i produced an epileptic child, 
 3 others produced children who died of hydrocephalus or convulsions, 2 
 were barren, and 5 ' produced two children whose state of health left 
 much to be desired ' ; 4 only produced healthy offspring. To these 
 observations M. Devay adds 82 more, which ' offer much analogy to the 
 preceding ones.' Of these 14, he says, were barren, 'which makes with 
 the eight mentioned above, in all 22.' Of these 22 cases of sterility, he 
 continues, 16 were absolutely sterile, and in six there were miscarriages, 
 but the marriages remained barren; and out of the whole 121 cases of con- 
 sanguineous marriage he found 17 cases in which there had been mis- 
 carriages, of which II were preceded or succeeded by births. In the 82 
 cases there was another example of ichthyosis.- 
 
 Of 19 cases recorded of marriages between relatives by M. Courtans, 
 from Upper Savoy, 6 idiots were born, 5 imbeciles, and 6 rachitic children.' 
 
 Dr. Viennois found that among 6 marriages of persons related to 
 each other, i was barren, and the 5 fertile unions produced 14 children, or 
 an average of 2'8 children per marriage. Of these i was an idiot, 2 were 
 blind, 3 were lame, and i had hydrocephalus, or, rather, there was a dis- 
 proportion between the head and body.' 
 
 M. Dally reports a case of continual intermarriage between two fami- 
 lies. These marriages never took place in a nearer degree than first- 
 cousins, except in two instances, where the daughter of first-cousins has 
 married her uncle. This has continued for five generations, and the 
 mean number of children per marriage was 3 or 4. The total number 
 of descendants, direct and collateral, is 120 to 140, and this in spite of 
 the fact that many members of the family remained unmarried. There 
 has not been a single case of idiocy or deaf-mutism ; but there were two 
 deaths from consumption, caused in the one case by a cold, and the other 
 from no appreciable cause ; and i case of senile insanity in a female aged 
 68, who died three years after. There was no predisposition to disease 
 manifested in the family, except perhaps to rheumatism, and that was 
 limited to a few individuals.^ 
 
 M. Bourgeois gives a genealogical table from his own family, in which, 
 in the course of five generations, there were more than eight consan- 
 guineous marriages. Only one of these marriages proved barren, and 
 that was not a marriage of consanguinity : in this case the fault probably 
 lay with the wife, who was no relation ; the husband was the offspring of 
 cousins three generations higher up. Of all the eight consanguineous 
 
 ' Ancelon, Comptes Reniius, 1864, Iviii. 166, 167. 
 
 ■•' Devay, Du Dmiger, etc. pp. 89, go, 93, 104. 
 
 ' Mantegarza, Studj sui Malrim. Cons. p. 20. 
 
 ' Devay, Un Afot sur le Danger lies Mai-. Cons. p. 30. 
 
 ' Dally, Rn here lies, etc. p. 51. 
 
Two other children. 
 
 lean D. 
 1664. 
 
 Jacques I harlotte D. 
 
 'lusbmuTs first- 
 
 Alexander D. 
 1740. d. 1S06. 
 
 Flavie D. 
 1750. d. 1830. 
 = Sl. Martin G. 
 
 Charlotte D. 
 
 1734. d. 1805. 
 
 = G., the elder 
 
 brother. 
 
 q.v. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 P K-d 
 
 11 l=p 
 
 I I 
 
 
 i I 
 
 I I I I 
 
 ■§■ i- i- o ^ 
 
 [To /act pa (:e 38?, Ap/>cndix. 
 
Airi.Nuix 389 
 
 There were only four consanguineous marriages, which are given above, 
 Cases Nos. 101 to 104.' 
 
 Of 13 cases collected by M. Devay 8 were barren, 4 produced scrofu- 
 lous children, who all died before they had attained their fourteenth year, 
 and I produced a child afflicted with ichthyosis. Of another set of 26 cases 
 he collected, 1 1 turned out unfortunately : i produced an epileptic child, 
 3 others produced children who died of hydrocephalus or convulsions, 2 
 were barren, and 5 ' produced two children whose state of health left 
 much to be desired ' ; 4 only produced healthy offspring. To these 
 obser\'ations M. Devay adds 82 more, which ' offer much analogy to the 
 preceding ones.' Of these 14, he says, were barren, ' which makes with 
 the eight mentioned above, in all 22.' Of these 22 cases of sterility, he 
 continues, 16 were absolutely sterile, and in si.\ there were miscarriages, 
 but the marriages remained barren; and out of the whole 121 cases of con- 
 sanguineous marriage he found 17 cases in which there had been mis- 
 carriages, of which II were preceded or succeeded by births. In the 82 
 cases there was another example of ichthyosis.- 
 
 Of 19 cases recorded of marriages between relatives by M. Courtans, 
 from Upper Savoy, 6 idiots were born, 5 imbeciles, and 6 rachitic children.' 
 
 Dr. Viennois found that atnong 6 marriages of persons related to 
 each other, i was barren, and the 5 fertile unions produced 14 children, or 
 an average of 28 children per marriage. Of these I was an idiot, 2 were 
 blind, 3 were lame, and i had hydrocephalus, or, rather, there was a dis- 
 proportion between the head and body.' 
 
 M. Dally reports a case of continual intermarriage between two fami- 
 lies. These marriages never took place in a nearer degree than first- 
 cousins, except in two instances, where the daughter of first-cousins has 
 married her uncle. This has continued for five generations, and the 
 mean number of children per marriage was 3 or 4. The total number 
 of descendants, direct and collateral, is 120 to 140, and this in spite of 
 the fact that many members of the family remained unmarried. There 
 has not been a single case of idiocy or deaf-mutism ; but there were two 
 deaths froin consumption, caused in the one case by a cold, and the other 
 from no appreciable cause ; and I case of senile insanity in a female aged 
 68, who died three years after. There was no predisposition to disease 
 manifested in the family, except perhaps to rheumatism, and that was 
 limited to a few individuals.' 
 
 M. Bourgeois gives a genealogical table from his own family, in which, 
 in the course of five generations, there were more than eight consan- 
 guineous marriages. Only one of these marriages proved barren, and 
 that was not a marriage of consanguinity : in this case the fault probably 
 lay with the wife, who was no relation ; the husband was the offspring of 
 cousins three generations higher up. Of all the eight consanguineous 
 
 ' Ancelon, Contptes Rendus, 1864, Iviii. 166, 167. 
 '' Devay, Du Danger, etc. pp. 89, 90, 93, 104. 
 ' Mantegazza, Studj sui Mairim. Cons. p. 20. 
 
 • Devay, Un Afot sur h Danger des Mar. Com. p. 30. 
 
 • Dally, Re<herches, etc. p. 51. 
 
THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 390 
 
 marriages here given, only the grandchildren and great-grandchildren 
 of Flavien and Emilie G. are at all scrofulous ; all the others are healthy. 
 The last generation is as yet incomplete.' 
 
 M. Seguin gives the results of ten consanguineous marriages which 
 have occurred in his own family. These give an average of 6-i children 
 per marriage, of which the average life was 30 years. One of these 
 marriages was barren, which makes the fertile marriages average 6-8 
 children per marriage. There was not a single case of deaf-mutism, 
 hydrocephalus, impediment of speech, or supernumerary fingers or toes 
 among all these children, and this notwithstanding that the relationship 
 of the parents was very close and complicated, as may be seen from the 
 following table : — ^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ■o 
 
 I 
 
 -S& 
 
 
 Degree of the 
 
 n 
 
 h 
 
 if 
 
 il. 
 
 
 Relationship of the 
 
 ■oS 
 
 ^.2 
 
 "i 
 
 
 
 Parents 
 
 ll 
 
 5^ 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 (2 
 
 H 
 
 
 m_ 
 
 I. Jean r.nptiste de Montgolfier, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iiinrri, ,1 Me.anie de Montgolfier . 
 
 First-cousins 
 
 .805 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 520 
 
 II. i:iic dc Montgolfier, mar- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ri«l rauline Hiiret, daughter of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JcaiiUL- d^ Montgolfier 
 
 „ 
 
 1S12 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 320 
 
 III. Raymond, son of filie de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montgolfier, married Julie Seguin, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 daughter of Augustine, who was 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the daughter of Jeanne de Mont- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 golfier ' ... 
 
 ,, 
 
 1840 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 55 
 
 IV. Laurent, son of Elie de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montgolfier, • married Ileline 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seguin, daughter of Augustine, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 daughter of Jeanne de Montgol- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fier 
 
 ,, 
 
 1S40 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 V. Eugene de Montgolfier, 
 married Jenny de Montgolfier . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 
 
 1S45 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 55 
 
 VI. Marc Seguin, married 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Augustine, daughter of Jeanne de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montgolfier .... 
 
 ,, 
 
 18.3 
 
 '3 
 
 5 
 
 450 
 
 VII. The same, married a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 second time to Augustine, daugh- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ter of filie de Montgolfier . 
 
 Uncle and niece 
 
 1S3S 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 70 
 
 VIII. Camille Seguin, mar- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ried Celie, daughter of Jeanne 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seguin 
 
 First-cousins 
 
 1814 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 320 
 
 IX. Paul Seguin, married The- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^se, daughter of Camille Seguin 
 
 Uncle and niece 
 
 1840 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 X. Joseph Seguin, married 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marie, daughter of Lydie de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montgolfier .... 
 
 First-cousins 
 
 1858 
 
 ° 
 
 ° 
 
 
 
 ' Bourgeois, Comptes Rendus, 1S63, Ivi. 180, 181; and Quelle est T Influence, 
 etc. Thtse No. 91, Paris, 1859, pp. 27, 28. 
 
 '' Seguin, Comptes Rendus, 1863, Ivii. 253, 254. 
 
APPENDIX 391 
 
 Mr. Power says that from five marriages between first-cousins among 
 his own immediate relations 33 children were born, or 6-6 per marriage. 
 Of these 8 died young, or 24-3 per cent. ; i from teething, 2 from croup, 
 and one from whooping-cough (all injudiciously fed), i from accident, 
 I from cyanosis, and 2 from well marked scrofulous disease. The last 
 two deaths occurred in the same family, and were the only offspring of 
 an extremely obese father and a highly scrofulous mother. The sur- 
 viving children are of an unusually fine and healthy growth.' 
 
 M. Perier says that for some years he has noted down every case of 
 consanguineous marriage which he has heard of. These cases now, he 
 says, amount to 26 ; for the most part between second-cousins, and 
 generally among the well-to-do class, and where the parents are in good 
 health ; nor was there among the whole 26 a single case of misadventure, 
 fairly attributable to consanguinity and isolated from every other cause.' 
 
 Mr. Lathrop, in answer to his inquiries, received returns as to 25 
 marriages between 'near relations,' which produced 107 children, or an 
 average of 4-28 per marriage. Of these 4 were insane and 1 1 idiots : but 
 9 out of the 15 whose minds were unsound became so from known causes 
 other than consanguinity, leaving 6 only, or 5-6 per cent., not specially 
 accounted for.^ 
 
 ' Carpenter's Human Physiology, 1869, p. 863, note. 
 
 = Perier, Mhn. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. dt Paris, 1S63, i. 236. 
 
 • Lathrop, Boston Med. and Surg. Journ. c. 837. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 WORKS ON THE IMPEDIMENTS TO MARRIAGE. 
 
 IN this bibliography I have endeavoured to collect everything 
 that has been written upon the impediments to marriage, ex- 
 clusively of general works on marriage and newspaper articles. It is 
 therefore, I venture to think, the most comprehensive bibliography 
 that has ever been attempted upon any subject, and upon this score, 
 and considering the extreme difficulty of collecting journalistic articles, 
 pamphlets that perish without leaving a trace behind, and a class of 
 works usually passed over by all bibliographies, I trust I may be fairly 
 excused the inevitable imperfections. 
 
 I have divided it under the following heads : — 
 
 I. The Development of Marriage Law. 
 
 II. Works upon Relationship. 
 
 III. Christian Impediments to Marriage. 
 
 IV. Henry VIII.'s Divorce. 
 V. Marriages of Affinity. 
 
 VI. Consanguineous Marriage physiologically considered. 
 
 The arrangement is chronological, with a further sub-arrangement 
 alphabetically under the author's names for those works published in 
 the same year. To the whole I have added an alphabetical index to 
 the author's names. 
 
394 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARRIAGE LAW. 
 
 1763 Vicissitvdines luris Romani de Incestis Nvptiis. By J. H. Paber. 
 
 Leipsic. Sm. 410. 1763. 
 1859 Ancient Marriages of Consanguinity. By Isaac Casselberry. In the 
 
 Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery, No. 5, for November, 
 
 1859, vol. xvii. pp. 392-428. Nashville. 8vo. 
 1861 Das Mutterrecht eine Untersuchung iiber die Gynaikokratie der alten 
 
 Welt nach ihrer religiosen und rechtlichen Natur. By J. J. Bacb- 
 
 ofen. 4to. Stuttgart, 1861. 
 Ancient Law : its Connection with the Early History of Society and its 
 
 Relation to Modern Ideas. By Sir H. S. Maine. 8vo. London, 
 
 1861. 5th edit. 1874. loth edit. 1885. 
 
 Contains, Chap. K, ' Primitive Society and Modern Law.' 
 
 1865 Primitive Marriage. An Inquiry into the Origin of the Form of Capture 
 
 in Marriage Ceremonies. By Tobn r. M'^ennan. 8vo. Edin- 
 burgh, 1865. 
 
 2nd edit, with reprinted Essays. 8vo. London, 1876. 
 'Consanguinity in Marriage.' By vrm. Adam. In the Fortnightly 
 Review, No. I2, for November i, vol. ii. pp. 710-730; and No. 13, 
 for November 15, vol. iii. pp. 74-88. 1865. London. 8vo. 
 
 1866 'Kinship in Ancient Greece.' Part I. in the Fortnightly Review, new 
 
 series, vol. iv. pp. 569-588. No. 23, for April. Part. II. Hid. pp. 
 682-691, No. 24, for May. By J. P. M'Xiennaii. 8vo. London, 
 1866. 
 1868 'A Conjectural Solution of the Origin of the Classificatory System of 
 Relationship.' By Xiewls H. Morgan. In the Proceedings of the 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. vii. pp. 436-477. 8vo. 
 Boston and Cambridge, 1868. 
 
 1870 The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental 
 
 and Social Condition of Savages. By Sir John l,ubbook. 8vo. 
 London, 1870. 4th edit. 1882. 
 
 Contains, Chap. III., ^Marriage and Relationship: 
 
 1871 'On the Development of Relationships.' In the Journ.il of the Anthro- 
 
 pological Institute, vol. i. pp. 1-29. No. 1, for Jan. -July. By Sir 
 John I.ubbock. Svo. London, 1 871. 
 
lUia.ioGRAPiiY 395 
 
 'The Leviratc and Polyandry.' In the Fortni.<,'htly Review, new series, 1877 
 
 vol. xxi. pp. 694-707, No. 125, for May. liy J. F. M'liennaii. 8vo. 
 
 London, 1877. 
 ' Exogamy and Endogamy.' liy J. r. M'tennan. In the Fortnightly 
 
 Review, new series, vol. xxi. pp. 884-S95, No. 126, for June i. 8vo. 
 
 London, 1877. 
 Ancient Society, or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from 
 
 Savagery through Barbarism to Civilisation. P>y lewis H. IWorgan. 
 
 8vo. London, 1877. 
 'A Short Rejoinder' [to M'Lennan]. Ry Herbert Spencer. In tlie 
 
 Fortnightly Review, new series, vol. xxi. pp. 895-902, No. 126, for 
 
 June I. 8vo. London, 1877. 
 'Abstammung und Vervvandtschaft.' By A. Bastian. In the Zeit- 187S 
 
 schrift fiir Ethnologic, vol. ix. pp. 43-74. 8vo. Berlin, 187S. 
 Although a continuation is promised ttone has appeared. 
 
 ' The Goel' By John Fenton. In the Theological Review, a Quarterly 
 Journal of Religious Thought and Life, vol. xv. pp. 495-5 '3. No. 63, 
 for October. 8vo. London, 1878. 
 
 ' Intercommunale Ehe durch Raub und Kauf.' By M. Knilsctaer. In 
 the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, vol. x. pp. 193-226. 8vo. Berlin, 1878. 
 
 ' The Primitive Human Family.' In the Journal of the Anthropological 1879 
 Institute, vol. i.x. pp. 3-19, No. i, for August. By c. S. IWake. 8vo. 
 London, 1879. 
 
 Antiquarische Briefe vornemlich zur Kaintniss der altesten Verwandt- 1880 
 schaftsbegriiTe, i.-xxx. By J. T. Bacbofen. 8vo. Strassburg, 18S0. 
 
 Kamilaroi and Kurnai. Group Marriage and Relationship, and Mar- 
 riage by Elopement. Drawn chiefly from the usage of the .'\ustralian 
 Aborigines. By the Rev. Iiorimer Fison and A. 'V. Howltt, with 
 an Introduction by I.ewls H. Morgan. Svo. Melbourne, 1880. 
 
 ' Marriage Laws of the Australian Blacks.' In the Saturday 
 Review, vol. li. pp. 215, 216, No. 1320, for February 12. Fol. 
 London, 1881. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 
 'From Mother-Right to Father-Right.' In the Journal of the Anthro- 1882 
 pological Institute, vol. xii. pp. 30-46, No. I, for August. By the 
 Rev. I.orlmer Flson and A. "W. Howltt. 8vo. London, 18S2. 
 Dissertations on Early Law and Custom. Chiefly selected from Lectures 1883 
 delivered at Oxford. By Sir H. S. Wlatne. 8vo. London, 1883. 
 Contains, Chap. VII., ' Theories of Primitive Society.' Chap. VIII., 
 ' East European House Communities.' 
 Over de Verwantschap en het Huwelijks- en Erfrecht bij de Volken van 
 het Maleische Ras. l>y O. A. wilken. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1883. 
 Reprinted from ' de Indischc Gidb' for .May 1883. 
 
39*5 THE iMAKKIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1884 ' On tlie Deme and the Horde.' By A. vr. Howltt and X.orlmer rison. 
 
 With Discussion. In the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of 
 Great Biitain and Ireland, vol xiv. pp. 142-169, No. 2, for November. 
 8vo. London, 1884 
 Het Matriarchaat bij de oude Arabiern. By C. A. 'Wllken. Amster- 
 dam, 1884. 
 
 Das Matriarchat (Das Mutter-rechtj bei den Allen Arabern. 8vo. 
 Leipzig, 1884. 
 
 Authorised translation from the Dutch. 
 
 1885 ' Notes on some Tribes of New South Wales.' By A. Xi. P. Cameron. 
 
 In the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, vol. xiv. pp. 344-370, No. 4, for May. 8vo. London, 1885. 
 
 The Patriarchal Theory. Based on the Papers of the late John Fer- 
 guson M'Lennan. Edited and completed by Bonald M'^ennan. 
 8vo. London, 1885, 1886. 
 
 ' The Patriarchal Theory.' In the Qu.^RTERLY Review, vol. 
 clxii. pp. 181-209, No. 323, for January. 8vo. London, 1886. 
 A Review on the above. 
 
 ' On the Customs of Marriage and Systems of Relationship among the 
 Australians.' By Sir Jobn Xiubbock. In the Journal of the Anthro- 
 pological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. xiv. pp. 292- 
 300, No. 4, for May. 8vo. London, 1 88 5. 
 
 Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. By AW. Robertson Smitb. Svo. 
 Cambridge and London, 1885. 
 
 ' Eenige Opmerkingen naar Aanleiding eener Critick van mijn " Matri- 
 archat bij de oude Arabiern.* ' By G. A.. 'Wilken. In the Bijdragen 
 tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie. The 
 Hague, 1885. 
 
 1886 ' Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia.' By James C Traser. In the 
 
 Academy, pp. 220, 221, No. 725, for March 27. 4to. London, 1886. 
 Primitive Law. By Prof. Kovalevskl. 1S86. 
 
 In Russian. On Matriarchalism and Patriarclialism, especially as 
 regards M'Lenttan and Maine's Views. 
 ' Primitive Marriage in Bengal.' By H. H. Rlsley. In the Asiatic 
 
 Quarterley Review, vol. ii. pp. 71-96, No. 3, for July. Svo. London, 
 
 1886. 
 'On Marriage by Capture.' By C. Staniland VTake. Read before the 
 
 AthenEEum Society, November 11, 18S6. 
 
 1887 ' On the Evidence for Mr. M'Lennan's Theory of the Primitive Human 
 
 Horde.' By C Zi. Comme. In the Journal of the Anthropological 
 Institute. Svo. London, 1887. 
 ' The Form of Capture in Marriage Ceremonies.' In the We.stminstkr 
 Review, vol. cxxviii. pp. 283-294, No. 3, for June. Svo. London, 
 1887. 
 
Kllil.IOGRAPHY 397 
 
 IVORKS ON RELATIONSIIir. 
 
 I.ectiira super arboribus consanguinitatis affinitatis et cognationis spiri- 1427 
 
 tualis. By Jotaaunes Andreas. Fol. \s. a. a. I. sed Nuremberg, 
 
 circa 1 472-7 5-] 
 
 Many editinns were published in Latin and German, for which see 
 Main, Repert. Bibl. 
 Tractatus de consanguinitate et affinitate editus per clarrissimum juris 1488 
 
 utriusque doctores dominum Stepbanug Costas legentes jura 
 
 canonica in felici g)'mnasio papiensi. Fol. Pavia, 1488. 
 Arborum trium consanguinitatis, affinitatis, cognationisque spiritualis 1506 
 
 Lectura notatu digna Unerandi. . . . Domini iricasll de Vioerda. 
 
 [Coloph] cum nonnullis appostilationibus hinc et inde principali 
 
 materia appositis a . . . Joane Stehclin pastore in Obersdorf col- 
 
 lectis. 4to. Cologne, 1506. 
 De Arbore Consangvinitatis et Affinitatis, sive de Gradibvs. PtalUppl 1 540 
 
 MCelancthonis, Sm 4to. Wittemberg, 1540. Ibid. 1541. 
 Also in the various editions of the collected ivorks. 
 De Arbore Consangvinitatis et Affinitatis Regute et Tabclte. By 1551 
 
 George Major. 8vo. Wittemberg, 1 55 1. 
 The Degrees of Consanguinity and Affinity, Described and Delineated. 1674 
 
 By Robert Dixon. Sm. 8vo. London, 1674. 
 Q. D. B. V. Dissertatio Jvridica de Vincvlo Familia;, sive A'on dcncn 1749 
 
 V^erbindlichkeiten zwischen Anverwandten . . . defendit Cbrlstlan 
 
 Frlederlcb Beerbalck. 4to. Vitebergae, 1749. 
 'An Essay on Collateral Consanguinity.' In Tracts Chiefly Relating to 1762 
 
 the Antiquities and Laws of England. By Sir VTm. Blackstone. 
 
 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1762 ; 4to. 1771. 
 
 These Tracts were originally published separately. 
 'Argument in Favour of Collateral Consanguinity.' By Edward VTynne. 1765 t^i 
 
 No. II L of a Miscellany, containing Several Law Tracts. 8vo. 
 
 London, 1 765. 
 The Legal Degrees of Marriage Stated and Considered in a Series of 1774 ""^ 
 
 Letters to a Friend. By Jobn Alleyne. 8vo. London, 1774; 
 
 2nd edit, enlarged ; 1775. Reprint, 1810. 
 ' On Blood Relationship.' By Francis Galton. In the Proceedings of 1S71 
 
 the Royal Society of London, vol. xx. pp. 394-402. 8vo. London, 
 1871-72. 
 
398 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1 87 1 Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family. By 
 :Lewls H, Morgan. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 
 No. 218. 4to. Washington, 1871. 
 
 A Review on the above. By Ploix. In the Bulletins de la 
 Societd d'Anthropologie, 2nd series, vol. .X. pp. 250-274. 8vo. Paris, 
 1875. 
 
 ' Systems of Consanguinity and Primitive Marriage.' By J. N. 
 POMEROY. In the Nation, a weekly Journal, vol. xvii. pp. 209-211, 
 and 226, 227, Nos. 430 and 431, for September 25 and October 2. 
 4to. New York, 1873. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 
 1878 'Notes on the System of Consanguinity and Kinship of the Brabrolong 
 
 Tribe.' By A. TW. Howltt. In ' The Aborigines of Victoria, with 
 Notes relative to the Habits of the Natives of other Parts of 
 Australia and Tasmania. Compiled from various sources for the 
 Government of Victoria, by R. Brough Smyth.' Vol. ii. London, 
 1878. 
 ' The Origin of the Classificatory System of Relationships used among 
 Primitive Peoples.' By C. S. Wake. (Read April 30, 1878.) In 
 the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. viii. pp. 144-1S0, 
 No. 2, for November. 8vo. London, 1878. 
 
 1879 'Relationships, and the Names used for Them among the Peoples of 
 
 Madagascar, chiefly the Hovas ; together with observations upon 
 
 Marriage Customs and Morals among the Malagasy.' (Read 
 
 April 29, 1879.) In the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 
 
 vol. ix. pp. 35-49, No. I, for August. By the Rev. Tames Sibree. 
 
 8vo. London, 1879. 
 
 Followed by a Discussion. Ibid. pp. 49, 50. 
 1881 'An Analysis of Relationships.' In the Transactions of the British 
 
 Association for the Advancement of Science. Mathematical and 
 
 Physical Section. By Dr. Alexander Macfarlane. 8vo. London, 
 
 1881. 
 
 Also in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xii. pp. 
 
 46-63, No. I, for August. Svo. London, 1S82. 
 1S83 'Arithmetic Notation of Kinship.' By Trancls Galton. In Nature, 
 
 vol. xxviii. p. 435, No. 723, for September 6. 410. London, 1S83. 
 'Arithmetical Notation of Kinship.' By Dr. Alexander Macfarlane. 
 
 In Nature, vol. x.wiii. p. 588, No. 729, for October iS. 410. London, 
 
 18S3. 
 1886 'Algebraic Notation of Kinship.' By Ctaarles Davison. In Nature, 
 
 vol. xxxiv. p. 571, No. 885, for October 14. 4to. London, 1S86. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 399 
 
 CHRISTIAN PROHIBITIONS 
 
 [Exclusive of Marriage "with a Deceased Wif^s Sister). 
 
 'De Nuptiis Consanguineorum.' In the Opera ol Archbishop Anselm. 1491 
 fol. Nuremberg, 1491 ; Paris, 1675, '721 5 2 vols. fol. Venice, 1744 ; 
 2 vols. 8vo. Montrouge, 1852. 
 - In this boke are conteyned the comendacions of matrymony, the maner & 1 528 
 fourme of contractyng solempnysynge and lyuying in the same. 
 With declaracyon of all suche impedymentes as dothe let matrymonye 
 to be made. And also certeyne other thynges whiche curates be 
 bounden by y law to declare oftentymes to theyr parysshe. [By 
 ■William Harrington.] Sm. 4to. London (Scot.), 1 52S. 
 Another edit. (Redman), 1528. Another (Rastell). 
 
 Manual oder Handtbiichlin darinnen die fiirnemste Heubtartickel der 1537 
 Warhafftigen Christlichen Lere . . . gemehrt Sonderlich mit einer 
 notigen Frage und Klarer Unterrichtung von den Graden der 
 .Sipschafft unnd Schwagerschafft, welche im Freyen verboten seind. 
 By pmi. IWelancthon. Sm. 8vo. Frankfurt, 1537. 
 
 The Triall of I!astardie . . . Annexed ... a Table of the Leuitical, 1594 
 English, and positive Canon Catalogues, their concordance and 
 difference. ... By 'William Gierke. 4to. London, 1 594. 
 
 De Castis Incestisve Nvptiis Disputatio : in qua de Sponsalibvs et 
 Matrimonio ex Ivre civili Pontificio & Oriental! disseritur. Itemque 
 de gradibus et nominibus cognatorum et adfinium. Opvs Postvmvm : 
 cui adiectus est eiusdem Hotmanni libellus de Spvriis & Legitima- 
 tionc. By Prancisons Hotmannus. i2nio. Lyons, 1594; 8vo. 
 Frankfurt, 1619 ; and in his Opera : 3 vols. fol. Geneva, 1 599-1600. 
 
 On the Marriage of Cousin Germans. By Charles Butler. Oxford, 1619 
 1619 (and 1629?). 
 
 /« Latin : 2Yrr£NEIA. De Propinqvitate Matrimonium im- 
 pediente Regvla. Qua vna omnes quaestionis huius difficultates 
 facile expediat. 4to. Oxford, 1625 ; 8vo. Frankfurt, 1643. 
 T/iis last edition is printed with, and following, Floren's Tract. See 
 below (1643). 
 
 Matrimonii Iinpedimenta : Qua: in Catholica celebri Vnivcrsitate Dilin- 1621 
 gana. . . . Proposvit Reverendus. . . . Av^vstlnv* Hoohneker. 
 4to. Dillingcn, 162 1. 
 
400 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1643 Pranclsci Florentis Antecessoris Aurelianensis Tractatus de Nvptiis 
 Consobrinarum prohibitis aut permissis. 8vo. Frankfurt, 1643. 
 This work has a title common to itself and Butler {see supra, 1625). 
 Butler, who folloius, has a sepa?-ate title. 
 1646 Joannls Seldent Uxor Ebraica, Seu de Nuptiis a Divortiis Ex Jure 
 Civili, id est, Divino & Talmudico, Veterum Ebrasorum, Libri Tres, 
 &c. 4to. London, 1646. 
 
 Especially Cap. XIII. Other Editions : 4to. Frankfurt, 1673. 
 Ibid. 1695. 
 1660 'The Judicial law of Moses is annul'd, or abrogated, and retains no 
 obliging power either in whole or in part over any Christian Prince, 
 Commonwealth, or Person.' In the Ductor Dubitantium, or the 
 Rule of Conscience in all her General Measures. By Jeremy 
 Taylor. Rule iii. chap. ii. book 2. Fol. London, 1660, 1671, 167b, 
 1696, 1716. 
 1667 Impedimentis Matrimonii Disputatis Theoretico-Practica . . . Publico 
 
 . . . Johannes I-riderlcus Horn, . . . Jena. 4to. 1667. 
 1673 The Marriages of Cousin Germans Vindicated from the Censures of 
 Unlawfullnesse, and Inexpediency. [By Samuel Sugard.] Sm. 8vo. 
 Oxford, 1673. 
 
 Printed anonymously. There are probably other editions, 1675 
 and i58o. 
 'Concerning the Lawfulness of Marriages betwixt First Cousins, or 
 Cousin-Germans.' In the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable 
 Mr. Jobn Bales. London, 1673. 4to. And 1688. 8vo. 
 Also in the Collected Works. Glasgow, 1765. 3 vols. ?>vo. It is not 
 contained in the first edition of 1659. 
 Incestuous Marriages, or Relations of Consanguinity and Affinity hinder- 
 ing and dissolving Marriage, as making all Marriages within such 
 Relations to be Incestuous, and all Children begotten of such 
 Marriages to be Illegitimate, or Bastards to all intents and purposes. 
 By H[enry] c[ompton]. Bishop of London. {A broadside.) 1675. 
 1682 Mr. Emmerton's Marriage with Mrs. Bridget Hyde Considered. 
 Wherein is discoursed . . . The Levitical Degrees, the Bounds of a 
 Legal Marriage, and the Reasons thereof In a Letter from a 
 Gentleman in the Country, etc. . . Published by Richard Baldwin. 
 4to. London, 1682. 
 Mr. Emmerton's Cause now depending before the Delegates, briefly 
 stated and unfolded. Printed for R. Dew. Fol. London, 1682. 
 — - Two Discourses Introductor>' to a Disquisition Demonstrating the Un- 
 lawfulness of the Marriage of Cousin Germans : From Law, Reason, 
 Scripture, and Antiquity. By John Turner. 8vo. London, 16S2. 
 I. N. D. N.J. C. Dissertatio, Legis Connubii, Qux Levit. xviii. v. 11. 
 Ex Gentium Jure refertur, Genuinum Sensum exquirens ; Ex cona- 
 tibus Gothon-edl Valandl in Electorali lirandenb. ad Viadrum 
 Profess. Onlin. 4to. Francofurti ad Viadrum, 1682. 
 
BIP.LTOr.RAl'IIY 401 
 
 Dissertalio de coitu daiiinato. I'.y J. v. Becbmann. 4to. Jena, 1684. 1684 
 
 Disputatio de coitu damnalo. By Stelkner. 4to. Jena, 1684. 
 
 An Argument in Defence of the Marriage of an Uncle with tlic Daughter 1686 
 
 of his Half-Brother by the Father's Side. liy John Turner. 4to- 
 
 London, 1686. 
 Tohannis nceyeri. . . . Uxor Christiana sive de Conjugio inter Duos 168S 
 
 deque Incestu et Divortiis, Disscrtationes Trcs . . . 4I0. Amstel- 
 
 adanii, 1688. 
 Traite pacifique des Empcchments du niariagc. By Gerbols. Paris, 1690 
 
 1690. 
 Degrees of Marriage ; or, an admonition to all such as shall intend here- 1696 — 
 
 after to enter into the State of Matrimony Godly and agreeably to 
 
 the Laws. By Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury. Fol. 
 
 {A Broadside.) London, i6y6. 
 Dissertatio de dispensatione circa matrimonia inter gi-ados prohibitos. 17 10 
 
 By George Beyer. [0><ra 1710] 
 De incestis cum noverca matre nuptiis. By Michael Helnrlch Cribner. 1715 
 
 [0>rai7i5.] ^ ^ , 
 
 De Dispensatione matrimonial!. By Schultz. 4to. 1718. I7IS^- 
 
 A Discourse Briefly shewing that the marriages of Such as are Near of 
 Kin are Sinful and Abominable now Vnder the Gospel, As well as 
 they were Vnder the Law : And that All the Degrees of Kindred, 
 contain'd in the Table appointed to be put up in Churches (which 
 Table is here printed at large) are forbidden in the Scriptures both 
 of the Old and New Testament to Marry, accordingly as is set forth 
 in the Table aforesaid. By Edward -wells. l2mo. London, 17 18. 
 
 Abhandlung von den Ehegesetzen Mosis wekhe die Heyrathen in die 1755 
 nahe Freundschaft untersagen. By Joh. David Michsells. 4to. 
 Gottingen, 1755 ; 1768. 
 
 The Case of Marriages between Near Kindred particularly considered 1756 -' 
 . . . By John Pry. 8vo. London, 175^! '773- 
 
 Printed Anonymously. The second edition has 57 more pages. 
 
 Disquisitio de Nuptiis Naturali et Civili Jure Incestis. By PtoU. Jac. 1775 
 
 Crelner. Strasburg, 1775. 
 D. Phil. Jac. Heislers. . . . juristische Abhandlung von Veryiihrung 1778 
 
 der Blutschande und iibrigen fleischlichen Vermischungen in verbo- 
 
 thenen Graden. 4to. Halle, 1778. 
 Tractatio contra matrimoniis comprivignorum. By Samuel Bohle. 1780 
 
 [Circa 17S0.] 
 ». Phillpp Jakob Heislers. Juristische Abhandlung und Untersuchung 1783 
 
 der Frage : Ob die Ehe eincs Sohnes mit der Mutter seiner Sticf- 
 
 muttcr den Rcchten nach zugelassen sey ? 4to. Halle, 1783. 
 
 n D 
 
402 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1787 Dissertatio inauguralis iuridica sistens Historiam et Rationem luris 
 Incestum Prohibentis ... pro gradu doctoris . . . submittit. 
 Georgius Simon Seyt'rled. 4to. Tubingen, 17S7. 
 
 1790 'Explanation of the Reezons why marriage iz prohibited between Natural 
 Relations.' Hy IVoali 'Webster, Junior. In his Essays, No. x.wi. 
 pp. 322 324. 8vo. Boston, 1790. 
 
 1796 Comnientatio de Impedimento matrimonii ob consanguinitatem et affini- 
 tatem secunda diversa quibus in Germania utimur jura. By vrubelm 
 Ferdinand -Wiese. 4to. Halle, 1 796. 
 
 1802 Critische und systematische Darstellung der verbotenen Grade der 
 Verwandtschaft und Schwagerschaft bei Heirathen, nach dem mosa- 
 ischen Gesetze, dem romischen und canonischen Rechte, und den 
 protestantischen Kirchenordnungen. By Karl August Moritz 
 Scblegel. 8vo. Hanover, 1802. 
 
 1804 Ueber die Zulassigkeit der Ehe zwischen Vater und Tochter. Ein 
 
 Beitrag zur Aufklarung des 19 Jahrhundert. By Baniel Isak 
 Xangrsdorf. 8vo. Marburg, 1804. 
 
 1805 1st die Ehe zwischen Vater und Tochter zuzulassen ? Anon. Svo. 
 
 Marburg, 1805. 
 
 181 1 Darstellung der Ehehindernisse im .Staate, aus dem Bcgriffe der Eheent- 
 wickelt. By J. Al. Blhler. 8vo. Landshut, 1811 ; 8vo. Nurnberg, 
 1821. 
 
 1824 Vergleichung des gemeinen Kirchenrechts mit d. Preuss.allgem. Land- 
 
 Rechte in Ansehung der Ehehindernisse. By Daniel. 8vo. Berlin, 
 1824. 
 Dissertatio inaugurata juridica de matrimonio ejusque impedimentis. By 
 J. B. Tonghe. 4to. Bonn, 1824. 
 
 1825 Dissertatio inaugurata canonicte computationis et nuptiarum propter 
 
 sanguinis propinquitatem ab ecclesia Christiana prohibilarum sistens 
 historiam. By Ernest Adolf Tlieodore Kaspeyres. Svo. Lireslau, 
 1825. 
 
 1827 De jure ecclesire catholicae statuendi impedimenta matrimonium diri- 
 mentia. Dissertatio canonica. By ar. Munchen. Svo. Cologne, 
 1827. 
 
 1834 Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws, Foreign and Domestic, in regard 
 to Contracts, Rights, and Remedies, and especially in regard to 
 Marriages, Divorces, Wills, Successions, and Judgments. By the 
 Hon. Tosepb story. Svo. Boston, 1834. Also, Svo. Edinburgh, 
 1835; Svo. London, 1841; Svo. Boston, 1846; 1S57; 1S65 ; 1S72. 
 
 1836 The Hebrew Wife ; or Law of Marriage in relation to the lawfulness of 
 polygamy and the law of incest. By S. E. Dwigbt. New York, 
 
lilBLIOGRAniY 403 
 
 ' On the Statute, Canon, and Divine Laws of Marriage.' Signed ' Civis.' 1842 
 In the Con^reg^atlonal Mag^azlne. New series, vol. vi. pp. 97-100. 
 February. 8vo. London, 1842. 
 Ueber das Eheverbot wcgen Verwandtschaft und das Verbrechen des 1844 
 
 Incests, liy H. Spondlln. 8vo. Zurich, 1844. 
 Inquiry into the Christian Law, as to the Relationships which bar 1855 
 marriage. By William JLlndsay. i2mo. Glasgow, 1855 ; 8vo. 
 London, 1S71. 
 Das Verbot der Ehe innerhalb der nahen Verwandschaft, nach der heiligen 1869 
 Schrift und nach den Grundsatzenderchristlichen Knche dargestcUt 
 von Kelnrlch VT. J. Tblerscb. 8vo. Nordlingen, 1869. 
 Traits pratique des empechements et des dispenses du manage. By M. 1872 
 
 I'Abbd Brillaud. Svo. Paris, 1872. 
 Das Ehehinderniss der Blutsverwandschaft nach Kanonischem Rechte. 
 
 By Hermann Elcbborn. 8vo. Breslau, 1872. 
 The Statutes now in force relating to Marriages of Consanguinity and 
 Affinity. 28 Henry VIII. cap. 16; 32 Henry VIII. cap. 38; 
 5 and 6 William IV. cap. 54. Together with The Repealed Statutes 
 25 Henry VIII. cap. 22 ; 28 Henry VIII. cap. 7. M. L. R. A. Fol. 
 London, 1872. 
 Die Kanonischen Ehehindernisse nach dem geltenden gemeinen Kirch- 1875 
 rechte. Fiir den Kuratklerus praktisch dargestellt. By j. vreber. 
 Svo. Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872 ; Ibid. 1875. 
 Traitd des Dispenses Matrimoniales, Manuel pratique Ji I'usage du Cure, 
 du Confesseur et de I'Ordinaire. By J. M. Tepbany. Svo. Paris, 
 1875. 
 Das Ehehinderniss des bestehenden Ehebandes nach osterreichischen 1S79 
 
 Rechte und seine Umgehung. By ''W. Fucbs. Svo. Vienna, 1879. 
 History of the Law of Marriage between persons within the Prohibited 
 Degrees of Consanguinity and Affinity prior to August 31, 1835, and 
 the Present Law since then. By Pbillp James vringfleld. Svo. 
 London, 1879. 
 Verordnung, wegen der in Riicksicht auf Verwandschaft erfordcrlichen iSSo 
 Matrimonial-Dispensation, fiir die Herzogthiimer Schleswig und 
 Holstein, die Herrschaft Pinneberg, Stadt Altona und Graffschat^t 
 Ranzau. 4to. Copenhagen, 1880. 
 De impedimentis matrimonium dirimentibus ac de processu judicali in 1S81 
 causis matrimonialibus . . . cum appendice documentorum. By Jos. 
 Manseila. Svo. Rome, iSSi. 
 The Divine Authority for the ' Table of Prohibited Degrees.' A Scriptural 1883 
 Inquiry, being a Letter in Answer to a Friend. By Joseph T. 
 Pbelps. Svo. London, 18S3. 
 
404 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 HENRY VIII.'S DIVORCE. 
 
 1524 State Papers illustrative of the Reign of Henry VIII., published under 
 
 the authority of Her Majesty's Commission, with a general index. 
 II vols. 4to. London, 1830-1852. 
 
 Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry Vlll. 
 Preserved in the Public Record Office, the British Museum, and 
 elsewhere in England. Arranged and catalogued by J. S. Brewer : — 
 \'ol. IV. 1524-30. Introduction. 8vo. London, 1875. 
 „ „ 1524-26. Part I. „ „ 1870. 
 
 „ 1526-28. „ II. „ „ 1872. 
 
 > II 1529-30. „ III. „ „ 1876. 
 
 Arranged and catalogued by James Gairdner :— 
 
 Vol. V. 1531-32 . . . Svo. London, 1 8S0. 
 „ ,,1533 ... „ „ 18S2. 
 
 'Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of 
 Henr>'VIII.' In the Qu.\Rterly Review. Art. I. vol. cxliii. pp. i- 
 51, No. 285, for January. 8vo. London, 1877. 
 
 1525 Kotser Codicis R. ivakfeldi, quo prater Ecclesiae Sacrosanctaj Decretum 
 
 probatur Coniugium cum Fratria carnaliter cognita, illicitum omnino, 
 inhibitum, interdictumque esse tum natun-e iure, turn iure diuino, 
 legeque euangelica atque consuetudine catholica ecclesia: orthodoxe. 
 4to. London, 1528. 
 
 1529 Calendar of Letters, Despatches, and .State Papers relating to the nego- 
 
 tiations between England and Spain, preserved in the Archives at 
 Simancas and elsewhere. Edited by Pascual de Guyangos. Part I. 
 vol. iv. 1529-30. 8vo. London, 1879. 
 
 1530 Gravissima;, atque exactissiniK illustrissimarum totius Italiae, et Gallix. 
 
 Academiarum censurcX, efficacissimis etiam quorundam doctissi- 
 morum uirorum argumentationibus explicata-, de ueritate ilhus pro- 
 positionis, Videlicet quod ducere relictam fratris mortui sine liberis 
 ita sit de iure diuino et natural! prohibitum : ut nuUus Pontifex super 
 huiusmodimatrimonijs contractis, siuecontrahendisdispensarepossit. 
 4to. London, 1530. 
 In English. i6mo. London, 1530; sm. 8vo. London, 1531. 
 
BIBLIOGRArilY 4OS 
 
 Elegans consilium pro illustrissima Regina Anglia; per magnificum D. 
 
 Bernardnm do Sanctis advocatum consistorialem et regium consi- 
 
 liarum. Fol. Naples, 1530. 
 Tractatus reuerendissimi Domini D. Tbomee de Vio Caletanl cardi- 
 
 nalis sancti Sixti, ordinis Pra:dicatoruni, de coniugio regis Angliic cum 
 
 relicta fratris sui. Sm. 8vo. Rome, 1530. 
 Determinatio I). Rapbsells Comensls Canonici Regularis, facta super 
 
 contractu matrimoniali dementis. Henrici Anglorum Regis Octaui, 
 
 qui contraxit cum Fratrissa de mente Theologorum. 4to. [Padua] 
 
 1530. 
 De Cavsa Matrimonii Serenissimi Regis Angliae liber. By Tobn Flsber. 
 
 4to. [Alcala] 1530. 
 
 Also in his Opera, Wirceburg, 1597 ; and at end of vol. ii. of 
 
 Collier's ' Ecclesiastical History.' 
 A glasse of the truthe. [By Henry VIII.] Sm. 8vo. London [1530]. 
 
 There were at least four other editions between 1 530-50. 
 The Tractyse of Prelates. Whether the Kynges Grace may be seperated 
 
 from hys Quene, because she was hys Brother's Wyfe. By -William 
 
 Tyndale. i6mo. Marburg, 1 530. 
 
 Also London, n.d. i6mo. and in his 'whole works.' 
 Robertl Wakfeldi sacrarum literarum professoris eximii Regiique sacel- 
 
 lani syntagma de hebiasorum codicum incorruptione. Item eiusdem 
 
 Oratio Oxonii habita, una cum quibusdam aliis lectu ac annotatu non 
 
 indignis. 4to. [London, «>(ra 1530.] 
 Solennis atque elegans Tractatus In causa matromonij Serenissimorum 
 
 dominorum Henrici et Catherine Anglie Regum, Editus per . . . 
 
 Ferdinandum de Xioazes . . . contra hereticam et Apostaticam 
 
 prauitatem Inquisitorum apostolicum. Fol. Orihuela, 1531. 
 Concilium D. Hieronyml Freuidelli pro Invictiss. Rege Anglias, una 
 
 cum responsione ejusdem ad consilium domini Bemardi Reatini pro 
 
 illustrissima Regina editum. Fol. Bologna, 153 1. 
 Qurestio de Matrimonio sereniss. Reginas Anglia; nunquam Incudine 
 
 subtilissimi Dr. J. Scotl. 4to. Naples, 1531. 
 Potestatis Ecclesiastica; super gradus consanguinitatis et affinitatis, diuina 
 
 lege a conjugio prohibitos, Catholica declaratio a Bartbolomeeo 
 
 Splneo. 4to. Bologna, 1531. 
 Tractatus de mon dissolvendo Henrici et Catharinx matrimonio. By 
 
 Tbomas Abell. \Circa 1532.] 
 
 There is probably no copy of this work existing. See Chalmers' 
 
 Biogr. Diet. 
 Invicta Veritas. An answcre. That by no maner of law, it maye be 
 lawfull for the moste noble Kinge of Englande, Kinge Henry the 
 eyght to be diuorsed fro the quenes grace his lawful and very 
 wyfe. i;y Thomas Abell. 410. Luneberg, 1 532. 
 
406 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1532 . . . De licentia ac concessione Sanctissimi D. N. et ad instantiam pras- 
 
 clari D. excusatoris illustiissimi ac inuictissimi Regis Anglian Nos 
 Sigismondus Dondolus de Pistorio . . . et IWicbael de Conradis 
 de Tuderto . . . prrescripti illustrissimi Regis et D. excusatoris 
 Aduocati in sacro publico Pontificio consistorio, prasidente summo 
 Pontifice cum suo sacrosancto Senatu infrascriptas Conclusiones pro 
 tenui posse nostro sigillatim, ac singulariter defensare conabimur. 
 4to. Rome, 1532. 
 
 Ad invictiss. C;esarem Carolum quintum Epistola dedicatoria ab Alptaonzo 
 Henriquez. Ejusdem de Matrimonio Regina Anglia: Liber unus. 
 
 Ejusdem defensionum pro Erasmo . . . etc. 4to. Naples, 1532. 
 
 Novatus, Hleronymus, Mediolanen. Advocatus. Pro serenissima D. 
 Catherina de Castiglia de Arragonia Anglias Regina Allegationes. 
 4to. [Mediolani, 1532.] 
 
 Disceptationes tres H. Preuldelll Bononise legum professoris pro illust. 
 rege Anglitc in Sacro Publico Pontificio Consistorio, coram summo 
 pontifice Clemente septimo et sacrosancto ejus Senatu habitse men- 
 sibus Aprilis et Mali. 4to. Rome, 1532. 
 
 Non esse neque Divino, neque Natura Jure prohibitum, quin S. Pontifex 
 dispensare possit, ut Prater de mortui sine Liberis Fratris Uxorem 
 legitimo Matrimonio sibi possit adjungere, adversus aliquot Acade- 
 miarum Censuras, tumultuaria et per brevis Apologia sive Confutatio, 
 etc. By Jo. Iiudovlc Vives. 4to. Luneberg, 1532. 
 
 1533 PhilalethK Hyperborei in Anticatoptrum suumquod propediem in lucem 
 
 dabit, ut patet proxima pagella, Parasceve, sive adversus improborum 
 quorundam temeritatem, lUustrios Anglia; Reginani ab Arthurio 
 Walliaj principe priore marito suo cognitam fuisse impudenter et in- 
 consulte adstruentum, Susannis extemporaria. Anonymous. 8vo 
 Luneberg, 1533. 
 
 Acta Curire Romana; in Causa matrimoniali cum Catharina Regia. i6mo. 
 London, 1533. 
 
 Exemplar siue transcriptum aut copia literarum Apostolicarum Sanctis- 
 simi Domini nostri D. Clementls Fapse Septimi, sub plumbo expe- 
 ditarum, Executorialium sententia; per Sanctitatem suam nuper in 
 favorem Serenissimas Domina; Catherina; Angliai Regina;, contra 
 illust. Principem Dominum Henricum VIII., Anglia: Regem, ac 
 quandam annam dictam de Boland, nominatim et in specie latx tum 
 insinuatione seu notificatione illarum et in eis contentorum, eisdem 
 Regi Annie, et certis aliis in illis contentis et comprehensis per 
 Eedictum factis. 4to. [1533.] 
 
 Literarum apostolicorum Clementls Papa VII. in favorum Catherina; 
 Angli;c Reg. contra Henrici VIII. 4to. [Rome] 1533. 
 
 Articles deuised by the holle Consent of the Kinges moste honourable 
 Counsayle, his Grace's License obtayned thereto, not only to exhorte, 
 but also to enfourme his louingc Subjects of the Truthe. 8vo. London, 
 '533- 
 
BIBLIOGKAI'IIY 407 
 
 Anglici Matrimonij. Sententia diffinitiua Lata per sanctissimum Dnin 1534 
 Nostrum D. ciementem Papa VII. in sacro Consistorio de Reuer- 
 endissimorum Dominoruin. S.R.E. Cardinalium consilio super vali- 
 ditate Matrimonij inter Serenissimos Henricum VIII. et Catherinam 
 Anglie Reges contract!. Pro eadem Sercnissima Catherina Anglia; 
 Regina, contra Serenissimum Henricum VIII. Anglia; Regem. 
 Lata fuit Romie. {A Broadside.) 1534. 
 
 De Vera Obedientia Oratio. By Stepben Gardiner. 8vo. London, 
 1534- 
 
 With ii preface by Edmund Bonner. i6mo. Hamburg, 1536. 
 Translated into EnglisIT: i6mo. Rome (London, Sifigleton), 1553 ; 
 and i6mo. Rome (London, Wood), 1553. 
 
 Consilium super viribus Matrimonii Serenissimorum Henrici VIII. et 
 Catherine Regum Angliie, a D. x.adoTico a Scbora Louaniensi, 
 utriusque juris professore, Cesarire Majestatis a consiliis et re(|ues- 
 tarum magistro, summa diligentia scriptum. 4to. Louvain, 1 534. 
 
 De Matrimonio Serenissimi Regis Angliifi Henrici Octaui Congratulatio 1535 
 disputatoria lobannis Cocblel Germani, ad Pavlvm Tertium Pont. 
 Max. 4to. Leipsic, 1535. 
 
 Bulla S.D.N. PauU divina providentia Pape III. Citatoria Regis Angliae 
 et sequacium ejus : sub poena excommunicationis et privationis 
 Regni ac omnium aliorum bonorum, et nonullis aliis gravioribus 
 censuris et penis. 4to. [Rome, 1535.] 
 
 Iiud. iTogoralee Com. Veronensis disputatio super Reginaj Britannorum 
 divortio. 4to. [153S?] 
 
 Antiqva et Insignis Epistola Nicolai Pape. I. Ad Michaelem Impera- 1536 
 torem Augustum. . . . Breuis historiarum illius temporis comme- 
 moratio, Ex Reginone vetusto Chronographo Ad Regem Anglie 
 Henricum VIII., Defensio loannis Episcopi Roffensis et Thome 
 Mori, aduersus Richardum samsonem Anglum per Xoannem Cocta- 
 leum. Fragmenta quarundam Tho. Mori Epistolarum ad Erasmum 
 Rot. et ad Joannem Coc[hleum]. 4to. Leipsic, 1536. 
 
 Illustrissimi ac Potentissimi Regis, Senatus, Populique Angliae, sententia, 1537 
 et de eo Concilio, quod Paulus episcopus Rom. Mantujc futurum 
 simulauit : et de ea bulla, qua; ad calendas Nouembres id prorogarit. 
 [By Henry VIIX.] Sm. 8vo. London, 1537. 
 
 Scopa Jobannis Cocblael Germani, in Araneas Ricardi Morj-sine Angli. 1538 
 4to. Leipsic, 1538. 
 
 Apomaxis calumniarum convitiorumque, quibus Joannes Cochkuus homo 
 theologus . . . contra Henrici VIII. nomen obscurare . . . epistola 
 studuil. By Sir Rlcbard Morysin. 4to. London, 1538. 
 
 Tractatus de non dissolvendo Henrici regis cum Catharina matrimonio. 1539 
 By Sdward Powell. 4to. London [c/rcrt 1539]. 
 
 Xo copy is at present known to exist. 
 
408 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1540 A Treatise of Marryinge occasioned by the pretended Divorce of King 
 Henry y" Eigth from Q. Catherine of Arragon, divided Into three 
 Bookes written by the Reverend & learned zricbolas Barpsfield. 
 [MS. circa 1540.] 
 
 There is a copy in the Grenville collection ; one. in the library 
 of New College^ Oxford; and tuio others. 
 
 A Histoiy of the Pretended Divorce, etc. Edited by the Rev. 
 N. PococK, fiom the four MSS. 4to. (Camden Society) 186S. 
 
 1546 Tractatus de Concilio generali et de matrimonio regis Henrici VIII. 
 Anglici . . . per Hleronymum de curiel decretorum licentiatum 
 in inclita Salmanticensi academia nunc noviter in lucem jedita. fol. 
 Salmanticje, 1546. 
 Pauli Jovil historiarum sui temporis tomi duo. Fol. X'enice [1546]. 
 
 Other editions at Basle and Venice ; also 2 vols. fol. Florence, 
 1550-52. Paris, 1552, 1553. 
 
 In Fre?ich\ 2 vols. fol. Lyons, 1552, 1561 ; and fol. Paris, 
 .5Sr. 
 
 Jn Italian: 2 vols. 4to. Florence, 1551-53; Venice, 1 581, and 
 others. 
 
 In Spanish : 2 vols. fol. Salamanca, 1 562, and others. 
 1554 Oratio X>eonIiardi Goretii, Equitis Poloni, de matrimonio Regis ac 
 Reginre Angli;e, Hispanite, etc. Ad Populum Principesque Anglia. 
 4to. London, 1554. 
 
 1558 The History of Grisild the Second; a narrative in verse of the divorce 
 of Queen Katharine of Arragon. By William rorrest. (1558.) 
 Printed for the first time by W. D. Mackray (Ro.xburgh Club). 4to. 
 London, 1875. 
 
 1 561 P. Alfonsi virvesli Vlmetani theologi, Canariensis episcopi, de matri- 
 monio regis Anglia;, Tractatus. Cuius cathologum & ordinem 
 proxima facie inuenies. Impressvm recens, Anno MDLXI. 410. 
 
 ! 562 C. Cognatl Nozereni de iis qui Romre ius dicebant olim deque corum 
 origine ct potestate libellus. Practeria de Regis Angliffi divortio 
 sententia cjusdem ad Clariss. Jureconsultum Udair Zasiuni. Una 
 cum aliquot do legali studio epistolis ejusdem. l6mo. Basle, 
 1562. 
 1585 Doctissimi viri iricolai Sanderl, de origine ac progressu Schismatis 
 Anglican! liber. . . . Editus ct auctus per Edouardum Rishlonum. 
 8vo. Cologne, 15S5. 
 
 With Alterations. 8vo. Rome, 1586; 1588; Cologne, i6io, 
 1628; 8vo. Ingolstadt, 1586. 
 
 French translation : 8vo., s.l. 1587,2 editions ; Augsburg, 1587 ; 
 l2mo. Paris, 1676 ; 1683 ; 1685 ; 1 688. 
 
 Italian translation : 4to. Bologna, 1591 ; 4to. Rome, 1594. 
 
 German translation : 4to. Salzburg, 1594 
 
 Kni^lish translation : 8\o. London, 1S77. 
 
BinLioGRAriiY 409 
 
 Historia eclesidstica del cismo del reino de Inglaterra. By Pedro Biba- 1588 
 deneyra. 4to. Valencia, 15S8. 8vo. Antwerp, 158S. 4to. Madrid, 
 17S6. 
 
 Edmundl Camplanl Anglic e Soc. Jcsu Decern Rationes proposit:c in 1622 
 causa fidei, et opuscula ejus selecta (inter alia Narratio Divortii 
 Henrici Octavi ab uxore Catharina). First printed at the end of 
 Harpsfield's Hist. Angl. Eccl. Fol. Douai, 1622. i2mo. Antwerp, 
 1631. 
 
 Historia Anglicana Ecclesiastica a primis gentis susceptae fidei inconabilis 
 ad nostra fere tempora dedvcta . . . adjecta breui narratione de 
 Devortio Henrici VHI. Regis ab vxore Catherina, etc. By 
 Nlcbolas Harpsfield. Fol. Douay, 1622. 
 
 The Negociations of Thomas Woolsey, the Great Cardinal of England. 1641 
 [By George Cavendlsb.] 4to. London, 1641. 
 
 Other Editions : i2mo. London, 1667. Svo. London, 1706 ; 
 and sni. 4to. s.a. 2 vols. 8vo. Chiswick, 1S25 ; and also reprinted 
 in the Harlcian Miscellany and in Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical 
 Biography. 
 
 The Life and Death of that renowned John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester : 1655 
 comprising the highest and hidden transactions . . . with a full re- 
 lation of Qu. Katharine's Divorce. ... By Tho. Baily, D.D. [By 
 Bichard Hall, D.D.] Svo. London, 1655, 1739. 
 
 Histoire du Divorce de Henry VUL, Roy d'Angleterre, et de Catherine 16S8 
 
 d'Arragon ; avec la Defense de Sanderus : La Refutation dcs deux 
 
 premiers Livres de I'Histoire de la Reformation de M. Burnet : et 
 
 les Preuves. [By Joacblm le Grand.] 3 vols. 12 mo. Paris, 16S8. 
 
 Translated into English with Burnet's reply. Svo. 
 
 Lettre de M. Burnet ^ j\l. Thevenot contenant une courte Critique dc 
 I'Histoire du Divorce de Henri V'lII. ecrite par iM. le Grand. i2mo. 
 Paris, 1688. 
 
 A Letter to Mr. Thevenot containing a Censure of Mr. le Grand's 
 History of K. Henry the Eighth's Divorce ; to which is added a 
 Censure of Mr. de Meux's History of the Variations of the Pro- 
 testant Churches, together with some further rellcctions on Mr. le 
 Grand. By Bishop Burnet. 4to. London, 1689. 
 
 Lettre de M. le Grand ^ M. Burnet touchant I'histoire des variations, 1691 
 I'histoire de la Reformation, et I'histoire du Divorce de Henry Vlll. 
 et de Catherine d'Arragon. i2mo. Paris, 1691. 
 
 De Henrici VIII. Regis Angl i;E cum Fratris vidua Matrimonio. Dis- 1701 
 quisitio Academica ChrUttanl vrille. 4to. Jena, 1 701. 
 
 Histoire du Divorce de Henri VIII., Roi d'Angleterre, et de Catherine 1763 
 dArragon. By the Abbe VTm. Tho. Baynal. i2mo. Amsterdam, 
 1763- 
 
410 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1766 Histoire du Divorce de Henri VIII. et de Catherine d'Arragon. By 
 I'Abbe irail. i2mo. Amsterdam [Paris], 1766. 
 
 1787 De Divortio Henrici VIII., Regis Angliae, cum Catharina Arragonica 
 Dissertatio. By T. Asma. 4to. Leyden, 1787. 
 
 1820 Henry the Eighth and George the Fourth, the case fairly stated, Laws of 
 Adultery and Divorce. 8vo. 1820. 
 
 1870 Narrative of the Divorce of Henry VIII. By Nlcbolas Harpsfield. 
 (From his Life of Sir Thomas Moore and the Narrative and less 
 technical portions of his Discourse on the Marriage of Henry VIII.) 
 Part I. edited by Lord Acton. Sm. 4to. London, n.d. {about 1S70). 
 Records of the Reformation : the Divorce 1 527-1 533 ; mostly now for the 
 first time printed from MSS. in the British Museum, the Public 
 Record Office, etc. Collected and arranged by iricbolas Pocock. 
 2 vols. Svo. Oxford, 1S70. 
 
 1873 History of the two Queens, Catherine of Arragon and Anne Boleyn. By 
 Hepwortli Sizon. 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1S73. 
 
 1876 A letter on N. Pocock's paper on Harpsfield. By Josepb Brown. In 
 
 the Academy, vol. .\. pp. 12, 13. No. 217, for July i. 4to. London, 
 1876. 
 A paper on Harpsfield's ' Treatise of Marriage.' By xricbolas Pocock. 
 In the Academy, vol. ix. pp. 577-579, and 603, 604, Nos. 215, 216, 
 for June 17 and 24. 4to. London, 1876. 
 
 1877 ' Henry the Eighth's Divorce.' In the Church Quarterly Review, vol. 
 
 iii. pp. 301-335, No. 6, for January, Art II. Svo. London, 1877. 
 ' Sir Thomas Wyatt the Elder.' In the SabUn University Magazine. 
 Alt I. vol. Ixxxix. pp. 161-173, No. 530, for February. Svo. London, 
 1877. 
 
 1880 Catherine d'Arragon et les Origines du Schisme anglican. By A. Du 
 
 Boys. Svo. Paris, 1880. 
 
 English translation : 2 vols. Svo. London, 18S1. 
 'The Divorce of Katharine of Arragon.' In the Edinburgh Review, 
 vol. clii. pp. 25S-2S1, No. 311, for July. Svo. Edinburgh, 18S0. 
 
 1881 Studies in English History : ' Katharine of Arragon's first and second 
 
 marriages.' By James Gairdner and Tames Speddln^. Svo. 
 Edinburgh, 1881. 
 18S4 The Reign of Henry VIII., from his Accession till the Death of Wolsey : 
 Reviewed and Illustrated from Original Documents. By the late 
 Professor Brewer. Edited By James Gairdner. 2 vols. Svo. 
 London, 1884. 
 
 ' The Divorce of Catharine of Arragon.' In the Edinburgh 
 Review, vol. clx. pp. S9-1 1 5, No. 327, for July 1SS4. London, Svo. 
 
 ' Brewer's Reign of Henry VIII.' In the CHURCH Quarterly 
 Review, vol. xix. pp. 356-380, No. 38, for Januaiy 1885. Svo. 
 London. 
 
BIBLIOGKAI'IIY 4II 
 
 Anne nolcyn : a Chapter of English History, 1 527-1 536. liy Paul 1S84 
 Frledmann. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1884. 
 
 'Anne Boleyn.' In the Edinburgh Review, vol. clxiii. pp. 
 54-71, No. 333, for January. 8vo. London, 1886. 
 A Review on Friedmann' s work. 
 Hcinrich VIII. von England und die Curie in den Jahren 1528-1529. 1885 
 By Dr. w. Boree. 8vo. Gottingen, 1885. 
 
THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 MARRIAGE WITH A DECEASED WIFE'S SISTER. 
 
 1657 Considerations concerning Marriage. . . . Whereto are added, i. 
 
 Directions in two Particulars. ... 2. Resolution of this Case of 
 
 Conscience : Whether a man may lawfully marry his wife's sister ? 
 
 By Edward Reyner. 8vo. London, 1657. 
 1674 The Works of Dr. Henry Hammond. [Containing] 'A Resolution of 
 
 the Proposed Quaere of Marrying the Wife's Sister.' 4 vols. fol. 
 
 London, 1674; ind edit. Ibid. 1684; yd edit. Oxford, 1847-50. 
 Reprinted ieparately,%vo. Oxford, 1849. 
 1695 Letter 'To his Friend, Torismond, to Justifie the Marrj-ing of two 
 
 Sisters the one after the other.' By Charles Blount, pp. 137-153, 
 
 in his Miscellaneous Works, izmo. London, 1695. 
 
 1698 JWelcliioris Zeidleri Theologi Regiomontani Celeberrimi de Polygamia 
 
 ut et de Matrimonio cum Defvncta; Vxoris Sorore Disquisitio An in 
 his per jus Nature & Divinum dispensari possit.' 
 
 Accessere huic novie editioni Animadversiones in Scrvtatorem 
 Veritatis &; scripta Apologetica in Mattha^i Prastorii Tvbam Pacis 
 Subjecta est Autoris vita cum Indice Scriptorum Ejus Editorum & 
 Ineditorum. E. F. I'hilippvs Jacobvs Hartmann. 4to. Helmstadt, 
 1698. 
 
 1699 Abrahamus Matrimonium cum Sara Dissimulans, Juvante Christo . . . 
 
 k Cbristiano Conrado Hocbstettero, , . . 4to. Tubingen, 1699. 
 
 1703 A Serious Inquiry into that Weighty Case of Conscience, whether a Man 
 may Lawfully Marry his Deceased Wife's Sister. By Jobn (^uick. 
 4to. London, 1703. 
 
 1707 j[oban] c[liristopb] 'W[ag:enseil]. J. U. D. Jur. Canon, a I'ubl. nee 
 non L. L. Orient. Prof Publ. U. A. Bedenckcn Ob ein Christ mit 
 gutem Gewissen Seines verstorbenen Weibes Schwestcr Oder deren 
 Schwester-Tochter zur Ehe nehmcn fconne. 4to. Nurnberg & 
 Altdorf, 1707. 
 
 .,4/j-£7 zVi //;i? Opuscula Wagenseilina. 410. Frankfurt, 1715. 
 
 1716 The Trial of Ford Lord Grey of Wcrk. . . . At the Kings-Bench-Barr. 
 A.D. 1682 ... for Unlawful Teiiii)ting and Inticing the Lady Hen- 
 rietta Berkeley ... to Unlawful Love . . . etc. Anonymous, Svo. 
 London, 1716. 
 
BlBI.IOGRArilY 4' 3 
 
 Zo rrlderici Mayerl . . . Tracfatus Theologicvs de Admirabili lacobi 1717 
 cvni Dvabvs Sororibvs Conivgio Ex Genes. XXIX. 410. V'ilem- 
 bergas, 1717- 
 Dissertatio de supremo jure dispensationis circa conjuKium cum defuncti 1720 
 
 fratris uxoris. By Johann Georpe Pertsch. [C7nv( 1720.] 
 Dissertatio Juridica Inauguralis, de Nuptiis inter Fratrem et Sororem . . . 1726 
 pro gradu doctoratus . . . etc. IJy Joannes Arntzonlus. 4to. 
 Utrecht, 1726. 
 Rechtliches Gutachten uber der Zuliissigkeit der Ehen mit der verstor- 1736 
 benen Frauen Schwester. By Jacob Gabriel Wolf. 8vo. Halle, 
 1736 ; Ibid. 1755. 
 Correspondence of Dr. ■William Berriman, in his Christian Doctrines 1751 
 and Duties Explained in Forty Sermons, published from his MS. by 
 John Berriman, vol. i. pp. 398-400. 3 vols. Svo. London, 1751-63. 
 B. C. D. Disquisitio de Matrimonio cum Defunctas Conjugis Sorore quam 1779 
 
 . . . submittit Geor^ns IiudOTicus Klein. 4to. Strasburg, 1779. 
 Neuer Versuch iiber die Ungiiltigkeit des mosaischen Gesetzes and den 1800 
 Rechtsgrund der Eheverbote ; in einem Gutachten iiber die Ehe 
 mit des Bruders Wittwe. By Karl ludwig NUzscb. Svo. Witten- 
 berg, 1800. 
 A Dissertation on the Marriage of a Man with his Sister-in-Law. By 1816 
 
 Jobn H. Zilvlng^ston. 8vo. New Brunswick, 1816. 
 'On Marrying a Deceased Wife's Sister,' pp. 268-275, in the Letters and 1S24 
 Papers of the late Rev. Thomas Scott, never before published, with 
 occasional observations by John Scott. Letter dated January 9, 
 181 5. 8vo. London, 1824. 
 Opinions of a Layman on . . . marriage with a deceased wife's sister. 1827 
 .Anonymous. New York, 1827. 
 
 Summary of the Objections to the Doctrine that a Marriage with the 1S39 
 
 Sister of a Deceased Wife is contrary to Law, Religion, or Morality. 
 
 [By Hey wood.] 8vo. London, 1839. 
 ' Legality of Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife.' Signed ' IL' 
 
 Art. VIII. In the law Magazine, vol. xxi. pp. 371-382, No. 44, 
 
 for May. 8vo. London, 1839. 
 Considerations on the State of the Law Regarding Marriages with a 1840 
 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. By a Barrister of the Middle Temple. 
 
 Anonymoas. Svo. London, 1S40. 
 ' Innovations respecting the Law of Marriage.' [St. Basil's Letter CLX. 
 
 to Diodorus.] Signed 'T. W.' In the Britisb Magazine, vol. 
 
 xviii. pp. 509-511, November. Svo. London, 1840. 
 ' On the present state of the Law as to Marriages Abroad between English 
 
 Subjects within the Prohibited Degrees of Affinity.' [By E. vr. 
 
 Field.] Svo. London, 1S40. 
 
414 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1840 ' On the present state of the law as to Marriages abroad between English 
 
 Subjects within the prohibited degrees of affinity.' In the lLeg:aI 
 Observer, vol. xix. pp. 181-185, 196-199, 210-212, 247-249, Nos. 
 567, 568, 569, 571, for January 4, 1 1, 18, and Monthly Record. Svo. 
 London, 1840. Reprinted, 8vo. London, 1840. 
 
 'Proposed Change in the Laws Prohibiting Marriage between those 
 Near of Kin.' By E. B. Pusey. In the British Magazine, vol. 
 xviii. pp. 499-509, November. Svo. London, 1840. Reprinted, Svo. 
 Oxford, 1842. 
 
 Considerations on the State of the Law regarding Marriages with a 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. [By H. R. Reynolds, jun.] Svo. London, 
 1840. 
 
 Observations on the Prohibition of Marriage in Certain Cases of Rela- 
 tionship by Affinity. [By the Rev. H. J. vrbarton.] Svo. London, 
 1840. ith edit. \Z^\. 
 
 1 84 1 Marriages of Affinity. Articles reprinted from various papers in London. 
 
 Fol. London, 1S41. 
 
 Continued : Fol. London, 1S42. 
 
 The Marriage Law considered in a Letter addressed to C. J. Bloomfield, 
 Lord Bishop of London, containing sundry Friendly Animadversions 
 upon a Speech delivered by his Lordship, etc. By Phinchas Philo- 
 gamos, A.M. [Ceor^e Coldsmltb.] Svo. London, 1841. 
 
 Considerations on Marriages Prohibited by the Law of God. By the 
 Right Rev. H. W. Onderdonk, D.D., Bishop of the Diocese of 
 Pennsylvania. Svo. Philadelphia, 1S41. 
 
 A Letter to the Rt. Rev. the Lord Bishop of London on the Law of 
 Marriage within the Prohibited Degrees of Affinity : with His Lord- 
 ship's Speech on the presentation of petitions to the House of Lords, 
 by Lord Wharnclifife, . . . and a Letter from the Late Sir William 
 Jones. ... By H, R. Reynolds, jun. Svo. London, 1841. 2nd 
 edit. ibid. 1841. 4M edit. ibid. 1842. 
 
 Second Letter to the Rt. Rev. the Lord Bishop of London on the Law 
 of Marriage . . . with a Letter from the Lord Archbishop of Dublin 
 upon the same subject. By B. R. Reynolds, jun. Svo. London, 
 1S41, 1S42. 
 
 House of Lords, May 14, 1841. Speech of Lord 'Wharncllffe on the 
 Presentation of Petitions praying an Amendment in the .Act of the 
 5th and 6th Will. IV. respecting Marriages within the Prohibited 
 Degrees of Affinity. Fol. London, 184 1. 
 
 1S42 'Marriage of a Wife's Sister, The Biblical Argument.' In the Blbllo- 
 theca Sacra, No. II. pp. 283-301. By the Editor. Svo. 1842. 
 
 Tlie substance of this article first appeared in the New York 
 Observer for August 6, 1842, and January 21, 1843; signed 
 ' Omicron.' 
 
BIBLIOC.RArilY 415 
 
 Notes on the Origin and Effect of the Prohibition of Marriage in cases 1842 
 of Collateral Affinity : with an Appendix. [By Thomas Coates.] 
 8vo. London, 1842. 
 The Marriage Question; or, the Lawfulness of Marrying the Sister of a 
 Deceased Wife, Considered. By Parsons Cooke. Svo. Boston, 
 1842. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. House of Commons, March g, 
 1842. Extracts from Speech of Lord Francis Bgeiton. Fol. London, 
 1842. 
 Unlawful Marriage. By Dr. Jacob J. Janeway. New York, 1844. 1844 
 
 Remarks on the Law regarding Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased 1S45 
 
 Wife. ByA. Hayward. Svo. London, 1845. 
 Letters of several distinguished Members of the Bench of Bishops on 1846 
 the subject of Marriage with a deceased wife's sister. With Re- 
 marks. By Oeorge A. Crowder. i2mo. London, 1846; Svo. 
 iiiti. 1846. yd edit. 1846. 
 Mirriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife unlawful in the sight of 
 God. By a Minister of the Church of England, [c E. ■Webster.] 
 i2mo. Ipswich, '846. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister not forbidden by the laws of 1847 
 Nature ; not dissuaded by expediency ; not prohibited by the 
 Scriptures ; including an examination of Prof. Bush's notes on 
 Leviticus. By Jostaua rrederick Benbam. 8vo. London, 1847. 
 Report of the Arguments of Counsel and of the Judgments pronounced 
 by Lord Dennian and the other Judges of the Court of Queen's 
 Bench in the Case of the Queen 1:. Chadwnck (In Error) in 
 Michslmas Term, 1847. By Tames Cook Evans. Svo. London, 
 1847. 
 Review of the Law relating to Marriages within the Prohibited Degrees 
 of Affinity, and of the Canons and Social Considerations by which 
 the Law is supposed to be justified. By I. Campbell Foster. Svo. 
 London, 1847. 
 First Report of the Commissioners Appointed to inquire into the State 1848 
 and Operation of the Law of Marriage, as relating to the Prohibited 
 Degrees of Affinity, and to Marriages solemnised Abroad or in the 
 British Colonies. With Minutes of Evidence, Appendix, and Index. 
 Fol. London, 1848. 
 Reprinted, \%ib\ Extracts by the M.L.R.A. Svo. London, 1849. 
 The Lawfulness of Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, examined by 
 Scripture. In a letter to a Friend. By C. T. Coodhart. Svo. 
 London, 1848 ; 1849. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Repugnant to Christian Feeling 
 and Contrary to Christian Practice. By the Rev. PblUp Hale. Svo. 
 London, 1848. 
 
4l6 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1849 Marriage Law Defence Association: An Englishwoman's Letter to the 
 
 Rt. Hon. Sir Robert Harry Inglis, Bart., M.P., on the proposed 
 
 alteration of the Marriage Law. [Signed] 'A Sister and a Widow.' 
 
 Anonymous. l2nio. London [1849]. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Facts and Opinions in Favour 
 
 of Legalising Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Various 
 
 Authors, for the M.L.R. A. 8vo. London, n.d. [Czraj 1849.] 
 An Examination of the Rev. J. Keble's tract against profane dealing 
 
 with Holy Matrimony, in regard of a man and his wife's sister. By 
 
 an English Churchman. Anonjrmons. 8vo. London, 1849. 
 Remarks on a late Tract by the Rev. J. Keble entitled, Against profane 
 
 dealing with Holy Matrimony. By a Barrister. Anonymous. 
 
 8vo. London, 1849. 
 The Reviewer Reviewed : or a letter to the Right Hon. Stuart Wortley, 
 
 M.P., on the New Marriage Act. Anonymous. 8vo. London, 
 
 1849. 
 A Summary of the Chief Arguments For and Against Marriage with a 
 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. Anonymous. Svo. London, 1849. 
 
 New Edition, with Remarks upon an article in the Quarterly 
 
 Review. Ibid. 1S50. 
 SYrrE'NEIA. A Dispassionate Appeal to the Judgment of the Clergj' of 
 
 the Church of England on a proposed Alteration of the Law of 
 
 Marriage. Anonymous. [By the Rev. Hugb Ford Bacon.] 8vo. 
 
 London, 1849. 
 A plain Statement of the Grounds on which it is contended that Marriage 
 
 within the Prohibited Degrees is forbidden in Scripture. By Hugb 
 
 Bennett. Svo. London, 1S49. 
 Letters in favour of a Repeal of the Law which prohibits Marriage with 
 
 the Sister of a Deceased Wife. By TV. W. Cbampneys, Thos. 
 
 Dale, 3. H. Gnrney, H. M. Villlers, and W. F. Hook. 8vo. 
 
 London, 1849, 1851. 
 Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife injurious to Morals, and 
 
 Unauthorised by Holy Scripture. By the Rev. George Croly. Svo. 
 
 London, 1849. 
 A Letter to the Lord Bishop of Lichfield on the Clause relating to the 
 
 Clergy in the Bill for allowing marriages with a Deceased Wife's 
 
 Sister. By Sir Edmund Beckett Senison, Lord Grimthorpe. Svo. 
 
 London, 1849. 
 'The Marriage Law.' In the Eclectic Review, vol. xxvi. pp. 521-540. 
 
 Art. I. for November. Svo. 1849. 
 Three Letters addressed to the Bishop of Oxford on Marriage with the 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. By Edmund Salusbury Froulkes. Svo. 
 O.xford, 1849. 
 A Scripture Argument against permitting Marriage with a Wife's Sister, 
 in ' A Clerg>'man's Letter to a Friend.' By the Rev. Tames Augus- 
 tus Hossey. Svo. London, 1849; 1850; 121110.1855; 1S83. 
 
niBI.lOCRAI'IIY 417 
 
 The Report of Her Majesty's Commission on the Laws of Marriage rela- 1849 
 
 live to Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, examined in a letter 
 
 to Sir R. H. Inglis. Ry A. S. Beresford Hope. 8vo. London, 
 
 1849. Do. ^nd and ird edits. 4///. i-fW. ibid. 1850. 
 Marriage with a Wife's Sister not forbidden by the Word of God ; and 
 
 the denunciations ... by the Rev. John Keble . . . proved to be 
 
 unscriptural and a False Alarm ; in a Letter to the Rev. Charles 15. 
 
 Dalton, etc. By the Rev. J. S. Jenklnson. 8vo. London, 1849. 
 Against Profane Dealing with Holy Matrimony. ... A Tract for all 
 
 English Churchmen and Churchwomen. By the Rev. Jobn Keble. 
 
 i2mo. Oxford, 1849 ; and Svo. London, 1849. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister : A Reply to the Article upon 
 
 the Subject in the Quarterly Review for June 1849 ; together witli 
 
 a Short Statement of the Facts Bearing upon the Question. By 
 
 Edward Prlcbard. Svo. London, 1849. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister : An Answer to Letters in favour 
 
 of a Repeal of the Law by W. W. Champneys, T. Dale, J. H. 
 
 Gurney, H. Montagu Villiers, and W. F. Hook. By William 
 
 Procter. 8vo. Berwick-on-Tweed, 1849. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Prohibited by Holy Scripture, as 
 
 understood by the Church for 1 500 years. Evidence given before 
 
 the Commission. ... To which is appended a Speech ... by 
 
 Edward Badely. By B. B. Pusey, D.D. 8vo. Oxford, 1849. 
 ' Marriage— Mr. Wortley's Bill.' In the Quarterly Review, vol. Ixxxv. 
 
 pp. 156-182, Art. 5, No. 99, for July. Svo. London, 1849. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister not Contrary to God's Law. A 
 
 Letter addressed by Permission to the Right Rev. the Lord Bishoj) 
 
 of Worcester, in reply to the Rev. E. S. Foulke's three Letters on 
 
 this Subject. By the Rev. C. D. Wheeler. Svo. London [1849 1. 
 Law of Marriage. The Substance of a Speech Delivered in the House 
 
 of Commons on February 22, 1849. By the Riglit Hon. James 
 
 Stuart -Wortley. Svo. London, 1 849. 
 The Sound Policy of the Existing Law of Marriage, as Prohibiting the 
 
 Union of a Widower with his Deceased Wife's Sister Vindicated, 
 
 etc. By George VTray. Svo. London, 1849. 
 The Women of England and Mr. Wortley's Marriages Bill. An Address 1850 
 
 to the Peers of the Realm by a Woman of England. Anonymous. 
 
 Svo. London, 1850. 
 The Law of Marriage a Remnant of Popery adopted by Puseyism. A 
 Correspon.'.ence between Mr. Allison, the Bishop of Lincoln, and 
 the Vicar of Louth on Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 
 Svo. London, 1S50. 
 The Men of Glasgow and the Women of Scotland. Reasons for differing 
 from the Rev. Dr. Symington's View of the Levitical Marriage Law, 
 etc. liy the Rev. Thomas BInnuy. Svo. London [1S50J. 
 
 E K 
 
41 8 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1S50 Let us uphold the Scripture Rule of Marriages. An earnest address to 
 
 Englishmen. By Abner IWllUam Brown. 8vo. London, 1850. 
 On Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife. A Sermon preached 
 
 in Becking Church on Sunday, March 17, 1850, by Henry Carring- 
 
 ton, M.A., Dean and Rector of Bocking ; to which is appended St. 
 
 Basil's Letter on the same Subject. Published by Request. 8vo. 
 
 London, 1850. 
 ' Marriage with a Wife's Sister.' By Sir Edmund Beckett Senlson, 
 
 Lord Grimthorpe. InFrasers Magazine, vol. xli. pp. 1 12-134, No. 
 
 241, for January 1850. 8vo. London, 1850. 
 Reprinted, 8vo. London, 185 1 ; ^vith some additions. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister not Contrary to the Word of 
 
 God, as contained in the Law of Moses. By the Rev. John Eadle, 
 
 D.D., etc. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1850. 8vo. London, 1864. 
 Marriage with two Sisters contrary to the Holy Law of God and Nature. 
 
 A Sermon. . . . With notes and Berriman's correspondence on the 
 
 same subject. By Charles Porster. 8vo. London, 1850. 
 An Expostulatory Letter to the Right Rev. R. Wiseman, D.D., etc. on 
 
 the Interpolated Curse in the Vatican Septuagint, Deut. .xxvii. 23. 
 
 ... By E. AW. Grinfield. 8vo. London, 1850. 
 The True Remedy for the Evils of the Age. A Charge to the Clergy of 
 
 the Archdeaconry of Lewis, delivered at the ordinary visitation in 
 
 1849. With notes especially on the Educational, Matrimonial, and 
 
 Baptismal Questions. By Julius Cbarles Hare. 8vo. London, 
 
 1850. 
 'The Prohibited Degrees in Marriage — Mr. Stuart Wortley's Marriage 
 
 Bill.' In the Nortb British Review, vol. xii. pp. 532-536. Art. 
 
 IX. No. 24, for February. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1850. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech Delivered at a Public 
 
 Meeting of the Inhabitants of Edinburgh held in Brighton Street 
 
 Church on Wednesday, .\pril 10, 1S50. By 'W. Campbell Sleigrb. 
 
 i2mo. Edinburgh, 1S50. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister considered with reference to the 
 
 authority of Scripture. By irewenbam Xravers. 8vo. London, 
 
 1850. 
 The XVIIIth Chapter of Leviticus not the Marriage Code of Israel. By 
 
 T. P. Brown AXresttaead. 8vo. London, 1S50. 
 Speech . . . against the second reading of the Bill for altering the Law 
 
 of Marriage, Feb. 27, 1850. By Sir William Page Wood, Baron 
 
 Hatherley. 8vo. London, 1850. 
 1 85 1 Marriage Law Defence Association : Speech of his Grace llie Archbishop 
 
 of Canterbury in the House of Lords, on Feb. 25, 1851, on moving 
 
 the rejection of the Bill for legalising marriage with a deceased wife's 
 
 sister. l2mo. London, 1S51. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPIIY 419 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 'I'lie S|)ecrh of liis Grace the 1851 
 Archbishop of Canterbury and other Authorities, Ancient and 
 Modern, on Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Anonymous. 
 8vo. London \circa 1851]. 
 
 Marriages BilK Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Observations 
 on the Debate on the Marriages Bill in the House of Lords on 
 Februar)' 25, 1851, as reported in 'the Times' of the next day. 
 Anonymous. 8vo. Louth, 1851. 
 
 Memorandum in relation to Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, 
 compiled for private circulation. Anonymous. i6mo. London, 
 1851. 
 
 Law of Marriage. The Speech of his Grace the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in the House of Lords, February 25, 1851, on the Marriages in 
 Affinity Bill, examined by the Word of God and Common Sense. 
 By -w. A. Attklns, in a Letter to his Grace, with an Appendix con- 
 taining his Grace's Speech. 8vo. Salford, 1851. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, considered in a Letter addressed 
 to the Right Hon. the Earl of Ellesmere, D.C.L., etc. By Josepb 
 Beaumont. 8vo. London, 1851. 
 
 An Argument in Relation to the Levitical Marriage Law ; particularly 
 as affecting the question of the marriage of a widower with his 
 deceased wife's sister. By the Rev. Tbomas Blnney. 8vo. 
 London, 185 1. 
 
 Ibid, abridged. 121110. London, 1851. T/iis is only a new 
 edition of the ' Men 0/ Glasgow.' 
 
 Marriage Law Defence Association : Speech of the Rt. lion. Lord Chief 
 Justice Campbell in the House of Lords, Feb. 25, 1851, against the 
 second reading of the Bill for legalising Marriage with a deceased 
 wife's sister. i2mo. London, 1851. 
 
 A Short Letter on the Bishop of Exeter's Speech on the Marriage Bill. 
 By Sir Edmund Beckett Senlson, Lord Grimthorpe. 8vo. London, 
 1851. 2nd edit. 1851. 
 
 ' Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife.' In the Eclectic Review, 
 new series, vol. ii. pp. 735-748, Art. VII. December. 8vo. London, 
 1851. 
 
 Marriages Bill. Speeches of the Earl of St. Germans and Viscount 
 Case, in the House of Lords, Tuesday, February 25, 1851. M.L.R.A. 
 8vo. London, 1851. 
 
 Attother Edition, with a Summary of the other parts of the 
 Debate. Ibid. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Letters from the Right Rev 
 Bishop Mcllvaine, of Ohio, and other Eminent Persons in the 
 United States of America in Favour of Marriage with a Deceased 
 Wife's Sister. M.L.R.A. 8vo. Loiulnn, 1S51. 
 
420 THE MAKklAfn-; OF NKAR KIX 
 
 185 1 Speech delivered in the House of Lords ... on a Motion for the second 
 Reading of a Bill to make lawful Marriages within certain of the 
 Prohibited Degrees of Affinity. By Bishop Henry Plillpotts. 8vo. 
 London, 1851. 
 
 A Letter to the Lord Bishop of Exeter in reference to his .Speech in the 
 House of Lords against the Second Reading of Earl St. Germans' 
 Bill for Legalising Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. By WT. 
 Campbell Slelg^b. 8vo. London, 1 85 1, ind edit. li^i. 
 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' In the Westminster Review, 
 vol. Iv. pp. 134-173, No. I, for April. Bvo. London, 1851. 
 1S52 Marriage Law Dialogues. A Day too Late ; or a Glance at the Working 
 of the Marriage Law of 1835. Anonymous. 8vo. London, 1852. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Facts and Opinions in favour 
 of legalising Marriage with a deceased wife's sister. NLL.R..\. 
 Various Authors. 8vo. [London, 1852.] 
 
 Reasons assigned by an Elder of the Free Church for declining to sign 
 a Petition to Parliament against a Bill for legalising Marriage with 
 the Sister of a deceased Wife. Anonymous. Bvo. Glasgow, 
 1852, 1853. 
 
 A Word or Two founded upon Scriptural Authority against the Proposed 
 Change in the Marriage Law. By a Minister's Son. Anonymous. 
 8vo. London, 1852. 
 
 The Validity of Marriages with a Wife's Sister celebrated abroad. By 
 .Sir Edmund Beckett Denlson, Lord Grimthorpe. 8vo. London, 
 ■ 852. 
 
 Reasons for legalising Marriages with a Deceased Wife's Sister. By 
 Thomas Senman, Baron Denman. 8vo. London, 1852, and 1880. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech of the Earl of St. 
 Germans in the House of Lords, Monday, June 21, 1852, on the 
 Presentation of Petitions in Favour of Rendering Lawful Marriage 
 with a Deceased Wife's Sister. M.L.R..-\. Svo. London, 1S52. 
 
 ' Herod and Herodias.' In the Journal of Sacred literature, new 
 series, vol. iii. pp. 202-204, No. 3, for October. Svo. London, 1852. 
 Ibid. vol. iii. pp. 482, 483, No. 6, for January, 1853. 
 853 Marriage Law Dialogues, No. II. The Table of Degrees, the Ninety- 
 ninth Canon, and the Marriage Law of 1835, considered in an 
 Imaginary Convocation. Anonymous. 8vo. London, 1853. 
 
 Reasons for Signing a Petition against the Marriage Affinity Bill. By a 
 Deacon of the Free Church ; elicited by receipt of a Pamphlet 
 entitled ' Reasons for not signing a Petition, by an Elder of the 
 Free Church.' Anonymous. Svo. Rothesay [1853]. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Opinions of the Rev. R. 
 Blckerstetta, and other Eminent Divines, in Favour of the Lawful- 
 ness of Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Svo. London, 
 1853. 
 
lUBLIOliKArilY 4-' 
 
 ' Marriages within the Forbidden Degrees.' In the Christian Journal, 1853 
 vol. iv. pp. 252-256, new series, No. 42, for June. Kvo. Clasj^ow, 
 1853- 
 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' In the Sdlnburgrb Review, 
 vol. xcvii. pp. 315-341, Art. II. No. 198, for April. 8vo. Edin- 
 burgh, 1853. 
 
 A Brief Argument against the Present Law affecting Marriage with a 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. By the Knight of Kerry {pseud, for 
 Maurice Pltaireraid]. Svo. London, 1853. 
 
 Marriage with a deceased Wife's sister. Correspondence on the true 
 interpretation of Leviticus xviii. 18 . . . between J. Stansbury and 
 A. McCaul, etc. Svo. London, 1853. ind edit. do. 
 
 Supplement to the ' Reasons assigned by an Elder of the Free Church 1S54 
 for declining to sign a Petition to Parliament against a Bill for 
 legalising Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife.' \\'ith 
 some Remarks on a Speech delivered by the Rev. J. Gibson before 
 the Glasgow Free Church Presbytery. Anonymous. Svo. (Ilas- 
 gow, 1 8 54. 
 
 Marriage Affinity Question ; or Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased 
 Wife fully discussed. By the Rev. Tames Gibson. Svo. Edin- 
 burgh, 1854. 
 
 Affinity Marriages in reference to-the Bible and the Westminster Con- 1S55 
 fession of Faith. Anonymous. i2mo. n.d. [OVcrt 1855.] 
 
 Marriage Law Defence Association : Plain Remarks on the Twenty- 
 Three (alleged) facts urged by those who would alter the law for- 
 bidding Marriage with a deceased wife's sister. Anonymous. 
 i2mo. London, n.d. \Ci>-ca 1855.] 
 
 Marriage Law Defence Association : Why should the present attempt to 
 change the Law of Marriage be resisted.' Anonymous. i2mo. 
 London, n.d. \Circa 1S55.] 
 
 Reasons against Marriage of a Wife's Sister. Anonymous. Svo. 
 [Plymouth, 1855.] 
 
 ' Is Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister opposed to Scripture?' In 
 the Cbristian Remembrancer, Art. V. pp. 458 477, new series. 
 No. 88, for April. Svo. London, 1855. 
 
 The Marriage Question : An attempt to discover the true Scriptural 
 Argument in the question of Marriage with a wife's sister. By 
 Francis Ifewman Rogers. Svo. London, 1855. 
 
 The Lawfulness of Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Demonstrated. 
 By the Rev. Professor -WTallace, A.M. l2mo. London, 1855. 
 
 Facts, Opinions, and National Testimonies tending to prove the Scrip- 1856 
 tural Lawfulness of Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, and the 
 Desirableness of ag.iin affording Legal Validity In Such Marri.ages 
 in England and Irel.md, Anonymous. Svo. London, 1S56. 
 
422 Tin-: MARRIACK OF XEAR KIN 
 
 J856 Marriaj,'e with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Fenlon v. Livingstone, involv- 
 ing a Question of International Law. Decided in the Scottish 
 Courts, 1855-56. Anonymous. 8vo. London, 1856. 
 
 A Charge Delivered to the Clergy of the Archdeaconry of Buckingham 
 at his Second Visitation in June 1856. By Edward Bickersteth, 
 M. A., .Archdeacon of Buckingham. 8vo. London, 1856. 
 
 Marriages Bill. Speeches of the Earl of St. Germans, the Earl of 
 Albemarle, the lord BavenswortU, and the Earl Grey, in the 
 House of Lords on .-Xpril 25, 1856. M.L.R.A. 8vo. London, 1856. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. A Glance at the Argument 
 from Antiquity. By Robert Charles Jenkins. Svo. London, 
 1856. 
 
 Observations on the Debate in the House of Lords on February 25, 1851, 
 upon the Motion of the Earl of St. Germans for the Second Reading 
 of a Bill to Make Lawful Marriages within Certain of the Prohibited 
 Degrees of Affinity, and on the Debates in the House of Cominons 
 in March, April, May, and June, 1855. By James Manning. 8vo. 
 London, 1856. 2nd edit. ibid. 
 
 1857 Opinions of the late Dr. Coplestone, Bishop of Llandaff, and Archbishop 
 
 ■Whately in favour of legalising marriage with a deceased wife's 
 sister. 8vo. London, 1857, 1866. 
 
 1858 Is Marriage with the sister of a deceased wife lawful? Anonymous. 
 
 i2mo. London, 1858. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister in a Social Point of View in- 
 expedient and unnatural. By a Member of the University of Oxford. 
 [Anonymous.] 8vo. London, 1858. 
 The Law of the Bible as to the Prohibited Degrees of Marriage. A 
 
 Letter to Lord Bury, M.P. By George C. M. Douglas. 8vo. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1858. 
 A Charge to the Clergy and Churchwardens of the Diocese of Salisbury, 
 
 at his Triennial Visitation in August 1S58. By -Walter Kerr, 
 
 Bishop of Salisbury. Svo. Salisbury, 1858. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech of the Right. Hon. Sir 
 
 George Cornewall lewis, Bart., May 5, 1858, injfavour of Legal- 
 ising Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Svo. London, 185S. 
 
 Another edit. ibid. 1863. 
 'Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' In the london Review. 
 
 Art. IX. vol. X. pp. 544-563, No. 20, for July. Svo. London, 185S. 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, and all marriages within the 
 
 Degrees Specified in the ' Table of Kindred and Affinity ' shown to 
 
 be forbidden in Scripture. By -William Procter. Svo. Alnwick, 
 
 1858. 
 ' Marriage within the Prohibited Degrees.' By a 15arrister. In Talfs 
 
 Edinburgb Magazine, vol. xxv. lip. 79, So, No. 2<;o, for February. 
 
 8vo. Edinbupjh and London, 1S58. 
 
liim.iocRAi'iiv 423 
 
 ' Her Sister' : Shall I Marry Her? Anonymous. 8vo. London, 1859. 1839 
 
 Marriage Law Defence Association : Voices of the Public Press. Anony- 
 mous. l2nio. London [1859]. 
 
 The Unlawfulness of Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife. An 
 Address Delivered in the Church in Gordon Square. Anonymous. 
 8vo. London, 1859. 
 
 Marriage Law Defence Association : Remarks on Dr. McCaul's Plea 
 from Lev. xviii. 18 for marrying a Deceased Wife's Sister in a letter lo 
 the Dean of Westminster. By a Member of the Committee. Anony- 
 moas. i2mo. London, n.d. [Circa 1859.] 
 
 Second Edition with a Postscript on certain Jewisn Staieinents 
 respecting such marriages. l2mo. London, n.d. \Circa \Z6o^ 
 
 The Woman's Question and the Man's Answer. Reflections on the 
 Social Consequences of legalising Marriage with a Deceased Wife's 
 Sister. By B. A. W. [w. A'Beckett.] 8vo. London, 1859. 
 
 The Lords and the Marriage Bill. Remarks on the arguments of the 
 noble Lords . . . who supported Lord Wodehouse's Motion for the 
 second reading of the Marriage Bill. By Charles Campbell. Svo. 
 London, 1859. 
 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' In the Cliurcli of Eng-Iand 
 niontbly Review, vol. vii. pp. 273-284, No. 41, for November. 
 Svo. 1859. 
 
 May a Man Marry his Deceased Wife's Sister ? By r. A. sawson. 
 Svo. London, 1859; ind edition 6.0. 
 
 The ancient interpretations of Leviticus xviii. 18, as received in the 
 Churches for more than 1 500 years, a sufficient apology for holding 
 that, according to the word of God, marriage with a deceased wife's 
 sister is lawful. A Letter to the Rev. W. H. Lyall, etc. By the 
 Rev. Dr. Alexander MacCauI. Svo. London, 1859 ; another 
 edition. Svo. London, 1S60. 
 
 ' The Law of Marriage,' ' Bishop Jewell and marriage with a Deceased 
 Wife's Sister,' etc. In the Marriage Itaw Reform Reporter, 
 No. I, for February. Fol. London, 1859. 
 
 A Letter to the Bishop of O.xford on the Marriage Bill. By J. Bywell 
 Mabon. Svo. Newcastle, 1859. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. A Short and Plain Argument 
 to prove that Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife is For- 
 bidden by Scripture, and that the Relationships that are Prohibited, 
 whether they be created by Consanguinity or .Aflinity — i.e. by Blood 
 or Marriage — Fall under the same Rule, and are equally Forbidden. 
 By the Rev. h. -W. Simpson. Svo. London, 1859 ; I7id edition^ 
 do. 
 
 The Christian inference from Leviticus xviii. 6 sufficient ground for 
 holding that according to the word of God marriage with a deceased 
 
4-4 THE .MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 wife's sister is unlawful. A letter to the Rev Ur. MacCaul (in refer- 
 ence to his recent pamphlet), etc. By Joslab Francis Thrupp. 
 
 8vo. Cambridge, 1859. 
 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' By Dr. Ctarlstopber 
 'Wordsworth, Bishop of Lincoln, No. Iv. of Occasional Sermons. 
 London, 1859. 
 
 Reprinted, i2mo. London, 1876. Also in his Miscellanies, 
 Literary and Religious, vol. iii. pp. 237-256. 3 vols. Svo. London, 
 1879. 
 
 Facts and Opinions tending to Show the Scriptural Lawfulness of 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, and the consequent necessity 
 for its legalisation in England, in Accordance with the Laws and 
 Practice of other Christian Nations. Various Autliors. Svo. 
 London, i860. 
 
 Marriage Law Defence Association : Opinions against Marriage with a 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. By members of the House of Commons. 
 Various Autbois. i2mo. London [i860]. 
 
 The Present State of the Marriage Law Proved Unscriptural and the 
 Proposed Illogical. By a Philosophical Inquirer. Anonymous. 
 Svo. London, i860. 
 
 A Reply to the Bishop of Exeter's argument against marriage with a 
 deceased wife's Sister, in a Letter to the Bishop of Lichfield. To 
 which are added some remarks on the Speech of the Vice-Chancellor 
 Sir W. P. Wood. By Hugb rord Bacon. Svo. London, 1 860. 
 
 A Letter to the Rt. Hon. Sir Richard Bethell . . . Containing a Defence 
 of the Proposition of a Reform in the Law Concerning Marriage : in 
 Answer to a New and Recent Accusation brought against it by the 
 Lord Bishop of O.vford. By Peter Blackburn. Svo. London, 
 i860. 
 
 The Question ' May I marry my Sister-in-Law ? ' investigated by the 
 Light of Dr. MacCaul's learned Arguments in favour of it. By 
 Cbarles Campbell. Svo. London i860. 
 
 Speech of the Lord Bishop of Cork in the House of Lords . . . March 
 22, 1859, on Lord Wodehouse's Bill for legalising marriages with 
 a deceased wife's sister. To which is added a reply to the re- 
 marks of the Lord Bishop of Exeter in his late letter to the Lord 
 Bishop of Lichfield. By 'Wm. ritiperald, liishdp of Cork. Svo. 
 London, 1S60. 
 
 The Question of Marriage with the Sister of a Deceased Wife earnestly 
 submitted to those whom it may concern, socially or politically. By 
 Henry Hall, Viscount Gage. i2nio. London, i860. 
 
 A Few Words on the Legal Interpretation of the Marriage Prohibitions 
 of Leviticus addressed to the Right Honourable Dr. Lushinglon. 
 By Robert Cburles Jenkins, M.A. 410. [London] i860. 
 
iiii!i,iot;KAriiv 425 
 
 A Letter to Vice-Chancellor Sir W. Page Wood, in vindication of the i860 
 ancient interpretation of Leviticus xviii. 18. By the Rev. Dr. 
 Alexander MacCaul. 8vo. London, i860. 
 
 Letter to John, Lord Bishop of Lichfield, on the claim of his Lordship's 
 authority in favour of the Bill for Legalising Marriage with the 
 Sister of a deceased Wife. . . . To which is added a Postscript on 
 a Tract of Dr. MacCaul on Leviticus .wiii. 18. By Bishop Henry 
 PhlUpotts. 8vo. London, i860; 2nd and ^th edi/ions, Ao. 
 
 God's Prohibition of the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, 
 Leviticus xviii. 6, Not to be set aside by an Inference from a Re- 
 striction of Polygamy among the Jews, Leviticus xviii. 18. By B. B. 
 Pusey. D.D. 8vo. Oxford and London, i860 ; 8vo. London, 
 1883. 
 
 Marriage Law Defence .■Association : Speech of V'ice-Chanccllor Sir IW. 
 Page VTood at a Meeting held at Willis's Rooms on February I, 
 i860. l2mo. London [i860]. 
 
 Ibid. M.L.D.U. Tracts No. xx.\. 1883. 
 
 An Historical View of the Restrictions on Marriage, especially in relation 1861 
 to England, with the True Reasons why Marriage with the Sister of 
 a Deceased Wife was Prohibited. By an Antiquary. Anonymous. 
 8vo. London, 1861 ; another edition, 1880. 
 
 Some Brief Remarks on Vice-Chancellor Sir W. Page Wood's Vindica- 
 tion of the Law Prohibiting Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 
 In a Letter to a Friend. By the Rev. Hugb Pord Bacon. 8vo. 
 London, 1861. 
 
 ^Llrriage Law Defence Association: Judgment of the House of Lords 
 March 18, 1 86 1. Brook ?'. Brook. i2mo. London [1861]. 
 
 Notes Critical and Practical on the Book of Leviticus. By Prof. 
 George Busb. 8vo. New York, 1861. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Opinions of the Rev. V^. -w. 
 Cbampneys . . . Rev. C. 7. Goodbart . . . Rev. R. Bickerstetb 
 . . . Rev. John Nasb Gilffin . . . Rev. Samuel Minton . . . Rev. 
 Vt. A.. Cooke Collls ... in favour of the Lawfulness of Marriage 
 with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 8vo. London, 1861. 
 
 A vindication of the law prohibiting marriage with a deceased Wife's 
 Sister : L On Social Principles. IL On Scripture Principles in two 
 letters, etc. By Sir wuiiam Page \irood, Baron Hatherley. 8vo. 
 London, 1861, i86g. 
 
 An Examination into the Scriptural Lawfulness of Marriage with a 1863 
 Deceased Wife's Sister, and the Principles and Enactments of 
 English Law respecting such marriages. By a .Member of the 
 Society of Friends. [OTas. Bawden.] 8vo. London [1863]. 
 
 .Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speeches of the Right Hon. 
 the Iiord Herbert, ^L1rch 6, 1850; and the Right Hon. Sir Ceo. 
 
436 THE MARRIAGE OE NEAR KIN 
 
 1563 Cornewall X.ewls, Bart., May 5, 1858 ; in favour of Legalising 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. M.L.R.A. 8vo. London, 
 1863. 
 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' In The ivew Kevlew, 
 
 Political, Philosophical and Literary, pp. 110-128, No. i, for May. 
 Svo. Dublin, 1863. 
 Is it right for a Christian to marry two Sisters ? By a member of the 
 Society of Friends. [ — Pym.] Svo. Dublin, 1863. 
 
 1564 Facts and opinions tending toshow The Scriptural Lawfulness of marriage 
 
 with a Deceased Wife's Sister, and the Consequent necessity for its 
 Legalisation in England, in accordance with the Laws and Practice 
 of other Christian Nations, etc. Anonymous. M.L.R.A. 8vo. 
 London, 1864. 
 
 1865 The Present State of the Marriage Law, with Supplement. By a 
 
 Graduate. Anonymous. l2mo. London, 1865. 
 
 1866 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. A Brief Review of the practice 
 
 of the Early Christian Church and of modern Legislation thereon. 
 By ». A. Freeman. 8vo. London, 1 866. 
 
 1868 An Essay on the Question of the Lawfulness of Marriage with the Sister 
 
 of a Deceased Wife. By "W. J. Seabury. New York, 1S68. 
 
 1869 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Anonymous. Svo. Hawick, 
 
 1869; another edition, i2mo. 1S69. 
 Marriage with a deceased Wife's Sister forbidden by the Word of God. 
 
 Containing also a refutation of a passage in the speech of Lord 
 
 Kimberley delivered in the House of Lords on this subject in March 
 
 1859. Signed ' An Anxious Obsener.' Anonymous. Svo. London, 
 
 1869. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. By Edwin May. Svo. 
 
 London [1869] ; Svo. Reading, 1874. 
 Marriage with a deceased Wife's Sister. Leviticus .xviii. iS considered 
 
 in connection with the law of the Levirate. A Letter to the Right 
 
 Hon. the Lord Hatherley, etc. By Mayow Waynell Mayow. 
 
 Svo. London, 1869. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Brother's Wife condemned by the laws of 
 
 Nature, Scripture, and the Testimony of Churches and Nations. By 
 
 Cbalmers Izett Paton. 8vo. London, 1869. 
 
 1870 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Facts, Opinions, and National 
 
 Testimonies tending to prove the Propriety of Legalising, in Eng- 
 land, IVIarriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Second series. 
 Various Authors, M.L.R.A. Svo. London, n.d. \Circa 1S70.] 
 
 1871 Legality of Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. By Charles Blount. 
 
 Svo. London, 1871. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech of the late Ki-ht Hon. 
 Sir Alexander Tamos Bdmund Cookburn, Cart., G.C.li., Lord 
 
lUHl.IUGKArUV 427 
 
 Chief Justice of England. Delivered in the House of Commons, 1S71 
 Wednesday, March 6, 1850, on the Second Reading of the liill for 
 LegaHsing Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Svo. Lonilon. 
 [.871?] 
 
 Speech of the Right Hon. Lord Houirbton on the Second Reading of 
 the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Bill, in the House of 
 Lords, Thursday, May 19, 1870. E.Ktracted (and Revised) from 
 ' Hansard's Parliamentary Debates,' vol. cci. p. 895. 8vo. London, 
 1871. 
 
 Speech of the Right Hon. lord Penzance, on the Second Reading of 
 the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Bill, in the House of 
 Lords, Monday, March 27, 1871. Extracted from 'Hansard's Par- 
 liamentary Debates,' vol. ccv. p. 639. Svo. London, n.d. [1871.] 
 
 The Lord Chancellor and the Wife's Sister Bill. A Criticism on Lord 1S73 
 Selborne's Speech in the House of Lords, on the Motion for the 
 Second Reading of the Bill, Thursday, March 13, 1S73. Anony- 
 mous. Svo. London, 1873. 
 
 'The Deceased Wife's Sister's Bill.' In the scUo, March 15. Fol. 
 London, 1873; reprinted, Svo. Loudon, 1S73. 
 
 Speech of the Right Hon. Henry Hall, Viscount Gage, on the Second 
 Reading of the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Bill, in the 
 House of Lords, Thursday, March 13, 1S73. E.xtracted from ' Han- 
 sard's Parliamentary Debates,' vol. cc.\iv. Svo. London, n.d. 
 
 Letter from Herman Merlvale, Esq., C.B., on the Deceased Wife's 
 
 Sister Bill. To the Pall Mall Gazette, March 15, 1S73 ; reprinted. 
 
 Svo. London, 1873. 
 ' The Deceased Wife's Sister's Bill ' [a facetious poem]. By Col. Colomb. 1874 
 
 In the St. James's Magazine and United Empire Review, new series, 
 
 vol. xiii. pp. 50-53, April. Svo. London, 1874. 
 
 The Law of Man at Variance with the Law of God. A Speech on the 1876 
 Marriage Question delivered in the Synod of the Diocese of Sydney, 
 etc. By J. C. C. i2mo. London, n.d. \Circa 1S76.] 
 
 Correspondence between Sir Thomas Chambers and the Secretary of 
 State for the Colonies on Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 
 Fol. 1876. 
 
 ' Arguments in favour of a Deceased Wife's Sister Bill,' pp. 79-84 of the 1877 
 Cosmopolitan Critic and Controversialist, for IMarch. Svo. 
 London, 1S77 ; Svo. Leeds, 1S77. 
 
 The Chichester Board of Guardians and the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill. 1S78 
 In the Chichester Advertiser, March 16, 1S78 ; reprinted, M.L.R.A. 
 Svo. London, n.d. 
 
 Marriage of a deceased Wife's Sister. Aoooymous. Svo. London, 1879 
 1879. 
 
428 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1879 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister : a letter to His Royal Highness 
 
 the Prince of Wales. By a Lady. Anonymous. 8vo. London, 1879. 
 Reasons for Passing the Bill to Legalise Marriage with a Deceased Wife's 
 
 .Sister. By a Bachelor of Arts. Anonymous. Svo. Dublin, 1879. 
 Speech of Lord Hougliton [Monkton Milnes] in theHouse of Lords, 
 
 Tuesday, May 6, 1879, on Moving the Second Reading of the Bill 
 
 for Legalising Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. M.L.K.A. 
 
 Svo. London, 1879. 
 iSSo Sextus Julius Africanus und die Byzantinische Chronographie. liy H. 
 
 Gelzer. Svo. Leipsic, 1S80. 
 May a Man Marry his Deceased Wife's .Sister ? With a Preface by the 
 
 Very Rev. A. Payne Smith, D.D., Dean of Canterbur>'. By Mrs. 
 
 Colin Mackenzie. Svo. London, 18S0. 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' Art. IV. in the VTestminster 
 
 Review, vol. Iviii. No. 115, for July, pp. 93-109. Svo. London, 
 
 18S0. 
 1S81 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. A Paper read at the Lichfield 
 
 Diocesan Conference on Thursday, October 27, 1S81. By Ednard 
 
 Bickersteth, D.D., Dean of Lichfield. Svo. London, iSSl. 
 
 1852 Opinions of the Hebrew and Greek Professors of the European L'niver- 
 
 sities on the Scriptural Aspect of the Question regarding the Lega- 
 lisation of Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister, with an Appendix. 
 Various Authors. M.L.R.A. Svo. London, 1S82. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. i. What the Bishop of Lincoln says. As addressed 
 to the Clergy and Laity of his Diocese at his Triennial \'isitation, 
 Oct 1S82. l2mo. London [ I S82]. 
 
 The Question of Incest relatively to Marriage with Sisters in Succession. 
 By Henry K. Sake. Svo. London, 1882. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. A Letter to His Eminence 
 Cardinal Manning on the Lawfulness of such an Alliance as declared 
 by Cardinal Cajetan (a.d. 1530). By Robert Cbarles Jenkins, 
 M.A. Svo. 1S82. 
 
 'The Question whether marriage with a deceased wife's sister is, or Ms 
 not, prohibited in the Mosaic writings answered by Paul de 
 Iiag-arde.' In the Nachrichlen der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der 
 Wissenschaften und der (jeorg-Augusts-Universitiit zu Gottingen, 
 xiii. pp. 393-40S. Svo. Gottingen, 1882 ; reprinted, ibid. 
 
 1853 Marriage Laws. Convocation of Canterbury, Lower House. Report of 
 
 the Committee on the Present Condition of the Marriage Laws. Svo. 
 
 [London] 18S3. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 9. What the Bishops of the English Church say. 
 
 i2mo. London [1SS3]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 10. What the Roman Catholic Churcli says on 
 
 the Law of Marriage. i2mo. London [1883]. 
 
iui;i.io(;k.\riiv 4-9 
 
 M.L.D.U. Trans No. ii. What the Eastern Church says. i2mo. 1883 
 
 London [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 13. Wh.tt the Conservatives say. l2nio. London 
 
 [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. ij. What the Liberals say. l2mo. London 
 
 [■883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 15. A Woman's Opinion on the Wife's .Sister 
 
 Bill. Anonymous. i2nio. London [1S83]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 17. -Some Reasons against ^L^rria<;e with a 
 
 Deceased Wife's Sister. Anonymous. l2mo. London [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 18. A Lady's Letter to a Friend on the Threatened 
 
 Change in the Marriage Law. By G . i2mo. London [1883]. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 21. NLay I Marry my Deceased Wife's Sister, or 
 
 may I not? By an Englishman. Anonymous. i2mo. London 
 
 [.883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 23. 'A Few Facts ' from Early Church History, 
 
 as stated by the Marriage Law Reform Association. By Historicus. 
 
 Anooymous. 1 2 mo. London [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 28. Pleas for Marrying a Wife's Sister, and Plain 
 
 Answers to them, etc. Anonymous. i2mo. London [1883]. 
 ^LL.D.U. Tracts No. 34. The Report of the L'ppcr House of the Con- 
 vocation of Canterbury, agreed to at its Session, July 6,1883. i2mo. 
 
 London [1883]. 
 ALL.D.U. Tracts No. 35. What the Peers said in the House of Lords 
 
 in Opposition to the Third Reading of Lord Dalhousie's Marriage 
 
 Law Reform Bill, June 28, 1883. i2mo. London [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 38. The Church of England in its Diocesan Con- 
 ferences on Marriage with a Wife's Sister. i2mo. London [1883]. 
 Marriage Law Reform Association. A Few Facts in Connection with 
 
 the Proposal for Legalising Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 
 
 Anonymous. 4to. London, 1883. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech of HENRY, Bishop of 
 
 Exeter, in the House of Lords, February 25, 1851. 8vo. London 
 
 [1883]. 
 New Tracts for the Times. Facts and Fictions on Marriage with a 
 
 Deceased Wife's Sister, Nos. I III. Anonymous. Svo. London 
 
 [.883]. 
 Questions as to the Purpose and Outcome of the Proposed Changes in 
 
 the Marriage Laws. Anonymous. l2mo. London, 1883. 
 Should Englishmen be Permitted to Marry their Deceased Wife's Sisters? 
 
 By One who does not Want to. Anonymous. 8vo. London, 1883. 
 Anti-Matrimonial Legislation : a Sermon by the Rev. Coker Adams. 
 London, 18S3. 
 
430 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 14. What Miss Lydia Becker says. By X.ydla 
 Becker. 121110. London [1SS3]. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 29. Inclination bowing to Scripture and Con- 
 science ; or, Dr. Berrlman's Advice upon Marrying a Deceased 
 Wife's Sister, and how it was followed in 1734. i2mo. London 
 [.883]. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 8. What the Presbyterians say of the Relation- 
 ships which bar Marriage Scripturally and Socially. By Clias. J. 
 Brown and otbers, l2mo. Londoai, 1883. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 27. Speech by Earl calms, moving the Rejec- 
 tion of the Marriage Law Amendment Bill in the House of Lords, 
 June II, 1883. i2mo. London [1883]. 
 
 Letter to the Right Hon. A. J. B. Beresford Hope, M.P., upon the Bill for 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. By Frederick Calvert. 
 4to. London, 1 883. 
 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech of Dr. Cameron, 
 M. P., delivered at a Meeting in Glasgow, January 14, 1883. .M.L.R.A. 
 8vo. London [1883]. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. xxv. The Real Bearing of the Opinions of the 
 Professors of Hebrew and Greek on the Scriptural Law of Prohibited 
 Degrees of Marriage. By James S. Candlista. l2mo. London 
 [.883]. 
 
 'Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Unlawful,' vol. xv. pp. 404- 
 430, Art. VII. No. 30, for January 18S3 of the Churcb Quarterly- 
 Review. 8vo. London, 1883. 
 
 'Our Duty on the Marriage (2uestion,' Art. XL in the Church Quarterly 
 Review, vol. xvi. pp. 463-465, No. 32, for July 1883. 8vo. London, 
 1883. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 36. What a Joint Committee of the American 
 Church says ; in its Report on Marriage with Relatives. By A. 
 Cleveland Coxo and Others. l2mo. London [1883]. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts. No. 4. What Scotchmen say on the Law of Marriage. 
 By Tbos. T. Crawford, C. 7. Brown, A. Thompson. I>. F. Sand- 
 ford, VT. H. Goold, A. C. Swlnton, James Peddle, S. Davidson. 
 l2mo. London [1883]. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. xix. What the English Law says as to a Deceased 
 Wife's Sister Bill. Lord Lindhurst's Act Explained (with the Te.\t 
 of that Act). By J. Theodore Dodd. 121110. London, 1 883. 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. xxxix. The Principal Arguments against the 
 Deceased Wife's Sister Bill. By J. Theodore Sodd. i2nio. 
 London [18S3]. 
 
 Is Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Lawful ? By the Kev. M. VT. 
 m. Dunn. S\'i. I.cindon, 18S3. 
 
UIDI.lOGRArilY /I 3 I 
 
 Why may not I m.irr>' my Wife's Sister? By [e.] S[all9bury] 1883 
 
 r[fouIke9?] 121110. London [1883]. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. An Address, etc. l!y Horace 
 
 Courtenay, Baron rorbes. 8vo. Aberdeen, 18S3. 
 Marrias^e with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Speech of the Ri^ht Ilnn. 
 
 ■WT. B. Gladstone in the House of Commons, May 9, 1855. 8vo. 
 
 London [1883J. 
 Six Grand Objections to Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister set 
 
 forth in a Paper read (in part) at the Church Congress at Reading, 
 
 October 1883. With an Introductory Letter. ... By Tames 
 
 ilugrastu8 Hessey. i2mo. London, 1883. 
 U.L D.U. Tracts No. 20. The Christian Law of Marriage. What docs 
 
 our Lord say on the subject ? By VT. r. Holjson. i2mo. London 
 
 [.883]. 
 AL-irriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. Answers to some popular 
 
 Errors as to the Law. By W. P. Robson. 8vo. London, 1 883. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 5. What do Plain Facts say as to Marrying our 
 
 Wives' Sisters? By a. J. B. Beresford Hope. i2mo. London 
 
 [1883]. 
 ' The Lords and the Deceased Wife's Sister Bill.' By the Ki.i;Iit Hon. 
 
 A. J. Beresford Hope, M.P., In the National Review, vol. i. pp. 
 
 758-766, No. 5, for July. 8vo. London, 1883. 
 The Divine Law in Relation to Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. 
 
 A Sermon (on Genesis ii. 24 and Matt. xix. 4-6). . . . With Appen- 
 dix. By Ersktne WUIIam langmore. 8vo. London [ 1 883]. 
 A Few Words on the Real Bearings of the Proposed Change in the 
 
 Marriage Law from a Clergyman to his Parishioners. I!y the Rev. 
 
 J. le MCesurier. l2mo. London, 1883. 
 Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister. A Paper, etc. By George 
 
 Sruce VTynne Ommaney. 8vo. London, 1S83. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts, No. 6. What does the Table of Kindred and Affinity 
 
 say when compared with Leviticus? By James Parker. i2mo. 
 London [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 7. What does the Table of Kindred and Affinity 
 
 say when compared with the Law of the Church? By James 
 
 Parker. i2mo. London [18S3]. 
 The English Marriage Laws and the Lcvitical Degrees . . . With espe- 
 cial reference to an Act 5 and 6 Wm. IV. c. 54, commonly known 
 
 as ' Lord Lyndhurst's .^ct.' By Tbomas Inglesby Rogers. 8vo. 
 London, 1883. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 32. What the Right lion, lord Selborne said 
 in the House of Lords, March 13, 1873. i2mo. London \iy>:^l 
 
432 THE MARklAUK OF NEAR KIN 
 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 24. Speech of the late Bishop Thlrlwall, of St. 
 
 David's. 121110. London [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U Tracts No xvi. Deceased Wife's Sister Bill. A Village Talk. 
 
 By Tliumas Vincent. l2ino. London, 1883. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. .\xxvii. Paper on the Marriage Laws read by 
 
 Jolin VTalter, M.P., at the Reading Church Congress, October 
 1883. 121110. London [1883]. 
 Prohibitions in Marriage. By George 'WooUcombe. 8\o. London 
 
 [1883]. 
 M.L.D.U. Tracts No. 22. Lev. xviii. 18. 'A Wife to her Sistpr.' 
 
 Explained by the Bishop of Lincoln. l»r. Cbrlstoplier VTords- 
 
 wortli. 121110. London [1883]. 
 The Light of the Revelation of God upon the Question of Marriage with 
 
 a Sister-in-Law. By Robert Campbell Moberly. Chester, 1884. 
 'The Christian Law of Marriage.' In the Churcb Quarterly Review. 
 
 vol. xix. pp. 410-426, No. 38, for January. Art. \'11I. 8vo. London, 
 
 1885. 
 Ve.xed ; or, the Wife's Sister. By Soror. Anon. S.P.C.K. London, 
 
 1886. 
 ' Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister.' By the Right Hon. Lord 
 
 Bramwell. In the Nineteenth Century, vol. xx. pp. 403-41 5. No. 
 
 1 15, for September. 8vo. London, 1886. 
 'Why should we break up the Marriage Code ? A Reply to Lord Bram- 
 well.' By Percy areg. In the National Review, vol. viii. pp. 522- 
 
 532, No. 46, for December. 8vo. London, 1886. 
 ' Sisters-in-Law.' By the Right Rev. John Fielder IHackarness, D.D., 
 
 Bishop of Oxford. In the Nineteenth Century, vol. xx. pp. 677- 
 
 677, Art V. No. 117, for November. 8vo. London, 1886. 
 'The Physiological Aspect of Certain Marriages of Affinity.' Anon. In 
 
 the British Medical Journal, vol. i. p. 1 145, No. 1377, for May 21. 
 
 4to. London, 1887. 
 'The Marriage Code of Henry VI II. and Mr. Greg.' By Sir Edmund 
 
 Beckett Denison, Lord Grimthorpe. In the National Review, vol. 
 
 viii. pp. 673-679, No. 47, for January. 8\o. London, 1887. 
 
lili;L10GRAl'llY 433 
 
 CONSAXG UnXEOUS MARRIAGE PHYSIOLOGICALL Y 
 CONSIDERED. 
 
 Considerations siir les Droits par lesquels la Nature a reigle les Mariages. 164S 
 By Moyse Amyraut. 8vo. Saumur, 164S. 
 
 De ConJLigio Jine Natunt Prohibito. By E. X.. Schneegass. \Circa 1700 
 1700,] 
 
 Du Mariage entre proche parents. By Heliodore 3. de Skorsewsky. 1824 
 8vo. Paris, 1824. 
 
 ' Note sur les accouplements entre consanguins dans les races des prin- 1827 
 cipaux animaux domestiques.' By J. S. Hazard. In the Revue et 
 Magazine de Zoologie pure et appliqu(5. 8vo. Paris, 1827. 
 
 ' De Quelques Questions relatives au M^tissage dans les Races d'Animaux 1831 
 Domestiques. By J. B. Huzard. In the Annales de I'Agriculture 
 Francjaise, 3rd series, vol vii. pp. 241 266. May. 8vo. Paris, 
 1831. 
 
 Intermarri.ige ; or, the Mode in which, and the Causes why. Beauty, 1838 
 Health, and Intellect result from certain unions, etc. By Alex- 
 ander Walker. 8vo. London, 1838; ibid. 1841 ; New York, 1872. 
 
 Essay on Hereditary Diseases : with an Appendix on Intermarriage. By 1843 
 Julius B. Steinau. 8vo. London, 1843. 
 
 ' Recherches sur I'Origine de la Surdi-Mutite.' By P. Meniere. In the 1846 
 Gazette M^dicale de Paris, 3rd series, 16th year. No. 12, for March 
 21, pp. 223-226; and No. 13, for March 28, pp. 243-246. 4to. 
 Paris, 1846. 
 
 ' Du Mariage entre Parents consid(5re comme Cause de la Surdi-Mutite 1856 
 Congenitale.' By p. Meniere. In the Gazette Medicale de Paris, ^ 
 
 3rd series, 26th year. No. 20, for May 17, pp. 303 306. 410. Paris, 
 1856. 
 
 ' Note sur I'lnfluence de la Consanguinite sur les produites du mariage.' 
 By Billlet. In the Bulletin de I'Academie Iniperiale de Mcdccine, 
 vol. xxi. p. 746, No. 16, for May 13. Paris, 1856. 
 
 Also in the Union Mi^dicale, loth year, vol. x. No. 63, for May 24, 
 1856, pp. 253, 254. Paris. 4to. 
 
 In the Gazette Mcdicale de Paris, 26th year, 3rd series, vol. xi. 
 for May 24, 1856, pp. 324, 325. 410. 
 
434 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1856 And in the Journal des Connaissances Mddicales et Pharmaceu- 
 tiques, 23rd year, for June 20, 1856, pp. 358, 359. 
 
 In none of these does he give more than the results at u>hich he 
 thinks he has justly arrived. 
 
 1857 Note sur les Inconvdnients qui peuvent r^sulter du D^faut de Croise- 
 
 ment dans la propagation des Esp&ces Animales.' By Ch. Aabe. 
 In the Bulletin Mensuel de la Societe Impdriale Zoologique d'Accli- 
 matation, Art. I. vol. iv. No. 1 1, for November, pp. 509518. 8vo. 
 Paris, 1857. 
 ' On Marriages of Consanguinity.' By s. M. Bemlss. In the North- 
 American Medico-Chirurgical Review, No. i, for January. 8vo. 
 Philadelphia, 1857. 
 
 Also in the Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental 
 Pathology, new series. No. 6, for April 1857, pp. 368-379. London. 
 Svo. 
 ^ Du Danger des Mariages Consanguins sous le Rapport Sanitaire. By 
 Fr. Sevay. Svo. Paris, 1857; 1862. 
 ' Note sur les Accouplements entre Consanguins dans les Families ou 
 Races des Principaux Animaux Domestiques.' By J. B. Hazard. 
 In the Annales de I'AgricuIture Francjaise, 5th series, vol. ix. No. 1 1, 
 for June 15, pp. 497-512. Svo. Paris, 1857. 
 1838 ' Report of Influence of Marriages of Consanguinity upon Offspring.' By 
 S. BI. Bemiss. In the Transactions of the American Medical Asso- 
 ciation, vol. xi. pp. 319-425. Svo. Philadelphia, 1858. 
 ' On the Pernicious Consequences of Intermarriage between near rela- 
 tions. By Dr. . In the Dublin Hospital Gazette, for Dec. i, 
 
 1858. 
 
 Also in Ranking's Half-yearly Abstract of the Medical Sciences, 
 vol. xxix. p. 10. Svo. London, 1859. 
 ' De la consangumite comme cause de la Scrofule.' By Iierlche. In 
 the Gazette M^dicale de Lyon, 1858. 
 
 Reprinted. Svo. Lyons, 1858. 
 1859 'Quelle est I'lnfluence des Mariages Consanguins sur les Ge'nera- 
 tions?' By AlOed Bourgeois. In the Collection des Theses de 
 I'Ecole de Medecine de Paris, vol. ii. No. 91. 4to. Paris, 1859. 
 
 ' Influence des Mariages Consanguins.' By J. A. N. PiRlER. 
 In the Bulletins de la Socidtd d'Anthropologie de Paris, vol. i. 
 pp. 146-155. Svo. i860. 
 
 A report upon the above These. 
 ' Du Manage entre Consanguins consid^r^ comme Cause de Deg^nd- 
 rescence Organique, et plus particuliferement de Surdi-Mutitd Con- 
 g^nitale.' By I.. T. Chazaraln. In the Collection des Thtses de 
 I'Ecole de Mddecine de Montpelier, No. 63. 4to. 1S59. 
 i860 'Nouvelles Observations sur les Dangers des M.ariages entre Consan- 
 guins au point dc \ue Sanitaire.' By rr. Devay. (Read before 
 
i!ii!LiO(;RAriiv 435 
 
 the Academie Imperiale des Sciences, etc. de Lyon.) In ihe Gazette 
 Hebdomadaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie, vol. vii. No. 37, p. 593. 
 4to. Paris, 1 860. 
 
 Reprinted. 8vo. Paris, 1S60. 
 
 A review appeared in the Archives Gcncrales de Medecine, 6th 
 series, vol. i. pp. 762 764, June. Svo. Paris, 1863. 
 ' The Degeneration of Race.' A leading article in the Kanoet, pp. 619, 
 620, No. 25, for December 22. 4to. London, i860. 
 
 ■ On Intermarriage of Relations as a Cause of Degeneracy of Offspring.' 
 
 By E. Crossmann. In the British Medical Journal, vol. i. pp. 401, 
 402, April 13. 4to. London, 1861. 
 
 ■ On Intermarriage of Relations as the Cause of Degeneracy of Offspring.' 
 
 By Tames Gardner. In the British Medical Journal, vol. i. pp. 290, 
 
 291, March 16. 4to. London, 1861. 
 'Abkunft aus Ehen unter Blutsverwandten als Grund von Retinitis 
 
 Pigmentosa.' By R. Xilebreicli. In the Deutsche Klinik, Zeitung 
 
 fiir Beobachtungen aus Deutschen Kliniken und Krankenhiiusern, 
 
 vol. xiii. pp. 53-55, No. 6, for February 9. 4to. Berlin, i86i. 
 
 A French Translation appeared in the Archives Gendrales de 
 
 Medecine for February 1862, 5th series, vol. xix. pp. 145-151. Svo. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Also in the Gazette Hebdomadaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie, 
 
 vol. viii. p. 375, No. 23, for June 7. 4to. Paris, 1S61. 
 ' On Consanguineous Marriages ' By O. W. Morris. In the American 
 
 Medical Times for March 23, vol. ii. p. 185. 410. New York, 1861. 
 Also in Rankings Half-yearly Abstract of the Medical .Sciences, 
 
 vol. xxxiii. pp. 12, 13. 8vo. London, 1861. 
 
 ' The Degeneration of Race.' By S. A. Smltb. In the Lancet, pp. 202, 
 203, No. 8, for February 23. 4to. London, 1861. 
 A Reply to the Leading Article in that Journal of December 22, i860. 
 
 ' Faits pour servir ^ I'Histoire des Effets de la Consanguinite chez les 
 Animaux Domestiques.' By Beaudouin. In the Comptes Rendus 
 Hebdoniadaires des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, vol Iv. 
 pp. 236-238, No. 5, for August 4. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 
 ' Des Mariages Consanguins — examen des travaux recents sur ce sujet.' 
 By in. Beaugrand. In the Annales d'Hygiine Publique et de 
 Medecine Legale, 2nd series, vol. xvii. pp. 222-229, ^'o- 33, for 
 January. 8vo. Paris, 1S62. 
 
 ' Du Croisement des Families, des Races et des Esp{:ces.' First [nml 
 only] part : ' Ndcessite du Croisement des Families.' By Boudln. 
 Read March 20 and April 3, 1862. With additions, in the Mdmoircs 
 de la Socidtd d'AnthropoIogie, vol. i. pp. 505 557. Svo. Paris, 
 i860 63. 
 
 Reprinted separately. Svo. Paris, 1S62. 
 
436 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1862 ' De !a Necessite c)es Croisements, et du Danger des Unions Consan- 
 guines dans I'Espfece Humaine et parmi les Animaux.' By Boudin. 
 In the Recueil de Memoire de Medecine, de Chirurgie et de Phar- 
 macie, 3rd series, vol. viii. pp. 193-241. Paris, 1862. 
 
 IVM Map of the Distribution of Deaf-Mutism in France. 
 ' Etudes statistiques sur les Dangers des Unions Consanguines dans 
 I'Esp^ce Humaine et parmi les Animaux.' By Boudin. In the 
 Journal de la Socidt^ de Statistique, vol. iii. pp. 69-84, and 103-120. 
 1862. 
 
 Nearly the same as the former., but without the map, and "with 
 
 some slight alterations. 
 
 ' Dangers des Unions Consanguines et N<fcessit6 des Croisements dans 
 
 I'Espece Humaine et parmi les Animaux.' By Boudin. In the 
 
 Annates d'Hygifene Publique et de Medecine Legale, 2nd series, vol. 
 
 xviii. pp. 5-82, No. 35, for July. 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 
 Much the same as before, but with additions. 
 Published separately, paging 1-78. 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 ' Reponse aux Objections presentees par M. Isidor contre un passage du 
 Dernier Memoire sur les Dangers des Mariages Consanguins.' By 
 Boudin. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de 
 I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Iv. p. 236, No. 5, for August 4. 410. 
 Paris, 1862. 
 ■- ' Dangers des Mariages Consanguins : Influence sur la Frequence de la 
 Surdi-Mutite chez les Enfantes.' By Boudin. In the Comptes 
 Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, 
 vol. liv. pp. 1209, 1 2 10. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 
 Also in the Gazette Hebdomadaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie. 
 A Review. Vol. ix. pp. 435, 436. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 A Reprint. Svo. Paris, 1862. 
 
 This paper contains nothing new. 
 Effets Ressentis seulement <\ la Deuxi&me Gen(5ration des Alliances Con- 
 sanguines.' By Boudin. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 
 des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 876, 877, No. 
 24, for December 1 5. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 V ' Sur la Consanguinity.' By Boudin. In the Memoires de la Society 
 d'Anthropologie, vol. iii. pp. 192-198. 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 ' Reponse au Memoire du M. Sanson.' By Boudin. In the Memoires de 
 la Soci^te d'Anthropologie, vol. iii. pp. 323-329. 8vo. Pans, 1S62. 
 ^ 'Du Croisement des Families et des Races, et Reponse N M. Dally.' By 
 Boudin. In the Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthropologie, vol. iv. 
 pp. 662-694. Svo. Paris, 1862. 
 
 Reprinted separately. Svo. Paris, 1862. 
 'Mariages Consanguins: I'Hcreditdmorbiden'expliquepas la Production 
 des Infirmites.' By Boudin. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdoma- 
 daires des Seances dc I'.Vcademie des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 659, 660, 
 No. 17, for October 27. 4I0. Paris, 1862. 
 
Ullil.IOURAI'llY 437 
 
 ' Frequence de la Suidi-Mutitc cliez Ics Enfants ncs tie Mariages Con- 1862 
 sanguins.' By Brocbard. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires 
 des S&nces de I'Acaddmie des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 43, 44, No. i, 
 for July 7. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 
 Reprinted separately with Boudin's ' Dangers des Mariages Con- 
 sanguins.' 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 
 ' On Marriages of Consanguinity.' By O. W. Cbild. In the British and 
 Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, April, Art. I. vol. xxix. pp. 
 461-471. 8vo. London, 1862. 
 
 ' Sur les Dangers attribues aux Mariages Consanguins.' By E. Dally. 
 In the Gazette Hebdomadaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie, vol. ix. 
 No. 32, for August 8, pp. 499-502 ; No. 33, for August 15, pp. 513- 
 516 ; No. 34, for August 22, pp. 531-534- 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 
 ' Sur la Question de la Consanguinite en General.' Remarques de TX. 
 Flourens. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances 
 de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 238, 239, No. 5, for August 4. 
 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 
 A propos of M. Beaitdouiris Paper. 
 
 ' La Consanguinite chez les Animaux Domestiques.' By j. Courdon. 
 In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Stances de I'Academie 
 des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 269-273, No. 6, for August 1 1. 4to. Paris, 
 1862. 
 
 An extract appeared in the Gazette Hebdomadaire de Medecine 
 et de Chirurgie, vol. ix. p. 538, No. 34, for August 22. 410. Paris, 
 1862. 
 
 Also in the Annales d'Hygi&ne Publique et de Medecine Legale, 
 2nd series, vol. xviii. pp. 463-465, No. 36, for October 1862. 8vo. 
 Paris. 
 ' De la Surdi-Mutite parmi les Israelites, consideree par rapport ^ la 
 Question des Mariages Consanguins.' By the Grand Rabbi Zsldore. 
 In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie 
 des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 128, 129, No. 3, for July 21. 4to. Paris, 
 1862. 
 
 Also (with M. Boudin's answer) in the Annales d'Hygifene pub- 
 lique et de Medecine Legale, 2nd series, vol. xviii. pp. 460-463, 
 No. 36, for October 1862. 8vo. Paris. 
 
 And in the Mdmoires de la Societd d'Anthropologie de Paris, 
 vol. i. pp. 126-128, No. 4, 1863. 8vo. 
 ' Blood Relationship in Marriage— considered in its Influence upon the 
 Offspring.' By Arthur IttitcUell. In the Memoirs Read before the 
 Anthropological Society of London, vol. ii. pp. 402-456, Art. 30. 
 Svo. London, 1865-66. 
 
 This paper was first read before the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Edin- 
 burgh, I'L-liniary 6, 1S62, followed by a discussion taken part in by Drs. 
 Seller, Brown, Wood, Duncan, Alex. Smith, C.airdnrr, Cold- 
 stream, and Ritchie. 
 
438 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1862 An Abstract, only, was published in the Edinburgh Medical 
 Journal, No. 81, for March 1862, pp. 872-878. 8vo. Edinburgh. 
 
 A translation, by M. Fonss.\GRIVES, appeared in the Annales 
 
 d'Hygifene Publique et de Medecine Legale, 2nd series, vol. x.\iv. 
 
 pp. 44, etc. 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 ' Proportion considerable de Sourris-Muets dans deux cas d'Alliances 
 
 Consanguines.' By Q. de Ranse. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdo- 
 
 madaires des Seances de 1' Academic des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 405, 
 
 406, No. 9, for September i. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 ' Note sur la Consanguinity' By A. Sanson. In the Comptes Rendus 
 
 des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Iv. pp. 121-125, No. 3, 
 
 for July 21. 4to. Paris, 1862. 
 
 An Abstract appeared in the Gazette Hebdomadaire de Medecine 
 
 et de Chirurgie, vol. ix. No. 31, p. 494- 4'°. Paris, 1862. 
 'Unions Consanguines chez les Animaux.' By A.. Sanson. In the 
 
 Bulletins de la Socidte d'Anthropologie, 1st series, vol. iii. pp. 254- 
 
 264, No. 2. 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 
 Discussions on this Paper: In the same, pp. 172-181 ; and 
 
 No. 3, pp. 355-358. 
 'Questions de Zootechnie, a propos des Mariages Consanguins.' By A. 
 
 Sanson. In the Gazette Hebdomadaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie, 
 
 vol. ix. pp. 584, 585, No. 37, for September 12. 4tQ. Paris, 1862. 
 ' La Consanguinite chez les Animaux Domestiques.' By A. Sanson. 
 
 In the Recueil de Medecine Veterinaire, 4th series, vol. ix. pp. 924- 
 
 940, No. 10, for October ; and pp. 989-1000, No. 11, for November. 
 
 8vo. Paris, 1862. 
 
 1863 'Sur les Inconvdnients des Alliances Consanguines.' By Bailey. In 
 
 the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Stances de I'Academie des 
 
 Sciences, vol. Ivi. pp. 135, 136, No. 3, for January 19, 1863. 8vo. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Also in the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. 
 
 xviii. p. 82, No. 5, for January 31, 1863. 4to. Paris. 
 'Sur les Inconvenients des Alliances Consanguines.' By Bailey. In 
 
 the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. 
 
 p. Ill, No. 7, for February 14. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 T/iis Paper was read before the Academie des Sciences, Jan. 29, 
 
 1863, but it does not appear in their Comptes Rendus. 
 'Sur la Surdi-Mutitd et ses Rapports avec les Alliances Consanguines; 
 
 Recherches faites ^ I'Asile des Sourds-Muets de Rome.' By Bailey. 
 
 In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie 
 
 des Sciences, vol. Ivii. pp. 870, 871, No. 21, for November 23. 4to. 
 
 Paris, 1863. 
 ' Mariages Consanguins et Surdi-Mutite k Rome.' By Bailey. In the 
 
 Gazette Mddicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. .wiii. p. 804, 
 
 No. 49, for December 5. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 On the same facts, but not idcniicul -d'lth the previous Paper. 
 
liiiJLiouKAriiv 439 
 
 Circulaire du Ministre de 1' Agriculture, du Commerce et des Travaux i?63 
 
 Publics, relativement k la Question des Manages Consanguins ; 
 
 instructions sur les Moyens d'assurerl'exactitude des renseignements 
 
 h fournir annuellement sur le nombre des manages entre cousins. 
 
 germains et issus de germains. By Armand Bebic. Paris, le 30 
 
 Octobre, 1863. 
 
 Given in substance, in the Gazette M^dicale de Paris, 33rd year, 
 
 3rd series, vol. xviii. p. 806, No. 49, for December 5. 4to. Paris, 
 
 1863. 
 
 Also, in full, in the Annales d'Hygifene Publique et de Medecine 
 
 Legale, pp. 171, 172, No. 43, for July. 8vo. Paris, 1864. 
 ' Mdmoire sur la Question des Alliances Consanguines.' By Bonnafont. 
 
 In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'.A.cademie 
 
 des Sciences, vol. Ivi. p. 485, No. 1 1, for March 16. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 Examen des Opinions eniises sur les manages consanguins. By P. li. 
 
 Broccbi. Th^se No. 681, 2nd series. Collection des Thfescs de 
 
 I'Ecole de Medecine de Strasbourg. 410. 1863. 
 ' Sur les Rc'sultats attribue's aux Alliances Consanguines.' By Alfred 
 
 Bourgeois. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances 
 
 de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Ivi. pp. 177-181, No. 4, for January 
 
 26. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 A Condensed Report appeared in the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 
 
 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. p. 97, No. 6, for February 7. 4to. 
 
 Paris, 1863. 
 'Effets des Alliances Consanguines.' By Cadlot. In the Comptes 
 
 Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, 
 
 vol. Ivii. p. 978, No. 24, for December 14. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 Also in the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. 
 
 xviii. No. 52, for December 26. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 ' On Marriages of Consanguinity.' By c \ir. Cbild. In the Medical 
 Times and Gazette, April 25. 410. London, 1863. 
 
 'On Marriages of Consanguinity.' [By G. \ir. cbild.] In the West- 
 minster Review, new series, vol. xxiv. pp. 88-109, No. 47, for July, 
 Art. No. 5. 8vo. London, 1863. 
 
 Reprinted with additions, in ' Essays on Physiological Subjects.' 
 By the same. Essay i. pp. 1-55. 8vo. London, 1869. 
 
 Etude sur les Mariages Consanguins, et sur les Croisements dans les 
 Rfegnes Animal et Vegetal.' By A. Cblpault. In the Collection 
 des Theses de I'Ecole de Medecine de Paris, No. 150. 4to. 1863. 
 
 ' Nouveaux Faits touchant les Inconv^nients des Alliances Consanguines.' 
 By A.. Cbipanlt. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des 
 Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Ivi. pp. 1000, looi. No. 21, 
 for May 21. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 ' Etude sur les Mariages Consanguins et sur le Croisement dans 
 les Rcgnes .Animal et Vegetal,' etc. By F. UE R.\.\si;. In the 
 
440 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1863 Gazette M^dicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. p. 706, 
 
 No. 43, for October 24. 410. Paris, 1863. 
 
 A Review of ChipauWs Works. 
 Another Review in the Archives gdnerales de Medecine, 6th 
 series, vol. iii. pp. 216-218, February. 8vo. Paris, 1864. 
 ' Recherches sur les Manages Consanguins et sur les Races Pures.' By 
 E. Sally. Read before the Socidtd d'AnthropoIogie de Paris, 
 November 5, 1S63. 
 
 Published separately. 8vo. Paris, 1864. 
 
 Translated by H. J. C. Beavan. In the Anthropological Review, 
 for May 1864, pp. 65-108. 8vo. London. 
 
 This Translation is very incorrect. 
 
 ' Un Mot sur le Danger des Mariages Consanguins, Re'ponse h. une 
 
 Attaque, Etat de la Question.' By rr. Oevay. 8vo. Paris, 1863. 
 
 ' Note sur les Mariages Consanguins.' By o. P. Sevlc. In the Gazette 
 
 Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. p. 158, No. 10, for 
 
 March 7. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 ' Sur les Effets de la Consanguinite, de la Syphilis, et de I'Alcoolisme 
 combines et observes dans une meme Famille.' 15y Culpon. In 
 the Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie 
 des Sciences, vol. Ivii. pp. 512, 513, No. 11, for September 14. 4to. 
 Paris, 1863. 
 
 Also in the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, 
 vol. xviii. pp. 635, 636, No. 39, for September 26. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 ' Des accouplements entre animaux consanguins.' By 3. B. Huzard. 
 
 In La Vie k la Campagne. 1863. 
 ' Des Effets de la Consanguinite et de la Necessite du Croisement des 
 Families.' By laagne. In the Gazette Mddicale de Paris, 33rd 
 year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. p. 325, No. 20, for May 16. 4to. Paris, 
 1863. 
 
 This is referred to, merely, in the Bulletins de I'.Academie 
 Imperiale de Medecine, vol. x.wiii. p. 660, May 12, 1863. Paris. 
 
 ' Essai sur les Croisements Ethniques.' By T. A. wr. Perler. In the 
 
 Memoires de la Societe d'AnthropoIogie, vol. i. 1863, pp. 69 92, and 
 187-236; vol. ii. 1865, pp. 261-374 ; vol. iii. 1870, pp. 21 1-296. 8vo. 
 
 The second Paper is especially on Consanguineous Marriage. 
 
 ■ Reflexions sur I'lnfluence des Unions Consanguines.' By P. de Ranse. 
 In the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. 
 pp. 109-111, No. 7, for February 14. 410. Paris, 1863. 
 
 ' R(!sum6 et Examen des Dernii^res Communications sur les Unions Con- 
 sanguines.' By P. de Ranse. In the Gazette M($dicale de Paris, 
 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. xviii. pp. 305, 306, No. 19, for May 19. 
 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
lUllLlUGRAl'HV 44' 
 
 ' Sur les Mariages Consanguins.' By Seernln. In the Comptes Rendus 1863 
 Hcbdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Ivii. 
 pp. 253, 254, No. 5, for August 3. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 
 Also in the Gazette Medicale de Paris, 33rd year, 3rd series, vol. 
 xviii. p. 558, No. 34, for August 22. 4to. Paris, 1863. 
 \'aleur de la Statistitiue appliqu<5e aux Mariages Consanguins.' By 1864 
 Ancelon. In the Comptes Rendus Hebdoniadaires des Seances de 
 I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Iviii. pp. 166, 167. 410. Paris, 1864. 
 Congr&s Medical de France, 2nd session, held at Lyons, October 1864. 
 ' Septifeme Question : De la Consanguinite en general et speciale- 
 ment des mariages consanguins,' pp. 385-455. 8vo. Paris, 1865. 
 Contents : — 
 
 'De la Consanguinite et des Mariages Consanguins.' By Her- 
 
 VIER, pp. 385-391- 
 
 'Note pour servir a I'Histoire des Mariages entre Consanguins.' 
 By A. RODET, pp. 392-405. 
 
 ' De la Necessite des Croisements entre Individus de la meme 
 Espece dans le RJ:gne Vegetal,' pp. 406-417- By Ernest Faivre. 
 
 ' De la Consanguinite et des Mariages Consanguins.' By LOUIS 
 GUBIAN, pp. 417-432. 
 
 'Notes Historiques et Critiques sur les Alliances Consanguines.' 
 By Jutet, pp. 433, 434. 
 
 An ads tract only. 
 
 ' De la Consanguinite et des Mariages Consanguins.' By Sanson, 
 pp. 435-442- , „ - 
 
 ' Note sur la Variete des Difformites que produisent les Manages 
 Consanguins.' By DiONis des Carri^RES, pp. 442-445. 
 
 'Des Mariages Consanguins.' By Anderson-Smith, pp. 446- 
 
 449- 
 
 An abstract only. 
 Discussion. Taken part in by MM. Morel, Revillout, 
 TuRCK, Faivre, and Diday. 
 ' Comment les Races Chevalines se formcnt et se conservent.' By 
 
 3. B. Huzard. In the Annales de TAgrituilure Frangaise ou Recueil 
 
 Encyclopedique d'Agritulture, 5th series, vol. xxiii. pp. 193-211, 
 
 No. 5, for March 15. 8vo. Paris, 1864. 
 'Sur les Prdtendus Mauvais Effets des Alliances Consanguines.' By 
 
 J. B. Hazard. In the Annales de I'.AgricullureFrangaise ou Recueil 
 
 Encyclopedique d'Agriculture, 5th series, vol. xxiii. pp. 433-442, 
 
 No. 10, for May 30. 8vo. Paris, 1864. 
 ' Mariages Consanguins dans la Race Noire.' By Thibault. In the 
 
 Archives de M(=decine Navale, vol. i. p. 310, Nos. 3 and 4, for March 
 
 and April. 8vo. Paris, 1864. 
 'Consanguinity in Marriage.' By -Wm. Adam. In the Fortnightly 1S61 
 
 Review, No. 12, for November i, vol. ii. pp. 710-730; and No. 13, 
 
 for November 15, vol. iii. pp. 74 88. 8vo. London, 1865. 
 
442 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1865 ' De la Consanguinity— Revue Critique.' By j. ralret. In the Archives 
 Generales de Medecine, 6th series, vol. v. pp. 209-220, 338-351, 
 464-480, for February, March, and April. 8vo. Paris, 1865. 
 
 •Archivio dei Matrimonj Consanguinei.' By P. Mantegrazza. In 
 L'lgea, Giornale d'lgiene e Medecina preventiva. 8vo. iMilan. 
 
 Chiefly a list of cases of Consangiiineoits Marriage^ published as 
 follows : — 
 
 Vol. iii. 1865, No. 5, for March 8, cases 1-15 
 
 „ „ 6 „ „ 16, case i6 
 
 „ „ 8 „ April 17, cases 17-24 
 
 .. ,. 9 ,. May I „ 25-33 
 
 10 ,, ,,15 „ 34-42 
 
 „ „ 12 „ June 14 „ 43-51 
 
 13 „ July I „ 52-58 
 
 Also Nos. 52-55 extra, reports from asylums, 
 
 etc., and not individual cases. 
 
 I, » 17 for Sept. 2 „ 52-70 
 
 „ „ 19 „ Oct. 2 „ 59-70 
 
 23 „ Dec. 5 „ 73-84 
 
 „ iv. 1866 3 „ Feb. 3, a form to be filled up. 
 
 „ „ 10 „ May 16, case 85 
 
 „ V. 1867 II „ June I „ 86 
 
 „ „ 13 „ July I, cases 87-92 
 
 „ vi. 1868 I „ Jan. I, case 93|^2rc"cNo''""''"' 
 „ „ 10 „ May 16, cases 94-98 
 
 , /There is r 
 
 , 105, 106 \ This year is 
 , I07-II 
 
 1871 I „ Jan. I „ 113-12 
 
 19 
 
 „ Oct. 
 
 17 
 
 „ Sept. 
 
 18 
 
 
 I 
 
 " Jan. 
 
 13 
 
 „ July 
 
 23 
 
 „ Dec. 
 
 2 
 
 „ Jan. 
 
 3 
 
 „ Feb. 
 
 9 
 
 „ May 
 
 100-104 
 
 \ No. 99- 
 
 ?■ neouslyprintei 
 
 , 122, 123 
 , 124-127 
 
 1S72 2 „ Jan. 16 „ 128, 129 
 
 ' Des Mariages Consanguins a la Noria (pr^s Mazatlan) Sinaloa, 
 Mexique.' Ky Poncet. In the Recueil de Memoires de Medecine 
 de Chirurgie et de Pharmacie Militaires, 3rd series, vol. xiv. pp. 
 193 215, No. 69, for September. 8vo. Paris, 1865. 
 
 Une Note Confirmative des Faits observes dans la Commune de Batz 
 par M. le Dr. A. Voisin.' By Revlllout. In the Lancette Fran- 
 gaise. Gazette des Hopitaux Civils et Militaires. 410. Paris. 
 
 Also in the Journal de Medecine et de Chirurgie Pratiques, 36th 
 year, 2nd series, vol. xxxvi. pp. 52, 53, Art. 6818, No. 2, for Feb- 
 ruary. 8vo. Paris, 1865. 
 
UIliLIOGRArilY 443 
 
 ' Essai sur les Mariages Consanguins.' By J. o. Stoand. In the Collec- 1865 
 tion ties Thfeses de I'Ecole de Mddecine de Paris, No. 39. 4(0. 
 Paris, 1865. 
 ' Rapport, sur un Mdmoire pr^sent^ par M. le Ur. A. V'oisin et ayant pour 
 litre : Etude sur les Mariages entre Consanguins dans la Commune 
 de Batz, prbs le Croisic (Loire Inferieure).' By Vemoia. In the 
 Bulletins de I'Acadi^mie de Medecine, vol. xxx. pp. 421-423, No. 11, 
 for March 15. Paris, 1865. 
 
 Merely a Recapitulation of Voisitis results. 
 'Contribution .\ I'Histoire des Mariages entre Consanguins.' By a. 
 Volsin. In the Memoires de la Soci^td d'AnthropoIogie de Paris, 
 3rd series, vol. ii. pp. 433"459- 8vo. Paris, 1865. 
 Reprinted. 8vo. Paris, 1866. 
 
 There were abstracts of this paper in the Comptes Rendus 
 Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, vol. Ixv. 
 pp. 105-108. 4to. Paris, 1865. 
 
 In the Bulletins de I'Academie de Medecine, vol. xxx. pp. 255- 
 276, No. 8, for January 31. Paris, 1865. 
 
 In the Journal de Medecine et de Chirurgie Pratiques, 36th year, 
 2nd series, vol. xxxvi. pp. 52, 53, Art. 6818, No. 2, for February. 
 Svo. Paris, 1865. 
 
 And in the Annales d'Hygi&ne Publiques et de Medecine Legale, 
 April 1865. 8vo. Paris. 
 ' De I'Hybridite Humaine (Hybridite vege'tale et animale, etc.), etc' 1866 
 By Boudln. In the Gazette M^dicale de Paris, 3rd series, vol. xxi. 
 PP- 377-383, 4-3-425> 483-493- 4to. Paris, 1866. 
 ' De I'Hybridite en generale et de I'Hybridite Humaine en particulier.' 
 By Bondin. In the Recueil de Memoires de Medecine, de Chirur- 
 gie et de Pharmacie, 3rd series, vol. xvii. pp. 456-459. 8vo. Paris, 
 1866. 
 • Marriages of Consanguinity in Relation to Degeneration of Race.' By — 
 J. li. H. Bown. In the Clinical Lectures and Reports by the 
 Medical and Surgical Staff of the London Hospital, vol. iii. pp. 224- 
 236. 8vo. London, 1866. 
 ' Recherches Critiques et Expcrimentales relatives aux Mariages Consan- — 
 guines.' By J. B. Iie^aln. 8vo. Brussels, 1866. 
 A Rejoinder to Aube. See in 1857. 
 Report on the above. In the Bulletins de l'Acad^mie 
 ROYALE DE MEDECINE DE Beloique, 2nd Series, voL ix. pp. 
 203-214, No. 3. Svo. Brussels, 1866. 
 
 The above Paper in full. Ibid. pp. 280-326. 
 Discussion on it. Ibid. 3rd series, vol. i. No. i, pp. 26-49. 
 1867. 
 
 Notice of an exculpatory Letter sent by J. B. Legkain. Ibid. 
 No. 4, p. 388. 
 
 Report on the above Letter. Ibid. Xo. 5, p. 534. 
 
444 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1866 ' Des Alliances Consanguines.' By RamDosson. In the Comptes 
 Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de I'Academie des Sciences, 
 vol. Ixii. pp. 886-890, No. 16, for April i6. 410. Paris, 1866. 
 La Consanguinity chez les Animaux Domestiques. By Renard. Paris, 
 
 1866. 
 ' Albinoisme et Consanjfuinite.' By A. Sanson. In the Bulletins de la 
 Society d'Anthropologie de Paris, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 473-476. 
 8vo. Paris, i866. 
 
 A Review of M. LegraMs supposed results. 
 Followed by a discussion on M. Sanson's paper. Taken part in by de 
 Ranse and Sanson. Ibid. pp. 477, 478. 
 
 1868 Studj sui Matrimonj Consanguine!. By P. IHantegazza. 8vo. Milan, 
 
 1868. 
 
 ' Consanguineous Marriage.' In the Lancet, a Journal of British 
 and Foreign Medicine, etc. p. 898, No. 26, for December 24. 4to. 
 London, 1870. 
 
 A Review on Mantegazzds work. 
 ' Note sur un cas de R^tinite Pigmentaire s'accompagnent de Choroidite 
 Atrophique et de Cataracte Polaire ; effets vicieux d'une alliance 
 consanguine.' By a. Ficard. In the Gazette Mddicale de Paris, 
 3rd series, vol. xxiii. pp. 332, 333. 4to. Paris, 1868. 
 
 1869 'The Intermarriage of Relations.' By iratlian Allen. In the Quar- 
 
 terly Journal of Psychological Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence, 
 April 1869. 
 • A Reprint. 8vo. New York, 1869. 
 ' Des Unions entre Consanguins, de leur Danger et de I'Utilite des 
 Croisements.' By Asuncion Savlla. In the Collection des Tht^ses 
 de I'Ecole de Medecine de Paris, No. 107. 4to. Paris, 1869. 
 
 1870 'Note on Consanguineous Marriages.' By c C. Thompson. In the 
 
 Journal of Anthropology, Part I. pp. 151, 152, for July. 8vo. London, 
 1870. 
 ' Intermarriage of Kindred.' By Alex. Wilder. The Annual Address 
 delivered before the Eclectic Medical Society of New York, January 
 26, 1870. 8vo. 
 
 ' Studj sui Matrimonj tra Consanguinei ; di Alexander Wilder, 
 George Thompson, e Langdon Down.' By Paolo Mantegazza. 
 In L'Igea, pp. 354-356, No. 24, for December 16. 8vo. Milan, 
 1871. 
 
 A Review on the two above Papers. 
 
 1871 ' Delia pretesa Mala Influenza dei Matrimoni Consanguinei sulla Prole.' 
 
 By Rafaello Mattel. In Lo Sperimentali, 23rd year, 1S71. 
 
 A Reprint. 8vo. Siena, 1871. 
 
 ' Studii sui Matrimonj Consanguinei ; del Professore Rafaello 
 Mattel.' By Paolo Mantegazza. In L'Igea, pp. 197 199, No. 13, 
 for July I. 8vo. Milan, 1871. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 
DllilJOGRArilY 445 
 
 ' Parent^ des Epoux, ou Mariages Consanguins.' By Bertllion. In the 1S72 
 Bulletins de la Societd d'Anlhropologie, vol. vi. pp. 283 294. 8vo. — 
 Paris, 1872. 
 
 Followed by a Discussion, taken part in by MM. ,S.\NSON, JuvENCEI., 
 Lu.NiER, and .\lme. Kogek. IbiJ. pp. 294 304. 
 
 ■ Consanguinity— Mariages entre Consanguins.' Hy T. Callard. In tlie 
 Nouveau Dictionnaire de Mddecine et de Chirurgie Pratiques, 
 edited by Jaccoud. Vol. ix. pp. 93 115. 8vo. Paris, 1872. 
 The first volume was published in 1 869. 
 ' Des Unions Consanguines, au point de vue de I'hygiineet de la legisla- 
 tion.' By P. de Ranse. In the Bulletins de la Soci(;t(5 d'Anthro- 
 pologie, 2nd series, vol. vii. pp. 129-144. Bvo. Paris, 1872. 
 A Reply to the above article by Bertillon. 
 Followed by a Discussion, taken part in by MM. Dai.i.y, Sanson, and 
 Bkriii-LON. Ihid. pp. 144-153- 
 'La Consanguinite est-elle dangereuse pour les Collectivit^s ?' By G. 
 Toordes, pp. 61-64 of the article ' Manage' in the Dictionnaire Ency- 
 clopedique des Sciences Medicates. Edited by A. Dechanibre, 2nd 
 series, vol. v. 8vo. Paris, 1872. 
 Marriages between First-cousins in England, and their Effects.' By 1875 
 G. H. Barwln. In the Journal of the Statistical Society, vol. xxxviii. 
 pp. 153-182, Part II. for June. 8vo. London, 1875. 
 
 Followed by a Discussion, taken part in by Hr. Farr, Mr. Wai.ford, 
 Mr. Humphreys, Sir Fr. Galton, and Mr. Kennelly. //'/./. pp. 183, 
 184. 
 
 An Abstract of the above Paper appeared in the Fortnightly 
 Review, new series, vol. xviii. pp. 22-41, No. 103, for July i. 8vo. 
 London, 1875. 
 'Note on the Marriages of First-cousins.' By G. H. Darwin. In the 
 Journal of the Statistical Society, vol. xxxviii. pp. 344-348. Part III. 
 for September. 8vo. London, 1875. 
 
 ' Des Mariages Consanguins et des Recherches poursuivies \ 
 leur sujet par M. George Darwin, ittude bibliographique, par 
 M. Jacques Bf.rtii.lon.' In the Annates de Ddmographie 
 Internationale. Recueil Trimestriel de Travaux Originaux et de 
 Documents Statistiques et Bulletin Bibliographique Spdcial, vol. iii. 
 pp. 48-58, No. 9. 8vo. Paris, 1879. 
 
 A Review on the above, but it contains no bibliography. 
 'Cross-Fertilisation of Plants and Consanguineous Marriage.' 
 [By Alfred H. Huth.] In the Westminster Review, new series, 
 vol. Hi. pp. 466 485, No. 104, for October. Art. VIII. 8vo. London, 
 
 1877. 
 
 Reprinted with a title. 8vo. London, 1877. 
 
 'I'lie last half was also reprinted in the .American Annals of the 
 
44^ THE MARRIAGE OF xNEAR KIN 
 
 1875 Deaf and IJiimb, vol. xxiii. pp. 144-150, No. 3, for July. 8vo. 
 
 Washington, 1878. 
 
 A Review on Mr. Cli. Danvin's ' Cross- and Self-Fertilisation of 
 
 Plants^ and on the above Papers of Mr. G. H. Darwin. 
 ' Die Ehen Zwisclien Geschwisterkindern und ihre Folgen.' By 
 Eduard Reich. In the Athenaeum, Monatsschrift filr .Anthro- 
 pologie, etc. 2nd year. Part 4, pp. 240-243. 8vo. Jena, 1876. 
 A Review of the Translation below. 
 Die Ehen Zwischen Geschwisterkindern und ihre Folgen, von 
 G. H. Darwin. Uebersetzt von Dr. V. D. V'f.i.le. Mit eincm 
 Vorworte von Dr. Otto Zacharias. 8vo. Leipzig, 1876. 
 A Translation of the two above Papers. 
 ■^ Contribution 'k I'Etude de la Consanguinite. By Adrlen Hellot. 8vo. 
 Paris, 1875. 
 
 A Review on the above in the British Medical Journal, No. 
 772, for October 16, pp. 498, 499. 4to. London. 
 
 Also in El .Siglo Medico, vol. xxii. p. 704, No. 1 140, for October 
 31. 4to. Madrid, 1875. 
 The Marriage of Near Kin, considered with respect to the laws of 
 Nations, the Results of Experience, and the Teachings of Biolog)'. 
 By Alfred Henry Rutta. 8vo. London, 1875. Ibid, revised and 
 enlarged, 1887. 
 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. In the ATHEN.EUM, Journal 
 of English and Foreign Literature, etc. No. 2489, for July 10, pp. 54, 
 55. 4to. London, 1875. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 'On Intermarriage.' In the British and Foreign Medico- 
 Chirurgical Review, vol. Ivi. pp. 363-378, No. 112, for October, 
 Art. VIII. 8vo. London, 1875. 
 
 A Review on the above, the Paper of G. H. Darwin, and Allen 
 
 on Degeneration. 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. By G. H. Darwin. In the 
 Academy, a Weekly Review of Literature, etc. new issue. No. 173, 
 for August 28, pp. 226, 227. 4to. London, 1875. 
 A Review on ifie above. 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. In the Doctor, a Monthly 
 Review of British and Foreign Medical Practice and Literature, 
 vol. V. pp. 193, 194, No. 10, for October i. 410. London, 1S75. 
 A Review on the above. 
 ' Consanguineous Marriages as a Cause of Deaf-Mutism.' By 
 E. A. Fay. In the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, vol. 
 xxi. pp. 204-217, No. 4, for October. 8vo. Washington, 1876. 
 
 Followed by a Discussion, taken part in by Messrs. HuTTON, Wilkin- 
 son, Van Nostranp, and Drs. Peet, Gh.let, Palmer, and Gallaudet. 
 A Review on the abo7>e. 
 
liiiii.iocJkAPilY 447 
 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. In the Indian Mr.DicAi, 1875 
 Gazette, pp. 105-107, April i, 1876. 4to. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 ' In-and-in-Breeding.' In the Live Stock Journal and Fan- 
 cier's Gazette, etc. vol. viii. p. 374; and in the Literary Supple- 
 ment, No. 240, for November 8. 4to. London, 1878. 
 A Review on the above. 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. In the Medical Press and 
 Circular, new series, vol. xix. p. 330, No. 1914, for October 20. 
 4to. London, 1875. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. By Eduard Reich. In the 
 Athenaeum, Monatsschrift fiir Anthropologie, etc. ist year, 8th and 
 9th parts, pp. 544-547. 8vo. Jena, 1875. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 ' Heredity and Consanguinity.' By John Todhunter. In the 
 Dublin Journal of Medical Science, third series, Part II. No. 55, for 
 July, pp. 20-40. 8vo. Dublin, 1876. 
 
 A Review on the above, and Ribofs Heredity. 
 'The Marriage of Near Kin,' etc. In the Westmin.ster 
 Review, new series, vol. xlviii. pp. 299 317, No. 96, for October, 
 Art. I. 8vo. London, 1875. 
 
 A Review on the above. 
 ' Die Ehe zwischen Blutsverwandten.' By Otto Zacharias. 
 In the lUustrirte Zeitung, vol. Ixvi. No. 1696, for January I, p. 11 ; 
 and No. 1697, for January 8, p. 31. Fol. Leipzig, 1876. 
 
 Reprinted in Zur Entwickelungstheorie, pp. 73-S2. Svo. Jena, 
 1876. 
 
 A Rex'ieiv on the above. 
 
 A Leading Article on Consanguineous Marriage in the Kancet, pp. 378, 
 
 379, No. II, for March 13. 4to. London, 1875. 
 ' Marriages of Consanguinity.' A Letter to the lancet by ' Prudence,' 
 
 p. 668, No. 19, for May 8. 410. London, 1875. 
 ;('//// the Editor's Reply. 
 
 ' Marriages of Consanguinity.' A Letter to the lancet, by 'a Physio- 
 logist,' p. 745, No. 21, for May 22. 4to. London, 1875. 
 
 The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom. 1876 
 By Cbarles Darwin. Svo. London, 1876. 
 
 ' Consanguinit<5.' By a. lacassaKne. In the Dictionnaire encyclo- ~ 
 
 pedique des sciences mddicales, edited by A. Dechambre, vol. xix. 
 pp. 652-716. Svo. Paris, 1876. 
 
 De rinfluence exercde par la consanguinite sur les qualitds de la descen- ~" 
 dance. By Pierre Francois Py. Th6se de I'Ecole de Mcdecine 
 de Montpelier, Xo. 56. 4to. Montpelier, 1876. 
 
44^ TIIK MARRIACIE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 1876 A Paper on Consanguineous Marriage by Dr. St. Marten. 
 
 A Review on the above, in British Medical Journal, vol. i. 
 p. 765, No. 807, for January 17. 4I0. London, 1876. 
 
 Also in the Union M(vDicale, 3rd series, vol. .\xi. p. 904, No. 66, 
 for June 6. 8vo. Paris, 1876. 
 
 --- 1877 ' Consanguineous Marriages as a cause of Deaf-Mutism.' By ». de 
 Haerne. In the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb. Edited 
 by Edward A. Fay, vol. x.xii. pp. 146-157, No. 3, for July. 8vo. 
 Washington, 1877. 
 
 Chiefly an extract from the Author's ' Dc t Enscigtumeiit Special 
 dcs Sourds-Muets: 
 
 - 1878 ' De la Consanguinite.' By x.eon Coste. In the Collection des Theses 
 
 de I'Ecole de Medecine de Paris, No. 176. 4I0. Paris, 1878. 
 
 1879 ' Marriages by the Microscope.' By C. Heltzmann. In the Archives 
 of Scientific and Practical Medicine for January. New York, 1879. 
 Also in the British Medical Journal, vol. i. p. 712, No. 958, for 
 May 10. 4to. London, 1879. 
 
 Also in the Times, May 10, p. 7. 1879. 
 
 An Index to Books and Papers on Marriage between Near Kin. By 
 Alfred H. Kutb. In the Appendix to the Report of the Firbt 
 Annual Meeting of the Index Society. 4to. London, 1879. 
 Reprinted separately. 8vo. London, 1879. 
 -— Consanguineous Marriages. By vr. H. Ziathrop. In the Boston 
 Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. c. p. 837, No. 24, for June 12. 
 8vo. Boston, 1879. 
 
 Also in the British Medical Journal, vol. ii. pp. 355, No. 974, for 
 August 30. 4to. London, 1879. 
 
 ' Les Manages Consanguins.' By\ir. sueda. In the Annales de Ddmo- 
 graphie Internationale Recueil Trimestriel de Travaux Originaux et 
 de Documents Statistiques et Bulletin Bibliographique Special, vol. 
 iii. pp. 29-47, No. 9. 8vo. Paris, 1879. 
 
 - 1881 ' La Consanguinite et les Effets de I'Heredite.' By v. £a Perre de Boo. 
 
 8vo. Pans, 1881. 
 
 Originally published in the Bulletin de la Socii'ti' d Acclimatation. 
 
 .^ 1883 ' Consanguineous Marriages in Relation to Deaf-Mutism.' By Cbarles 
 A. Cameron. In the Transactions of the Academy of xMedicine in 
 Ireland, vol. i. pp. 214-220. 8vo. Dublin, 1883. 
 
 Also in the Report of the Transactions of the Academy of Medi- 
 cine in Ireland. Sub-section of State Medicine, April 12, 1883. In 
 the Medical Pre.ss and Circular, new series, vol. xxiv. p. 422, 
 No. 2299, for May 16. 4to. London, 1883. 
 
 This Report is very much condensed, but it includes the Discus- 
 sion, which is not given in the Official Report, taken part in by Drs. 
 FiTzi'.viRicK, Eustace, Cox, Willis, and Wuicirr. 
 
r.iBMOGRAriiY 449 
 
 Also reported in llie HiUTisil Miuiical Jouknal, vol. i. p. 913, iSSj 
 No. 1167, for May 12. 4to. London, 1S83. 
 
 Also in KNOWi.F.nGK, an Illustrated Magazine of Science, etc. 
 vol. iii. pp. 357, 358, No. 85, for June 15. 4to. London, 18S3. 
 ' Hydrocephale de dix ans.' By Cillet de Grandmont. In the Bulletins 
 de la Socict(5 d'Anthropologie de Paris, 3rd series, vol. vi. pp. 54-62. 
 Svo. Paris, 1S83. 
 ' Some Curious Physical and Moral Results of a Marriage of First- 
 Cousins.' By Daniel Hooper. In'the Lancet, vol. ii. pp. 1 107, 
 iioS, No. 25, for December 22. 4to. London, 1883. 
 'Studies in Jewish Statistics.' By Tosepb Jacobs. In the Jewish 
 Chronicle, for January 5 and 12, pp. 11, 12, and 10. 4to. London, 
 1883. 
 ' Pigmentary Degeneration of the Retina in Deaf-Mutes.' By W. Tobln. 1884 
 In the American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb. Edited by Edward 
 A. Fay, vol. x.\ix. pp. 178-185, No. 3, for July. Svo. Washington, 
 1884. 
 
 Read before the Canada Med. Assoc, at Kingston, Sept. 1S83. 
 A Paper read before the Psychological Section of the British Medical 1S86 
 Association at Brighton, by Dr. C E. Shuttlewortli. 18S6. 
 
 Followed by a Discussion, taken part in by Prof. Ball, Dr. Langdon 
 
 Down, Dr. Fletcher Beach, and Dr. Hack Tuke. 
 Reported in the British Medical Journal, vol. ii. p. 581, No. 1343, 
 for September 25. 410. London, 1 886. 
 
 Also ibid. vol. ii. pp. 140, 141, No. 1385, for July 16, l.S'87. 
 Also a Leading Article in the Lancet, vol. ii. pp. 827, S28, No. 18, 
 for October ^o. 4to. London, 18S6. 
 Ueber den Emfluss der Verwandten-Ehe auf die Nachkommenschaft, 
 mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der congenitalen Blindheit. By 
 Bogumll Zepler. Svo. Breslau, 1SS6. 
 A Bibliography of Books and Papers upon the Impediments to Mar- 1887 
 riage. By Alfred H. Hutu. Svo. London, 1887. 
 
 A Reprint from the ' Marriage of Near Kin,' new edition of the 
 same year, and an enlargement of t lie ' /nde.v' pui/ished in 1879. 
 
INDEX TO AUTHORS. 
 
 An asterisk denotes a Review or Translation. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF MARRIAGE LAW. 
 
 Adam, 1S65 
 Bachofen, 1861, 1880 
 Bastian, 1878 
 Cameron, 1 88 5 
 Casselberr>', 1859 
 Faber, 1763 
 Fenton, 1878 
 Fison, 1880, 1882, 1884 
 Fraser, 1886 
 Gomme, 1887 
 Kovalevski, 1886 
 Kulischer, 1878 
 Lubbock, 1870, 1 87 1, 1885 
 
 McLennan, 1865, 1866, 1877, 1877, 
 
 188s 
 Main, 1861, 1883 
 Morgan, 1868, 1877, 1880 
 Quarterly Review, 1886* 
 Risley, 1886 
 
 Saturday Review, 1 88 1* 
 Smith, 1885 
 Spencer, 1877 
 Wake, 1879, 1886 
 Westminster Rniiea.', 1S87 
 Wilken, 1883, 1884, 1S84,* 18S5 
 
 WORK'S ON RELATIONSHIP. 
 
 Alleyne, 1774 
 Andreas, 1472 
 Beerbaick, 1749 
 Blackstone, 1762 
 Costas, 1488 
 Davison, 1886 
 Dixon, 1674 
 Galton, 187 1, i88j 
 Howitt, 1878 
 Macfarlane, 1881, 
 
 1883 
 
 Major, 1 55 1 
 Melancthon, 1540 
 Morgan, 1871 
 Ploix, 1871* 
 Pomeroy, 1871* 
 Sibree, 1879 
 Vloerda, 1 506 
 Wake, 1S78 
 Wynne, 1765 
 
INDEX TO author: 
 
 CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE PROHIBITIONS. 
 
 Anon. 1805 
 
 Anselm, 1491 
 
 Bechmann, 1684 
 
 Beyer, 17 10 
 
 Bihler, 181 1 
 
 Bohler, 1780 
 
 Brilland, 1872 
 
 Butler, 1619, 1625* 
 
 Gierke, 1594 
 
 Compton, 1677 
 
 Congregational Magazine., 1S42 
 
 Daniel, 1824 
 
 Dugard, 1673 
 
 D wight, 1836 
 
 Eichborn, 1872 
 
 Emmerton's Case, 1682 
 
 Florens, 1643 
 
 Fry, 1773 
 
 Fuchs, 1879 
 
 Gerbois, 1650 
 
 Greiner, 1775 
 
 Gribner, 17 15 
 
 Hales, 1673 
 
 Harrington, 1528 
 
 Heisler, 1778, 1783 
 
 Hochneker, 1621 
 
 Hotmann, 1594 
 
 Jonghe, 1S24 
 
 Langsdorf, 1804 
 Laspeyres, 1825 
 Lindsay, 1855 
 Mansclla, 1881 
 Melanclhon, 1537 
 Meyer, 168S 
 Micha^lis, 1755 
 Miinchen, 1827 
 Parker, 1696 
 Phelps, 1883 
 Schlegel, 1802 
 Schultz, 1 7 18 
 Selden, 1646 
 Sey fried, 1787 
 Spiindlin, 1844 
 Statutes, 1872, iSSo 
 Stelkner, 1684 
 Story, 1834 
 Taylor, 1660 
 Tephany, 1875 
 Thiersch, i860 
 Turner, 16S2, 1686 
 Valand, 1682 
 Weber, 1875 
 Webster, 1790 
 Wells, 17 18 
 Wiese, 1796 
 Wingfield, 1879 
 
 HENRY ITH.'S DIVORCE. 
 
 Abell, 1532 
 Academies, 1531 
 Anon. 1533, if 
 Asma, 1787 
 Bernard, 1530 
 Bonner, 1536 
 Borde, 1885 
 Brewer, 1524, 
 Brown, 1S76 
 Burnet, 16SS, 
 Caietan, 1530 
 
 20 
 
 6S9 
 
 Campian, 1622 
 
 Cavendish, 1641 
 
 Church (Juartcrty, 1877, 1884* 
 
 Clemens, 1533, 1534 
 
 CochUvus, 1535, 1536, 1538 
 
 Coniens, 1530 
 
 Conrad, 1532 
 
 Curiel, 1546 
 
 Dondolus, 1532 
 
 Dixon, 1873 
 
 Dublin University Magazine, 1877 
 
452 
 
 MARRIAGE OF NEAR 
 
 1\ 
 
 Du Boys, iSSo 
 
 Edinburgh Revie-d; iSSo, 1SS4* 
 
 Fisher, 1530 
 
 Forrest, 1558 
 
 Friedmann, 1884 
 
 Gairdner, 1529, iSSi 
 
 Goretius, 1554 
 
 Guyangos, 1529 
 
 Hall, 165 s 
 
 Harpsfield, 1540, 1622, 1S70 
 
 Henriquez, 1532 
 
 Henry \'1II., 1524, 1529, 1530, 
 
 1533, '537, 1539 
 Irail, 1766 
 Jovius, 1546 
 Legrand, 1688, 1691 
 Loazes, 1531 
 Morysin, 1538 
 Nogorala, 1536 
 
 Novatus, 1532 
 
 Nozerenus, 1562 
 
 Paul, 1535 
 
 Pocock, 1540,* 1870, 1876 
 
 Powell, 1539 
 
 Previdelli, 1531, 1532 
 
 Quarta-fy Review, i 524* 
 
 Raynal, 1763 
 
 Ribadeneyra, 1588 
 
 Sanders, 1585 
 
 Schora, 1534 
 
 Scot, 1531 
 
 Spedding, 18S1 
 
 Spina5us, 1531 
 
 Tyndale, 1530 
 
 Virvesius, 156T 
 
 Vives, 1532 
 
 Wakfeld, 1528 
 
 Wille, 1 701 
 
 MARRIAGE WITH A DECEASED WIFE'S SISTER. 
 
 A'Becket, 1859 
 
 Adams, 1883 
 
 Allison, 1850 
 
 Anon. 17 16, 1827, 1840, 1842, 
 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 
 1854, 1855, 1856, 1858, 1859, 
 i860, 1861, 1864, 1S65, 1869, 
 1873, iS79,.i8S2, 1883, 1S86, 
 1887 
 
 Arntzenius, 1726 
 
 Attkins, 1851 
 
 Bacon, 1849, i860, 1861 
 
 Beaumont, 1851 
 
 Becker, 1883 
 
 Beckett, ^ee Denison 
 
 Bennett, 1849 
 
 Berriman, 1751, 18S3 
 
 Bibliotheca Sacra, 1S42 
 
 Bickersteth, E., 1856, 1881 
 
 Bickersteth, R., 1853 
 
 Binney, 1850, 1851 
 
 Blackburn, i860 
 
 Blount, 1695 
 
 Bowden, 1S63 
 
 Bramwell, 1886 
 
 British Magazine, 1S40 
 
 Brook, 1 86 1 
 
 Brown, A., 1850 
 
 Brown, C, 1SS3 
 
 Bush, 1 86 1 
 
 C. J. C, 1876 
 
 Cairns, 18S3 
 
 Calvert, 18S3 
 
 Cameron, 1883 
 
 Campbell, C, 1859, 1S60 
 
 Campbell, 1851 
 
 Candlish, 1883 
 
 Carrington, 1850 
 
 Chambers, 1876 
 
 Champneys, etc. 1849, 1861 
 
 Chichester Advertiser, 1S7S 
 
 Christian Journal, 1S53 
 
 Christ iajt Rememhrantcr, 1 85 5 
 
 Church 0/ England Review', iSi;9 
 
 Church Quarterly Re-c'ieu; 18S3, 
 
 1885 
 Coates, 1842 
 Cockburn, 1S71 
 
INDEX TO AUTUOI'.S 
 
 453 
 
 Colomb, 1874 
 
 Commission, Roya/, 1S4S 
 
 Cooke, 1S42 
 
 Coplestonc, 1S57 
 
 Cosmopolitan Critic, 1877* 
 
 Cox, etc. 18S3 
 
 Crawford, etc. 1S83 
 
 Crowdcr, 1S46 
 
 Crowly, 1849 
 
 Uawson, 1859 
 
 Dcnhani, 1847 
 
 Denison, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 
 
 18S7 
 Denman, 1S52 
 Dodd, 1883 
 Douglas, 1858 
 Duke, 1SS2 
 Dunn, 1 883 
 Kadie, 1850 
 EJio, 1873 
 
 Eclectic Review, 1S49, 1851 
 Edinbtirgh Review, 1S53 
 Egerton, 1842 
 Evans, 1847 
 Ffoulkes, 1849, 1883 
 Fiekl, 1840 
 Fitzgerald, M., 1S53 
 Fitzgerald, W., i860 
 Forbes, 1883 
 Forster, 1850 
 Foster, 1847 
 Freeman, 1866 
 Gelzer, 1S80 
 Germans, St., etc. 185 1, 1852, 
 
 1856 
 Gibson, 1854 
 Gladstone, 1883 
 Goldsmith, 1841 
 Goodhart, 184S 
 Greg, 18S6 
 
 Grimthorpe, see Uenison 
 Grinticld, 1850 
 Hale, 1848 
 Hall, 1S60, 1873 
 Hammond, 1674 
 Hare, 1850 
 Hayward, 1S45 
 Herbert, etc. 1863 
 
 Hcssey, 1S49, 1SS3 
 
 Heywood, 1839 
 
 Hobson, 18S3 
 
 Hochstettcr, 1699 
 
 Hope, 1849, 1883 
 
 Houghton, 1 87 1, 1879 
 
 Ilvaine, 1851 
 
 Jane way, 1844 
 
 Jenkins, 1856, i860, 1SS2 
 
 Jenkinson, 1849 
 
 Journal of Sacred Literature, 
 
 1852 
 Keble, 1S49 
 Kerr, 1858 
 Klein, 1779 
 Lagarde, 1882 
 Langmore, 18S3 
 Law Magasine, 1839 
 Legal Obse) vcr, 1 840 
 Le Mesurier, 1883 
 Lewis, 1S58 
 Livingston, 1S16 
 I^ondon Rc7iiew, 1S58 
 MacCaul, 1853, 1859, i860 
 Mackarness, 1SS6 
 Mackenzie, 1880 
 Manning, 1856 
 Marriage Law Reform Reporter, 
 
 1859 
 Mason, 1S59 
 May, 1869 
 Mayer, 17 17 
 Mayow, 1869 
 Merivale, 1873 
 Miscellaneous, 1 84 1, 1S49, 1852, 
 
 i860, 1870, 1S82 
 Moberley, 1884 
 New Review, 1 863 
 Nitzsch, 1800 
 
 North British Reincw, 1S50 
 Ommaney, 18S3 
 Onderdonk, 1841 
 Parker, 1883 
 Paton, 1869 
 Penzance, 1871 
 Pertsch, 1720 
 Phillpotts, 1 85 1, i860 
 Prichard, 1849 
 
454 
 
 THE iMAKRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 Proctor, 1849, 1858 
 
 Pusey, 1840, 1849, i860 
 
 Pym, 1863 
 
 Quarterly Revieiu, 1849 
 
 Quick, 1703 
 
 Reyner, 1657 
 
 Reynolds, 1840, 1841 
 
 Rogers, F., 1S55 
 
 Rogers, T., 18S3 
 
 Scott, 1 81 5 
 
 Seabury, 1868 
 
 Sel borne, 18S3 
 
 Simpson, 1859 
 
 Sleigh, 1850, 1 85 1 
 
 Stansbury, 1853 
 
 Taii's Edinburgh Ma^aMic, 
 
 Thirl wall, 18S3 
 
 Thrupp, 1859 
 
 Travers, 1850 
 
 Vincent, 1883 
 
 Wagenseil, 1707 
 
 Wallace, 1855 
 
 Walter, 18S3 
 
 Webster, 1846 
 
 Westhead, 1850 
 
 Westminster Review, 1S51, 1880 
 
 Wharncliffe, 1841 
 
 Wharton, 1S40 
 
 Whately, 1856 
 
 Wheeler, 1849 
 
 Wolf, 1736 
 
 Wood, 1850, i860, 1 86 1 
 
 Woolcombe, 1 883 
 
 Wordsworth, 1859, 18S3 
 
 Wortley, 1849 
 
 Wray, 1849 
 
 CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGE PHYSIOLOGICALLY 
 CONSIDERED. 
 
 Adam, 1865 
 
 Allen, 1S69 
 
 Amyraut, 1648 
 
 Ancelon, 1864 
 
 Aliiena-uin, 1875' 
 
 Aube, 1857 
 
 Bailey, 1863 
 
 Beaudouin, 1862 
 
 Beaugrand, 1862 
 
 Beavan, 1863* 
 
 Behic, 1863 
 
 Bemiss, 1857, 1858 
 
 Bcrtillon, 1872, 1875* 
 
 ]?onnafont, 1863 
 
 Boudin, 1862, 1866 
 
 Bourgeois, 1859, 1863 
 
 British and Foreign Mcdico- 
 
 Chirurgical Review, 1875" 
 British Medical Journal, 1875* 
 Brocchi, 1863 
 Brochard, 1862 
 Bulletin de P Acadc'mie Royale de 
 
 Medecine de Belgique, i866* 
 Cadiot, 1863 
 
 Cameron, 1883 
 
 Carrieres, 1864 
 
 Chazarain, 1859 
 
 Child, 1862, 1863 
 
 Chipault, 1863 
 
 Congrcs Mt'dical dc France, 1S64 
 
 Coste, 187S 
 
 Grossman, 1S61 
 
 Dally, 1862, 1863 
 
 Darwin, C, 1S76 
 
 Darwin, G. H., 1875, 1875* 
 
 Davila, 1869 
 
 Devay, 1857, i860, 1863 
 
 Devic, 1S63 
 
 Doctor, The, 1875" 
 
 Down, 1866 
 
 Dublin Hospital Gazette, 1858 
 
 Faivre, 1864 
 
 Falret, 1865 
 
 Fay, 1875' 
 
 Flourens, 1S62 
 
 Fonssagrives, 1862" 
 
 Gallard, 1872 
 
 Gardner, iS6i 
 
INDEX TO AUTHORS 
 
 4SS 
 
 Gourdon, 1862 
 
 Grandmont, 1883 
 
 Gubian, 1864 
 
 Guipon, 1S63 
 
 Haerne, 1877 
 
 Heitzmann, 1879 
 
 Hdliot, 1875 
 
 Hervier, 1864 
 
 Hooper, 1883 
 
 Huth, 1875,* 1875, '879, 1887 
 
 Huzard, 1837, 1831, 1857, 1863, 
 
 1864 
 Indian Medical Gazette, 1875* 
 Isidore, 1862 
 Jacobs, 1883 
 Jutet, 1864 
 Lacassagne, 1876 
 Lancet, The, 1S60, i86S,* 1875 
 La Perre de Roo, 1881 
 Lathrop, 1879 
 Legrain, 1866 
 Leriche, 1858 
 Liebreich, 1861 
 Live Stock Journal, 1875* 
 Magne, 1863 
 
 Mantegazza, 1865, 1S68, 1871* 
 Mattel, 1871 
 Medical Press, 1875* 
 Meniere, 1846, 1S56 
 Mitchell, 1862 
 Morriss, 1861 
 Perier, 1859,* 1863 
 Picard, 1868 
 
 Poncet, 1865 
 
 Py, 1876 
 
 Rambosson, 1866 
 
 Ranse, F. de, 1863, '863,* 1S72 
 
 Ranse, (2- de, 1S62 
 
 Reich, 1875* 
 
 Renard, 1866 
 
 Revillout, 1865 
 
 Rilliet, 1856 
 
 Rodet, 1864 
 
 St. Marten, 1876 
 
 Sanson, 1862, 1S64, 1866 
 
 Schneegass, 1700 
 
 Seguin, 1863 
 
 Sicaud, 1865 
 
 Shuttleworth, 1886 
 
 Skorzewsky, 1824 
 
 Smith, 1861, 1864 
 
 Steinau, 1843 
 
 Stieda, 1879 
 
 Thibault, 1864 
 
 Thompson, 1870 
 
 Tobin, 1884 
 
 Todhunter, 1875* 
 
 Tourdes, 1872 
 
 Velle, 1875* 
 
 Vernois, 1865 
 
 Voisin, 1865 
 
 Walker, 1838 
 
 Westminster Review, 1875* 
 
 Wilder, 1S70 
 
 Zacharias, 1875* 
 
 Zepler, 18S6 
 
\ 
 
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462 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
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INDEX. 
 
 ABI 
 ABIPONES, marriage among the, 
 -'"^ loo, lOI 
 
 Abyssinia, marriage in, 104 ; half- 
 breeds, 3U 
 Acaxees, marriage among the, 96 
 Afghans, marriage among the, 68 
 Africa, marriage in Western, 102 ; 
 Southern, 103 ; Eastern, Central, 
 103, 104 ; Northern, 104, 105 ; iso- 
 lated communities in, 170 
 Africanders, 302 
 
 Agathias on marriage prohibitions, 24 
 Akombwi, marriage among the, 170 
 Albinoism attributed to consanguineous 
 marriage, 5, 240, 276,291 ; possible 
 causes of, 241 ; experiments on rab- 
 bits to produce, 276-287 
 Alcoholism a cause of idiocy, 206, 207, 
 209, note 2 ; of epilepsy, 207 ; of 
 paraplegia, ih. 
 Algonquins, marriage among the, 92 
 Amboyna, half-breeds in, 297 
 Ambrose, doctrines of St., 109, 114 
 America, marriage prohibitions among 
 the aborigines of North, 92-97 ; of 
 Central, 97, 98 ; of South, 98-101 ; 
 in the United States of, 137, 138 ; 
 half-breeds of, 305 et seq. 
 Amyraut on marriage prohibitions, 29 
 Andorra, Republic of, an isolated com- 
 munity, 162, 163 
 Anglo-Saxons, marriage among the, 
 
 124 
 Angoumois, paper makers of the, 166 
 Animals, the habits of, an illustration 
 of savage humanity, 14 ; have no 
 horror of incest, 8-10 ; polygamous, 
 9 ; observations on, applicable to 
 man, 243-251 ; and show whether 
 in-and-in breeding is harmful in it- 
 self, 4, 5, 242, 243, 251 ; unwilling- 
 ness of, to cross, 257, 261, 275 ; 
 diseases of, 245, note 2 
 Antakeringa marriage prohibitions, 56, 
 87 
 
 Apaches, marriage among the, 95 ; 
 
 health of the, 96 
 Aquapim, marriage in, 102, 103 
 Arab-Abyssinian half-breeds, 311 ; 
 
 Negro, ;'*. ; Persian, ih. 
 Arabia, marriage in, 59-62 
 Arawak, marriage among the, 98, 99 ; 
 significance of the custom of the 
 couvcule among the, 32 
 Argentine Republic, marriage among 
 
 the aborigines of the, loi 
 Aristotle on marriage prohibitions, 24 
 Arreoi, the society of the, 79-81 
 Arromanches, isolated community at, 
 
 162 
 Ascension Island, marriage in, 79 
 Asceticism, the cause of media.-val pro- 
 hibitions on marriage, 114 ; a means 
 of moral reform, 108 
 Assubo-Galla, marriage among the, 104 
 Asylums, untrustworthiness of statistics 
 
 from, 216 
 Athanasius on consanguineous mar- 
 riage, 114 
 Athenagoras on marriage, 109 
 Athenian marriage prohibitions, 40-44 
 Atmah, marriage among the, 93 
 Audouere, the divorce of, 120, I2i 
 Augustine, St., on consanguineous mar- 
 riage 25, 114, and note 
 Auses, promiscuity among the, 58 
 Australian aborigines, marriage pro- 
 hibitions, 85-91; half-breeds, 299, 
 300 
 Auvergne, paper makers of the, 166 ; 
 
 Marans of the, 167 
 Ayowas, marri.igc among the, 93 
 Azores, consanguineous marriages in 
 the, 169 
 
 D ABVLONIA, marriage in, 66 
 ^ Bali, marriage in, 78 
 Balnabruiacli, isolated community at, 
 149 
 
 II II t 
 
468 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 llambarras, marriage among the, I02 
 Baptism, danger of early, 177 
 Barbarians, promiscuity among nations 
 
 known to the Greeks as, 58 
 Barrenness, see Sterility 
 BasBretons, consanguineous marriages 
 
 of the, 162 
 Basques, consanguineous marriages of 
 
 the, 162 
 Bastaards, history of the, 300-302 
 I'.atta, marriage among the, 78 
 Batz, isolated community at, 160, 161, 
 
 367, 371 
 Beloochistan, marriage in, 68 
 Benkulen, marriage in, 78 
 Bentham, isolated communities in the 
 
 neighbourhood of, 145 
 Berbers, marriage among the, 105 
 Berneray, isolated community at, 1 50 
 Beza on marriage prohibitions, 26, 27 
 Bhuiyas, marriage among the, 71 
 Bigamy, original meaning of the word, 
 
 III, note 4 
 Black Death said to have been pro- 
 pagated by the Jews, 166, note 2 
 Bodo, marriage among the, 71 
 Bogo, marriage among the, 104 
 Buksas, marriage among the, 72, 73 
 Borneo, marriage in, 78 ; punishment 
 
 of incest, 23, 78, 79 
 Uoulnier, isolated community at, 147 
 • Bounty,' thenuitineersof the, 140-143 
 Boyas, marriage among the, 71 
 Boyndie, isolated community at, 149 
 Brahoos, the, 68 
 r.razil, marriage among the aborigines 
 
 of, 100 
 Bretons, consanguineous marriages of 
 
 the, 161 
 Brighton, the fisherfolk of, 144 
 British wild cattle, 258-260 
 Britons, marriage among the ancient, 
 
 59 
 I'.iickhaven, isolated community at, 
 
 149 
 Buffaloes, Indian, bred in-and-in, 264 
 Burmese, marriage among the, 74 
 Burnmcuth, isolated community at, 
 
 147, 148 
 Burton, Koliert, on consanguineous 
 
 unions, 27, 28 
 liygars, marriage among the, 73 
 
 CABEZAS, marriage among the, 
 96 
 Cafusos, the, 309, 310 
 Cagots, history of the, 163-166 ; con- 
 sanguineous marriages of the, 164, 
 
 165 ; state of health of the, 165, 
 166 
 
 California, marriage among the abo- 
 rigines of, 94-96 
 
 Cambodia, marriage in, 76 
 
 Campanella, on the value of crosses, 
 28 
 
 Canaanites, marriage among the, 58 
 
 Canadian Indians, marriage among the, 
 92 ; Eskimo, 92 
 
 Canaries, breeding in-and-in of, 291 
 
 Canary Isles, marriage in the, lOI, 
 102 
 
 Capots, see Cagots 
 
 Caribs, marriage among the, 98, 101 ; 
 half-breeds, loi, 310 
 
 Caroline Islands, marriage in the, 79 
 
 Cattle, in-and-in breeding of, 258-264 ; 
 the wild, of British parks, 258-260 ; 
 of South America, 260 ; Indian, 
 264 
 
 Cava-drinking, 83, 84 
 
 Celebes, marriage in the, 79 
 
 Celibacy not recommended in the Gos- 
 pels, 109 ; St. Paul on, ih. ; early 
 feeling in its favour by the Church, 
 112; when imposed on the priest- 
 hood, 109, 112; injurious conse- 
 quences, 112, 113 
 
 Census, the use of the, 5, 242, 339- 
 341 
 
 Ceris, marriage among the, 96 
 
 Ceylon, marriage among the aborigines 
 of, 73 ; half-breeds in, 295 
 
 Chaouia Berbers, lobeless ears of the, 
 166, note I 
 
 Charruas, marriage among the, loi 
 
 Cherokee, marriage among the, 93 ; 
 half-breeds, 310 
 
 Chichemeks, marriage among the, 96 
 
 Chiefs, why stronger than their people, 
 84 
 
 China, marriage in, 74, 75 ; half-breeds, 
 300, 312 
 
 Chinese Turkestan, marriage in, 76 
 
 Chinipas, marriage among the, 96 
 
 Chipewyans, marriage among the, 94 
 
 Choctaw, marriage among the, 93 
 
 Chorea, some causes of, 214 
 
 Chrestiaa, see Cagots 
 
 Christianity, effect of, on marriage, 109; 
 prohibitions under the Christian 
 emperors and Roman pontiffs, 1 14- 
 
 Chrysippus on marriage, 24 
 Chrysostom, St., on marriage, 25 
 Chuetas, isolated community of the, 
 
 168, 169 
 Circassians, marriage among the, 63, 64 
 
469 
 
 ci.r. 
 
 Cleft palate said to be caused by con- 
 sanguineous marriage, 234 ; some 
 causes of, 235 
 
 Clemens of Alexandria on marriage, 
 109 
 
 Club-foot said to be caused by con- 
 sanguineous marriage, 234 ; some 
 causes of, 235 
 
 Corhimi-;. m-irrin-e Mmong the, 96 
 
 <■"■■"" ' '■■ ■■^■' ■'■■ '4, IS 
 
 Con' I 11: .;i among the, 96 
 
 (.i.iuiu-h.,,-, usi- uf insanity, 209; 
 
 ul cpilupsy, !i: ; some causes of, 239, 
 240 
 
 Cornwall, isolated communities of, 146, 
 160 
 
 Coroado, marriage among the, 100 
 
 Cousin marriages more fertile than 
 others, 181, 193-196 
 
 Couvade, the, 32 
 
 Creeks, marriage among the, 93 
 
 Cretinism said to be caused by con- 
 sanguineous marriage, 201 ; has a 
 common cause with goitre, id. ; 
 causes of, 202 ; impossibility that it 
 can be caused by consanguineous mar- 
 riage, 203 ; difference between, and 
 idiocy, 204, 205 
 
 Crosses in animals frequently harmful, 
 249; dislike of animals to, 259, 261, 
 27s ; tendency to reversion given by, 
 292 ; if beneficial /«r se the greater 
 the cross the greater the benefit, 
 293 ; between different races gene- 
 rally sterile, 294-315 ; indifference of 
 nature to, 320, 321 ; advantages of, 
 327 ; the cost of, 328 ; reasons for, 
 of hermaphrodites, 329-331 ; small 
 value of, 333 
 
 Cyprian, on marriage, 1 10 
 
 Cyrill of Jerusalem on marriage, no 
 
 T AANES, marriage among the 
 
 -» ^ ancient, 59 
 
 Darien, marriage among the Indians of, 
 98 
 
 Darlicarlia, the peasantry of, 160 
 
 Da Souza, the family of, 143 
 
 Deaf-mutism said to be caused by con- 
 sang\iineous marriage, 214 ; some 
 causes of congenital, 215; manner 
 in which statistics on, are gathered, 
 :i6 ; their worthlessness, 217-230 
 
 Deer, in-and-in breeding of, 275, 276 ; 
 rirkback in, 276 
 
 Delaware Indians, marriage among the, 
 92 
 
 IHiinwl, marriage among the, 71 
 
 Dogs, in-and-in breeding of, 271-275 ; 
 
 natural division of, into tribes, 275 
 Donkeys, in-and-in breeding of, 270 
 Druses, marriage among the, 63 
 Ducks, in-and-in breeding of, 289 
 Dutch-Singhalese half-breeds, 295 ; 
 
 Malay, 296, 302 ; Hottentot, 300 
 Dwarfing said to result from breeding 
 
 in-and-in, 240, 257, note 2, 271 
 Dyaks, marriage among the, 78 ; 
 
 punishment of incest, 23, 78, 79 
 
 T^"ARS lobeless, common to the 
 Chaouia Berbers, 166, note i ; 
 and Cagots, 165 
 
 Egypt, marriage in ancient, 35-38 ; 
 sterility of foreigners in, 31 1 
 
 Elands, in-and-in breeding of, 264 
 
 Endogamy, 33, 34 
 
 England, prohibited degrees of mar- 
 riage in, 59, 124-129; isolated com- 
 munities in, 144-147, 160 
 
 Epilepsy said to be caused by consan- 
 guineous marriage, 209 ; some causes 
 of, 207, 208 
 
 Epiphanius on marriage, 1 10 
 
 Eskimo, marriage among the, 92 ; 
 imaginary relationship among persons 
 brought up together, (A ; half-breeds, 
 3>2, 313 
 
 Eten, isolated community at, 144 
 
 Etruscans, promiscuity among the, 54 
 
 Eurasians, physical and moral state of 
 the, 294-296 
 
 Eustathius on marriage, no 
 
 Exogamy, origin of, 17, 18, 34 ; 
 Bachofen on, 18; McLennan on, 
 19; Fison on, id. ; Morgan, Sir J. 
 Lubbock, Sir H. Maine, Howitt, 
 and Wake on, 20 ; not caused by any 
 observed evil effect of consanguineous 
 marriage, 20 31 
 
 Eye, diseases of the, attributed to con- 
 sanguineous marriage, 230 ; some 
 causes of, i7>. 
 
 Eyemouth, isolated community at, 148, 
 
 T7ANTIS, marriage among the, 102 
 Faroe Islands, slate of health in 
 the, 158 
 
 Fertility in Europe, 192, 193; of con- 
 sanguineous as compared with non- 
 consanguineous marriages, 1 93 -1 96; 
 of different pure races together, 175, 
 304 
 
 Fiji, marri^igc in, 8; ; licence accorded 
 
470 
 
 THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 FLA 
 to chiefs in, ih. j size of chiefs com- 
 pared with commoners, iii. ; half- 
 breeds, 298 
 Flatheads, marriage among the, 94 
 Foreatines, isolated commtinity of the, 
 
 161, 162 
 Fowls, in-and-in breeding of, 287, 288 
 France, marriage prohibitions of, 123 ; 
 
 isolated communities in, 160-168 
 French - Hindoo half - breeds, 296 ; 
 Polynesian, 298 ; American Indian, 
 306. 307 
 F'uerteventura, marriage in, loi 
 
 GAHETS, see Cagots 
 Galla, marriage among the, 104 
 Garamantes, promiscuity of the, 58 
 . Garo, marriage among the, 70, 7 1 
 Gauchos, 308 
 
 Gaust, isolated community of, 162 
 Genesis, the development of, 319; 
 
 Mr. Spencer's theory on, 319, 320; 
 
 significance of parthenogenesis, 321 ; 
 
 crosses and variation, 322 ; Prof. 
 
 Weismann's theory, 321, 322 ; Mr. 
 
 Darwin's pangenesis, 323 ; balance 
 
 between dispersion and cost of pro- 
 duction of germs, 326 
 Germany, marriage in ancient, 59 ; in 
 
 modern, 137 
 Ghagar, marriage among the, 105 
 Ghawazee, marriage among the, 105 ; 
 
 direct descendants of the ancient 
 
 Egyptians, ib. 
 Gnostics, doctrines of the, on celibacy 
 
 of St. Joseph, no 
 Goats, in-and-in breeding of, 270; 
 
 weakness of the Angora, ib. 
 God-parentage made a bar to marriage, 
 
 120-122 
 Goitre, connection between, and cre- 
 tinism, 201 ; idiocy and deaf-mutism, 
 
 204 ; causes of, 202 ; occurs in 
 
 animals, ib. 
 Gomera, marriage in, loi, 102 
 Gonds, marriage among the, 73 
 Gosawee, marriage among the, 70 
 Gournditch-mara, marriage among the, 
 
 88 
 Granville, isolated community at, 162 
 Greeks, marriage among the ancient, 
 
 38 46 ; prohibitions of the modern, 
 
 138. 139 
 Greenland, marriage in, 92 ; half-breeds 
 
 in, 3:2, 318 
 Gregorius of Nyssa on marriage, 1 10 
 Gregory I., Pope, on consanguineous 
 
 marriage, 25 
 
 HYB 
 Grimsey, state of health in, 159 
 Griquas, history of the, 300-302 
 Guaicuris, marriage among the, 96 
 Guanaco, in-and-in breeding of, 265 
 Guatemala, marriage in, 97, 98 
 Guiana, marriage in, 98, 99 
 Gypsies, marriage among the Luri, 68 ; 
 
 Nuts, 73 ; Ghagar, Nuri, Helebi, 
 
 and Ghawazee, 104, 105 
 
 TLJ AIDA, marriage among the, 94 
 
 Hal ben Ali, marriage among the, 
 105 
 
 Half-breeds generally worse than pure 
 races, 294 et seq. ; European-Hindoo, 
 294-296 ; Dutch-Singhalese, 295 ; 
 Dutch-Malay, 296, 302 ; Spanish- 
 Malay, 297 ; of the Ladrone Islands, 
 
 297 ; European-Polynesian, 297, 
 
 298 ; European- Maori, 29S, 299 ; 
 European-Australian, 299, 300 ; 
 European Chinese, 300 ; European- 
 Hottentot, 300-302 ; the Griquas, 
 ib. ; Mulattoes, 303-305 ; Mestisos, 
 305, 306 ; Paulistas, 307, 308 ; 
 Gauchos, 308 ; Zamboes, 308, 309 ; 
 Cafusos, 309, 310; Negro-Carib, 
 310; Negro-Cherokee, ib. ; Negro- 
 Hottentot, 310, 311 ; Maroons, 311 ; 
 Arab-Persian,/*. ; Arab-Abyssinian, 
 ib. ; Kuruglis, 311, 312; Chinese- 
 Cambojian, 312; European-Eskimo, 
 312; Indian-Eskimo, 313 ; the com- 
 mon sterility of, does not preclude 
 the slow formation of new races, 
 313-315 
 
 Hautponnais, isolated community of, 
 
 167 
 Hawaii, marriage in, So, 81 ; fertility 
 
 in, 84 
 Helebi, marriage among the, 104 
 Heraclius, the marriage of, 115 
 Herods, marriages of the, 50, 51 
 Hetairism, 14 ; Hetairfe represent the 
 
 kin, 43 
 Hindoos, marriage prohibitions of the, 
 
 68, 69 
 Ho, marri.age among the, 70 
 Holland, prohibited degrees in, 137 
 Honduras, marriage among the abo- 
 rigines of, 98 
 Horses, breeding in-and-in of, 268- 
 
 270 ; Arab, 267, 268 ; origin of our 
 
 race, 268 
 Hottentots, marriage among the, 103 ; 
 
 half-breeds, 300-302, 310 
 Hovas, marriage among the, 105, 106 
 Hybrids, see Half-breed.^ and Crossci^ 
 
Hydrocephalusconnected with scrofula 
 238 ; some causes of, 239 
 
 ICELAND, marriage in ancient, 59; 
 
 •*■ health of the people of, 154-157 
 
 Ichthyosis said to be caused by con- 
 sanguineous marriage, 240 
 
 Idiocy, diflerencc between, and cre- 
 tinism, 204, 205 ; some causes of, 
 205-209 ; worthlessness of statistics 
 on, 209-212 
 
 Ignatius on marriage, I ID, III 
 
 Ikula, marriage among the, 89 
 
 Illegitimacy a cause of idiocy, 206 ; of 
 malformation and dwarfing, 235 
 
 In-and-in breeding of sheep, 251-258 ; 
 of cattle, 258-264 ; of Indian buf- 
 falo, 264 ; of elands, ib. ; of guanaco, 
 265 ; of pigs, 265, 267 ; of horses, 
 267-270; of donkeys, 270; of goats, 
 ih. ; of dogs, 271-275 ; of deer, 275- 
 276; of rabbits, 277- 2S7 ; of fowls, 
 287, 288 ; of pheasants, 288, 289 ; 
 of ducks, 289; of pigeons, 289-291 ; 
 selection increases the value of the 
 experiment, 250 ; of insects, 291 ; of 
 plants, 335-337 
 
 Incest practised in consequence of celi- 
 bacy, 112; of Pope John XXIII., 
 1 13, note 5 ; of Pope Alexander VI. , 
 ib. ; is the horror of, innate? 10-14; 
 if innate this horror should be uni- 
 versal, 10 ; no horror of, in animals, 
 8-10 ; in history, lO ; in fiction, 10- 
 14 
 
 India, marriage in, 68-73 '< half-castes 
 in, 294-296 
 
 Ingeburga, the divorce of, 120 
 
 Inheritance of acquired characters 
 denied by Prof. Weismann, 322 
 
 Insanity, some causes of, 177-179. 206 ; 
 worthlessnSssof the statistics on, 213, 
 214 
 
 Insects, in-and-in breeding of, 291 
 
 Ireland, fable of an isolated community 
 in Sligo, 159 
 
 Iroquese, marriage among the, 92 
 
 Italy, marriage prohibitions in, 123 ; 
 proverbs in, against marrying 
 strangers, 116, note 6 
 
 Itchinferry, isolated community at, 144, 
 '45 
 
 Izeaux, isolated community at, 163, 
 236, 237 
 
 [AKUTS, marriage among the, 76 
 Japanese, marriage among the, 74, 
 
 75 ; the Satsuma potters, 172 ; half- 
 breeds, 297 
 Java, marriage in, 78 ; isolated com- 
 munity in, 143 
 Jerome, St., on marriage, 109 
 Jews, marriage among the ancient, 47- 
 51 ; the leviratelaw, 25, note 4, 129 ; 
 the curse of sterility, 25, note 4 ; 
 Tamar and Amnon, 48 ; the Herods, 
 50, 51 ; modern, accused of causing 
 the Black Pealh, 166, note 2 ; of the 
 introduction of syphilis, 167 ; cos- 
 mopolitanism of the, 17) ; Hiffcrence 
 between ihi ii ii^ -n 1 1 iws and 
 those of otli. I 1 : ! ' ., 174, 
 
 175; are tiny ,. 1 ..-. i ■• • '.' 175 ; 
 sterility of mixed iii.uii..i;l^, li: ; fer- 
 tility and viability of the, 176, 177 ; 
 greater liability to mental disease, 
 and the cause, 1 77- 1 80 ; accusation 
 against, of furnishing an undue pro- 
 portion of deaf-mutes, 180 183 ; re- 
 tinitis pigmentosa said to be common 
 among them, 183, 184 ; of the Ghetto 
 at Rome, 184, 185 
 Jolofs, marriage among the, 102 
 Joseph, St., the celibacy of, 110 
 Jovinian, the doctrines of, condemned 
 by St. Ambrose, 1 10; and St. Jerome, 
 ih. 
 Juangs, marriage among the, 71 
 Justin Martyr on marriage, 109 
 
 T/'AFFIRS, marriage among the 
 
 -'^ African, 103 
 
 Kalang, marriage among the, 78 
 
 Kalmucks, marriage among the, 77 
 
 Kamburani, the, 68 
 
 Kamilaroi prohibited degrees, 85-88 ; 
 
 theory of their origin, 90 
 Kxsias, marriage among the, 70 
 Katchari, marriage among the, 71 
 Kenai, marriage among the, 93 
 Kh.inds, marriage among the, 71, 72 
 Kilda, St., state of the people on the 
 
 island of, 151-154 
 Kirghiz, marriage among the, 77 
 Koch, marriage among the, 71 
 Kolosh, marriage among the, 93 
 Korwas, marriage among the, 71 
 Koupiii, marriage among the, 70 
 Kroomen, marriage among the, 102 
 Kulin, marriage among the, 88 
 Kunandaburi, marriage among the, 89 
 Kurnai prohibited degrees, 87 ; theory 
 
 of their origin, 88 
 Kuruglis, physical state of the, 31 1 
 Kutchins, marriage among the, 94 
 
THE MARRIAGE OK NEAR KIN 
 
 T ADRONE Islands, marriage in the, 
 ■'-' 79 ; half-breeds in the, 297 
 Lahupa, marriage among ihe, 70 
 Lampong, marriage among the, 78 
 Lanzarota, marriage in, loi 
 Lapps, marriage among the, 77 
 Leo the Philosopher's fourth marriage, 
 
 III, 112 
 Leprosy, the Cagots accused of, 164 ; 
 
 said to be caused by consanguineous 
 
 marriage, 240 
 Life, how defined, 316 
 Limousin, paper makers of, 166 
 Lipplapen, sterility of the, 296, 297 
 Luri, marriage among the, 68 
 Luther, on the marriage prohibitions, 
 
 26, 118 and note 2 
 Lyzelards, isolated community of the, 
 
 167 
 
 M 
 
 ACADAMAS, promiscuity of the, 
 
 Macao, Portuguese half-breeds at, 300 
 Machlyes, promiscuity among the, 31, 
 
 note I, 58 
 Madagascar, marriage in, 105, 106 ; 
 
 health in, 106, 107 
 Malayan system of relationship, 14, 15 
 Malays, marriage among the, 77, 78 ; 
 
 half-breeds, 296, 302 
 Malers, marriage among the, 71 
 Malformations said to be caused by 
 consanguineous marriage, 234 ; some 
 causes of, 234-236 ; statistics on, 236 
 Manipuree, marriage among the, 70 
 Mantchu Tartars, marriage among the, 
 
 76 
 Maopityans, marriage among the, 98 
 Maories, 83 ; health of the, 170-172 ; 
 
 half-breeds, 298, 299 
 Mapodzo, marriage among the, 170 
 Marans, isolated community of the, 
 
 167 
 Marianne Islands, marriage in the, 79 ; 
 
 half-breeds of the, 297 
 Markesas, marriage in the, 81 ; health 
 
 in the, 83 
 Marriage prohibitions in various nations, 
 see under separate headings ; de- 
 velopment of law, 14 etseq. ; danger 
 of throwing difficulties in the way, 2, 
 3, 109; opinions of early Christians 
 on, 109 ct seq. ; restrictions on mar- 
 ried persons. III, note 5 ; early, the 
 most productive, 196 ; premature 
 produce puny offspring, 235 ; which 
 should be prohibited and which per- 
 mitted, 3, 342 
 
 MEM 
 Marriage, consanguineous, why prohi- 
 bited by modern laws, 3, I13 «/ seq. ; 
 Socrates on, 24 ; Plato on, ib. ; 
 Aristotle on, ih. ; Ovid on, 9 ; Chry- 
 sippus on, 24 ; Zeno on, ib. ; 
 Philo on, ib. ; Agathias on, ib. ; 
 Statius on, ib. ; Plutarch on, 24, 25 ; 
 St. Chrysostom on, 25 ; St. Augus- 
 tine on, 25, 114, note ; Thos. Aquinas 
 on, 26 ; Luther on, //'. ; Beza on, 
 26, 27 ; Shakespeare on, 27 ; Rob. 
 Burton on, 27, 28 ; Jeremy Taylor 
 on, 28, 29 ; Amyraut on, 29 ; 
 I Dugard on, ib. ; Theodosius I., for- 
 ! bade cousin-marriages, 114 and 
 I note ; St. Ambrose, St. Athanasius, 
 ib.; Arcadiusand Honorius modify the 
 j prohibition, 1 14, II 5 ; Justinian, 115; 
 Heraclius, ib. ; Nicephorus on, ib. ; 
 prohibitions by the Ostrogoths, ib. ; 
 ! not enforced throughout Europe, 116; 
 ! canons defining the prohibited de- 
 i grees, 117, 118, 122 ; the belief that 
 I first-cousins may marry, while second 
 may not, 122, note 6 ; made diffi- 
 cult for the sake of lucre, 118; and 
 to the end that noble families should 
 be dependent on the Pope, 120; 
 ! cases of, in the royal Spanish line, 
 I 119; proportion of, to non-consan- 
 guineous, 186-192 ; accused of caus- 
 ing Trismus nascentium, 153, 154; 
 sterility, 5, 192-198; low viability, 
 1 199 ; cretinism and goitre, 201-204 ; 
 idiocy, insanity, epilepsy, and chorea, 
 204-214; deaf-mutism, 214-230; 
 retinitis pigmentosa, 183, 230-234 ; 
 malformations, 5, 234-237 ; poly- 
 dactylism, 236, 237 ; rickets, phthi- 
 sis, tuberculosis, hydrocephalus, and 
 spina bifida, 5, 237 240 ; ichthyosis 
 and leprosy, 240 ; albinoism, 5, 240, 
 276-287 ; hydatis, 5 ; dwarfing, 240; 
 collection of cases useless except 
 negatively, 251 ; said to be a cause 
 of Tamehameha's small family by the 
 Hawaiians, 22 ; early de.ath, by the 
 Eskimo, ib. ; to have evil effiscts, by 
 the Australian aborigines, by the 
 Hindoos, ib. ; liy the Arabs, ib. ; by 
 the Dyaks, 23 ; by the Kenaiyer, ib. ; 
 inability of any government to pre- 
 vent, 135, 136, 342 
 — with a deceased wife's sister, 129- 
 
 ■37. 342. note 
 Marshall Islands, marriage in the, 80 
 Masai, marriage among the, 103, 104 
 Mech, marriage among the, 71 
 Memlouks, sterility of the, 31 1 
 
MF.U 
 Merino slicup, origin of llie, 253, 254 
 Mc-stisos, tlic, 305, 306 
 Mexico, marriage among the ancient 
 people of, 96 ; among the modern, 
 05- 9<J 
 Mui.iiiiM 1. 1 lib! , nmrriage in the, 79 
 Mill ! , :: I I ■ .imong the, 67 
 M,..-. -1: Mi' ■:. .-1- the,"72 
 M.-s ..: 1, mong.he, 67 
 
 M.-. , I ■ : i!ii..ng the, 95 
 
 M"!; I ■! I Lf prohibitions of, 
 
 iiri : I i! :. :i liy Mohammedans 
 t" I'. ; u! inui; -rs, 62; the leviiatc 
 law, oj ; JIuliammedan exclusive 
 comnumilics, 73 
 MongoU, marriage among the, 76 ; the 
 Turks not descended from the, 311, 
 312 
 Moondah, marriage among the, 70 
 Moors, marriage among the, 105 ; half- 
 breeds, 311 
 Moplahs, marriage among the, 73 
 Moquis, marriage among the, 96 
 Moral law, origin of, 7, 8 
 Mormons, marriage prohibitions of the, 
 
 138 
 Mousehole, isolated community at, 146 
 Mow, marriage among the, 70 
 Mulattoes, the, 303-305 
 Mummy, its medical value, I ! I 
 Muram, marriage among the, 70 
 
 "M ARRINVERI, marriage among the, 
 
 89 
 N'atches, marriage among the, 93 
 Nawer, marriage among the, 104 
 Negro-Carib half-breeds, 310, 311 ; 
 Arab, 311; Mulattoes, 303-305; 
 Zamboes, 308, 309 ; Cafusos, 309, 
 310 ; Cherokee, 310 
 New Britain, marriage among the abo- 
 rigines of, 91, 92 
 \i \\ riiL^land, marriage among tlK' 
 
 ::, ,nf, 93 
 
 N I .1 !. i.la, marriage in, 98 
 
 ^' ^^ ' ' >■ marriage in, 91 
 
 Xns I. :. i 1 lull), origin of the, 
 
 J3;, -■ ; '. ' : -'c I 
 Nfwlv.i, •inmunity at, 146 
 
 New /■.,■■'.■■. ', niiage among the 
 
 aborigines.. f, S2, 83 ; their stale, S3, 
 
 170-172 
 Nez Perces, marriage among the, 94 
 Nicaragua, marriage in, 98 
 Nicephorus, on marriage with a niece, 
 .."5 . 
 Nitendi Islands, marriage in the, 82 
 Niva, strength of the chiefs in, 84 
 
 PER 
 
 Niible families said to degenerate 
 and die out through consanguineous 
 marriage, 197-199 
 
 Nogais, marriage among the, 77 
 
 Nootka, marriage among the, 93, 94 
 
 Norfolk Island, 142 
 
 Nukuhiva, marriage in, 81 
 
 Nuri, marriage among the, 104 
 
 Ntitka, see Noolka 
 
 Nuts, marriage among the, 73 
 
 O^ 
 
 BESITV a cause of sterility, 200, 
 264, 266 ; of malformations, 234 ; 
 
 incompatible with wool in sheep, 
 
 256 
 Oleepa, marriage among the, 95 
 Omaha, marriage among the, 93 
 Oraon, marriage among the, 70 
 Orchids, the fertilisation of, 329-332 
 Organisms, what are? 316, 317; need 
 
 of dispersion, 317 ; need of defence, 
 
 3>7. 319 
 Origen's views on marriage, no 
 Orinoko, marriage among the Indians 
 
 of the, 98 
 Ostrogoth prohibitions on marriage, 1 1 5 
 Ostyaks, marriage among the, 76, 77 
 Ouled Sidi Sheikh, marriage among 
 
 the, 105 
 
 pAOAM ABORS, marriage among 
 ■■■ the, 72 
 
 Palembang, marriage among the, 78 
 Palma, marriage in the island of, 101, 
 
 102 
 Palmas, marriage at Cape, 102 
 Panama, marriage in, 98 
 Panches, marriage among the, 98 
 Pangenesis, Mr. Darwin's theor 
 
 323 
 P.ini Knrh, n\arri:it;e among the, 71 
 
 r ■;■ ' , :■ 1 :' ■ 1:; the, !02 
 
 100, lOI 
 
 r :' ■ ' "111,' tlic. 71 
 
 '67'"' """""' '"""""°""' 
 
 Parthenogenesis an argument against 
 the radical dilTcrence of the sexes, 
 321 ; a reversion, 330 
 Patagonia, marriage in, loi 
 Pauillac, isolated community at, 162 
 Paul, St., his praise of celibacy, 109 
 Paulistas, origin of the, 307 ; their 
 
 character, 307, 30S 
 Periciiis, marriage among the, 96 
 Persians, marriage among the ancient, 
 
 I I 
 
THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN 
 
 PER 
 
 64-67 ; the law of Zarathiishtra, 66 ; 
 
 Arab half-breeds, 311 
 Peruvians, marriage among the ancient, 
 
 99 ; isolated communities in Peru, 
 
 '44 
 Petits-Blancs, see Pctits Cn'oles 
 — Creoles, isolated community of, at 
 
 Reunion, 169, 170 
 Pheasants, in-and-in breeding of, 288, 
 
 2S9 
 Phoenicia, marriage in, 58, 59 
 Phthisis, some causes of, 238, 239 ; 
 
 connected with scrofula, 238 ; un- 
 known in Iceland, 157 
 Pigeons, in-and-in breeding of, 289- 
 
 291 
 Pigs, in-and-in breeding of, 265-267 ; 
 
 correlation of little hair with bad 
 
 teeth, 266 
 Pines, Isle of, 30 
 Pitcairn Island, 141, 142 
 Plants, l.r.clinL; in-and-in of, 335^337 
 Plato nil inairi.iL;c |.rohibitions, 24 
 Plutaicli on ni.iiiiage prohibitions, 24, 
 
 25 
 Polar cells not always extruded, 321 
 Polydactylism said to be caused by 
 
 consanguinc'His marriage, 236, 237 ; 
 
 PuK ,, in, 80-82 ; mytho- 
 
 IdL^h ,N iii> -I. .^'i; relationship in, 
 
 ti'. ; liL-alih in, ^3-85 ; fertility in, 
 
 84 ; superior size of chiefs in, ili. ; 
 
 half-breeds in, 297, 29S 
 Ponape, marriage in, 79 
 Ponda, marriage at, 103 
 Portel, isolated community at, 162 
 Portland Island, isolated community in, 
 
 145 
 Portmaholmack, isolated community at, 
 
 149 
 Portuguese, marriage prohibitions of 
 
 the, 123, 124; half-breeds, 295,296 
 Potes, isolated community at, 169 
 Prohibited degrees, the natural, 342 ; 
 
 reasons which have been given for 
 
 the, 21-30 
 Prussian prohibitions, 137 
 Ptolcmys, the marriages of the, 36, 37 ; 
 
 not sterile or short-lived, 37, note 
 Pueblo Indians, marriage among the, 
 
 95, 96 ; health of the, 96 
 
 ■p ABI3ITS, the breeding in-and-in of, 
 
 A^ 277-287 
 
 Radack, marriage in, 80 
 
 Ralick, marriage in, 80 
 
 Rathen, isolated community in, 149 
 
 SEX 
 
 Relationship, the Malayan system of, 
 14 ; not recognised on the male side, 
 16, 31, 33 ; none between a mother 
 and her child, 32, 41,42 ; by civil and 
 by canon law, 115, note 3 ; by god- 
 parentage, 121; not y^// when un- 
 known, 10-14; easily becomes in- 
 volved, 27, note 1 
 
 Religion, influence of, upon consan- 
 guineous marriage, 123, note 2, 178, 
 180, note I 
 
 Retinitis pigmentosa said to be caused 
 by consanguineous marriagp, 183 ; 
 the evidence on either side, 230-234 
 
 Reunion, isolated community at, 169, 
 170 
 
 Rheumatism a cause of chorea, 214 
 
 Rickets, some causes of, 156, 23S 
 
 Romans, relationship among the 
 ancient, how influenced by marriage, 
 51-53 ; marriage prohibitions of the, 
 51-57 ; did not marry foreigners, 57 
 
 Russia, marriage prohibitions in, 139 ; 
 of the Muscovites and Livonians, ih. 
 
 CAHAPTIN, marriage among the, 94 
 
 ""-^ Salish, marriage among the, 94 
 
 Salomon Islands, marriage in the, 82 
 
 Samaritans, the, 172-174 
 
 Samoa, marriage in, 82 ; fertility in, 84 
 
 Samoyeds, marriage among the, 77 
 
 Sandwich Island, marriage in the, 82 
 
 Santa Rosa, isolated community of, 144 
 
 Satsuma potters, the, 172 
 
 Schawil, isolated community at, 97 
 
 Scilly Islands, state of health on the, 
 160 
 
 Scotland, consanguineous marriage in 
 small communities in, 147-154 
 
 Scrofula connected with rickets, 
 phthisis, hydrocephalus, etc., 238 ; 
 said to be caused by consanguineous 
 marriage, 240 
 
 Scythians, marriage among the, 58 
 
 Seeds, dispersal of, 319 
 
 Selection of animals does not depreciate 
 the value as an experiment of breed- 
 ing in-and-in, 248-251 
 
 Seniavin, marriage in, 79 
 
 Sermoyers, isolated community of the, 
 167, 168 
 
 Sex, preponderance of the male, among 
 the Jews, 176, note 2 ; the Scotch, 
 //'. ; "why are there two? 319; why 
 not more? 325, note ; Mr. Spencer's 
 theory for, 319, 320; no essential 
 difference between the reproductive 
 germs of the, 320-325 ; value of, 
 for variation, 322 ; disadvantages of, 
 
475 
 
 SHA 
 
 324 ; a specialisation of function, 
 325 ; their first appearance, 327 
 
 Shakespeare on consanguineous unions, 
 27 
 
 Sheep, in-and-in breeding of, 251-258 ; 
 origin of the Merino, 253, 254 ; of 
 the New Leicester, 256 and note I ; 
 of the iMauchamp and Ancon, 258 
 
 Shoshones, marriage among the, 95 
 
 Siam, ni.mia-o in,>4 
 
 Sinj: .: .. 1; iii,k;i,- among the, 73, 
 1 \- '• ■ ■ -^95 
 
 Sn, 1 , i nii.ige among the, 95 
 
 Suci.il- Lii iii,iui.ij;c prohibitions, 24 
 
 Somali, marriagL- among the, 104 
 
 Sonthals, marriage among the, 72 
 
 Souza, the family of Da, 143 
 
 Spanish marriage prohibitions, 1 23 ; 
 marriages in the royal line, 119; 
 isolated communities, 168, 169; 
 Malay half-breeds, 297 ; Indian half- 
 breeds, 305-309 
 
 Spartan marriage prohibitions, 44-46 
 
 Spina bifida, 239 
 
 Spokancs, marriage among the, 94 
 
 Staithes, isolated community at, 145, 
 146 
 
 Statius on marriage prohibitions, 24 
 
 Sterility, average of, for all marriages, 
 192, 193 ; for consanguineous, 193- 
 196; of noble families, 197-199; 
 inheritance of, 198; some causes of, 
 200 ; in animals said to be caused 
 by breeding in-and-in, 200, 201 ; of 
 hybrids, 334 
 
 Surabaya, isolated community near, 143 
 
 Sweden, marriage prohibitions of, 137 ; 
 isolated community in, 160 
 
 nPAHITI, marriage in, 81 ; fertility 
 ^ in, 84 
 
 Tahus, marriage among the, 96 
 
 Tanna, marriage in, 82 
 
 Tarquins, marriages of the, 55 
 
 Tartars, marriage among the, 76, 77 
 and note 5 
 
 Tariiiu.is, marriage among the, 98 
 
 Ta'-uiania, marriage in, 91 ; half-breeds 
 in, 299 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, on marriage prohibi- 
 tions, 28, 29 
 
 Tcpocas, marriage among the, 96 
 
 Tertullian on marriage, 109 
 
 Theodore of Canterbury on re-marriage, 
 
 ZUL 
 Thiinkeets, marriage among the, 94 
 Thomas Aquinas, St., on marriage pro- 
 hibitions, 26 
 Tiburones, marriage among the, 96 
 Tinnoh, marriage among the, 93 
 Tonga, marriage in, 81, 82 ; health in, 
 
 83 ; fertility in, 84 
 Topas, the, 296 
 Torres Straits, marriage in the islands 
 
 of, 82 
 Trismus nascentium in St. Kilda, 152- 
 154 ; in Dublin, 153 ; in Iceland, 
 156; in Westmannoe, 15S; in Grim- 
 sey, 159; its causes, 153, 154, 158 
 Tuarik, marriage among the, 105 
 Tukopia, 81, 84 
 
 Tunguz, marriage among the, 76 
 Tunis, marriage in, 105 
 Turkestan, Chinese, marriage in, 76 
 Turks, origin of the, 311, 312 
 Turra, marriage among the, 88 
 Twinning, period at which most com- 
 mon, 235 ; a cause of malformations, 
 ;■/'. 
 
 T TGANDA, marriage in, 104 
 
 ^ Ulunda, marriage in, 103 
 
 Urua, marriage in, 103 
 
 Utah Indians, marriage among the, 95 
 
 yAQUEROS, the, 168 
 Vate, marriage m, 82 
 
 \JO, marriage in, 79 
 Wapisiana, marriage among the. 
 
 w 
 
 Warrau, marriage among the, 98 
 Wa Teita, marriage among the, 104 
 Weddas, marriage among the, 73, 74 
 Wcstmannoe, health in, 158 
 Wito, isolated community of the, 170 
 Wives, capture of, 16, 17; exchange 
 of, 90 and note 
 
 V/ERKALA, marriage among the, 
 ^ 73 
 Yorkshire, isolated communities in, 
 
 145, 146 
 Yuma, marriage among the, 95 
 
 VAMBOES, the, 308, 309 
 ^ Zarathushtra, the law of, concern- 
 ing the prohibited degrees, 66 
 Zeno on marriage proliibitions, 24 
 Zulus, marriage among the, 103 
 
 S/cllU-Mm/c <S'= Co. Piinlers 
 
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